OF  THE 

U N I VERS  ITY 
or  ILLINOIS 

03^  ^ 
C352.^ 
1&82L. 
v3 


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L I B E A K T 


OP 

UHIVERSAl  KROWLEDGE. 

A EEPEIET 

OF  THE  LAST  (1880)  EDINBURGH  AND  LONDON  EDITION 
OF  CHAMBERS’S  ENCYCLOPEDIA.' 


CopiottS  bp  ^mmran  ®bitors. 


FIFTEElSr  VOLUMES. 

VOLUME  HI. 


New  Yoke: 

S.  W.  GREEN’S  SON, 

74  AND  76  BEEKMAN  STREET. 
1882. 


AMEEICAN  PTJELISHEE’S  NOTICE. 


This  work,  although  based  upon  Chambers’s  Encyclopaedia,  whose  distinguished 
merit  is  widely  known,  differs  from  it  in  important  respects.  It  could  scarcely  be 
eitpected  that  an  Encyclopaedia,  edited  and  published  for  a foreign  market,  would  give 
as  much  prominence  to  American  topics  as  American  readers  might  desire.  To  supply 
these  and  other  deficiencies  the  American  Editors  have  inserted  about  15,000  titles, 
arranging  the  whole,  including  Chambers’s  Supplement,  in  a single  alphabet.  The 
total  number  of  titles  is  now  about  40,000.  The  additions  give  greater  fullness  in  the 
departments  of  biography,  geography,  history,  natural  history,  and  general  and  applied 
science.  Scrupulous  care  has  been  taken  not  to  mutilate  or  modify  the  original  text  of 
the  edition  of  1880 ; no  changes  have  been  made  except  such  verbal  alterations  as  are 
required  by  the  omission  of  the  wood-cuts.  The  titles  of  articles  from  Chambers’s 
Encyclopsedia,  either  from  the  main  work  or  from  the  Supplement,  are  printed  in  bold- 
faced type — AMEEICA.  The  titles  of  the  American  additions,  whether  of  new  topics  or 
of  enlargements  of  the  old,  are  printed  in  plain  capitals — AMERICA.  Should  it  appear 
that  an  article  from  the  English  work  and  its  American  continuation  disagree  in  anjr 
points,  the  reader  will  readily  refer  the  confiicting  statements  to  their  proper  sources. 

The  labor  of  consultation  will  be  much  reduced  by  the  catch-words  in  bold-faced 
type  at  the  top  of  the  page,  being  the  first  and  last  titles  of  the  pages  which  face  each 
other;  and  by  the  full  title-words  on  the  back  of  the  volume,  being  the  first  and  last 
titles  contained  therein. 


The  word  ante  refers  to  Chambers’s  Encyclopaedia,  as  represented  in  this  issue. 
Whenever  the  word  {ante)  follows  a title  in  the  American  additions,  it  indicates  that 
the  article  is  an  enlargement  of  one  under  the  same  title  in  Chambers’s  Encyclopaedia — 
usually  to  be  found  immediately  preceding. 


Copyright,  1880,  by 

THE  AMERICAN  BOOK  EXCHANGE. 


Electrotyped,  Printed  and  Bound  at  the  Establishments  of  the  Publisher, 
S.  W GREEN’S  SON. 

74  and  76  Beekman  Street,  and  13  and  i5Vandewater  Street, 

New  York  City. 


LIBMRY  OF  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE 


BRAZEK  sea,  the  large  metal  vessel,  probably  of  copper,  oval  shaped,  with  12  oxen 
for  a pedestal — the  beasts  standing  in  a circle  with  their  heads  outward,  and  the 
vessel  resting  on  their  rumps.  It  was  in  the  priest’s  court  of  Solomon’s  temple, 
and  held  water  for  the  use  of  the  servitors. 

BRAZIL',  the  most  extensive  state  of  South  America.  Towards  the  interior,  it 
borders  on  all  the  other  states  of  South  America  except  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres — on 
Uruguay,  the  Argentine  Confederation,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador,  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Guiana,  English,  Dutch,  and  French;  while  its 
sea-board,  beginning  about  200  m.  to  the  n.  of  the  Amazon,  and  reaching  to  within  the 
same  distance  of  the  Plata,  projects  into  the  Atlantic  fully  1000  m.  to  the  e.  of  the 
direct  line — pretty  nearly  a meridian — between  its  two  extremes.  This  immense  coun- 
try extends  between  lat.  4°  30'  n.  and  33°  s.  and  between  long.  35°  and  70°  w.,  being, 
in  round  numbers,  2600  m.  long  and  2500  broad.  The  area,  according  to  official  ac- 
counts, is  3,200,000  sq.  miles.  But  B.  was  not  always,  in  point  of  extent,  what  it  now 
is.  The  Portuguese,  who,  in  1500,  accidentally  discovered  the  s.  e.  coast  of  the  country 
(but  that  only  after  one  of  the  Pinzons  had,  on  behalf  of  Spain,  followed  the  shores 
of  the  continent  from  its  eastern  angle  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco),  claimed  all  between 
the  Plata  and  the  Amazon.  Soon,  however,  the  Spaniards  of  Buenos  Ayres,  feeling 
that  the  complete  command  of  their  mighty  river  was  to  them  a necessary  of  life,  colon- 
ized the  left  bank  by  founding  Montevideo.  But  nearly  twenty  years  earlier,  B.  had 
acquired  more  territory  on  the  Amazon  than  it  was  to  abandon  on  the  Plata,  having,  in 
1509,  wrested  from  France,  then  at  war  with  Portugal,  what  may  now  be  designated 
Brazilian  Guiana.  It  was  only  in  1531  that  the  Portuguese,  busy  as  they  were  in 
India,  here  planted  their  first  settlement.  In  1578,  B.  fell,  along  with  Portugal  itself, 
under  the  power  of  Spain — a connection  which,  besides  being  essentially  detrimental, 
speedily  threw  it  as  a prey  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  republic ; and  though  Portugal 
regained  its  own  independence  in  1640,  it  was  not  until  1654  that  B.  was  entirely  recov- 
ered from  the  Hollanders.  Thenceforward,  the  colony  entered  on  a new  era.  Sup- 
planted, in  a great  measure,  throughout  the  east  by  the  Dutch,  the  mother  country  was 
now  directing  most  of  its  attention  to  its  possessions  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
About  a century  and  a half  later,  a still  more  beneficial  change — and  that,  too,  arising 
from  the  mother  country’s  own  disasters — was  inaugurated  in  the  colony.  In  1808, 
under  the  pressure  of  French  invasion,  the  monarchy,  in  the  persons  of  the  royal  family, 
was  virtually  transferred  from  Portugal  to  B.,  an  event  which,  doubtless  through 
British  counsels  and  influence,  was  immediately  followed  by  the  opening  of  the  ports  to 
foreigners.  As  a remoter  benefit,  too,  of  an  incident  which  had  no  parallel  either  in 
English  or  in  Spanish  America,  B. , on  shaking  off,  like  its  neighbors,  the  European 
yoke  altogether,  found  a merely  nominal  revolution  sufficient  for  its  purpose,  establish- 
ing, or  rather  accepting,  an  hereditary  empire  instead  of  restless  and  precarious  repub- 
licanism; and  ever  since  the  transition-period  of  1821-25,  this  consolidated  government, 
with  subordinate  institutions  for  local  objects,  has  secured  to  B.’s  twenty  vast  provinces 
comparative  unity  and  peace.  A war  was  undertaken  in  1865,  in  concert  with  the 
Argentine  republic  and  Uruguay  (formerly  a province  of  B.),  against  Paraguay,  which 
terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the  Paraguayans;  and  in  1872  Paraguay  ceded  to  B.,  as  a 
war-indemnity,  the  long-disputed  territory  comprised  between  the  Paraguay  and  the 
Parana,  n.  of  the  Apa  and  Igatim.  This  territory  has  an  extent  of  about  16,000  sq. 
miles. 

The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  the  emperor,  who,  besides  being  aided  by  a 
council  of  state,  must  act  through  responsible  ministers.  The  legislature  consists  of 
two  chambers,  which  sit  four  months  every  year.  Both  the  deputies  and  the  senators, 
who  must  have  annual  incomes  respectively  of  800  millreas  and  1600  are  indirectly 
elected  by  voters,  who  must  possess  200  millreas  per  annum — the  former  for  four  years, 
and  the  latter  for  life.  The  senate,  however,  appears  to  represent  the  crown  as  well  as 
the  people,  inasmuch  as  each  constituency  merely  nominates  three  individuals  for  his 
majesty’s  choice  of  one.  Justices  of  peace,  also,  are  appointed  by  the  respective  com- 


Brazil. 


4 


munities;  and  in  the  courts  generally,  whether  civil  or  criminal,  there  prevails  trial  by 
jury.  The  budget  of  1878-79  gave  a revenue  of  103,300,000  paper  millreas,  and  expendi- 
ture, 107,732,068  (the  paper  millrea  is  about  half  the  value  of  the  silver  coin,  which  is 
about  2s.);  the  public  debt  in  1877  was  701,952,781  millreas — nearly  £35,000,000.  The 
standing  army  is  fixed  at  15,000  men  on  the  peace-footing,  and  at  32,000  on  the  war- 
footing; and  the  standing  naval  force  is  fixed  at  4000  men,  which  may  be  raised  to  8000 
in  time  of  war.  The  navy  in  1877  consisted  of  56  vessels,  including  53  steamers  and  11 
ironclads. 

The  population  in  1872  amounted  to  10,108,291  negroes,  mulattoes,  and  Europeans, 
besides  about  1.000,000  aboriginal  Indians,  who  are  here  proportionally  fewer  than  in 
most  parts  of  South  America,  Of  the  total  pop.  1,510,806  were  slaves.  The  Africans 
continued  to  be  imported  till  1854,  and  their  amalgamation  with  the  Europeans  pro- 
duced perhaps  the  finest  variety  of  the  mulatto  in  the  world.  A law  for  the  gradual 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  was  passed  in  1871.  It  enacts  that  henceforth  the  children 
born  of  slave  women  shall  be  “considered  of  free  condition,”  but  bound  to  serve  the 
owners  of  their  mothers  for  the  term  of  21  years,  under  the  name  of  apprentices. 
Roman  Catholicism  is  the  prevailing  religion.  Notwithstanding  the  recent  efforts  of 
the  legislature  for  the  advancement  of  education,  it  is  still  very  defective.  In  1874,  the 
attendance  at  the  public  schools  was  only  140,000, 

But  physically,  as  well  as  politically  and  socially,  B.  differs  in  many  respects  from 
most  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  new  continent.  It  knows  nothing  of  the  volcanoes 
and  earthquakes  of  the  Pacific  coast;  with  winds  blowing  constantly  from  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  it  is  exempted  from  those  droughts  which  are  always  blighting  one  or  other  of 
the  slopes  of  the  Andes,  the  remoter  slope  in  Peru  and  Chili,  and  the  nearer  in  Buenos 
Ayres  and  Patagonia;  its  mines,  again,  are  as  famous  for  gold  and  diamonds  as  those  of 
the  western  Cordilleras  for  silver.  In  its  hydrography,  B.  contrasts  unfavorably  with  the 
other  divisions.  While  the  Amazon  and  the  Plata,  the  Mississippi  and  the  St,  Lawrence — 
not  to  mention  countless  rivers  of  inferior  magnitude  on  both  shores — are  for  the  most 
part  practicable  almost  to  their  sources,  the  streams  of  B.,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Amazon,  are  mostly  impeded  throughout  by  cataracts  and  shallows,  thus  counterbalanc- 
ing, as  it  were,  its  matchless  seaward  facilities  by  the  deficiencies  of  its  inland  communi- 
cations. Further,  the  most  navigable  of  these  streams,  instead  of  entering  the  open  sea, 
mingle  their  waters  with  those  of  the  Plata  or  of  the  Amazon — the  Parana  and  the 
Uruguay  joining  the  former,  and  the  Madera,  the  Tapajos,  the  Zingu,  and  the  Tocan- 
tins, the  latter;  and  even  among  those  that  do  send  their  tribute  at  once  to  the  ocean,  a 
similar  direction  is  sometimes  impressed  by  the  dividing  ridges — the  San  Francisco,  for 
instance,  by  far  the  largest  of  them,  running  to  the  northward  parallel  with  the  s.e. 
coast  through  11°  of  lat,,  and  leaving  only  4°  of  long,  for  its  remaining  course  to  the 
Atlantic.  A humid  surface  and  a luxuriant  vegetation  conspire  to  render  ordinary  roads 
all  but  impassible.  B.  possessed,  at  the  commencement  of  1878,  railways  of  a total 
length  of  791  m. , and  it  has  also  a system  of  telegraphs,  the  lines  at  the  same  date  being 
3875  m.  in  extent.  Telegraphic  communication  has  been  established  between  B,  and 
Europe;  the  first  message  was  despatched  by  the  cable  to  Lisbon,  June  23,  1874. 

Among  the  mineral  treasures,  besides  gold  and  diamonds  already  mentioned,  iron  of 
superior  quality  is  abundant ; and  salt,  also,  is  extensively  produced  in  saline  marshes 
by  the  alternate  processes,  according  to  the  season,  of  inundation  and  evaporation.  The 
productions  of  the  soil,  which  are,  of  course,  equally  various  and  rich,  will  be  more 
satisfactorily  considered  under  the  heads  of  the  respective  localities.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
that  the  cotton  is  naturally  excellent,  and  that  the  tea-plant  of  China  has  been  intro- 
duced, though  hitherto  with  indifferent  success.  The  exports  are  necessarily  different 
from  the  diferent  sections  of  the  country.  From  the  n,,  they  are  coffee,  cotton,  cocoa, 
sugar,  and  tobacco ; from  the  s, , hides,  tallow,  horns,  etc. ; and  from  the  middle,  drugs, 
diamonds,  gold-dust,  dyes,  rice,  manioc,  tapioca,  spirits,  and  rosewood.  Their  total 
value  in  five  years,  1873-77,  averaged  £17,500,000;  the  corresponding  imports  averaging 
£17,000,000.  The  chief  centers  of  foreign  trade,  and,  along  with  San  Paulo  in  the  inte- 
rior, the  principal  cities  of  the  empire,  are  Para,  MaranhSo,  Bahia,  Pernambuco,  and 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  This  last-named  port,  which  is  likewise  the  seat  of  government,  is  the 
favorite  halting-place  of  the  outward-bound  vessels  for  India,  China,  and  Australia. 

BRAZIL  {ante)  comprises  3,288,000  sq.m.;  and  the  several  islands  adjoining  in  the 
Atlantic,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Fernando  Noronha,  250  m.  e.  from  cape  St. 
Roque,  and  the  penal  settlement  of  the  empire.  The  boundaries  of  B.  are  sufficiently 
described,  ante.  The  most  striking  physical  feature  of  the  country  is  the  Amazon  river, 
which  with  its  numerous  tributaries  affords  30,000  m.  of  navigation  within  the  territory 
of  the  empire.  (See  Amazon.)  Next  in  importance  is  the  Tocantins  river,  which  rises 
in  the  s.  central  part  of  the  country,  and  flows  directly  n.  for  900  m.,  uniting  with  the 
Para  branch  of  the  Amazon.  The  river  Araguaya,  parallel  with  and  w.  of  the  Tocan- 
tins, divides  about  midwaj’’  in  its  course,  and  afterwards  unites,  inclosing  between  its  two 
channels  the  remarkable  Bananal  island,  220  m.  in  circumference,  and  containing  a lake 
80  m.  in  extent.  The  Turyassu,  Maranhao,  and  Paranahyba  are  the  largest  of  the  other 
rivers  of  the  n.e.  slope.  The  San  Francisco  occupies  a wide  inclosed  basin  of  the  eastern 
highland,  and  has  a course  n.  and  e.  of  1800  m.,  navigable  160  m.  from  the  ocean. 


5 


BraKll. 


Further  s.  on  the  coast  slope  are  the  Paraguasu,  the  Rio  de  Contas,  the  Belmenti,  the 
Rib  Doce,  and  the  Paranahyba  do  Sul,  all  of  them  to  some  extent  navigable.  The  great 
rivers  of  the  southern  watershed  are  the  Parana  and  the  Paraguay  (q.v.).  The  Parana 
rises  in  a broad  basin  which  extends  for  700  m.  in  width  across  s.  Brazil.  The  Paraguay 
has  its  source  in  several  small  lakes  between  13°  and  14°  s.,  taking  in  as  it  flows  south- 
ward a number  of  large  and  small  streams,  and  affording  uninterrupted  navigation 
through  nearly  its  whole  course,  large  steamers  running  up  about  1000  m.  in  a direct 
line  from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  smaller  craft  going  300  m.  further.  The  other  large  rivers, 
such  as  the  Xingu,  Tapajos,  Madeira,  Purus,  Jurua,  Javari,  Zapura,  Negro,  Jamuda, 
etc. , are  tributaries  of  the  Amazon. 

In  respect  to  elevation,  the  surface  of  the  country  is  divided  into  the  higher  regions 
of  plateaus,  ridges,  and  broad  open  valleys,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  country  s.  of  the 
latitude  of  cape  St.  Roque,  and  the  vast  lowland  plain  of  the  Amazon,  extending  across 
the  continent  to  the  base  of  the  Andes  of  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia,  rising  in  the 
extreme  n.  to  the  ranges  which  form  the  boundary  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana.  The 
highest  and  most  important  mountains  in  B.  are  the  Serra  da  Mantiqueira  and  the  Serra 
do  Espinha9o,  between  18°  and  23°  s.,  and  from  100  to  200  m.  from  the  sea-coast.  The 
highest  peak  has  been  estimated  from  8900  to  10, 300  feet.  There  is  a coast  range  of  moun- 
tains beginning  n.  of  Rio  Janerio,  and  running  both  n.  and  s.  not  far  from  the  ocean; 
but  none  of  the  peaks  exceed  7500  feet.  The  remarkably  even  character  of  the  great  level 
of  the  river  provinces  may  be  known  from  the  fact  that  where  the  Amazon  enters  B. 
at  Tabatinga,  more  than  1500  m.  in  a direct  line  from  the  ocean,  the  river  banks  are  not 
more  than  250  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  rock  formation  of  the  mountains  is  chiefly 
gneiss.  Clay-slates  are  found  between  the  Parana  and  the  Paraguay,  and  true  carbonifer- 
ous strata  occur  in  the  coal  basins  s.  of  the  tropic.  Carboniferous  rocks  occur,  but  Jurassic 
rocks  do  not  appear.  Coral  reefs  occur  along  the  n.  coast.  The  limestones  of  the  upper 
San  Francisco  basin  contain  the  celebrated  bone  caverns  which  have  been  described  by 
Lund,  the  Danish  naturalist.  In  some  of  these  the  remains  of  extinct  animals  of  high 
antiquity  have  been  found,  such  as  those  of  the  mastodon,  mylodon,  giyptodon,  toxo- 
don,  and  megatherium;  and  with  these,  stone  implements  and  remains  of  man  so  liuried 
with  the  bones  of  the  extinct  fauna  as  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  man  was  contempo- 
raneous with  them.  There  are  no  signs  of  recent  volcanic  action  in  B. , but  warm 
springs  are  found  in  several  places,  saline  and  alkaline,  varying  from  88°  to  119°,  the 
warmest  at  an  elevation  of  6000  ft.  above  the  sea. 

In  minerals^  and  jewels  B.  is  very  rich.  Diamonds  were  found,  in  1786,  300  m.  n.  of 
Rio,  and  at  later  periods  in  many  other  sections.  The  emerald,  ruby,  sapphire,  topaz, 
beryl,  tourmaline  (black,  blue,  and  green),  amethyst,  garnet,  rock  crystal,  chalcedony, 
opal,  agate,  and  carnelian  are  more  or  less  plentiful.  There  are  several  large  coal  basins, 
and  also  sulphur,  saltpeter,  and  salt.  Gold  is  abundant  in  many  of  the  provinces, 
always  accompanied  by  silver.  Silver  alone  was  found  in  large  quantities  more  than 
.200  years  ago.  There  are  rich  mines  of  mercury  not  far  from  the  capital ; and  copper, 
lead,  iron,  and  manganese  are  also  abundant. 

The  climate  of  this  immense  country  is  naturally  widely  varied.  In  the  northern 
lowlands,  between  the  tropics,  it  is  very  hot,  with  but  two  seasons  in  the  year — the  dry 
and  the  wet.  In  the  higher  lands  it  is  milder,  and  in  the  extreme  s.  the  four  seasons  are 
tolerably  well  marked.  The  wet  season  lasts  from  Dec.  or  Jan.  until  May  or  June,  with 
occasional  intervals  of  flne  weather.  The  other  half  of  the  year  is  dry,  but  not  without 
occasional  showers.  The  amount  of  water  in  the  wet  season  is  enormous,  often  pro- 
ducing a rise  of  40  ft.  in  the  great  rivers,  and  heavy  rains  are  accompanied  with  abund- 
ant lightning  and  thunder.  At  Maranhao  the  annual  rain-fall  has  been  as  high  as  280 
in.,  while  at  Rio  Janeiro  it  is  but  59  or  60  inches.  Temperature  is  remarkably  even, 
particularly  in  the  Amazon  basin.  A record  kept  at  Para  between  1861  and  1867  showed 
the  annual  mean  of  80°  with  extremes  of  68°  and  95°.  The  greatest  ranges  are  in  the 
<;entral  and  southern  tablelands  and  mountain  ridges,  where  the  coast  temperature  is 
hot  and  the  air  humid,  while  in  the  interior  there  may  be  snow  and  a little  ice.  The  pre- 
vailing winds  are  the  trades  from  the  e.,  sweeping  in  the  moisture  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
reaching  inland  along  the  whole  valley  of  the  Amazon  to  the  Andes.  These  winds  greatly 
mitigate  the  heat  of  the  dry  season.  In  the  interior  the  course  of  wunds  is  n.  or  s.,  blow- 
ing usually  toward  the  sun.  Along  the  ocean  the  usual  interchanging  land  and  sea 
breezes  are  of  regular  daily  occurrence.  Malarial  fevers  prevail  in  some  of  the  low  and 
marshy  districts,  but,  as  a whole,  B is  a healthy  country.  There  have  been  epidemics 
of  cholera  and  yellow-fever ; but  the  ordinary  mortality  of  cities  and  towns  compares 
favorably  with  that  of  European  cities. 

Vegetation  in  B.  is  wonderfully  proliflc.  Except  on  the  loftiest  mountains  and  in 
some  stony  districts,  the  country  is  luxuriant  with  vegetable  life.  In  the  mountain 
passes,  near  the  sea-shore,  the  joint  effect  of  heat  and  moisture  produces  a growth 
beyond  man’s  efforts  to  restrain.  Trees  cut  and  split  for  fences  send  forth  shoots  and 
branches  immediately,  and  this  whether  the  position  of  the  fragments  be  that  in  which 
thej’-  originally  grew,  or  inverted.  Along  the  Amazon  the  loftiest  trees  destroy  each 
other  in  consequence  of  near  proximity.  In  the  province  of  Maranhao  roots  of  grasses 
and  other  plants  extending  from  the  shores  of  pools  weave  themselves  into  vegetable 
bridges,  along  which  the  wanderer  treads,  unaware  that  he  has  left  solid  land  until  he 


Brazil. 


6 


sees  the  jaws  of  a cayman  protruding  through  the  herbage  beneath  him.  Along  th# 
coast  mangroves  are  numerous  and  prominent,  and  so  rank  is  their  growth  that  the 
seeds  begin  to  sprout  before  they  drop  from  the  parent  stem,  while  the  drooping 
branches  strike  into  the  soil  and  take  root.  Behind  the  mangroves  come  the  palms  in 
great  variety,  while  the  underwood  is  chiefly  crotons.  Brushwood  and  herbage  are 
seldom  seen ; everything  tends  to  the  gigantic  in  size.  The  most  varied  forms  group 
awkwardly  together,  crossed  and  intertwined  with  leaves.  The  preponderance  of  trees 
with  feathery  foliage,  and  glossy,  fleshy  leaves,  lends  alternately  a tender  and  luxuriant 
character  to  the  scene,  which  in  every  other  respect  is  painful  from  its  monotony. 
Cocoa  trees,  the  vanilla,  the  cinnamon  tree,  various  kinds  of  pepper,  and  Brazilian  cassia 
are  found. . Above  the  falls  of  the  large  rivers  the  vegetation  is  generally  different;  and 
so  is  that  of  the  southern  pampas  or  prairies.  There  are  found  beautiful  flowers,  and 
at  intervals  groves  of  small  trees  growing  far  apart,  while  solitary  myrtles,  fruit  trees, 
and  occasionally  a cactus  add  variety  to  the  prospect.  The  cactus  is  prolific  on  the 
hot  steeps  of  Pernambuco,  and  the  medicinal  ipecacuanha  flourishes  in  Terro  do  Mar. 
In  the  valley  of  the  Paraguay  there  is  a profusion  of  water  plants,  in  one  river  so  many 
and  so  strong  as  seriously  to  obstruct  navigation.  The  cocoa  tree  is  in  abundance  near 
the  sea-shore;  Brazil-wood,  noted  for  its  dyes  and  its  value  as  timber,  also  grows  near 
the  sea.  Besides  these  there  are  the  rosewood  tree,  the  trumpet  tree,  the  soap  tree,  the 
laurel-pear  tree,  and  abundance  of  palms.  The  carnauba  palm  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  trees;  every  part  is  valuable,  even  the  wax  yielded  by  its  leaves  being  an  article 
of  commerce.  More  important  still  is  the  caoutchouc,  or  india  rubber  tree,  the  gum  of 
which  exported  from  B.  annually  amounts  to  more  than  $5,000,000.  The  banana  tree 
furnishes  the  food  of  a great  portion  of  the  population.  Other  important  fruits  are  the 
mango,  pine-apple,  custard-apple,  guava,  melons,  and  nuts. 

Although  not  more  than  one  acre  in  200  in  all  B.  is  under  cultivation,  it  ranks  high 
as  an  agricultural  country  for  some  articles.  The  chief  productions  are  coffee,  sugar, 
cotton,  manico  or  cassava  flour,  tobacco,  rice,  maize,  fruits,  and  spices.  Wheat  and 
flour  are  imported  from  the  United  States. 

The  varieties  of  animal  life  in  B.  are  probably  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  globe.  Of  beasts  of  prey  the  jaguar,  or  South  American  tiger,  is  the  most  formid- 
able ; besides  this  animal  there  are  the  tiger  cat,  the  puma,  the  ocelot,  the  red  wolf,  and 
the  Brazil  fox  or  wild  dog.  Large  herds  of  peccary  roam  in  the  forests,  where  also  are 
tapirs,  largest  of  South  American  animals.  The  water  hog,  abundant  on  the  river 
banks,  is  the  largest  rodent.  Various  species  of  deer  inhabit  the  plains.  Of  edentata 
there  are  several  species  of  armadillos,  the  ant-eater,  and  the  sloth ; and  of  marsupialia 
there  are  many  kinds  of  the  opossum  family  all  over  the  country.  Of  monkeys  the 
variety  is  surprising;  the  largest  belong  to  the  genus  stentor,  and  are  known  as 
howling  monkeys.  The  simia  iacchus  is  found  in  no  other  region.  There  are  many 
species  of  bats;  while  of  birds  the  variety  is  wonderful,  from  the  ouira,  an  eagle  far 
larger  and  more  powerful  than  the  most  important  of  European  birds  of  prey,  to 
humming-birds  not  larger  than  humble-bees.  Among  larger  birds  is  the  rhea,  a species 
of  ostrich.  Most  birds  of  B.  are  noted  for  beauty  of  plumage.  Red,  blue,  and 
green  parrots  haunt  the  tree-tops;  pigeons  in  great  varieties  throng  the  woods;  orioles 
resort  to  the  orange  groves;  chattering  manakins  mislead  the  sportsman;  and  the  metallic 
tones  of  the  uraponga  resound  through  the  forests  like  the  strokes  of  a hammer  on 
an  anvil.  The  toucan  is  prized  for  its  feathers,  which  are  of  lemon  and  bright  red 
color,  with  transverse  stripes  reaching  to  the  extremities  of  the  wings.  One  beauti- 
ful specimen  of  the  humming-bird  has  the  native  name  of  the  “ enanthe  engera,  ” or 
“winged  flower.”  Serpents  are  found  in  great  varieties,  the  most  venomous  being  the 
rattlesnake  and  the  jararaca.  Others,  such  as  the  boa,  attain  enormous  size.  There 
are  also  many  varieties  of  annoying  insects  along  the  rivers ; one  of  them,  the  puim,  so 
small  as  to  be  nearly  invisible,  inflicting  a painful  and  sometimes  dangerous  bite.  The 
red  ant  is  a destroyer  of  vegetation,  and  large  districts  are  sometimes  laid  waste  by 
its  ravages.  Spiders  attain  enormous  size,  but  few  of  them  are  venomous.  Butter- 
flies are  innumerable,  and  of  the  most  surprising  beauty.  A dozen  varieties  of  wild 
bees,  most  of  them  honey-makers,  have  been  noted.  Caymans  and  lizards  abound. 
The  supply  of  turtle  in  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  appears  inexhaustible.  The 
sea  and  the  streams  abound  in  fish,  among  which  naturalists  have  within  the  past 
few  years  found  many  hundreds  of  kinds  before  unknown.  One  of  the  largest,  the 
pira  rucu,  is  the  principal  food  of  large  numbers  of  people  along  the  Para  and  the 
Amazon.  The  more  important  domestic  animals  are  the  horse,  ox,  and  sheep.  Immense 
numbers  of  wild  horses  roam  the  great  southern  prairies,  found  generally  in  droves 
of  20  or  30.  Cattle  also  roam  wild^,  and  are  killed  in  great  numbers  for  their  hides, 
horns,  and  tallow,  which  form  a large  proportion  of  the  exports  of  the  country. 

The  population  of  B.  presents  a number  of  distinct  types,  as  well  as  many  varieties 
blended  therefrom.  In  the  eastern  or  maritime  provinces  the  aboriginal  Indians  have, 
to  a great  extent,  become  amalgamated  with  the  settled  population  ; but  in  the  great 
forests  and  plains  of  the  interior,  they  are  nearly  all  in  a savage  condition.  In 
general  description  the  Indians  are  copper-colored,  of  medium  height,  thick-set,  broad- 
chested,  and  muscular,  with  small  hands  and  feet,  and  well-shaped  limbs;  hair  black, 
thick,  and  straight;  features  broad,  cheek-bones  not  generally  prominent;  eyes  black. 


7 


Brasil. 


and  sometimes  oblique  like  those  of  the  Chinese;  in  disposition  apathetic  and  unde- 
monstrative. Though  considerably  differing  in  different  sections  they  appear  to 
belong  to  one  original  stock,  called  the  Tupi-Guavani.  Tlie  only  tribe  that  has 
almost  entirely  resisted  the  inroads  of  civilization  is  that  of  the  Botocudos  (q.v.), 
living  in  the  forests  of  the  Rio  Doce,  who  are  sunk  in  the  lowest  barbarism,  and  are 
fast  dying  out.  From  the  mixture  of  the  natives  with  Europeans,  mainly  with  the 
Portuguese,  are  descended  the  Mamlucos,  who  first  became  prominent  in  raids  and  con- 
quests in  the  southern  provinces.  Negroes,  originally  from  Africa,  form  a large  propor- 
tion of  the  population;  and  from  these  and  whites  have  sprung  mulattoes  of  all  shades. 
The  B.  creoles,  who  call  themselves  Brazilerios,  descendants  of  these  mixed  races,  are 
little  inferior  in  capacity,  physical  strength,  or  intelligence  to  the  true  Portuguese.  A 
great  social  reform  was  begun  by  the  law  enacted  in  Sept.,  1871,  providing  that  after 
the  date  of  the  act  all  children  born  of  slave  parents  should  be  free,  and  that  all  slaves 
belonging  to  the  state  or  the  emperor’s  household  should  likewise  be  free;  and  the  same 
law  set  apart  an  emancipation  fund  to  be  applied  to  the  ransom  of  slaves  owned  by 
private  persons.  Since  that  time  emancipation  has  gone  on  rapidly,  the  work  having 
been  greatly  assisted  by  private  philanthropy,  and  by  many  of  the  slaveholders  them- 
selves. The  importation  of  slaves  was  forbidden  in  1853,  and  since  then  more  than  a 
million  persons  have  obtained  their  freedom.  The  rapid  progress  of  emancipation  after 
1871  caused  some  difliculty  in  the  supply  of  labor;  but  the  ultimate  effect  has  been  to 
give  new  avenues  for  the  employment  of  capital,  promote  internal  improvements,  and 
induce  desirable  emigration  from  Europe.  Enterprises  of  all  kinds  have  multiplied,  and 
public  instruction  has  received  a vigorous  impulse.  Until  after  1872,  when  a full  census 
was  begun,  every  estimate  of  the  population  of  B.  had  been  based  upon  the  official  re- 
turns of  1817  and  18.  In  the  first  census  the  total  was  put  at  4,396,000;  in  1850,  a round 
number,  7,000,000;  and  in  1860,  8,000,000.  In  the  following  table  for  1872  the  figures 
for  the  provinces  marked  * are  estimated  on  the  best  available  knowledge;  those  not 
marked  are  the  census  figures : 

POPULATION. 


Provinces. 


Alto  Amazonas 

Grao  Pard 

Maranhao 

Piauhy 

Cearfi, 

Rio  Grande  del  Norte. . 

Parahyba 

Pernambuco 

Alagoas 

Sergipe 

Bahia 

Espiritu  Santo 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

(Municipality  of  R.  J.), 

Sao  Paulo 

Parana 

Sta.  Catharina 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul 

Minas  Geraes 

Ooyaz 

Matto  Grosso 

Totals 


Sq,  Miles. 

Free. 

Slave. 

Total. 

Chief  Towns. 

753,469 

56,631 

976 

56,610* 

Mandos. 

412,677 

232,622 

27,199 

259,821 

Para,  or  Belem. 

141,651 

284,101 

74,939 

359,040 

S.  Luis  do  Maranhao. 

81,779 

178,427 

23,785 

202,222 

Therezina. 

50,262 

689,773 

31,913 

721,686* 

Fortaleza. 

20,130 

220,959 

13,020 

233,979 

Natal. 

20,346 

341,643 

20,914 

362,557 

Parahyba. 

46,257 

752,511 

89,028 

841,539* 

Recife. 

11,642 

312,268 

35,741 

348,009* 

Maceio. 

12,038 

139,812 

21,495 

161,307 

Aracajd. 

204,803 

1,120,846 

162,295 

1,283,141 

Bahia. 

17,030 

59,478 

22,659 

82,137* 

Victoria. 

18,490 

456,850 

270,726 

727,576 

Rio  de  Janeiro. 

226,033 

48,939 

274,972* 

(City.) 

90,541 

680,742 

156,612 

837,354* 

Sao  Paulo. 

108,557 

116,162 

10,560 

126,722* 

Curitiba. 

18,924 

144,818 

14,984 

159,802 

Desterro. 

110,216 

364,002 

66,876 

430,878 

Porto- Alegre. 

237,481 

1,642,449 

366,574 

2,009,023 

Ouro  Preto. 

263,373 

149,743 

10,652 

160,395* 

Goyaz. 

£!CiQ  HKK 

DOO,D&0 

53,758 

6,667 

60,417* 

CuryabA 

3,288,110 

8,223,620 

1,476,567 

9,700,187 

The  constitution  of  B.,  dating  from  Mar.  25,  1824,  establishes  four  powers  in  the 
state — the  legislative,  the  executive,  the  judicial,  and  the  moderating  power,  or  royal 
prerogative.  Senators  are  chosen  for  life  at  electoral  meetings  specially  convened,  each 
of  which  nominates  three  candidates,  leaving  the  choice  of  them  to  the  sovereign  or  his 
ministers.  A senator  must  be  of  native  birth,  40  years  old,  and  must  have  an  annual 
income  of  $800;  there  are  58  of  them,  and  their  salaries  are  $1800  per  annum.  Members 
of  the  house,  or  congress,  are  elected  for  four  years.  The  empire  is  divided  into  elec- 
toral districts,  in  which  every  30  voters  select  one  elector,  and  the  electors,  varying  in 
number  according  to  population,  nominate  a deputy  from  each  district.  The  house  is 
composed  of  122  members.  A voter  must  have  an  income  of  (about)  $112;  an  elector  of 
$225,  and  a deputy  of  $450  per  year.  All  registered  voters  must  vote,  or  suffer  a pen- 
alty. Minors,  monks,  and  servants  may  not  vote ; and  naturalized  foreigners,  and  persons 
not  of  the  state  religion  (Roman  Catholic),  are  ineligible  as  deputies.  The  deputies 
have  a salary  of  $1200  per  annum,  besides  traveling  expenses.  Sessions  are  limited  to 
four  months.  Each  house  chooses  its  own  officers,  and  at  the  opening  and  closing  of  a 
session  both  houses  sit  in  a general  assembly  for  the  disposal  of  important  business. 
For  ordinary  purposes,  they  sit  separately.  Taxation,  provision  for  the  army  and  navy, 
‘•'bd,  if  it  should  become  necessary,  the  choice  of  a sovereign,  originate  in  the  house  of 

* There  are  probably  1,000,000  Indians  not  taken  Into  account. 


Brazil. 

Brazing. 


8 


deputies.  The  senate  deals  with  offenses  committed  by  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
and  by  senators  and  deputies  if  committed  during  the  session,  and  is  invested  with  the 
right  of  convoking  the  legislative  assembly  should  the  emperor  fail  to  do  so  for  two 
months  after  the  period  fixed  by  law.  The  executive  power  is  in  the  sovereign,  assisted 
by  the  ministers  and  a council  of  state.  The  ministers  are  responsible  for  treason, 
corruption,  abuse  of  power,  and  all  acts  contrary  to  the  constitution,  or  the  liberty, 
security,  and  property  of  citizens;  a responsibility  from  which  they  cannot  escape  on 
the  plea  of  orders  from  the  sovereign.  The  executive  functions  consist  in  the  convoca- 
tion of  the  ordinary  meetings  of  the  legislative  assembly ; the  nomination  of  bishops, 
governors  of  provinces,  and  magistrates,  the  declaration  of  peace  or  war,  and  the  gene- 
ral execution  and  superintendence  of  all  measures  voted  by  the  legislature.  The  moder- 
ating power,  vested  in  the  sovereign,  gives  him  authority  not  only  to  select  ministers 
and  senators,  but  to  temporarily  withhold  his  sanction  from  legislative  measures,  to 
convoke  extraordinary  sessions  of  the  legislative  assemblies,  to  dissolve  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  and  to  grant  amnesty  and  pardon.  There  are  7 ministries — war,  foreign, 
interior,  marine,  finance,  justice  and  public  works,  agriculture  and  commerce.  The 
ministers  are  assisted  by  a council  of  state  consisting  of  12  ordinary  and  12  extraordinary 
members,  all  named  by  the  emperor,  and  holding  office  continuously.  They  are  usually 
ex-ministers.  The  heir  to  the  throne,  if  of  age,  is  by  right  a councilor  of  state.  At 
the  head  of  each  province  is  a president  appointed  by  the  general  government;  and 
each  province  has  its  local  legislature,  or  provincial  chamber,  called  the  legislative 
assembly  of  the  province.  The  members  of  the  latter  are  nominated  by  the  electors 
who  choose  deputies  to  the  national  assembly,  but  the  members  of  the  provincial 
chambers  are  chosen  directly  by  the  electors  for  two  years.  The  power  of  these  provin- 
cial bodies  over  local  affairs  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  general  assembly  over  affairs  of 
the  empire. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established  religion,  but  all  others  are  tolerated  “with 
the  domestic  or  private  forms  of  worship  in  buildings  destined  for  the  purpose,  but 
without  the  exterior  forms  of  temples.”  No  one  can  be  persecuted  for  religious  acts  or 
motives.  The  Roman  Catholic  clergy  are  maintained  by  the  state ; but  funds  are  also 
voted  for  the  assistance  of  other  sects.  No  ecclesiastical  decree  can  have  force  without 
permission  of  the  emperor  or  of  the  general  assembly.  Marriages  of  Protestants  cele- 
brated in  foreign  countries  are  respected.  The  empire  constitutes  an  ecclesiastical 
province  of  the  Roman  see,  with  an  archbishop,  11  bishops,  12  vicars  general,  and  about 
1300  curates.  Public  education  is  in  three  distinct  divisions — primary,  secondary,  and 
scientific.  The  first  is  gratuitous,  and  “will  become  compulsory  as  soon  as  the  govern- 
meut  considers  it  opportune.”  Thus  far  it  is  very  backward. 

The  trade  and  commerce  of  B.  have  rapidly  increased  within  the  past  decade.  In 
1877,  there  were  1438  m.  of  railroad  open  for  trafiBc,  and  800  m.  in  course  of  construc- 
tion. Telegraphs,  though  comparatively  new,  reported  3890  miles.  There  were  at  the 
close  of  1876,  1018  post-offices,  and  13,165,000  letters  for  the  year.  Weights  and  measures 
are  those  of  the  French  metric  system.  The  standard  of  value  is  the  gold  octava  of  22 
carats,  equal  to  4 milreis,  or  4000  reis;  value  at  the  U.  S.  mint,  $2.18, 

BRAZIL',  a city  in  Clay  co,,  Ind.,  on  the  St.  Louis,  Yandalia,  Terre  Haute,  and 
Indianapolis  railroad,  57  m,  w.s.w.  of  Indianapolis;  pop  '70,  2186;  in  ’80,  3530.  There 
are  coal  and  iron  mines  near  the  place,  and  the  people  are  largely  engaged  in  mining  and 
manufacturing.  There  are  six  churches,  two  banks,  four  weekly  newspapers,  and  a 
number  of  good  schools. 

BRAZIL',  Island  of,  one  of  the  mythical  islands  of  the  Atlantic  set  down  by  early 
cosmographers.  The  Arabic  geography  of  Edrisi  (middle  of  the  12th  c.)  describes  several 
such  islands,  and  in  Mercator’s  atlas,  400  years  later,  the  northern  Atlantic  (now  known 
to  be  nearly  clear  of  islands)  is  as  full  of  islands  as  the  sky  is  of  stars.  Among  these 
mythical  places  were  the  isle  of  St.  Brandon,  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  the  Irish 
in  the  6th  c.,  of  which  many  wonders  were  told;  the  island  of  Anlilia;  the  island  of  the 
Seven  Cities,  said  to  have  been  the  place  of  refuge  of  Christians  flying  from  the  Saracen 
conquerors  of  Spain;  the  island  of  Mayda,  or  Asmaide;  and  the  isle  Verde,  behind 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  Hebrides  imagine  they  see  the  sun  disappear  at  setting. 
None,  however,  were  more  famous  than  the  isle  of  Brazil,  the  name  of  which  connects 
it  with  the  red  dye-wood  of  the  same  appellation.  The  island  was  assigned  to  several 
places,  in  one  map  being  attached  to  the  Azores,  and  finally  getting  the  name  of  Ter- 
ceira.  The  baseless  tradition  was  not  finally  and  officially  exploded  until  the  publica- 
tion of  the  British  admiralty  charts  of  1865. 

BRAZIL  CABBAGE,  or  Chou  Caraibe,  (caladium  mgitti folium,  or  xanthosoma  sagitti- 
folia),  a plant  of  the  natural  order  aracece,  nearly  allied  to  cocco  (q.v.),  and  very  similar 
to  it,  although  it  differs  in  having  arrow-shaped  pointed  leaves.  It^  is  supposed  to  be 
originallj^  a native  of  tropical  America,  but  is  now  in  common  cultivation  throughout 
the  whole  tropics;  not  onlj'’  the  root  being  used  for  food  like  that  of  cocco,  but  also  the 
leaves,  boiled  as  greens.  Both  root  and  leaves  are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  the 
acridity  so  generally  characteristic  of  the  order. 

BRAZILIAN  GRASS,  an  incorrect  popular  name  applied  to  a substance  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  a very  cheap  kind  of  hats,  knows  as  B.  G.  hats,  and  also  as  chip  hata 


9 


Brazil. 

Brazing. 


It  consists  of  stripes  of  the  leaves  of  a palm,  chamcBrops  argentea,  which  are  imported 
into  Britain  for  this  manufacture,  and  chiefly  from  Cuba.  See  Cham.®rops. 

BRAZILIAN  PLUM.  See  Hog  Plum. 

BRAZIL  NUTS  are  the  seeds  of  the  hertholletia  excelsa,  a majestic  and  beautiful  tree 
of  the  natural  order  lecythidacecB  (q.v.).  The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  100  or  120  ft., 
and  abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil.  It  pro- 
duces a round  woody  pericarp  or  seed-vessel,  almost  as  large  as  a man’s  head,  within 
which  are  many  of  the  seeds  or  nuts.  The  pericarp  is  very  heavy  and  solid,  requiring 
a blow  of  a sledge-hammer  to  break  it;  and  at  the  time  when  this  great  fruit  is  ready  to 
fall,  it  is  dangerous  to  walk  under  the  tree.  The  seeds,  which  are  popularly  called  nuts, 
and  much  resemble  fruits  of  that  description,  are  wrinkled  and  triangular,  having  a hard 
shell  and  a pure  white  kernel,  which,  when  fresh,  is  very  agreeable.  They  are  chiefly 
exported  from  Para  and  French  Guiana,  and  are  well  known  in  our  shops.  They  yield 
a large  quantity  of  oil,  which  is  good  for  burning.  The  nuts  or  seeds  of  the  lecythis 
ollaris,  or  Pot  Tree,  are  produced  in  a pericarp  which  resembles  a rusty  iron  pot  with 
a lid,  the  lid  dropping  off  and  letting  the  seeds  out,  which  are  oblong,  grooved,  and 
esteemed  of  a very  superior  quality  to  the  common  B.  N. ; but  they  have  not  yet  become 
an  article  of  commerce,  as  the  tree  grows  chiefly  in  the  interior  parts  of  the  country, 
from  which  the  nuts  are  only  occasionally  sent  to  the  coast. 

BRAZIL  WOOD,  a dark-red  or  yellowish-brown  dye-wood,  which  forms  a consider- 
able article  of  export  from  Brazil,  where  some  of  the  trees  which  yield  it  are  very  abun- 
dant. It  is  the  produce  of  different  species  of  msalpinia  (q.v.).  The  best  kinds  are  those 
called  Pernambuco  wood,  all  saints’  wood,  and  St.  Martha  wood.  Much  of  the  B.  W. 
of  commerce  is  obtained  from  ccesalpinia  Bradliensis,  a tree  which  is  a native  of  the 
West  Indies,  commonly  growing  in  dry  places  and  among  rocks,  and  seldom  exceeding 
30  ft.  in  height.  It  has  bipinnate  leaves,  with  many  smooth,  obtuse,  oblong  leaflets, 
and  no  terminal  leaflets,  the  flowers  in  pannicles,  with  downy  stalks.  The  heart-wood 
alone  is  of  any  value. — Pernambuco  Wood  is  the  produce  of  cmalpinia  echinata,  a 
prickly  tree,  with  prickly  pods,  and  of  which  the  red  and  yellow  flowers  have  a deli- 
cious smell,  resembling  that  of  the  lily  of  the  valley.  The  sap-wood  is  extremely  thick, 
and  the  valuable  heart- wood  bears  a small  proportion  to  the  whole  diameter  of  the  stem. 
— The  sappan  wood  (q.v.)  of  the  East  Indies  nearly  approaches  B.W.  in  quality.  It  is  the 
produce  of  cmalpinia  sappan,  a small  thorny  tree. — The  Braziletto  Wood,  sometimes 
also  called  B.  W.,  which  is  brought  from  the  Antilles,  is  much  inferior.  Ccesalpinia  crista 
probably  yields  some  of  the  inferior  West  Indian  Brazil  wood. — It  is  a curious  circum- 
stance, that  B.  W.  is  said  not  to  take  its  name  from  Brazil,  but  to  be  mentioned  under 
the  name  Braxilis  in  documents  much  older  than  the  discovery  of  America,  the  sappan 
wood  of  the  East  Indies  being  probably  intended,  and  the  name  of  Brazil  has  even  been 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  that  of  this  product  of  its  soil. 

When  freshly  cut,  the  color  of  B.  W.  is  yellow;  but  when  exposed  to  air,  moisture, 
and  light,  it  becomes  red,  and  is  generally  sent  into  market  ground  down  to  the  size  of 
ordinary  sawdust.  When  treated  with  water,  alcohol,  or  ether,  the  weathered  B.  W. 
readily  yields  up  its  red  coloring  matter,  called  Brazelein.  The  latter  is  supposed  to  be 
produced  from  the  oxidation  of  a colorless  substance  called  Brazilin,  which  exists  in  the 
original  yellow  wood  of  the  tree.  Strong  decoctions  of  B.  W.  are  used  by  the  dyer  and 
calico-printer  in  the  fabrication  of  reds,  browns,  etc. ; it  is  also  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  red  ink.  See  Ink. 

^ BRAZING,  or  Brass  Soldering,  is  the  process  of  uniting  together  two  pieces  of  brass, 
two  pieces  of  copper,  or  one  of  each,  by  means  of  a hard  solder,  partaking  more  or  less 
of  the  composition  and  properties  of  ordinary  brass.  The  edges  or  parts  of  metal  to  be 
joined  are  first  filed  bright,  so  as  to  be  thoroughly  clean,  then  there  is  strewed  over  the 
gap  or  crevice  a mixture  of  the  solder  and  borax.  The  solder  employed  varies  in  com- 
position according  to  the  kind  of  work,  and  may  be  rendered  more  fusible  by  the  addition 
of  a larger  amount  of  zinc,  but  the  general  proportions  are  (1)  16  copper,  16  zinc,  and  1 
tin;  (2)  12  brass,  4 zinc,  and  3 tin;  or  (3)  18  brass,  3 zinc,  and  2 tin.  When  the  whole  has 
been  fused  together,  it  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  is  then  filed  down  to  a coarse  powder,  in 
which  state  it  is  used.  The  borax  is  employed  to  form  a glaze  over  the  brightened  sur- 
faces, and  thus  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  metal,  which  would  seriously  interfere  with 
B.,  and  even  stop  the  operation.  An  outward  coating  or  layer  of  charcoal  is  likewise 
serviceable  in  the  exclusion  of  the  air  during  the  B.  of  large  pieces  of  metal.  Where  a 
very  high  heat  is  required  in  the  process,  a little  powdered  glass  is  mixed  with  the  borax. 
The  mixture  of  solder  and  borax  may  be  applied  dry,  but  it  is  better  to  moisten  it  with 
water,  and  to  lay  it  on  the  filed  surfaces  with  a spoon.  The  whole  is  then  gently  heated, 
when  the  water  evaporates  and  leaves  a crust  of  borax  and  solder.  The  work  may  now 
be  strongly  heated  before  the  blow-pipe,  or  over  a clear  fire,  and  at  a bright  red  heat  the 
solder  fuses,  and  the  zinc  begins  to  burn  with  a pale-blue  flame.  At  this  stage,  the 
solder  or  becomes  liquid  enough  to  permeate  the  joint  or  crevice;  but  should  it  be 

tardy  in  acting  thus,  several  slight  taps  will  insure  the  proper  result.  The  whole  is  now 
cooled,  and,  towards  the  close,  the  articles  may  be  introduced  into  cold  water  for  more 
rapid  reduction  in  temperature.  Pieces  of  metal  which  have  undergone  the  process  of 


Brazoria. 

Breach. 


10 


B.  are  so  firmly  united  that  they  may  be  rolled  and  re-rolled  without  the  parts  yielding; 
See  Solder. 

BRAZORIA,  a co.  ins.e.  Texas  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  1260  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  9780 — 7531 
colored.  The  International  and  Great  Northern  railroads  intersect  the  county.  It  has  a 
level  surface  of  oak  forest  and  prairie.  Agriculture  is  the  main  occupation.  Co.  seat, 
Brazoria,  48  m.  s.  of  Houston. 

BRAZOS,  a co.  in  s.e.  Texas,  on  the  B.  river;  578  sq.m.;  pop. ’80, 13,580— 6257 
colored.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  fertile;  chief  business,  agriculture.  'The  Hous- 
ton and  Texas  railroad  traverses  the  county.  Co.  seat,  Bryan. 

BEA'ZOS  DE  DI'OS,  a river  of  Texas,  North  America,  the  second,  if  not  the  first,  in. 
magnitude  that  flows  within  the  state.  It  runs  towards  the  s.e.,  rising  in  the  table-Jand 
of  Bexar  co.,  and  falling  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico  about  40  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Galveston. 
With  a course  of  about  900  m.,  it  is  navigable  at  all  times  to  a distance  of  40  m.  from  its 
mouth,  and  at  certain  seasons  to  a distance  of  300  miles.  The  valley  of  the  river,  the 
lower  half  being  merely  an  alluvial  plain,  presents  extensive  forests,  interspersed  With 
plantations  of  maize,  sugar,  and  cotton. 

BRA'ZOS  DE  SANTIA'GO,  a port  of  entry  in  Cameron  co.,  Texas,  on  the  gulf  of 
Mexico,  35  m.  e.n.e.  of  Brownsville.  It  has  some  foreign  and  considerable  coasting 
trade. 

BBAZZA,  an  island  in  the  Adriatic,  belonging  to  Dalmatia,  Austria,  in  lat.  43°  to  44° 
n.,  and  long.  16°  to  17°  east.  It  has  an  area  of  about  170  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  of  16,000; 
and  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a channel  of  some  8 or  10  m.  in  breadth.  Its 
surface  is  mountainous,  and  extensively  wooded;  vines,  yielding  excellent  wine,  are 
grown  in  the  valleys,  and  figs,  saffron,  almonds,  and  oil  are  produced  in  considerable 
quantities,  but  not  much  grain  is  raised.  Bees  and  silk-worms  are  reared  in  large  num- 
bers. B.  is  also  celebrated  for  its  cheese,  and  the  delicacy  of  the  flesh  of  its  lambs  and 
kids.  Excellent  building-stone,  which  is  largely  exported,  is  found  in  the  e.  part  of  the 
island.  St.  Pietro  di  Brazza  is  the  chief  town. 

BREACH,  in  siege-works,  is  a gap  in  any  of  the  defensive  walls  or  gates  of  a city; 
and  breaching  is  the  operation  by  which  the  gap  is  produced  by  the  guns  of  the  besieg- 
ers. Breaching  batteries  are  employed,  consisting  of  several  pieces  of  ordnance,  so 
chosen  as  to  kind  and  size,  and  so  placed  as  to  distance,  as  to  burst  a hole  through  the 
defenses  in  the  shortest  practicable  time.  The  greatest  effect  is  produced  by  lodging 
the  balls  in  two  vertical  lines,  from  the  parapet  of  the  wall  downwards,  and  in  a hori- 
zontal line,  connecting  the  lower  ends  of  those  vertical  lines;  and  then  overturning  the 
mass  of  material  thus  loosened  by  an  irresistible  salvo  or  volley.  When  a hole  has  once 
been  made,  by  thus  knocking  away  the  masonry  or  earthwork,  the  breaching  is  con- 
tinued until  the  crumbling  mass  has  so  accumulated  as  to  form  a practicable  slope,  up 
which  the  storming-party  of  the  besiegers  may  run.  See  Assault.  During  the  Penin- 
sular war  there  were  some  formidable  examples  of  breaching.  At  Badajoz,  14,000  shot 
brought  down  180  ft.  of  wall  in  104  hours,  from  a distance  of  450  yards.  At  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  6700  balls  brought  down  105  ft.  of  wall  in  32  hours,  from  a distance  of  560 
yards.  At  St.  Sebastian,  13,000  shot  brought  down  100  ft.  of  wall  in  62  days,  from  a 
distance  of  620  yards.  It  was  calculated,  from  these  and  other  instances,  that  10,000 
24-lb.  shot,  or  240,000  lbs.  of  iron,  will  breach  100  ft.  of  wall  from  a distance  of  500  yards 
— the  wall  being  of  fair  average  masonry,  and  the  height  and  thickness  a fair  average  of 
those  used  in  fortifled  towns.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  estimate  was 
made  before  the  days  of  rifled  cannon  and  Armstrong  guns;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  walls  adverted  to  were  not  constructed  of  granite. 

BREACH,  in  law,  signifies  a breaking  or  violation  of  a right  or  of  an  obligation  or 
engagement  legally  binding;  and  in  this  sense  it  has  numerous  applications,  of  which 
the  following  are  those  more  particularly  treated  in  law-books : 

Breach  of  Arrestment,  in  the  practice  of  the  Scotch  law,  is  the  disregard  or 
violation  of  the  process  of  arrestment,  or  attachment,  by  the  arrestee,  or  party  in  pos- 
session of  the  arrested  or  attached  property,  but  who,  notwithstanding,  pays  the  sums 
or  delivers  the  goods  arrested;  and  such  B.  is  viewed  by  the  courts  as  a contempt.  But 
at  present  the  only  consequence  of  the  B.  is,  that  the  person  guilty  of  it,  where  it  is  a 
question  as  to  money,  is  liable  in  damages  to  the  extent  of  the  funds  paid  away,  and  the 
costs.  Where  goods  are  arrested,  and  the  arrestment  is  removed  on  bail  (or  “loosed  on 
caution,”  as  the  Scotch  lawyers  say),  if  the  goods  themselves  cannot  be  recovered,  or 
their  value  cannot  be  clearly  ascertained,  the  surety  or  “cautioner”  is  held  to  be  liable 
for  the  original  debt.  See  Arrestment.  In  England,  the  disputing  or  disobeying  a 
rule  or  order  by  a judge  for  attachment  of  a debt  very  nearly  means  the  same  thing. 
See  Attachment,  Garnishee 

Breach  of  Close  is  a trespass  by  which  an  unwarrantable  entry  is  made  on  another 
man’s  land,  for  satisfaction  of  which  injury  an  action  will  lie  to  recover  damages.  It  is 
called  a trespass  for  breaking  a man’s  close,  because  every  man’s  land  is,  in  the  eye  of 
the  law,  inclosed  and  set  apart  from  his  neighbor’s;  and  that  either  by  a visible  and 


11 


Brazoria. 

Breach. 


material  fence,  as  one  field  is  divided  from  another  by  a hedge;  or  by  an  invisible 
boundary,  existing  only  in  the  contemplation  of  the  law,  as  when  one  man’s  land  adjoins 
to  another’s  in  the  same  field.  The, liability  to  this  injury  attaches  not  only  to  the  party 
himself  trespassing,  but  also  to  trespass  by  his  cattle.  And  the  law  gives  the  party  injured 
a double  remedy  in  this  case,  by  permitting  him  to  distrain  the  cattle  till  the  owner 
shall  make  satisfaction,  or  else  by  leaving  him  to  the  ordinary  remedy  by  action  for  the 
daniage  done. 

But  in  some  cases  this  trespass  is  justifiable;  as  where  it  is  done  in  exercise  of  a 
right  of  way,  right  of  common,  or  the  like;  or  where  a man  comes  to  demand  or 
pay  money  payable  on  the  particular  land;  or  to  execute,  in  a legal  manner,  the 
process  of  the  law;  or  by  the  license  of  the  plaintiff  himself.  Also,  a man  may  justify 
entering  into  an  inn  or  public-house  without  the  leave  of  the  owner  first  specially 
asked;  because  when  a man  professes  the  keeping  of  such  an  inn  or  public-house,  he 
thereby  gives  a general  license  to  any  person  to  enter  his  doors.  So  a landlord  may 
justify  entering  to  distrain  for  rent;  and  a reversioner  to  see  if  any  waste  be  committed 
on  the  estate,  for  the  apparent  necessity  of  the  thing;  and  it  has  been  held  that  the 
common  law  warrants  the  hunting  of  ravenous  beasts  of  prey,  as  badgers  and  foxes,  in 
another  man’s  land,  if  no  greater  damage  be  done  than  is  necessary,  because  the  de- 
stroying such  creatures  is  said  to  be  profitable  to  the  public.  But  in  cases  where  a man 
misdemeans  himself,  or  makes  an  ill  use  of  the  authority  with  which  the  law  intrusts 
him,  he  is  accounted  a trespasser  ab  initio;  as  if  one  comes  into  a tavern,  and  will  not 
go  out  in  a reasonable  time,  but  remains  there  all  night,  contrary  to  the  inclinations  of 
the  owner;  such  wrongful  act  is  held  to  affect  and  have  relation  back  even  to  his  first 
entry,  and  make  the  whole  a trespass.  But  a bare  nonfeasance,  as  not  paying  for  the 
wine  he  calls  for,  will  not  make  him  a trespasser,  for  this  is  only  a B.  of  contract.  See 
Blackstone  and  Stephen’s  Com.  respecting  “civil  injuries.” 

In  the  Scotch  law,  the  term  close  is  not  used,  and  not  known — but  there  any  vio- 
lation of  a right  of  property  in  land  may  be  redressed  by  legal  process,  and  in  many 
cases  form  the  ground  of  an  action  for  the  recovery  of  damages.  See  Close.  The 
term  inclosure,  in  Scotch  law,  has  a different  meaning,  although  the  penalties  for  break- 
ing such  inclosure  are  somewhat  analogous  to  those  for  breach  of  close.  See  below, 
Breaking  Inclosure,  and  see  Trespass. 

Breach  of  Covenant  is  one  of  those  civil  injuries  by  which  is  meant  a violation  of 
a covenant  or  agreement  contained  in  a deed  of  conveyance,  either  to  do  or  omit  to  do 
something,  and  which  B.  gives  a right  of  action  against  the  party  who  made  the  cove- 
nant and  his  representatives.  See  Covenant. 

Breach  of  Contract  is  a general  description  of  injury,  by  which  is  understood  the 
violation  of  any  contract  or  legal  engagement,  and  for  which,  at  law,  damages  may  be 
recovered,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  breach  and  character  of  the  contract.  In 
1854,  jurisdiction  was  conferred  upon  the  courts  of  common  law,  by  which  a plaintiff 
can  compel  a defendant  to  fulfill  any  actual  duty.  But  till  the  constitution  of  the  new 
high  court  of  justice  in  1873,  it  was  only  in  the  courts  of  equity  that  complete  relief 
was  given  by  enforcing  the  specific  performance  of  contracts.  See  Contract;  Dam- 
ages; Specific  Performance;  Equity,  Courts  of;  Chancery,  Court  of. 

In  Scotland,  although  there  is  no  distinction  between  law  and  equity,  the  remedy  for 
this  injury  is  very  much  the  same.  The  party  wronged  may  either  conclude  for  damages, 
or  ad  factum  prestandum,  or  for  both  these  remedies. 

Breach  of  Duty  may  be  legally  defined  as  either  the  non-execution  of  an  office,  or 
the  performance  of  it  in  such  a way  that  the  conditions  on  which  it  is  undertaken  are 
violated.  Such  misconduct  may  either  violate  the  conditions  of  an  express  contract, 
or  it  may  be  equally  opposed  and  do  equal  violence  to  any  implied  engagement  or 
assumpsit,  as  it  is  technically  called  in  the  law  of  England,  not  from  the  express  deter- 
mination of  any  court  or  the  positive  directions  of  any  statute,  but  from  natural  reason 
and  the  just  construction  of  law,  which  assumes  and  intends  that  every  man  has  engag;ed 
what  his  duty  or  justice  requires  at  his  hands.  And  he  must  do  this  with  integrity,  dili- 
gence, and  skill;  for  if,  by  his  neglect,  injury  accrues  to  individuals,  they  have  their 
remedy  against  him  in  damages.  See  Contract,  Duty,  Obligation,  Damages, 
Equity,  Performance  of  Contracts. 

Breach  of  the  Peace  is  an  offense  against  the  public  tranquillity  and  safety,  and  is 
either  felonious  or  not  felonious.  But  the  law  on  this  subject  will  be  best  considered 
under  Peace,  Offenses  against  the  Public. 

Breach  of  Pound  is  an  indictable  offense,  and  means  the  breaking  pound  (q.v.) 
or  place  where  cattle  or  goods  distrained  are  deposited,  in  order  to  rescue  them.  When 
once  impounded,  such  goods  or  cattle  are  understood  to  be  in  the  custody  of  the  law, 
and  an  action  for  treble  damages  will  lie  for  illegally  taking  them  out  of  pound  upon  a 
distress  for  rent.  Further,  it  is  enacted  by  the  6 and  7 Viet.  c.  30,  that  if  any  person 
shall  release,  or  attempt  to  release,  cattle  lawfully  seized  by  way  of  such  distress,  from 
the  pound  or  place  where  they  shall  be  impounded,  or  on  the  way  to  or  from  such  pound 
' or  place,  or  shall  destroy  such  pound — he  shall  be  liable  to  a penalty  not  exceeding  £5, 
and  in  default,  may  be  committed  to  the  house  of  correction.  See  Stephen’s  Com.,  vol. 
iii. , and  see  Distrain,  Distress,  Pound. 

BREACH  OF  PROMISE  TO  MARRY.  See  Promise  and  Marriage. 


Breach. 

Bread. 


12 


BREACH  OF  THE  PEACE  {ante),  in  general  any  riotous  behavior,  or  annoying 
conduct,  such  as  fighting,  shouting,  disturbing  others  assembled  or  singly,  etc.  In  com- 
mon practice  almost  any  conduct  that  can  be  called  “disorderly”  is  in  some  sense  a 
B.  of  the  P,  Unless  occasioning  some  serious  revolt,  a B.  of  the  P.  is  only  a mis- 
demeanor. 

BREACH  OF  TRUST.  See  Trust. 

BREAD.  The  earliest  and  most  primitive  way  of  making  B.  was  to  soak  the  grain  in 
water,  subject  it  to  pressure,  and  then  dry  it  by  natural  or  artificial  heat.  An  improve- 
ment upon  this,  was  to  pound  or  bray  the  grain  in  a mortar  or  between  two  flat  stones, 
before  moistening  and  heating,  and  from  this  h'aying  operation  some  etymologists  pro- 
pose to  derive  the  word  bread  (as  if  brayed).  A rather  more  elaborate  bruising  or 
grinding  of  the  grain  leads  to  such  simple  forms  of  bread  as  the  oat-cakes  of  Scotland, 
which  are  prepared  by  moistening  oat-meal  (coarsely  bruised  oats)  with  water  containing 
some  common  salt,  kneading  with  the  hands  upon  a baking-board,  rolling  the  mass  into 
a thin  sheet,  and  ultimately  heating  before  a good  fire,  or  on  an  iron  plate,  called  a 
girdle,  which  is  suspended  above  the  fire.  In  a similar  manner,  the  barley-meal  and 
peas-meal  bannocks  of  Scotland  are  prepared;  and  in  the  East  Indies  (especially  the 
Punjab  and  Afghanistan),  as  well  as  in  Scotland,  flour  is  kneaded  with  water,  and  rolled 
into  thin  sheets,  as  scones.  The  passover  cakes  of  the  Israelites  were  also  prepared  in  this 
way.  A similar  preparation  of  wheat-flour,  but  where  the  sheet  of  dough  is  made  much 
thicker,  forms  the  dampers  of  Australia.  The  Indian  corn-meal,  kneaded  with  water  and 
fired,  affords  the  corn-bread  of  America.  The  kinds  of  B.  referred  to  above  are  designated 
unleavened,  as  no  leaven  has  been  added  to  the  dough  to  excite  fermentation.  Even  in 
the  time  of  Moses,  however,  leaven  was  employed  in  making  bread.  It  is  held  probable 
that  the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to  use  leaven ; that  the  secret  afterwards  became  known 
to  the  Greeks;  and  that  the  Greeks  communicated  the  process  to  the  Romans,  who  spread 
the  invention  far  and  wide  in  the  northern  countries  during  their  campaigns. 

The  grain  of  wheat  is  generally  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  B.  among  the 
better  classes  and  more  advanced  nations,  though  rye,  barley,  Indian  corn,  and  rice 
are  also  extensively  used.  The  average  composition  of  the  grain  of  wheat  when  dried, 
so  as  to  evaporate  about  14  per  cent  of  moisture,  is — 


Gluten  and  albumen 13^ 

Starch 54| 

Gum,  sugar,  oil,  and  fiber 30 

Saline  matter 3 


The  proportion  of  these  ingredients  varies,  however;  and  though  the  native  country  of 
wheat  is  unknown,  yet  it  is  found  that  within  the  wheat  zone  (see  Wheat),  the  quality 
improves  as  we  travel  south.  Thus,  Scotch  wheat  is  inferior  to  English,  the  latter  to 
French,  that  to  the  Italian ; and  the  finest  wheat  in  the  world  is  grown  in  Barbary  and 
Egypt.  The  principal  constituents  of  wheat  may  be  separated  from  each  other  without 
much  difficulty.  Thus,  if  wheat-flour  be  placed  in  a cloth-bag  with  the  mouth  well  closed, 
and  the  whole  introduced  into  a basin  of  water,  and  pressed  by  the  fingers  for  some 
time,  the  starch  is  squeezed  through  the  cloth  as  a fine  white  powder,  and  the  gluten  is 
left  in  the  cloth  as  a viscid  or  sticky  substance.  Again,  if  wheat-flour  be  burned  on  a 
porcelain  plate  on  a fire,  or  oven,  or  gas-lamp,  till  it  can  burn  no  longer,  it  leaves  behind 
a small  amount  of  ash  or  saline  matter. 


Previous  to  being  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  B.,  the  grain  of  wheat  undergoes 
the  process  of  grinding,  with  the  double  object  of  reducing  it  to  a fine  state  of  division, 
and  separating  the  more  hard  and  indigestible  parts.  See  Mill.  During  the  grinding 
operations,  the  wheat  as  it  passes  from  grain  to  flour  nearly  doubles  its  bulk.  The  pro- 
ducts come  from  the  dressing- machine  divided  into  different  qualities,  a quarter  of  wheat 
yielding — 

Bushels.  Pecks. 


Fine  flour 

Second  flour 

Fine  middlings. . . 
Coarse  middlings. 

Bran 

Twentypenny 

Pollard 


5 3 

0 3 

0 1 

0 Oi 

3 0 

3 0 

3 0 


14  3i 

In  the  making  of  B.  in  Great  Britain,  the  finest  flour  is  employed  in  making 
or  the  fine  4-Z6.  loaf;  a coarser  flour  is  made  into  seconds  or  household  B. ; and  a stiff 
coarser  into  thirds  or  coarse  bread.  There  is  no  bran  in  firsts,  but  a greater  or  less  pro- 
portion of  the  finer  bran  in  seconds  and  thirds.  In  the  making  of  good  B.  three  things 
are  absolutely  requisite:  flour  or  meal,  yeast  or  leaven,  and  water  containing  salt.  The 
yeast  (q.v.),  or  leaven  (q.v.),  is  added  to  give  a start  to  the  fermentation  (q.v.)  process, 
thereby  supplying  carbonic  acid,  which  communicates  a spongy  or  light  texture  to  the 
bread.  Leaven  is  the  more  primitive  ferment,  and  is  simply  a portion  of  moistened 


13 


Breach. 

Bread. 


flour  or  dough  in  which  the  putrefactive  agencies  have  begun  to  work.  It  may  be  pro- 
cured by  allowing  moistened  flour  to  lie  in  a warm  apartment  (summer  heat)  for  six  or 
eight  days,  and  when  sufficiently  formed,  has  an  acid  taste  and  reaction,  and  a some- 
what fusty  odor.  When  brought  in  contact  with  a new  portion  of  flour  and  water,  and 
incorporated  therewith  by  kneading,  it  very  quickly  acts  as  a ferment,  and  develops 
partial  fermentation  in  the  whole.  Hence  it  is  that  where  leaven  is  used,  it  is  custora- 
i.ry  to  retain  a portion  of  the  leavened  dough  for  the  next  baking.  On  the  continent, 
leaven  is  still  very  extensively  emplo}^ed,  especially  in  districts  far  from  breweries.  In 
Britain,  yeast  is  generally  used  as  the  ferment. 

The  materials  being  at  hand,  and  the  proper  benches,  utensils,  and  oven  being  within 
reach,  the  baker  takes  a quantity  of  water  and  adds  to  it  the  yeast  and  salt ; after  which 
the  flour  is  added,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  and  laboriously  kneaded  together  till  it 
assumes  a ropy  consistence.  It  is  then  called  the  sponge,  and  is  placed  in  a kneading- 
trough  in  a warm  place,  which  is  styled  setting  the  sponge.  In  a short  time,  the  yeast 
begins  to  act  on  the  gluten,  starch,  and  sugar  of  the  flour,  compelling  the  latter  to  pass 
into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas  in  every  part  of  the  dough,  which  thereby  becomes 
inflated  with  innumerable  air  cavities.  When  the  fermentation  has  sufficiently  advanced, 
the  baker  takes  the  sponge,  adds  more  flour,  water,  and  salt,  and  a second  time  subjects 
the  whole  to  a thorough  process  of  kneading,  to  prevent  portions  being  so  far  fermented 
as  to  become  sad,  and  again  allows  the  mass  to  lie  in  a warm  place  for  a few  hours.  The 
dough  swells  considerably  from  distension  by  gas,  and  is  weighed  out  into  lumps  of 
the  proper  size,  which  are  shaped  into  loaves,  constituting  the  hatch,  or  placed  in  tin 
pans,  and  are  allowed  to  lie  for  a short  time  till  they  get  further  distended.  The 
oven  has  previously  been  heated  by  flues,  by  heated  air,  or  by  wood  being  burned 
within  it,  to  a temperature  of  at  least  320°  F.,  which  is  the  lowest  temperature  at  which 
B.  can  be  baked,  and  ranging  up  to  572°  F. ; and  when  it  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned 
out,  the  loaves  are  introduced  and  placed  on  the  floor,  and  the  oven  shut  up.  The  heat 
acts  in  dissipating  much  of  the  water  from  the  dough,  in  distending  the  air  cavities 
more  fully,  and  in  partially  hoiling  the  starch  and  gluten  of  the  dough,  and  developing 
some  gum  from  the  starch.  Indeed,  though  the  temperature  of  the  oven  is  much  higher, 
yet  the  loaves  beyond  the  mere  crust  are  bathed  in  an  atmosphere  of  steam,  and  are 
never  heated  above  212°,  as  has  been  proved  by  direct  experiments  with  the  thermome- 
ter. One  effect  of  the  heat  is  to  arrest  any  further  fermentation  (q.v. ; see  also  Yeast). 
After  several  hours’  baking  in  the  oven,  the  length  of  time  being  determined  by  the 
temperature,  the  loaves  are  withdrawn,  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  brown  appearance  of 
the  crust  of  loaves,  and  the  pleasant  taste  of  the  crusts,  are  due  to  the  action  of  the  heat 
on  the  starch  and  the  formation  of  dextrine  (q.v.),  a sort  of  gum.  The  number  of 
quartern  (4  lb.)  loaves  which  a sack  of  flour  weighing  280  lbs.  yields,  is  90.  It  will  be 
apparent,  therefore, that  as  280  lbs.  of  flour  yield  360  lbs.  of  B.,  that  a good  deal  more 
water  must  be  present  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former;  and  indeed,  ordinary  good 
wheaten  B.  contains  about  45  per  cent  of  water.  This  water  is  retained  even  after 
the  loaf  is  apparently  dry,  and  even  mealy,  as  the  gum  and  gluten  have  a great  affinity 
for  water. 

Improvements  in  the  process  of  making  B.  are  occasionally  effected.  Thus  a form 
of  yeast,  called  German  barm  or  yeast  (q.v.),  has  been  introduced,  which  is  more  cleanly 
than  ordinary  yeast  or  leaven,  but  appears  to  be  too  rapid  in  its  power  of  causing  fer- 
mentation to  be  manipulated  easily  in  the  making  of  ordinary  loaves,  though  it  does 
well  for  pan-loaves  and  fancy  B.  in  general.  Ovens  heated  by  flues  are  being  con- 
structed, instead  of  the  primitive  method  of  heating  them  by  wood,  which  smokes  the 
whole  oven.  Instead  of  raising  the  dough  by  the  action  of  yeast,  which  decomposes  a 
part  of  the  flour  and  causes  the  loss  of  about  2 per  cent,  bicarbonate  of  soda  and 
hydrochloric  acid  are  sometimes  employed.  The  proportion  by  this  process  are  4 lbs.  of 
flour  intimately  mixed  with  320  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda ; to  this  is  added  a mixture 
of  300  grains  of  common  salt  in  35  ozs.  of  water  and  6i  fluid  drams  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  sp.gr.  1.16,  and  the  whole  is  kneaded  and  placed  in  the  oven.  When  the  mix- 
ture is  made,  the  acid  acts  on  the  bicarbonate  of  soda,  forming  common  salt,  which  is 
left  in  the  dough,  and  carbonic  acid  is  liberated  at  every  point,  and  communicates  a 
spongy  texture  to  the  dough.  The  disadvantage  attendant  on  this  mode  of  raising  the 
dough  is  that  it  is  apt  to  leave  too  much  common  salt  in  the  bread.  This  is  obviated  by 
using  water  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  as  described  under  Aerated  Bread.  Sesqui- 
carbonate  of  ammonia  is  employed  to  some  extent  in  the  preparation  of  rusks,  ginger- 
bread, and  other  light  fancy  B. ; when  heated,  it  entirely  passes  into  gas,  and  thus  yields 
a very  spongy  mass.  Short-hread  is  prepared  from  flour  which  has  been  incorporated  with 
butter.  See  Unfermented  Bread. 

The  appearance  which  good  wheaten  B.  ought  to  present,  is  that  of  a vesicular  or 
spongy  mass,  from  which  layers  can  be  readily  detached ; and  this,  known  to  bakers  as 
piled  B.,  is  the  best  index  of  good  wholesome  and  easily  digested  bread.  When  the 
layers  cannot  be  detached,  and  the  loaf  cannot  be  crumbled  down  by  the  fingers  into  a 
coarse  powder,  or  the  fragments  be  thoroughly  soaked  and  be  readily  diffused  through 
water,  but  become  a permanent  tough  mass  of  dough,  the  B.  is  imperfectly  made. 

Eye  B.  is  very  extensively  used  in  northern  European  countries,  where  the  soil  being 
sandy  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  growth  of  that  grain.  It  yields  a flour  darker  than 


Bread. 

Bread-fruit. 


14 


wheat-flour.  It  is  almost  equal  in  nutritive  value  to  wheaten  bread.  Barley  and  oats, 
which  when  used  as  B.  are  generally  made  into  cakes  or  bannocks,  possess  also  a 
composition  not  unlike  wheat.  Indian  corn,  which  thrives  luxuriantly  on  the  Ameri- 
can soil,  and  is  largely  used  there  for  B.,  as  also  to  a considerable  extent  in  the  old 
world,  is  little  different  from  wheat  in  the  proportion  of  its  ingredients.  Rice  is  occa- 
sionally employed  in  making  B. , but  it  is  not  nearly  so  nutritious  as  wheat. 

But  although,  with  the  exception  of  rice,  the  various  kinds  of  grain  do  not  sensibly 
differ  in  the  amount  of  nutritious  matter  contained  in  the  meal,  yet  there  is  a great 
difference  as  to  the  quality  of  yielding  a light,  spongy  bread.  In  this  respect,  the  flour 
of  wheat  excels  all  others.  This  quality  seems  to,  depend  upon  the  mechanical 
structure  of  the  gluten  of  wheat,  which  gives  a glutinous,  sticky  consistency  to  the  dough, 
rendering  it  impervious  to  the  carbonic  acid  gas  formed  in  it  during  the  fermentation, 
so  that  the  gas  thus  imprisoned  swells  it  up.  The  meal  of  other  grains  forms  a more 
granular  and  less  tenacious  dough,  which  allows  the  gas  to  escape  with  more  or  less 
ease  as  it  is  formed.  It  is  thus  impossible  to  make  a light,  spongy  loaf  of  oatmeal, 
however  finely  it  might  be  ground.  In  the  case  of  whole-meal  B.  or  brown  B.,  the 
rough,  hard  particles  of  the  bran  interfere  with  the  ordinary  tenacious  quality  of 
wheaten-flour,  and  make  the  dough  slightly  porous,  so  that  much  of  the  gas  escapes,  and 
thus  this  kind  of  B.  is  never  so  much  raised  as  B.  of  fine  flour. 

Brown,  Composition,  or  Whole  Flour  B.  is  made  from  the  ground  but  undressed 
wheat,  and  therefore  contains  the  bran  as  well  as  the  flour.  Some  years  ago  it  was 
suggested,  that  as  the  bran  contained  more  nitrogenized  matter  than  the  flour,  the  whole 
meal  must  be  more  nutritious  than  the  finer  flour  alone.  But  that  opinion  is  now 
■considerably  modified;  for  while  it  is  true  that  the  whole  meal  (bran  and  fine  flour) 
contains  chemically  more  nutritive  matter  than  the  fine  flour  alone,  j^et  the  gritty  parti- 
cles that  are  present  in  the  former,  cause  an  unnatural  irritation  in  the  alimentary  canal, 
and  lead  to  a quicker  evacuation  of  the  but  partially  digested  and  absorbed  food.  This 
explains  why  brown  B.  possesses  laxative  properties,  and  why  laborers  fed  on  it  consider 
that  it  makes  them  hungry  soon  again;  they  feel  that  it  does  not  last  in  the  stomach,  and 
consequently  think  it  has  little  nourishment  in  it. 

The  adulterations  of  B.  are  various.  Very  commonly  boiled  potatoes  are  added  to  the 
flour  and  water  in  the  making  of  the  dough,  and  some  consider  that  this  yields  a lighter 
and  more  palatable  bread.  It  must  remembered,  however,  that  the  addition  of  any 
substance  of  a nature  foreign  to  the  composition  of  any  material  is  an  adulteration  (see 
next  article);  and  that  though  potatoes  may  be  supposed  to  improve  the  B.,  yet  good  B. 
can  be  made  without  them,  and  the  addition  of  the  potatoes  lessens  the  nutritive  value 
of  the  wheat-flour.  Alum  is  occasionally  added  to  the  dough,  to  increase  the  whiteness 
and  improve  the  general  texture  of  the  B. ; and  this  it  appears  to  do  by  arresting  the 
passage  of  the  starch  into  gum  and  sugar,  which  tends  to  take  place  during  the  process 
of  baking.  In  Belgium,  sulphate  of  copper  is  often  used  for  a similar  purpose,  but  it  is 
not  employed  in  this  country.  All  such  admixtures  are  destructive  of  the  nutritive 
value  of  a certain  part  of  the  B.,  and  are  injurious  to  the  animal  system.  For  the 
nutritive  qualities  of  B.  see  Nutrition  and  Food,  and  for  biscuit-bread,  see  Biscuit. 

The  law  on  the  subject  of  bread,  so  far  as  relates  to  England  and  Scotland,  is  regu- 
lated by  a local  act  for  London,  the  3 Geo.  IV.  c.  106,  the  provisions  of  which  are 
imitated  by  a general  act  for  the  country,  the  6 and  7 Will.  IV.  c.  37.  These  provisions 
are  as  follow:  B.  may  be  made  of  flour  or  meal  of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat, 
Indian  corn,  pease,  beans,  rice,  or  potatoes,  or  any  of  them,  or  with  any  common  salt, 
pure  water,  eggs,  milk,  barm,  leaven,  potato  or  other  yeast,  and  mixed  in  such  propor- 
tions as  bakers  may  think  fit,  and  with  no  other  ingredient  or  matter  whatsoever ; and 
with  the  exception  of  French  or  fancy  B.  and  rolls,  the  B.  so  made  must  be  sold  by 
weight,  and  in  no  other  manner.  It  has  been  settled  by  many  recent  cases  that  bakers 
must  weigh  the  bread  before  selling  it,  whether  asked  by  the  customer  or  not  to  do  so. 
For  this  purpose,  they  must  provide  in  their  shops,  on  or  near  the  counter,  a beam  and 
scales,  with  proper  weights,  or  other  sufficient  balance,  in  order  that  the  same  may  be 
weighed  in  the  presence  of  purchasers — a regulation  that  also  applies  to  delivery  of  B. 
by  cart  or  other  conveyance;  it  being  directed  that  the  scales  and  weights  shall  be 
constantly  carried  in  the  cart  or  other  conveyance,  under  a penalty,  in  either  case,  not 
exceeding  £5.  From  this  regulation,  however,  fancy  B.,  or  French  B.,  or  rolls,  are  also 
excepted.  The  act  further  provides  that  B,  made  of  mixed  meal  or  flour — that  is,  B. 
made  wholly  or  partially  of  pease,  or  beans,  or  potatoes,  or  of  any  sort  of  corn  or  grain 
other  than  wheat — shall  be  marked  with  the  large  Roman  letter  “ M,”  under  a penalty, 
in  case  this  rule  be  neglected,  of  a sum  not  exceeding  10s.  for  every  pound-weight  of 
such  mixed  B.  sold,  and  so  on  in  proportion  for  any  less  quantity.  From  this  regula- 
tion, however,  is  excepted  B.  made  of  the  meal  or  flour  of  wheat,  in  the  making  of 
which  potato-yeast  shall  be  used. 

The  following  are  the  enactments  against  the  adulteration  of  B. ; 1.  No  baker  shall, 
in  the  making  of  B.  for  sale,  use  any  mixture  or  ingredient  whatsoever  other  than  those 
above  mentioned,  under  a penalty  for  every  offense  not  exceeding  £10,  nor  less  than  £5, 
with  the  alternative  of  imprisonment,  with  or  without  hard  labor,  for  any  time  not 
exceeding  six  calendar  months ; and  the  offender’s  name,  place  of  abode,  and  offense 
may  be  published  in  the  local  newspapers.  2.  Any  person  adulterating  corn-meal  or 


Bread. 

Bread-fruit, 


flour,  by  the  introduction  of  any  ingredient  not  being  the  real  produce  of  the  corn  or 
grain;  or  any  person  selling  meal  or  flour  of  one  sort  of  corn  or  grain  as  the  meal  or  flour 
of  another  sort,  whether  separate  or  mixed,  shall  forfeit  and  pay,  according  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  magistrate  or  justice,  a sum  not  exceeding  £20,  nor  less  than  £5.  3.  Magis- 

trates or  justices  of  the  peace,  and  also  peace-oflicers  authorized  by  warrant,  may,  at 
seasonable  times  in  the  daytime,  enter  a baker’s  premises,  and  search  for  adulterated 
flour  or  B. ; and  if  any  be  found,  the  same  may  be  seized,  and  carried  with  all  convenient 
speed  to  the  nearest  resident  magistrate  or  justice  of  the  peace,  to  be  disposed  of  as  he  may 
think  proper,  the  penalties  varying  from  £2  to  £10,  with  alternative  imprisonment  for 
six  months;  the  offenders’  names  may  also  be  published.  Parties  obstructing  such  search 
of  bakers’  premises,  or  upon  the  occasion  of  the  search,  carrying  away  the  adulterated 
flour  or  B.,  are  liable  to  a penalty  not  exceeding  £10.  Should  it,  however,  appear  that 
any  offense  against  the  act  shall  have  been  occasioned  by  the  willful  act  or  the  neglect  of 
the  baker’s  journeyman  or  other  servant,  the  magistrate  may  issue  his  warrant  for 
bringing  such  servant  before  him,  and,  on  conviction,  may  adjudge  him  to  pay  a 
reasonable  sum  to  his  master,  by  way  of  recompense.  The  adulteration  of  food  act 
gives  a more  efdcient  mode  of  prosecuting  these  offenses,  and  exposing  them,  when 
detected. 

The  act  further  provides  that  bakers  shall  not  bake  bread,  rolls,  or  cakes,  on  the 
Lord’s  day;  or,  on  any  part  of  that  day,  after  half-past  one  o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  sell 
such  bread,  rolls,  or  cakes;  or  bake  meat,  pies,  or  other  victuals;  or  in  any  other  manner 
exercise  the  trade  of  a baker,  save  and  except  so  far  as  may  be  necessary  by  way  of 
preparation  for  the  following  day’s  baking.  For  a first  offense  against  this  regulation,  a 
penalty  of  10s.  shall  be  paid;  for  a second  offense,  20s.;  and  for  a third  and  every  subse- 
quent offense,  respectively,  the  penalty  of  40s.,  together  with  the  costs  of  prosecution,  a 
portion  of  the  penalty  to  be  paid  to  the  prosecutor,  and  the  residue  to  be  applied  towards 
the  poor-rate  of  the  place.  This  regulation  as  to  Sundays  does  not  extend  to  Scot- 
land. 

The  law  of  Ireland  on  the  subject  of  this  article  is  contained  in  several  acts  of  the 
Irish  parliament,  the  leading  provisions  of  which  are  similar  to  the  above. 

BBEAD,  Army.  In  camps  and  in  barracks  of  any  size,  the  bread  for  the  army  is 
baked  on  the  spot  by  bakers  of  the  supply  sub-department  of  control  organization. 
Though  perhaps  a little  rough  in  its  manufacture,  the  article  supplied  is  made  from  the 
best  ingredients,  and  is  genuine  and  wholesome.  On  a march,  the  control  bakeries  sup- 
ply bread  at  the  several  halting-places.  In  smaller  barracks,  bread  has  to  be  obtained 
by  contract,  but  the  most  vigorous  supervision  is  exercised  to  secure  proper  quality. 
Formerly,  army  bread  was  notoriously  bad.  A contractor  would  sometimes  send  in  a 
tender  so  low,  in  order  to  obtain  the  contract,  that  he  could  not  possibly  make  good 
bread  at  a profit ; and  then  he  relied  on  small  fees  paid  him  by  the  soldiers  as  a means  of 
obtaining  better.  This  discreditable  state  of  things  was  ascertained  by  a committee  of 
inquiry  some  years  ago ; it  was  found  that  the  average  of  army  bread  was  not  equal  in 
quality  to  that  of  work-house  bread.  Steps  were  forthwith  taken  to  remedy  the  evil ; expe- 
riments were  made  to  determine  whether  troops  could  bake  their  own  bread  in  the  field, 
and  the  result  was  the  adoption  of  the  present  system  of  army  baking.  With  the 
improvement  of  the  bread,  a visible  amelioration  in  the  health  of  the  soldiers  has  taken 
place. 

BREAD-FRUIT  TREE,  Artocarpus  incisa,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  artocarpacece  (q.v.), 
a native  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean  and  of  the  Indian  archipelago — one  of  the 
most  important  gifts  of  nature  to  the  inhabitants  of  these  regions,  its  fruit  supplying  the 
principal  part  of  their  food,  and  its  inner  bark  a considerable  part  of  their  clothing, 
whilst  its  timber  and  its  milky  juice  are  also  employed  for  economical  purposes.  The 
genus  to  which  it  belongs  {artocarpus,  Gr. , bread-fruit)  is  distinguished  by  having  the 
male  flowers  in  catkins,  with  a 2-leaved  perianth  and  one  stamen;  the  female  flowers 
naked;  the  fruit  roundish,  fleshy,  and  tuberculated.  The  bread  tree  is  a rather  slender 
tree,  of  40  to  50  ft.  high,  often  rising  almost  half  its  height  without  a branch.  It  has 
large,  pinnatifid  leaves,  frequently  12  to  18  in.  long,  dark  green,  and  glossy.  The  fruit  is 
generally  oval,  or  nearly  spherical,  and  about  the  size  of  a child’s  head.  It  is  a sorosis,  a 
compound  or  aggregate  fruit  formed  from  numerous  flowers  on  a common  axis,  and  is  cov- 
ered with  a roughish  rind,  which  is  marked  with  small  square  or  lozenge-shaped  divi- 
sions, having  each  a small  elevation  in  the  center ; is  at  first  green ; when  imperfectly 
ripened,  brown;  and  when  fully  ripe,  assumes  a rich  yellow  hue.  It  is  attached  to  the 
small  branches  of  the  tree  by  a short  thick  stalk,  and  hangs  either  singly  or  in  clusters 
of  two  or  three  together.  It  contains  a somewhat  fibrous  pulp,  which,  when  ripe, 
becomes  juicy  and  yellow,  but  has  then  a rotten  taste.  At  an  earlier  stage,  when  the 
fruit  is  gathered  for  use,  the  pulp  is  white  and  mealy,  and  of  a consistance  resembling 
that  of  new  bread.  In  a still  less  mature  state,  the  fruit  contains  a tenacious  white  milk. 
The  common  practice  in  the  South  Sea  islands  is  to  cut  each  fruit  into  three  or  four  pieces, 
and  take  out  the  core;  then  to  place  heated  stones  in  the  bottom  of  a hole  dug  in  the  earth; 
to  cover  them  with  green  leaves,  and  upon  this  to  place  a layer  of  the  fruit,  then  stones, 
leaves, and  fruit  alternately,  till  the  hole  is  nearly  filled,  when  leaves  and  earth  to  the  depth 
of  several  inches  are  spread  over  all.  In  rather  "more  than  half  an  hour,  the  bread-fruit  is 


Uread-ntn. 

Breakwater. 


16 


ready  ; “ tl^  outsides  are,  in  general,  nicely  browned,  and  the  inner  part  presents  a whiie 
or  yellowish  cellular  pulpy  substance,  in  appearance  slightly  resembling  the  crumb  of  a 
wheaten  loaf.  It  has  little  taste,  but  is  frequently  sweetish,  and  more  resembles  the 
plantain  than  bread  made  of  wheat-flour.  It  is  slightly  astringent,  and  highly  nutritious. 
Sometimes  the  inhabitants  of  a district  join  to  make  a prodigious  oven — a pit  20  or  30 
ft.  in  circumference,  the  stones  in  which  are  heated  by  wood  burned  in  it,  and  many  hun- 
dred bread-fruits  are  thrown  in,  and  cooked  at  once.  Baked  in  this  manner,  bread-fruit 
will  keep  good  for  several  weeks.  Another  mode  of  preserving  it  is  by  subjecting  it  in 
heaps  to  a slight  degree  of  fermentation,  and  beating  it  into  a kind  of  paste,  which 
although  rather  sour,  is  much  used  when  fresh  bread-iruit  cannot  be  obtained.  There 
are  numerous  varieties  of  the  bread  tree  in  the  South  Sea  islands,  and  they  ripen  at  dif- 
ferent seasons.  The  tree  produces  two,  and  sometimes  three,  crops  a year.  In  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America,  into  which  it  has  also  been  introduced,  the  bread-fiuit 
has  not  come  much  into  use  as  an  ordinary  article  of  food;  but  various  preparations  of 
it  are  reckoned  delicacies.— The  fibrous  inner  bark  of  young  bread-fruit  trees,  beaten  and 
prepared,  is  used  for  making  a kind  of  cloth,  which  is  much  worn  by  the  common  peo- 
ple in  the  South  Sea  islands,  though  inferior  in  softness  and  whiteness  to  that  made  from 
the  paper  mulberry  (see  Mulberry,  Paper).— There  exudes  from  the  bark  of  the 
bread  tree,  when  punctured,  a thick  mucilaginous  fluid,  which  hardens  by  exposure  to 
the  air,  and  is  used,  when  boiled  with  cocoa-nut  oil,  for  making  the  seams  of  canoes, 
pails,  etc.,  water-tight,  and  as  bird-lime.— The  timber  is  soft  and  light,  of  a rich  yellow 
color,  and  assumes,  when  exposed  to  air,  the  appearance  of  mahogany.  It  is  used  for 
canoes,  house-building,  furniture,  and  many  other  purposes.  It  is  durable  when  not 
exposed  to  the  weather. — The  Jack  (q.v.)  or  Jaca  {A.  integHfolia),  and  the  Dephal  (A. 
lakoocha),  both  large  East  Indian  trees,  belong  to  the  same  genus  with  the  bread-fruit 
tree. 

BREAD-NUT,  the  fruit  of  hrodmum  alicastrum,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  artocarpacece, 
and  therefore  allied  to  the  bread-fruit,  a native  of  Jamaica.  The  genus  hrosimum  is  dis- 
tinguished by  male  and  female  flowers  on  separate  trees,  in  globose  catkins,  with  peltate 
(shield-like)  scales  for  perianth,  and  the  fruit  a one-seeded  drupe.  The  bread-nut  tree 
has  ovate-lanceolate  evergreen  leaves;  it  abounds  in  a tenacious  gummy  milk.  Its 
leaves  and  young  shoots  are  much  eaten  by  cattle,  but  deleterious  qualities  are  devel- 
oped in  them  as  they  become  old.  The  nuts,  boiled  or  roasted,  form  an  agreeable  article 
of  food,  and  are  eaten  instead  of  bread.  Their  taste  resembles  that  of  hazel-nuts. — To 
this  genus  the  polo  de  mca,  or  Cow  Tree  (q.v.),  of  Demerara  is  supposed  also  to  belong. 

BREAD-ROOM.  In  the  navy,  the  biscuits  are  called  bread,  and  the  place  where  they 
are  stored  is  the^ bread-room;  it  is  carefully  constructed,  warmed  before  being  filled,  and 
kept  as  much  as  possible  free  from  damp. 

BREAD-ROOT.  See  Psoralea. 

BREADTH,  in  art,  is  a term  which,  though  often  used  in  a very  indefinite  manner,  is 
not  without  a definite  meaning.  It  signifies  that  peculiar  disposal  of  the  background  of 
a picture  which,  without  sacrificing  or  even  concealing  details,  gives  to  the  whole  unity 
and  harmony  of  effect.  With  the  older  landscape-painters,  it  was  a common  fault  to 
produce  the  effect  of  distance  either  by  a certain  trick  of  light  and  shadow,  or  by  one 
uniform  hazy  color  in  which  the  individual  objects  were  entirely  lost  to  view,  and 
breadth  became  vacancy.  In  this  respect,  their  pictures  contrast  unfavorably  with  those 
of  such  modern  painters  as  Turner,  of  whom  Mr.  Buskin  has  very  truly  said  that  “the 
conception  of  every  individual  inch  of  distance  is  absolutely  clear  and  complete  in  the 
master’s  mind — a separate  picture  fully  worked  out:  but  yet,  clearly  and  fully  as  the 
idea  is  formed,  just  so  much  of  it  is  given,  and  no  more,  as  nature  would  have  allowed 
us  to  feel  or  see ; just  so  much  as  would  enable  a spectator  of  experience  and  knowledge 
to  understand  almost  every  minute  fragment  of  separate  detail,  but  appears  to  the 
unpracticed  and  careless  eye  just  w’hat  a distance  of  nature’s  own  would  appear — an 
unintelligible  mass.  Not  one  line  out  of  the  millions  there  is  without  meaning,  yet  there 
is  not  one  which  is  not  affected  and  disguised  by  the  dazzle  and  indecision  of  distance. 
No  form  is  made  out,  and  yet  no  form  is  unknown.”  On  the  subject  of  breadth  Mr. 
Buskin  has,  moreover,  the  following  very  judicious  remarks:  “It  were  to  be  wished  that 
our  writers  on  art  would  not  dwell  so  frequently  on  the  necessity  of  breadth,  without 
explaining  what  it  means,  and  that  we  had  more  constant  reference  made  to  the  princi- 
ple, which  I can  only  remember  having  seen  once  clearly  explained  and  insisted  on — 
that  breadth  is  not  vacancy.  Generalization  is  unity,  not  destruction  of  parts ; and  com- 
position is  not  annihilation,  but  arrangement  of  materials.  The  breadth  which  unites 
the  truths  of  nature  with  her  harmonies  is  meritorious  and  beautiful,  but  the  breadth 
which  annihilates  those  truths  by  the  million  is  not  painting  nature,  but  painting  over 
her;  and  so  the  masses  which  result  from  right  concords  and  relations  of  details  are 
sublime  and  impressive,  but  the  masses  which  result  from  the  eclipse  of  details  are  con- 
temptible and  painful.” 

BREAD-TREE.  See  Gaffer  Bread. 

BREAKERS,  in  maritime  language,  are  the  waves  that  break  violently  over  rocks 
lying  a short  distance  under  the  surface  of  th«  sea.  They  cover  that  particular  part  of 


17 


Bread-imt. 

Breakwater. 


the  sea  with  a foam,  and  produce  a hoarse  and  often  terrible  roaring.  “ Breakers 
ahead”  is  one  of  the  most  alarming  announcements  made  by  the  lookout  men  of  a 
ship,  seeing  that  the  B.  denote  the  existence  of  sunken  rocks  which  may,  perchance, 
pierce  the  hull  of  the  vessel. 

BREAEINCr  BULK,  in  the  Scotch  law,  signifies  making  use  of  an  article  supplied  in 
bulk,  or  in  quantity ; by  which  act  one  is  said  to  break  bulk,  and  is,  in  consequence, 
prevented  from  afterwards  objecting  to  it,  and  returning  it  to  the  seller.  See  Sale  op 
Goods. 

BREAKING  INCLOSURES  is  an  expression  to  be  found  in  Scotch  law-books,  and 
means  the  destruction  or  invasion  of  planting  and  inclosures  by  persons  or  their  cattle. 
The  punishment  for  this  offense  is  provided  for  by  several  old  Scotch  statutes,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  two  passed  in  1661  and  1685  respectively.  The  penalties  are  pecu- 
niary, with  right  to  detain  the  cattle  found  trespassing,  until  such  penalties,  along  with 
the  damage  and  costs,  are  paid.  See  Plantation. 

BREAKWATER  is  a barrier  intended  for  the  protection  of  shipping  in  harbors  or 
anchorages.  It  sometimes  happens  that,  in  front  of  a semicircular  bay,  a small  island 
is  so  situated  as  to  form  a natural  breakwater.  This  is  to  some  extent  the  case  with  the 
isle  of  Wight,  which  occupies  such  a position  as  to  protect  Portsmouth  and  Southamp- 
ton from  the  south.  In  many  other  places,  however,  bays  and  harbors  are  without  such 
screens.  A pier  may  be  so  placed  and  constructed  as  to  serve  also  the  purpose  of  a B., 
but  the  term  B.  is  generally  confined  to  a structure  used  solely  for  protection,  and  not 
for  berthage  or  traffic,  and  breakwaters  are  frequently  insulated,  so  as  to  be  cut  off  from 
any  communication  with  the  shore  unless  by  water. 

Plymouth  B.  is  the  best  known  of  these  engineering  works.  The  sound  or  harbor, 
being  open  to  the  s.,  was  so  much  exposed  to  storms  that,  early  in  the  present  century, 
it  was  determined  to  construct  a B.  across  its  mouth,  with  openings  between  it  and  the 
shore,  on  either  side,  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  shipping.  The  works  were  com- 
menced in  1812.  The  operations  consisted  in  transporting  along  a tram-road  large  blocks 
of  limestone  got  from  a neighboring  quarry,  shipping  them  in  vessels  fitted  with  trap- 
doors, and  by  means  of  these  depositing  them  in  the  shape  of  a huge  mound  in  the 
required  situation.  As  soon  as  the  stones  began  to  appear  above  water,  a perceptible 
benefit  resulted  in  the  relative  calmness  of  the  sound  during  the  prevalence  of  storms; 
but  the  structure  was  frequently  very  roughly  handled  by  the  waves,  which  altered  and 
flattened  its  shape.  A severe  storm  in  Nov.,  1824,  threw  a great  portion  of  the  stones 
over  into  the  sound.  It  was  not  until  1841  that  the  works  were  finally  completed,  by 
the  deposition  of  more  than  3,000,000  tons  of  stone,  and  the  expenditure  of  nearly 
£1,500,000.  The  B.  is  nearly  a mile  long,  the  central  portion  is  1000  yards;  and  two 
wings,  of  350  yards  each,  extend  from  the  ends  of  this  at  a slight  angle.  The  open 
channels  at  each  end,  between  the  B.  and  the  shore,  are  each  about  half  a mile  wide, 
and  their  depth  is  respectively  40  and  22  ft.,  at  low  water.  The  B.  is  133  yards  wide 
at  the  base,  and  15  at  the  top — the  two  sides  being  made  very  sloping  for  the  security  of 
the  stones.  The  slopes  and  top  are  faced  with  masonry.  The  water-space  protected  by 
this  B.  comprises  1120  acres,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  the  money  has  been  well 
spent  on  the  work. 

Holyhead  B.  is  formed  of  stone  quarried  in  Holyhead  mountain,  drawn  along  a tram- 
way on  a timber  structure,  and  cast  into  the  sea.  It  more  resembles  a pier  than  the  B. 
at  Plymouth,  for  it  is  attached  at  one  end  to  the  shore,  and  is  intended  to  convert  Holy- 
head  bay  or  roadstead  into  a harbor  of  refuge.  The  works  consist  of  a mound  of  loose 
stones  up  to  low  water,  and  ashlar  upright  walls  with  a parapet  above  that  line,  with  a 
railway  on  the  top  for  trains. 

Portland  B.  Is  of  very  great  value,  in  converting  into  a harbor  of  refuge  the  expanse 
of  water  between  the  Dorsetshire  coast  and  the  isle,  or  rather  peninsula  of  Portland. 
An  act  of  parliament  was  obtained  in  1847,  authorizing  the  works.  The  B.,  starting 
from  the  n.e.  point  to  the  isle,  stretches  nearly  due  n.  for  more  than  2 m.,  with  one 
or  two  inttrvening  openings  for  the  ingress  and  egress  of  shipping.  The  works  were 
conducted  more  easily  than  those  of  any  other  great  B. ; for  the  isle  contains  an  abund- 
ance of  stone  easily  quarried,  and  the  steep  shores  afforded  facility  for  transporting  the 
stones  by  their  own  gravity  to  their  destination.  The  work — which  is  an  upright  ashlar 
superstructure,  with  a parapet  founded  on  a mound  of  rubble  stones — was  done  chiefly 
by  convict  labor;  the  depth  is  about  50  ft.  at  low-water.  From  the  nature  of  the  opera- 
tion, any  part  of  the  B.  became  useful  as  soon  as  constructed,  increasing  the  safety  of 
Portland  bay  as  a harbor  of  refuge. 

Dover  B.  progresses  slowly,  and  has  involved  an  enormous  outlay.  There  is  no  stone 
near  to  form  a mound,  as  in  the  other  breakwaters  spoken  of,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
work  requires  to  be  brought  up  in  soild  ashlar  from  the  bottom  by  the  diving-bell,  with 
the  interior  formed  of  blocks  of  concrete.  It  has  never  been  clearly  stated  whether  the 
government  regards  thisB.  as  a protection  to  a great  naval  station  and  fortified  harbor,  or 
as  a chief  feature  as  a harbor  of  refuge  for  commercial  fieets.  In  1844,  a commission  of 
inquiry  recommended  that  £2, 500, 000  should  belaid  out  in  forming  a harbor  of  refuge  at 
this  place.  In  30  years  the  work  has  not  been  finished,  the  great  depth  and  frequent  storms 
« constituting  terrible  obstacles.  The  water  is  very  deep — viz.,  42  ft.  at  low-water;  the 
U.  K.  III.— 2 


Breakwater. 

Breast-summer. 


18 


accumulations  of  shingle  very  troublesome ; and  several  years  must  elapse  before  it  can 
be  made  evident  whether  the  Dover  B.  is  worth  the  national  money  expended  upon  it. 

Alderney  B.  is  a great  work,  consisting  of  ashlar  walls  and  parapet,  built  on  a stone 
mound  up  to  low-water  from  a depth  of  72  feet.  Small  breakwaters  have  been  con- 
structed at  Cette  near  Marseilles,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  in  the  United  States,  and 
at  Buffalo  in  lake  Erie ; but  they  do  not  call  for  description. 

Cherbourg  B.  is  the  greatest  and  the  most  costly  ever  constructed.  Nearly  100  years 
ago,  M.  de  Cessart  proposed  to  the  French  government  the  formation  of  a B.  at  Cher- 
bourg, to  be  commenced  by  the  construction  of  a number  of  hollow  cones  formed  of 
timber-framing,  sunk  in  a line  as  close  as  they  could  be  placed  to  each  other,  and  then 
filled  with  stones.  These  cones,  of  which  there  were  to  be  64,  each  about  70  ft.  high, 
150  ft.  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  60  ft.  at  the  top,  were  intended  to  form  a nucleus  to 
the  stone  breakwater,  to  prevent  the  stones,  during  its  formation,  being  knocked  about 
and  too  much  spread  out  by  the  action  of  the  waves.  In  1784  to  1788,  16  cones  were  con- 
structed, and  13  of  them  sunk ; but  so  great  was  the  destruction  which  they  underwent 
during  stormy  weather,  that  the  government  at  len^  :h  abandoned  the  plan,  and  carried 
on  the  stone  breakwater  without  the  aid  of  the  cones.  It  was  completed  under  Napoleon 
III.  at  a]  cost  exceeding  £3,500,000.  The  B.  itself  was  finished  in  1853,  but  since  that 
year  large  fortifications  have  been  built  upon  the  upper  works.  The  length  is  nearly  2i 
m. ; the  B.  is  300  ft.  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  31  at  the  top.  The  chief  mass  consists  of 
rubble  or  unshaped  stones,  thrown  down  from  ships;  but  there  is  a larger  ratio  of 
wrought  and  finished  masonry  than  in  the  Plymouth  B.,  consisting  of  granite  blocks 
imbedded  in  cement.  The  depth  of  water  is' about  60  ft.  at  low-water  spring-tides; 
and  the  B.  rises  to  13  ft.  above  high-water  level.  The  water-space  included  within  and 
protected  by  the  B. , is  about  3000  acres,  but  two  thirds  of  this  has  scarcely  depth  enough 
for  the  largest-sized  ships.  The  relation  which  this  B.  bears  to  the  vast  military  and 
naval  arrangements  of  the  place  will  be  noticed  under  Cherbourg. 

Many  substitutes  have  been  proposed  for  solid  breakwaters,  such  as  floating  break- 
waters constructed  of  timber  framework,  open  iron  screens,  etc.,  but  none  of  them  have 
been  shown  to  be  suitable  for  actual  practice.  Close  timber-work,  filled  in  with  stones, 
is  found  to  be  quite  efficacious ; but  on  most  of  our  coasts  the  timber  is  liable  to  be  eaten 
by  the  marine  worm,  which  is  an  almost  insuperable  objection  to  its  being  used  under 
water. 

BREAKWATER  {ante).  In  the  United  States  the  only  important  work  of  the  kind 
is  at  Lewes,  Del.,  at  the  entrance  of  Delaware  bay.  A breakwater  was  resolved  upon 
in  1838,  and  the  next  year  the  site  was  fixed  at  cape  Henlopen.  In  1870,  the  engineer 
reported  the  completion  of  the  harbor  “according  to  the  original  project  devised  more 
than  40  years  ago.”  In  the  year  after  the  completion,  more  than  30,000  vessels  visited 
the  harbor,  and  since  its  first  use  in  1833,  about  300,000  vessels  of  all  sorts  have  sought 
shelter  or  trade  behind  the  Delaware  breakwater.  A recent  report  says : ‘ ‘ Let  a threat- 
ening sky  foretell  the  approaching  storm,  and  a few  hours  will  suffice  to  fill  a previously 
vacant  harbor.  Let  a north-easterly  storm  continue  a day  or  two  with  severity,  and 
the  harbor  becomes  crowded  entirely  beyond  its  capacity.”  Its  present  capacity  is  deter- 
mined by  the  space  that  is  sheltered  by  the  B.  proper.  This  is  a straight  line  nearly 
half  a mile  long,  and  may  be  taken  as  the  diameter  of  a half  circle  behind  it,  the  area  of 
which  will  represent  approximately  the  sheltered  harbor.  North-east  of  the  B.  is  the  ice- 
breaker structure,  a quarter  of  a mile  in  length,  with  an  opening  of  about  the  same 
extent,  through  which  the  sea  rolls  without  hindrance.  Within  the  past  five  or  six  years 
this  important  work  has  been  much  extended  and  improved.  It  is  altogether  of  stone, 
in  rubble- wall  and  more  finished  work.  There  are  finished  or  in  construction  several  B.  ’s 
in  the  northern  lakes,  for  the  most  part  made  of  timber  cribs  filled  with  stone. 

BREAM,  a name  which  is  apt  to  occasion  some  confusion  to  beginners  in  ichthyology, 
being  applied  equally  to  certain  fresh- water  fishes  of  the  family  (q.v.),  and 

to  certain  sea-fishes  of  the  families  sparidm  (q.  v.)  and  chcetodontidm  (q.v.)  or  squamipennes, 
among  which  the  resemblance  is  a mere  general  one  of  outward  form,  the  first  of  these 
families  belonging  to  the  order  of  malacopterous,  or  soft-finned,  the  other  two  to  that  of 
acanihopterous,  or  spiny-finned  fishes. 

The  breams  of  the  family  cyprinidoe  were  included  in  the  genus  cyprinus  (see  Carp) 
by  the  older  naturalists,  but  are  readily  distinguished  from  that  genus  as  now  defined, 
and  from  other  allied  genera,  by  their  deep  and  compressed  form,  by  the  great  convexity 
of  both  the  dorsal  and  the  abdominal  outline,  by  the  want  of  spiny  rays  in  the  dorsal  and 
anal  fins,  by  the  great  length  of  the  base  of  the  anal  fin,  and  by  the  want  of  cirri  or  bar- 
bules  at  the  mouth.  They  form  the  genus  Ahramis  of  Cuvier. — The  Common  B.,  or 
Carp  B.  {A.  brama),  is  an  inhabitant  of  many  rivers  and  lakes  of  Europe,  even  as  far  n. 
as  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  of  some  of  those  of  Britain  and  Ireland.  It  thrives  best  in 
still  waters,  and  in  some  of  the  Irish  lakes  attains  a large  size;  it  has  been  known  to 
reach  13  or  even  14  lbs.  The  tail  is  very  broad  and  much  forked,  the  head  small  and 
acuminated,  the  eyes  very  large,  the  scales  small,  the  general  color  yellowish-brown, 
the  cheeks  and  gill-covers  silvery- white. — The  White  B.,  or  Breamflat  {A.  blicca), 
differs  from  the  common  B.  in  its  silvery  color,  the  smaller  number  of  rays  in  the  pecto- 
ral and  anal  fins,  and  other  particulars.  It  has  never  been  taken  of  so  large  a size.  It  is 


19 


Breakwater, 

Breast-summer, 


found  in  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  some  of  the  British  lakes  and 
xivers. — The  Pomeranian  B.  {A.  huggenhagii)  differs  much  more  widely  from  the  com 
mon  B. ; the  body  is  much  thicker  in  proportion  to  its  depth,  the  scales  larger,  the  base 
of  the  anal  fin  shorter,  the  tail  less  forked.  This  fish  is  known  to  occur  in  a few  places 
of  England  and  Ireland,  and  is  said  to  abound  in  Pomerania. 

The  acanthopterous  breams,  or  Sea  Breams,  are  mostly  of  the  family  sparidm,  and 
nearly  allied  to  the  gilthead  (q.v.),  in  connection  with  which  they  may  most  properly  be 
noticed.  The  common  sea  B.,  indeed,  often  receives  the  name  of  gilthead.  Only  one 
of  the  British  sea  fishes  called  B.,  the  brama  rail  already  noticed  (see  Brama),  belongs  to 
the  family  chcetodontidcB. 

Angling  for  Bream. — Of  the  two  kinds  of  B.  known  to  anglers,  the  carp  B.  is  much 
the  best  for  sport.  The  flesh  of  the  B.  is  not  held  in  much  estimation,  though  the  carp 
B.  is  infinitely  to  be  preferred  of  the  two.  B.  are  found  in  both  ponds  and  rivers. 
They  prefer  deep,  still  holes,  or  quiet,  well-sheltered  eddies  in  the  bends  of  rivers. 
Here  the  angler  will  find  them  in  large  numbers.  They  are  rather  capricious  in  feeding; 
at  times  they  will  not  bite  for  weeks  together.  Being  a sly,  shy-biting  fish,  the  tackle 
required  for  them  must  be  fine.  They  may  be  taken  by  means  of  the  ledger  (q.v.)  in 
rivers,  where  they  should  be  fished  for  in  the  same  way  as  directed  for  barbel,  save  that 
it  will  be  found  advisable  to  use  another  hook,  which  should  be  fastened  on  to  the  line 
about  8 in.  or  a foot  above  the  ledger  lead,  as  B.  often  take  their  bait  some  inches  off 
the  bottom.  The  hooks  should  be  No.  7.  In  float-fishing  for  B.  in  holes  or  eddies,  a 
stout  swan-quill  float  and  half  a dozen  No.  1 shot  below  it,  will  be  found  sufficient  for 
the  purpose ; and,  having  ground-baited  as  directed  for  barbel,  put  on  two  small  red 
worms  for  the  angling  bait,  or  about  an  inch  of  the  tail  of  a bright,  well-scoured  lob- 
worm. The  former  is  preferable.  Two  hooks,  one  to  rest  on  the  bottom,  and  one  6 or 
8 in.  off  it,  will  be  found  useful,  for  sometimes  one  will  be  taken,  and  sometimes  the 
other.  The  fish  being  tender-mouthed,  should  be  played  gently.  After  the  first  rush,  a 
B.  soon  tires,  for  his  form  is  not  fitted  or  shaped  for  a prolonged  resistance.  The  B. 
has  an  unpleasant  practice  of  bowing  downwards  and  rubbing  the  line  with  his  tail,  and 
the  line  often  comes  up  covered  with  a thick  slime  from  his  body,  for  a foot  or  more 
above  the  hook.  It  is  needless  to  remark  that  this  must  be  cleared  off  before  the  tackle 
is  again  used.  The  rod  should  be  a light  cane-rod,  moderately  stiff,  and  some  12  or  13 
ft.  long  for  float-fishing  for  B.  from  a boat  or  punt.  Of  all  baits,  worm  is  decidedly  the 
best.  Some  recommend  bullock’s  blood  and  grains  to  ground  bait  with,  but  worms  are 
found  to  answer  all  purposes.  B.  spawn  about  the  end  of  May,  choosing  the  most 
weedy  spots  for  that  purpose ; and  after  scouring  and  cleansing  in  some  gentle  gravelly 
stream  for  a week  or  two,  they  return  to  the  deep  still  holes  again.  A clay  or  sandy 
bottom  is  preferred  to  any  other.  The  presence  of  B.  may  always  be  detected  by  their 
fondness  for  coming  at  times  to  the  top  of  the  water,  or,  as  anglers  term  it,  “ priming.” 
Early  in  the  morning,  or  late  in  the  evening,  the  whereabouts  of  B.  may  always  be 
discovered  by  their  rising  then.  In  Lough  Erne  the  shoals  are  prodigious,  and  cause  a 
ripple  on  the  water  like  a stiff  breeze  of  wind. 

BKEAMING,  in  nautical  affairs,  is  a cleansing  process  which  a ship  undergoes  after  a 
voyage,  or  after  lying  for  a long  time  in  harbor.  The  ship’s  bottom,  under  such  circum- 
stances, often  becomes  covered  with  grass,  ooze,  shells,  or  sea-weed ; and  B.  consists  in 
the  removal  of  these  impurities.  The  ship  is  laid  aground  after  the  tide  has  ebbed,  or 
is  docked,  or  is  careened  (see  Careening)  ; furze  and  fagots  are  placed  under  it ; fire  is 
applied;  the  heat  melts  the  pitch,  etc.,  of  the  hull,  and  the  pitch  and  filth  can  then  be 
scraped  and  brushed  off. 

BREAST,  The  Female,  or  mammary  gland,  consists  of  a series  of  tubes,  radiating 
from  a common  center,  the  nipple,  which  is  situated  in  an  areola  or  dark-colored  patch. 
On  the  surface  of  the  latter  are  several  (from  4 to  10)  sebaceous  glands,  which  secrete  an 
unctuous  fluid  to  protect  the  skin  of  the  nipple,  which  is  very  thin,  from  the  saliva  of 
the  sucking  infant.  The  m\\)s.-tules  (15  to  18  in  number)  enlarge  into  sinuses,  and  pass 
each  to  a separate  lobe  or  subdivision  of  the  breast,  where  they  divide  into  twigs  and 
branches  (the  lactiferous  ducts),  which  end  in  minute  vesicles.  The  lobes  are  held  together 
by  fibrous  tissue,  and  are  well  packed  in  fat,  which  increases  sometimes  to  an  enormous 
extent  the  apparent  size  of  the  organ.  It  will  be  readily  understood  how  over-distension 
of  these  delicate  tubes,  from  whatever  cause,  must  be  productive  of  great  suffering. 
When  an  abscess  forms  in  the  B. , it  is  very  dangerous  to  allow  the  matter  to  remain ; 
but  when  an  opening  is  made  into  an  abscess  of  the  B.,  the  cut  must  be  made  in  some 
line  radiating  from  the  nipple,  so  as  to  avoid  division  of  the  milk-tubes. 

BREASTPLATE,  in  ancient  armor,  was  a plate  of  iron,  steel,  or  other  metal,  so 
fastened  as  to  protect  the  chest  or  front  of  the  wearer.  The  back-plate,  in  like  mannei, 
Was  worn  to  protect  him  from  attack  from  behind.  In  modern  European  armies, 
^ilmost  the  only  representative  of  the  B.  is  the  front  half  of  the  cuirass,  worn  by  the 
mirassiers  in  certain  foreign  states,  and  by  the  household  cavalry  (life-guards  and  horse- 
guards)  in  England. 

BREAST-SUMMER,  Bressumer  (Fr.  sommier,  a lintel),  a beam  supporting  the  whole 
front  of  a building,  in  the  same  way  in  which  a lintel  supports  the  portion  over  an 


Breast. 

Breda. 


20 


opening.  They  are  seen  in  England  and  on  the  continent  in  old  houses  that  are  built 
partly  of  wood  and  partly  of  stone,  brick,  or  mud. 

BREAST  WHEEL.  See  Water  Power,  ante. 

BKEASTWORK,  in  fortification,  is  a hastily  constructed  earthwork;  not  so  high  as 
to  need  a banquette  (q.v.)  for  the  defenders  to  stand  upon,  but  sufficient  to  afford  shelter 
when  they  are  standing  on  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  firing  over  the  crest.  The  dry 
ditch  or  trench  from  which  the  earth  has  been  taken  to  form  the  B.,  affords  an  addi- 
tional defense.  A B.  is  midway  between  a parapet  and  an  epaulement,  in  size  and 
importance. 

BREATH,  Offensive,  may  depend  upon  some  cause  limited  to  the  mouth  or  nose, 
or  it  may  arise  from  diseased  conditions  of  the  respiratory  or  digestive  apparatus.  If, 
from  want  of  proper  attention,  the  teeth  have  collected  a quantity  of  putrescent  par- 
ticles around  them,  they  must  be  well  scrubbed  with  a brush  and  tepid  water,  with 
some  powdered  carbonate  of  magnesia  mixed  with  it.  A wash  composed  of  a teaspoon- 
ful of  tincture  of  myrrh  in  a pint  of  water  is  also  very  useful.  Occasionally  the  secre- 
tion from  the  tonsils  (q.v.)  is  very  offensive;  and  then  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  4 
grains  to  1 ounce  of  water,  should  be  applied  to  them  every  morning,  with  a camel- 
hair  brush,  and  small  alterative  doses  of  medicine  administered.  Solutions  of  soda  in 
water  are  also  very  useful.  Should  the  fetid  smell  arise  from  a portion  of  dead  bone, 
the  latter  must  be  removed  whenever  it  becomes  loose.  Inhalations  of  steam  from  hot 
water  into  which  some  creasote  has  been  dropped,  is  much  recommended  for  cases  in 
which  the  cause  resides  in  the  nose  and  respiratory  passages.  When,  however,  it  is 
caused  by  digestive  derangements,  the  treatment  should  consist  in  purging,  to  empty  the 
intestinal  canal,  followed  by  soda,  to  correct  acidity,  and  tonics,  of  which  the  bitter 
infusions  and  tinctures,  and  the  dilute  mineral  acids,  are  among  the  best. 

All  medical  treatment  is  unavailing  to  correct  the  foul  odor  which  rises  from  the 
stomach  of  the  habitual  drunkard,  or  from  the  victim  of  gangrene  or  abscess  in  the 
lungs. 

BREATH  AND  BREATHING.  See  Respiration. 

BREATH  FIGURES.  See  Cohesion  Figures,  ante. 

BREATHITT,  a co.  in  e.  Kentucky;  600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  5652 — 181  colored;  in 
’80,  7742.  The  co.  is  hilly,  with  forests,  and  has  iron  and  coal ; but  the  main  produc- 
tions are  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Jackson. 

BREBEUF,  Jean  de,  b.  France,  1593;  killed  in  the  Huron  country  in  1649;  a Jesuit 
missionary  who  came  with  Champlain  in  1626.  His  labors  were  mainly  among  the  Hurons, 
with  whose  life  and  language  he  became  very  familiar.  When  the  town  of  St.  Louis 
was  taken  by  the  Iroquois,  B.  and  Lalemont,  his  associate,  were  made  prisoners  and  tor- 
tured to  death.  It  is  said  that  B.’s  head  is  preserved  in  the  pediment  of  a silver  bust  in 
the  convent  of  the  hospital  nuns  in  Quebec.  Some  of  his  writings  on  the  Huron  lan- 
guage are  preserved,  and  were  translated  by  Albert  Gallatin. 

BRECCIA,  a term  adopted  from  the  Italian  to  designate  a mass  composed  of  angular 
fragments  of  rocks  of  the  same  or  more  different  kinds,  cemented  together  by  an 
enveloping  paste,  or  by  infiltrated  iron  or  carbonate  of  lime. 

BRECHE-DE-ROLAND,  a defile  of  the  Pyrenees,  between  France  and  Spain,  about  11 
m.  s.  of  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  with  an  elevation  of  about  9500  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  a dif- 
cult  passage  of  from  200  to  300  ft.  in  width,  between  precipitous  rocks  rising  to  a 
height  of  from  300  to  600  feet. 

BRE'CHIN,  a t.  of  Forfarshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  South  Esk,  8 m.  w.  of  its 
junction  with  the  sea  at  Montrose.  Pop.  ’71,  7959.  It  unites  with  Montrose,  Arbroath, 
Forfar,  and  Bervie  in  returning  one  member  to  parliament.  Spinning,  bleaching,  dis- 
tilling, and  brewing  are  carried  on  here,  as  also  the  manufacture  of  linens  and  sailcloth. 
B.  was  once  a walled  town,  and  contained  an  abbey  of  Cuffiees,  instituted,  it  would 
seem,  about  the  end  of  the  10th  century.  David  I.  founded  a cathedral  and  bishopric 
here  in  the  12th  century.  Part  of  the  cathedral,  built  chiefly  in  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th 
centuries,  is  now  the  parish  church.  Close  to  the  church  is  a round  tower,  similar  to 
the  Irish  ones  and  to  the  one  at  Abernethy,  the  only  other  example  in  Scotland.  The 
tower  is  85  ft.  high,  25  ft.  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  12^  ft.  at  the  top,  and  it  is  sur- 
mounted by  a 15th  c.  spire  of  25  feet.  B.  castle,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Maules  (now  of 
their  representative,  the  earl  of  Dalhousie),  was  taken  by  Edward  I.  in  1303,  after  a siege 
of  20  days.  B.  was  burned  by  Montrose  in  1645 ; and  near  it,  Huntly,  on  the  part  of 
James  II.,  defeated  the  Crawfords  in  1452.  Gillies,  the  historian  of  Greece  ; Maitland, 
the  topographer  ; and  Dr.  Guthrie,  the  famous  Scotch  preacher,  were  natives  of  Brechin. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  a co.  in  n.w.  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  river,  450  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
17,486 — 2204  colored  ; undulating  surface,  well  watered  and  fertile.  There  are  some 
curious  sink -holes  and  caves  in  the  co. ; and  there  are  various  medicinal  springs.  Chief 
productions,  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Hardinsburg, 

BRECKENRIDGE,  a village  in  Wilkin  co.,  Minn.,  on  the  Red  River  of  the  north  ; 
the  terminus  of  the  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad.  217  m.  w.n.w.  of  St.  Paul.  Steam- 
ers pass  down  the  river  to  Manitoba. 


21 


Breast. 

Breda. 


BRECKENRIDGE,  John,  d.d.,  1797-1841;  b.  Ky. ; a Presbyterian  minister, 
graduate  of  Princeton  college.  In  1822  he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  soon  afterwards 
served  as  chaplain  in  congress.  His  first  church  was  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  where  he  estab- 
lished a newspaper.  The  Wefiiern  Luminary.  In  1831  he  removed  to  Philadelphia  and 
was  secretary  and  general  agent  of  the  Presbyterian  board  of  education ; subsequently 
professor  in  Princeton  theological  seminary;  and  in  1838  secretary  and  general  agent  of 
the  board  of  foreign  missions.  He  resigned  in  1840,  and  just  before  his  death  was 
chosen  president  of  Oglethorpe  university,  in  Georgia. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  John  Cabell,  b.  Ky.,  1821;  studied  law  in  Transylvanian 
university,  and  settled  at  Lexington.  He  was  a member  of  congress  from  his  state  for 
several  terms;  and  in  1856  was  elected  vice-president.  In  1860  he  was  nominated  for 
president  by  the  extreme  southern  section  of  the  Democratic  national  convention,  but, 
with  Douglas  and  Bell,  was  defeated  by  Lincoln.  He  was  immediately  chosen  U.  S. 
senator,  but  abandoned  his  seat  and  went  with  the  secessionists,  where  he  entered  the 
army  and  became  a maj.gen.  In  1865,  just  before  the  collapse  of  the  rebellion,  he  was 
appointed  confederate  secretary  of  war.  At  the  close  of  the  conflict  he  went  to  Europe, 
where  he  remained  several  years.  He  died  in  1875. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  Robert  Jefferson,  d.d.,  brother  of  Rev.  John,  1800-71;  b. 
Ky. ; at  first  a lawyer  and  member  of  the  legislature;  but  in  1829  he  joined  the  Presby- 
terian church,  and  in  1832  became  pastor  of  the  first  Presbyterian  church  in  Baltimore, 
where  he  officiated  for  13  years.  In  1845,  he  became  president  of  Jefferson  college; 
two  years  later  removed  to  Kentucky  and  became  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. In  1853,  he  was  professor  of  theology  in  Danville  seminary.  Dr.  B.  was  a strong 
old-school  leader  in  the  great  division  of  the  Presbyterian  church.  In  the  slavery  dis- 
cussions he  was  extreme  on  neither  side,  and  when  the  civil  war  began  he  was  for  the 
union,  but  he  was  much  opposed  to  the  emancipation  proclamation.  In  1864,  he  was 
president  of  the  convention  that  nominated  Lincoln  for  a second  term.  Dr.  B.  is  cred- 
ited with  being  the  principal  author  of  the  common  school  system  of  Kentucky. 
Among  his  works  are  Internal  Evidences  of  Christianity;  Papism  in  the  United  States;  and 
some  books  of  travel. 

BBECK'NOCESHISE,  or  Bre'con,  an  inland  co.  of  South  Wales,  to  the  s.  of  Radnor, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Wye.  Length,  about  35  m. ; average  breadth,  20. 
Area,  719  sq.m.,  of  which  two  thirds  are  cultivated,  B.  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous 
counties  in  South  Wales,  and  has  deep,  beautiful,  and  fertile  valleys.  Two  principal 
mountain-chains,  the  highest  in  South  Wales,  rising  with  Brecknock  peaks  to  a height 
of  2862  ft.,  intersect  the  county  in  the  n.  and  s.,  and  occupy,  with  their  offshoots,  a 
great  part  of  the  surface.  Old  red  sandstone  occupies  the  s.  and  middle  of  the  co., 
and  Silurian  rocks  the  north.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Wye,  Usk,  Yrfon,  Elan,  Claer- 
wen,^  and  Tawe.  The  climate  is  severe  and  rainy  but  healthy  among  the  mountains, 
and  in  the  valleys  comparatively  mild.  The  agriculture,  though  still  defective,  especi- 
ally in  the  higher  districts,  was  greatly  improved  by  the  Brecknockshire  agricultural 
society,  instituted  in  1755.  The  chief  crops  are  oats  and  barley,  but  much  wheat  is 
also  grown  in  Talgarth  and  Crickhowell,  the  most  fertile  districts  of  the  county.  In 
the  valleys  in  the  e.  some  bops  are  raised,  and  some  orchards  are  seen.  The  native 
small  black-cattle  are  reared  in  the  hills,  while  in  the  lowlands  the  Hereford  breed  pre- 
dominates. The  mineral  produce  is  small,  consisting  of  iron,  especially  along  the  s. 
border;  coal  and  limestone  are  also  found  in  the  south  and  west.  The  Brecon  canal 
connects  the  co.  with  the  Bristol  channel,  and  many  railways  have  been  constructed 
throughout  the  county.  There  are  several  small  factories  of  woolens  and  worsted  hosi- 
ery ; also  several  important  iron-works,  but  the  ore  is  chiefly  obtained  from  adjoining 
counties.  B.  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  in  1871,  59,901.  The  chief 
towns  are  Brecon,  the  co.  and  only  corporate  one,  Builth,  Crickhowell,  Hay,  and 
Llanelly,  There  are  many  remains  of  British  and  Roman  camps,  Roman  roads,  cairns, 
cromlechs,  mounds,  and  castles  throughout  the  county.  B.  formed  part  of  the  territory 
of  the  Silures,  who  bravely  withstood  the  Romans,  The  Normans,  under  Barnard 
Newmarch,  wrested  the  co.  from  the  Welsh  princes  in  1092.  Llewelyn,  the  last  British 
prince  of  Wales,  was  killed  in  this  co.  in  1282,  and  by  his  fall  the  native  mountain- 
chiefs  were  entirely  subdued.  Half  the  people  in  B.  still  speak  Welsh. 

BRECON,  Brecknock,  or  Aberhonddu,  the  capital  of  Brecknockshire,  South 
Wales,  is  situated  in  an  open  valley  in  the  middle  of  the  co.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Usk,  Honddu,  and  Tarell,  171  m.  w.n.  w of  London.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  fine  moun- 
tain scenery,  and  has  beautiful  public  walks.  South  of  B.  lie  the  three  mountain- 
peaks,  the  Brecon  beacons.  Pop.  ’71,  5845.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
Flannels,  coarse  woolens,  and  hats  are  manufactured.  Barnard  Newmarch,  a relative 
of  William  the  conqueror,  founded  the  town,  and  built  a castle  here  in  1094.  He  also 
founded  two  priories  here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Henry  VIII.  turned  one  of  the  pri- 
ories into  a college,  still  existing;  the  other  is  now  the  parish  church.  B.  was  formerly 
surrounded  by  a wall,  having  ten  towers  and  five  gates.  Hugh  Price,  founder  of  Jesus 
college,  Oxford,  and  Mrs.  Siddons,  the  celebrated  actress,  were  natives  of  Brecon. 

BREDA',  a t.  of  North  Brabant,  Holland,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  navigable 
rivers  Merk  and  Aa,  and  containing  (Dec.  31,  1874)  15,335  inhabitants.  It  formerly  pos- 


Breda. 

Breech-loading. 


22 


sessed  the  means  of  laying  the  surrounding  country  uuder  water  in  the  event  of  an 
attack,  but  the  importance  of  the  town,  as  a military  position,  has  passed  away,  and  in 
1876  the  fortifications  were  removed.  It  has  a Gothic  cathedral,  with  a lofty  tower  and 
several  interesting  monuments;  also  an  old  castle  built  in  1350,  which  was  for  some 
time  the  residence  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  and  is  now  a military  academy.  There 
are  manufactures  of  carpets,  linen,  hats,  soap,  leather,  etc.,  and  dye-works,  breweries, 
and  rope-walks.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where,  in  1566,  the  protest  of  the  Dutch 
nobles,  known  as  the  “compromise  of  Breda,”  against  the  measures  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  in  the  Netherlands,  was  presented  and  rejected.  During  the  subsequent  cen- 
turies, it  was  the  scene  of  much  conflict  and  diplomatizing  until  1813,  when  the  French 
were  finally  driven  out.  B.  is  now  a station  of  the  railway  net. 

BREDA,  .Ian  Van,  1683-1750;  a Dutch  painter.  He  imitated  Wouvermans  and 
Breughel  so  cleverly  that  connoisseurs  are  often  unable  to  detect  the  copy.  B.  was  a 
long  time  employed  in  England. 

BREDERO'DE,  Hendrik  Van,  Count,  1531-68;  one  of  the  sovereign  counts  of 
Holland,  and  a leader  against  Spanish  domination  in  that  country.  He  was  for  many 
years  turbulent,  active,  and  a source  of  annoyance  about  as  much  to  his  own  party  as  to 
the  other.  After  the  complete  success  of  the  Spaniards  he  asked  Egmont  to  intercede 
for  him  with  the  regent;  his  followers  were  dispersed,  some  were  put  to  death,  and  he 
himself  died  in  a few  months  from  intemperance  and  anxiety. 

BREDOW,  Gabriel  Gottfried,  1773-1814;  a German  historian  and  professor  in 
the  university  of  Breslau.  English  readers  know  his  Manual  of  Ancient  History; 
Besearches  on  History,  Geography,  and  Ghronology,  and  Historical  Fables. 

BB.EE,  Matthaus  Ignazius  van,  an  excellent  Flemish  painter,  b.  at  Antwerp  22d 
Feb.,  1773,  and  educated  partly  there,  and  partly  under  Vincent  in  Paris.  As  early  as 
1798,  he  attracted  attention  by  his  “ Death  of  Cato,”  and  several  other  excellent  pictures 
soon  followed.  A peculiar  talent  for  rapid  and  vivid  sketching  enabled  B.  to  execute 
for  Napoleon,  in  a few  hours,  “ The  Maneuvering  of  the  Fleet  before  Antwerp  on  the 
Scheldt,”  and,  with  equal  celerity,  Napoleon’s  “Entrance  into  Amsterdam,  at  the 
Moment  when  the  Magistrate  presents  him  with  the  Keys  of  the  City.”  In  1816,  he  painted 
the  famous  Leyden  burgoipaster.  Van  der  Werff,  in  the  act  of  addressing  the  famished 
and  murmuring  populace  during  the  siege  of  1576:  “ Take  my  body,  and  share  it  among 
you.”  This  great  work — now  in  the  town-house  of  Leyden — is  marked  by  a felicitous 
arrangement  of  the  figures,  and  by  a bold  and  lively  coloring,  after  the  style  of  Rubens. 
Other  celebrated  pictures  of  B.’s  are:  “ Count  Egmont  receiving  Spiritual  Consolation 
before  his  Execution,”  “ Rubens  dictating  his  Dying  Testament,”  “ The  Tomb  of  Nero 
at  Rome,  with  a Group  of  Lazzaroni  and  Musicians.”  B.  died  15th Dec.,  1839.  In  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  he  was  director  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  Antwerp. 

BREE,  Philipp  Jacob  van,  brother  of  the  preceding,  b.  1786,  also  acquired  some 
reputation  as  a historical  painter. 

BREECH,  of  a gun,  is  the  end  farthest  removed  from  the  muzzle.  It  always  con- 
tains a great  mass  of  metal,  to  enable  it  to  withstand  the  shock  occasioned  by  the  explo- 
sion of  the  gunpowder.  For  details,  see  Cannon,  Howitzer,  etc. 

BREECHES  BIBLE.  See  Bible. 

BREECHING-,  of  a naval  gun  or  carronade,  is  a strong  rope  by  which  the  recoil  of  the 
gun  is  checked  at  such  a point  that  the  muzzle  is  brought  wholly  within  the  port-hole, 
where  the  seamen  can  sponge  and  reload  it. 

BREECH-LOADING,  in  artillery,  relates  to  a mode  of  constructing  large  pieces  of 
ordnance,  and  small-arms  or  hand-firearms,  the  peculiar  manner  of  charging  which  the 
term  describes.  This  subject  is  now  occupying  much  attention,  and  the  patented  inven- 
tions relating  to  it  are  very  numerous.  The  Armstrong  gun  (see  Armstrong),  among 
others,  is  a breech-loader;  and  so  is  the  Whitworth  gun.  A considerable  amount  of 
additional  mechanism  is  necessary  for  this  purpose ; seeing  that  the  breech  must  be  so 
far  opened  as  to  admit  of  the  introduction  of  a ball  or  shell,  and  a cartridge,  and  then 
so  firmly  closed  as  to  resist  the  immense  pressure  occasioned  by  the  explosion.  The 
objects  sought  to  be  attained  by  this  change  from  the  old  system  are  many — quickness 
in  loading,  ease  in  cleaning  after  firing,  accurate  adjustment  of  the  diameter  of  the  ball 
to  the  calibre  of  the  gun,  facility  in  making  the  ball  accommodate  itself  to  the  spiral 
rifle-grooves  of  the  piece,  etp. ; but  it  is  still  a contested  question,  especially  between  the 
rival  inventors  of  breech-loaders  and  muzzle-loaders,  to  what  extent  these  objects  are 
attained.  In  relation  to  muskets  and  fowling-pieces,  Mr.  Greener,  of  Birmingham,  who 
has  written  much  on  the  subject,  disputes  the  usefulness  of  B. ; he  denies  that  it  is  more 
safe,  more  accurate,  or  more  forcible  than  muzzle-loading;  while  certain  advantges 
which  it  may  possess  are,  he  thinks,  counterbalanced  by  the  greater  cost  of  the  weapon. 
The  relative  merits  of  breech  and  muzzle  loading  fowling-pieces  were  tested  in  1859-60 
by  various  trials,  under  the  management  of  the  editor  of  The  Field,  and  resulted  in 
favor  of  the  breech-loaders.  The  demand  for  the  latter  has,  in  consequence,  enor- 
mously increased. — This  subject  receives  further  notice  in  various  parts  of  the  Encyclo- 
peedia,  in  relation  to  certain  kinds  of  ordnance  and  small-arms  expressly  constructed  on 
the  B.  principle.  See  Breech-Loading. 


23 


Breda. 

Breech-loading. 


BBEECH-LOADING  ARMS  and  NEEDLE-GTTNS.  To  be  loaded  at  the  breech,  and  to 
be  fired  by  the  penetration  of  a needle  into,  or  the  impinging  of  a piston  on,  a detonat- 
ing cap  within  the  cartridge,  are  distinct  attributes  in  a weapon;  and  although  it  is  only 
within  the  last  forty  years  that  the  system  has  been  carried  out  with  success,  breech- 
loading arms  have  been  tried,  accepted,  and  abandoned  without  number  during  the  last 
:hree  centuries.  Indeed,  a sort  of  instinct  dictates  that  loading  at  the  breech  is  the  pref- 
erable course;  and  all  the  earliest  muskets  were  so  made,  the  system  being  doubtless 
abandoned  from  the  diflSculty  of  accurately  closing  the  breech,  in  those  days  of  rough 
workmanship.  The  extraordinary  eflScacy  of  breecli-loading  arms  for  military  purposes 
was  brought  prominently  forward  during  the  wars  of  the  last  few  years,  and  notably  in 
the  Prussian  campaigns  of  1864  against  Denmark,  and  of  1866  against  Austria.  The 
successes  of  the  Prussian  arms  were  attributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the  rapidity  with 
which  their  troops  could  fire  as  compared  with  the  enemy.  They  had,  in  greater  or  less 
numbers,  borne  these  same  rifles  since  1835,  but  these  were  the  first  opportunities  of  using 
them  in  warfare.  To  all  the  other  powers,  whose  men  still  carried  muzzle-loading  rifles, 
and  who  had  debated,  without  practical  result,  for  years  past  the  question  of  armament 
with  breech-loaders,  soldiers  thus  armed  appeared  irresistible.  From  July,  1866,  to  the 
present  moment,  the  hammer  and  the  anvil  have  been  busy  night  and  day  throughout 
the  civilized  world  in  making  the  weapons  of  death  yet  more  deadly.  Scarcely  two 
countries  seem  to  have  adopted  the  same  plan : each  nation  has  elaborated  a system  from 
among  its  own  inventors.  Those  possessing  no  great  reserve  of  rifles  have  prepared  new 
arms;  but  the  majority  of  governments  have  been  content,  in  the  first  instance,  to  con- 
vert their  existing  stock  into  breech-loaders  of  as  good  a construction  as  circumstances 
would  permit.  Thus,  Britain,  after  offering  a handsome  prize  for  the  best  design, 
selected  one  said  (subject  to  some  controversy)  to  be  the  invention  of  the  late  Mr,  Snider. 
As  this  weapon  has  been  produced  already  to  the  number  of  a million,  and  as  it  has  con- 
firmed the  favorable  auguries  entertained  of  it  by  accuracy  of  fire,  and  by  loading  thrice 
to  the  muzzle-loader’s  once,  much  of  the  following  article  will  be  devoted  to  a considera- 
tion of  it.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  British  government  only 
regarded  the  Snider  arm  as  a makeshift  for  the  conversion  of  the  enormous  stock  of 
Enfield  rifles  then  in  hand,  reserving  to  itself  the  ultimate  selection  of  a pattern  on  which 
to  manufacture  new  weapons.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  from  what  is  said  above  that 
Britain  adopted  a breech-loading  arm  in  a sort  of  panic  after  the  battle  of  Sadowa.  It 
was  after  the  Danish  campaign,  on  the  11th  July,  1864,  that  it  was  decided  as  an  abstract 
question  to  arm  the  British  infantry  with  breech-loaders;  a portion  of  the  cavalry  having 
for  a number  of  years  previously  been  armed  with  Sharp  and  Westley  Richards  carbines, 
loading  at  the  breech.  The  selection  of  an  arm  took  longer;  but  by  the  beginning  of 
1865  it  had  been  decided  to  convert  our  great  stock  of  rifles  on  the  “ Snider”  system.  In 
1869  it  was  determined  that  new  arms  should  be  on  the  Martini-Henry  system — i.e.,  with 
the  Henry  barrel,  and  the  Martini-breech  action.  A description  of  this  rifle  will  be  given 
farther  on. 

Breech-loading. — The  advantage  of  breech-loading  is  obvious:  to  be  able  to  insert  the 
charge  at  the  breech  end  instead  of  the  muzzle,  is  to  save  time,  and  to  avoid  exposure  to 
hostile  Are  during  the  operation  of  loading  and  ramming  home,  which  involves  consid- 
erable outstretching  of  the  limbs.  The  great  condition  of  success  is,  that  the  bullet  shall 
be  propelled  with  equal  force  and  accuracy,  and  with  equal  safety  to  the  rifleman,  as  from 
the  muzzle-loader.  " 

When  a charge  is  ignited,  the  constituents  of  the  gunpowder,  assuming  a gaseous  con- 
dition under  the  heat  engendered,  expand  into  a volume  of  light  gas  many  times  greater 
in  bulk  than  the  powder  before  occupied.  On  the  amount  of  this  expansion,  and  its 
sudden  action  on  the  projectile,  the  force  of  the  shot  depends.  Any  joint  in  the  breech- 
piece  through  which  a portion  of  this  gas  can  escape,  without  having  imparted  its  thrust 
to  the  ball,  tends,  therefore,  to  lessen  the  range  and  penetration;  while  the  shock  of  the 
explosion  falling  more  severely  on  this  than  on  any  other  part  of  the  barrel,  tends  yet 
more  to  dislocate  the  breech-piece,  and  diminish  the  closeness  of  the  joint’s  fit.  In  weap- 
ons which  do  not  call  for  a long  range,  as  revolver  pistols,  a perceptible  interval  is  left 
between  the  chamber  and  barrel,  through  which  much  gas  escapes;  but  in  rifles,  which 
have  range  and  penetration  as  principal  objects,  there  is  primd  facie  ground  for  preferring 
a muzzle-loader.  The  gas,  however,  is  far  from  pure  as  generated  in  the  barrel,  for 
much  water  is  produced  and  held  in  suspension,  while  there  is  also  a solid  residuum 
consisting  of  unburned  materials  of  the  powder.  In  the  muzzle-loader,  these  clog  (or, 
technically,  foul)  the  barrel,  filling  the  grooves,  and  rendering  the  ramming  home  of 
succeeding  charges  more  and  more  difficult.  The  effect  is,  that  a solid  mass  of  unburned 
matter  is  gradually  forced  by  ramming  into  the  head  of  the  barrel,  destroying  the  accu- 
racy and  usefulness  of  the  weapon.  In  the  breech-loader,  this  solid  deposit  must  be  pro- 
vided against  both  ways.  The  backward  throw  on  firing  (for,  of  course,  the  charge 
explodes  with  equ^  power  in  every  direction)  tends  to  force  it  into  the  mechanism  of 
the  joints,  preventing  their  proper  fit,  and  continually  augmenting  the  escape  of  gas;  and 
Dn  the  other  hand,  the  deposit  in  front  is  most  detrimental  to  accuracy  of  fire.  This 
protection  of  the  breech-apparatus,  the  prevention  of  fouling,  and  the  retaining  and  if 
possible  improving  the  force  and  accuracy  of  fire,  were  the  problems  which  inventors 
have  had  to  solve. 


Breech-loading. 


24 


A moderate  escape  of  gas  in  front  of  the  first  position  of  the  ball,  is  not  found  to  he 
any  material  disadvantage.  If,  then,  the  barrel  could  have  an  opening  where  the 
cartridge  could  be  inserted,  and  then  pushed  backwards,  an  escape  of  gas  through 
the  joints  by  which  the  opening  might  be  subsequently  closed  would  be  comparatively 
immaterial ; but  this  formation  would  be  impracticable,  because  the  explosion  of  each 
cartridge  would  drive  the  fouling  more  and  more  backwards,  till  ultimately  the  cham- 
ber at  the  breech  would  be  unable  to  contain  the  cartridge.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that 
the  charge  must  be  inserted  either  at  the  barrel’s  head,  or,  if  the  barrel  be  opened,  in  a 
space  close  to  the  barrel’s  head.  In  either  of  these  cases,  the  breech  must  be  solidly  closed 
to  resist  the  explosion.  A third  case,  as  in  the  Snider,  is  where  the  cartridge  is  inserted 
and  then  pushed  forward,  the  aperture  being  closed  by  a solid  breech-piece  which  com- 
pletely fills  that  portion  of  the  barrel,  and  forms,  with  the  barrel’s  head,  a massive  foot 
to  resist  the  backward  pressure  of  the  fired  powder.  No  breech  action  can  be  made  to 
fit  so  accurately  as  to  prevent  a backward  escape  of  gas  unless  a properly-constructed 
cartridge-case  is  used  A perpendicular  moving  joint  is  found,  in  practice,  to  be  the 
best  adapted  for  preventing  a serious  escape  of  gas.  In  the  Prussian  needle-gun,  the 
end  of  the  barrel  is  the  frustum  of  a cone,  which  fits  into  a corresponding  cavity  in 
the  fore-end  of  the  breech-piece,  but  in  practice  this  joint  is  not  sutficiently  tight  to  pre- 
vent an  escape  of  gas  from  the  self-consuming  cartridge  used  with  this  gun,  which 
becomes  inconveniently  great  after  long  use  of  the  weapon,  and  it  is  only  available  when 
the  breech-piece  is  pushed  up  from  the  rear.  In  the  Snider  and  several  other  breech- 
loading weapons,  the  cartridge  is  made  itself  to  close  hermetically  the  aperture  between 
the  barrel  and  the  fore-end  of  the  breech-piece.  This  is  effected  % the  expansion  of  the 
cartridge-case,  which,  being  composed  of  metal,  or  a combination  of  metal  and  paper,  is 
driven  out  by  the  force  of  the  explosion  till  it  completely  fills  the  chamber  and  prevents 
any  escape  backwards  between  the  sides  of  the  case  and  the  chamber.  The  cartridge 
has  a portion  of  its  case  at  the  base  fiattened  out  into  a rim  which  fits  into  a correspond- 
ing recess  in  the  end  of  the  barrel ; and  to  prevent  expansion  backwards,  which  would 
fracture  the  cartridge-case,  and  injure  the  breech  or  the  firer.  the  breech-piece  is  made  to 
fit  as  closely  as  possible  against  this  base.  This  rim  is  on  the  Snider  cartridge. 

The  remainder  of  the  article  will  be  devoted  to  a description  of  the  three  most  prom- 
inent breech-loaders — (1)  the  Prussian  Ziindnadelgewehr;  (2)  the  British  Snider;  and  (3) 
the  Martini-Henry. 

The  Prussian  gun,  although  it  may  be  said  to  be  now  obsolete  (having  been  super- 
seded by  the  Mauser,  a bolt  gun  on  much  the  same  principle,  but  using  a metallic 
cartridge-case),  was  first  in  the  field.  As  regards  its  breech-apparatus  and  needle-lock, 
it  consists  of  three  concentric  hollow  cylinders,  with  a solid  cylindrical  bolt  inside  the 
last.  The  rear-end  of  the  barrel  is  firmly  screwed  into  the  head  of  the  chamber,  which 
is  fixed  to  the  stock  of  the  piece,  and  is  open  at  the  rear-end.  The  upper  half  of  the 
cylinder  is  cut  away  at  the  front-end  for  rather  more  than  the  length  of  the  cartridge : 
this  constitutes  the  opening  in  which  the  musketeer  inserts  the  cartridge.  From  the 
rear  of  this  opening  to  the  back,  a groove  is  cut,  sufficiently  wide  to  allow  the  square 
pillar  of  the  breech- handle  to  pass  along  it.  In  the  middle  of  this  groove  is  a right- 
angled  shunt,  offering  a stop  to  the  breech-handle  when  drawn  backwards,  unless  it  be 
likewise  turned  downwards,  when  it  may  be  passed  completely  out  at  the  rear-end.  Next 
within  the  chamber  is  the  breech-piece,  which,  to  admit  the  cartridge,  is  drawn  back  for 
a sufficient  distance  by  the  breech-Jiandle  along  the  groove.  When  the  cartridge  is 
deposited  in  the  recess  in  the  chamber,  this  breech-piece  is  closed  against  the  heel  of  the 
barrel  by  moving  up  the  handle  to  the  front-end  of  the  groove,  and  then  turning  it  down 
to  prevent  it  from  being  driven  back  on  the  explosion  of  the  charge;  representing, 
indeed,  the  resistance  offered  by  the  heel  of  an  ordinary  muzzle-loading  barrel.  Firmly 
screwed  within  the  breech-piece,  at  a short  distance  from  its  front,  is  a solid  block  of 
metal,  on  which  impinges  the  first  force  of  the  explosion.  Projecting  from  this  block 
to  the  base  of  the  cartridge  is  a strong  tige,  or  pillar,  around  vffiich  a space  containing 
air  is  left.  Through  this  pillar  is  the  channel  for  the  needle  to  work.  Fitting  within 
the  rear-end  of  the  breech-piece  is  a smaller  cylinder,  constituting  the  lock  of  the  gun. 
It  slides  within  the  breech-piece,  and  is  retained  from  falling  out  backwards  by  the 
spring,  which  catches  in  a notch.  Along  the  bottom  of  this  cylinder  is  a groove  to 
admit  the  passage  of  the  trigger;  and  at  the  back  is  a short  upright  handle,  by  means  of 
which  the  weapon  is  cocked.  Lastly,  within  the  lock  is  a bolt,  pressed  forward  by  a 
spiral  spring,  and  having  the  needle  rigidly  fastened  to  its  front  end.  Having  now 
described  the  several  parts  of  the  rifie,  it  is  easy  to  follow  it  from  the  moment  of  a shot 
being  fired  until  the  next  is  ready  for  discharge.  The  soldier  first  presses  down  the 
spring  with  his  finger,  releasing  the  catch  below  it,  and  enabling  him  to  draw  back  the 
lock  to  the  next  catch  on  the  spring.  Having  done  so,  he  raises  the  breech-handle  to 
the  perpendicular,  and  passes  it  along  the  groove  to  open  the  breech.  This  done,  he 
places  the  cartridge  in  the  opening  thus  made  in  the  chamber,  and  again  moving  up  the 
breech- piece  to  close  the  breech,  the  tige  in  it  pushes  the  cartridge  forward  into 
the  barrel,  and  the  rifie  is  at  once  at  “half-cock;”  for  in  drawing  back  the  lock,  the 
front  point  of  the  spring  forced  the  bolt  (including  the  needle)  with  it,  and  the  projec- 
tion on  it,  having  passed  over  the  head  of  the  trigger,  is  caught  by  the  latter  in  a way 
which  can  only  be  released  by  the  falling  of  the  trigger.  It  will  be  observed  that  at 


25 


Breech-loading. 


half-cock  the  needle  is  ready  to  penetrate  the  cartridge,  but  that  the  spiral  spring  is 
loose  and  without  power.  The  position  is  now  obtained,  in  which  the  bolt  projects  at 
the  back,  and  the  spiral  spring  is  compressed  into  a state  of  passive  strength.  All  that 
is  now  needed  to  fire  the  gun  is  to  press  upon  the  trigger,  when  the  bolt,  being  released 
by  the  depression  of  the  spiral  spring,  asserts  its  power,  and  drives  the  needle  into  the 
heart  of  the  cartridge,  the  parts  all  resuming  their  original  positions.  At  first  sight,  one 
cannot  help  exclaiming:  “ What  a complicated  apparatus  with  the  four  cylinders  and 
the  springs!”  but,  in  reality,  it  is  as  simple  as  almost  any  other  gun,  for  the  whole 
mechanism  of  the  lock  (q.v.)  is  dispensed  with.  If  it  be  desired  to  take  the  needle-gun 
to  pieces,  press  the  trigger  till  the  point  bears.  If  the  breech-handle  be  then  in  the 
hinder  part  of  its  groove,  the  breech-piece  with  its  contents  will  slip  out  of  the  chamber. 
Pressing  down,  next,  the  spring  until  the  second  catch  is  passed,  there  is  nothing  to 
retain  the  lock  in  the  breech-piece;  and  the  lock  being  free,  the  needle,  with  its  attached 
bolt  and  spring,  falls  readily  out  of  its  fore-end.  The  gun  is  thus  taken  to  pieces  in  a 
few  seconds,  and  as  many  suffice  to  put  it  again  in  fighting  order.  The  most  dehc  ite 
portions  are  the  needle  and  the  spiral  spring;  but  in  case  of  accident  to  these,  there  is  a 
spare  one  in  a small  cavity  opening  by  a spring  in  the  butt-end  of  the  stock.  The  worst 
feature  about  this  celebrated  gun  is  its  weight,  12  lbs. , or  83  per  cent  heavier  than  the 
Enfield  or  Snider  rifle. 

The  converted  Enfleld  or  “ Snider”  rifle  was  selected  in  1865-66  by  the  British  goV' 
ernment  from  the  specimens  submitted  at  an  open  competition  of  inventors.  It  is  an 
extremely  simple  weapon,  and  though  by  no  means  free  from  faults,  has  given  very 
satisfactory  results  up  to  this  time.  The  ordinary  Enfleld  barrel  is  shortened  by  about 
2^  in.,  and  the  heel  of  the  remainder  is  screwed  in  to  a strong  shoe,  with  which  is  con- 
nected by  a powerful  hinge,  the  solid  breech-piece,  which,  when  shut,  completely  closes 
the  breech.  Through  this  passes  the  piston  or  striker;  the  normal  position  of  the 
piston  is  maintained  by  a spiral  spring  within  the  nipple.  Given  the  breech  open, 
the  cartridge  is  inserted  and  pushed  forward  into  the  barrel,  where  its  metal  rim  Alls 
the  groove  left  around  the  barrel’s  heel.  The  breech-piece  is  closed  down,  the  ham- 
mer drawn  to  full-cock,  and  the  piece  is  ready  for  discharge.  The  breech-piece  is 
securely  locked  by  the  spring  bolt,  which  enters  a recess  in  the  false  breech,  and  can 
only  be  withdrawn  on  the  lever  thumb-piece  being  pressed  by  the  thumb  in  the  act 
of  again  lifting  the  breech-block.  On  the  trigger  being  pulled,  the  hammer  falls,  drives 
in  the  piston,  and  out  against  the  detonating  cap  of  the  cartridge,  with  a sharp  blow, 
firing  the  charge.  The  hammer  is  drawn  back  to  half-cock,  the  piston  flies  up  to  its 
former  position;  the  breech-piece  is  thrown  back,  and  slid  on  its  hinge  along  the  pin 
until  occurs  a process  during  which  a small  catch  hooks  back  into  the  breech,  by  its 
projecting  rim,  the  empty  cartridge-case.  The  canting  of  the  rifle  to  one  side  now 
throws  this  out,  a spring  within  the  hinge  moves  the  breech-piece  to  its  former  place, 
and  the  gun  is  ready  for  another  charge. 

The  cost  of  altering  an  “Enfield”  to  a “ Snider”  varies  from  15s.  to  20s.  During  the 
transition  period,  upwards  of  a million  were  converted  in  this  way,  besides  a large  num- 
ber of  new  arms  made  for  our  own  government;  but  conversion  and  manufacture  are 
now  suspended  both  in  the  government  factories  and  by  the  large  small-arms  companies. 
The  government  factories  were  capable  of  converting  1100  rifles  daily. 

At  flrst,  the  flring  of  the  Snider  was  inferior  to  the  old  Enfleld ; but,  by  alterations  in 
the  bullet,  effected  by  col.  Boxer,  in  the  direction  of  decreasing  the  speciflc  gravity  at 
the  apex  by  the  insertion  of  a wooden  plug  (which  is  now,  however,  dispensed  with, 
and  the  point  of  the  bullet  spun  over  the  mouth  of  the  cavity),  this  condition  has  been 
reversed,  and  the  Snider  now  fires  30  per  cent  better  than  the  old  Enfield.  Of  course, 
these  changes  add  to  the  cost  of  the  cartridge,  which  has,  however,  these  great  perfec- 
tions— first,  that  it  is  absolutely  impervious  to  wet ; and  second,  that  fire  can  scarcely  be 
communicated  to  it  otherwise  than  through  the  detonating  cap.  A single  cartridge  has 
been  fired  within  a barrel  of  loose  cartridges  without  exploding  any  of  the  others. 

Adverting  to  the  Snider  cartridge,  the  whole  is  inclosed  in  a roll  of  thin  brass  foil, 
outside  which  is  a covering  of  paper,  and  having  for  its  base  an  iron  disk,  in  front  of 
which  is  a double  cup  of  thin  brass,  while  a round  of  millboard  or  pulp  encircles  the 
chamber  containing  the  percussion-cap,  which  communicates  with  the  powder.  Between 
the  powder  and  the  ball  is  a layer  of  wool.  The  ball  has,  as  explained  above,  the  point 
spun  over  a cavity  in  its  front,  and  a conical  hollow  is  made  at  the  base ; into  the  widei 
part  of  this  is  dropped  the  wooden  plug,  while  on  the  circumference  of  the  bullet,  and 
outside  this  conical  hole,  are  four  small  cannelures  or  cuts  in  the  lead.  When  the 
powder  explodes,  the  wooden  plug  is  driven  forwards  to  the  head  of  the  hollow,  driving 
the  base  of  the  bullet  outwards  till  the  lead  completely  fills  the  grooves  of  the  rifle — a 
process  aided  by  the  comparatively  less  resistance  at  the  cannelures.  These  cannelures 
are  also  receptacles  for  a wax  lubrication  which  prevents  fouling,  interposing  always  a 
film  of  wax  between  the  bullet  and  the  barrel.  The  charge  and  bullet  are  held  together  by 
the  copper  sheathing  being  pressed  into  the  cannelures.  Returning  to  the  percussion- 
cap,  wes  hould  find,  if  it  were  enlarged,  an  apparatus  where  the  cap  is  a thin  copper 
cylinder  open  at  front  and  closed  at  the  rear  end,  where  there  is  contained  a deposit  of 
detonating  powder,  of  great  sensitiveness.  A brass  bead,  called  the  “anvil,”  is  con- 
tained within  the  cap,  the  sharp  point  being  next  the  detonating  powder,  and  its  broader 


Breech-loading. 

Breed. 


26 


end  resting  at  the  bottom  of  the  cap-chamber  on  each  side  of  the  hole.  The  cap  itself 
fits  tightly  into  the  chamber,  leaving  no  opening  for  the  escape  of  gas  backwards  from 
the  explosion,  and  is  fired  by  the  external  blow  of  the  piston  or  striker,  which  drives 
the  base  of  the  cap  down  upon  the  point  of  the  anvil,  by  which  means  the  detonating 
powder  is  exploded,  and  the  flash,  passing  down  the  sides  of  the  anvil,  communicates 
through  the  opening  with  the  powder  in  the  cartridge.  The  weight  of  the  bullet  is  480 
grains;  of  the  powder,  70  ^ains;  the  cost  being  about  £3  per  thousand. 

From  this  description,  it  is  evident  that  the  Snider  cartridge  is  a complicated  arrange- 
ment; but  it  is  not  much  more  so  than  that  of  the  Ziindnadelgewehr,  though  vastly 
more  eflicient. 

In  comparing  the  Snider  and  the  Prussian  gun,  the  former  has  certainly  the  greater 
simplicity;  while  its  smaller  weight  (9  lbs.  to  lOf  lbs.)  is  an  immeasurable  advantage. 
Of  the  two  it  is  probably  the  less  likely  to  get  out  of  order,  but  would  perhaps  be  the 
most  difficult  to  restore  if  it  did.  There  is  this  difference  of  a material  character  between 
the  two  weapons,  that  in  the  Prussian  arm,  the  needle,  by  its  own  mechanism,  fires  the 
charge ; while  in  the  Snider,  it  is  a mere  medium  for  conveying  the  blow  of  the  hammer. 

The  principle  of  the  action  of  the  Martini-Henry  rifle,  which  has  been  adopted  by  the 
British  army,  consists  in  closing  the  breech  by  a falling  block,  working  in  a mortised 
breech  body,  and  hinged  on  a pin  at  the  back  end,  and  falling  in  front  sufficiently  when 
open  to  clear  the  opening  of  the  barrel ; the  top  of  the  breech-block  forms  an  inclined 
groove,  along  which  the  cartridge  is  slipped  into  the  barrel.  The  ordinary  gun  lock  is 
replaced  by  a direct  acting  striker,  impelled  by  a spiral  spring,  both  being  contained 
within  the  breech-block.  The  act  of  opening  the  lever  draws  down  the  breech-block, 
simultaneously  drawing  back  the  striker,  and  compressing  the  spiral  spring;  at  the  same 
time  the  toe  of  the  cranked  extractor  is  struck  by  the  breech-block,  thus  throwing  its 
upper  claws,  which  encircle  the  base  of  the  cartridge-case,  backward,  and  jerking  out 
the  used  case.  On  a fresh  cartridge  being  inserted,  the  lever  is  drawn  back  and  fixed 
to  the  stock  by  the  spring.  This  closes  the  breech,  but  the  spiral  spring  is  kept  com 
pressed,  and  the  striker  at  the  full-cock  position,  by  the  tumbler,  into  the  bent  of  which 
the  point  of  the  trigger  and  the  tumbler-rest  entered  when  the  breech  was  opened. 
The  trigger  being  pulled,  the  tumbler  is  let  loose,  and  the  spiral  spring  discharges  the 
pointed  end  of  the  striker  on  to  the  cap  in  the  rear-end  of  the  cartridge,  which  is  thus  fired. 

The  following  table  shows  the  breech-loading  rifles  in  use  in  1879  by  the  principal 
powers: 


Country. 


Austria 

Belgium  

Denmark 

England  and  Turkey, 

France 

Germany 

Holland 

Italy 

Russia 

Sweden 

United  States 


System  adopted. 

Bore. 

Weight 
of  rifie. 

Weight 
of  bullet. 

Weight 
of  powder. 

Inch. 

Lbs. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Werndl 

.432 

9.88 

313 

62 

Albini-Braendlin 

.433 

10.14 

386 

77 

Remington 

.450 

9.08 

386 

60 

Snider 

.577 

9.05 

480 

70 

Martini-Henry 

.450 

8.75 

480 

85 

Converted  Chassepot 

.433 

8.93 

386 

85 

1 Mauser 

.433 

10.75 

378 

71 

i Beaumont 

.433 

9.59 

336 

66 

jVetterli 

.412 

6.61 

316 

64 

Berdan 

.420 

8.48 

370 

78 

Remington 

.480 

9.55 

370 

66 

Springfield 

.450 

9.13 

The  breech-loaders  with  and  without  the  needle  arrangement  are  too  numerous  even 
for  mention.  In  addition  to  what  are  known  as  breech-loaders  proper,  there  are  repeat- 
ing-arms, one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  Spencer  magazine  rifle,  having,  in 
a tube  in  the  stock,  a series  of  cartridges,  which,  by  a simple  action,  pass  into  the  barrel 
for  discharge.  As  the  gun  can  ordinarily  be  loaded  at  the  breech  without  drawing  on 
the  magazine,  it  is  doubtless  that  this  reserve  would  be  a powerful  means  of  defense  in 
a moment  of  danger,  as  in  resisting  cavalry;  but  among  its  drawbacks  are  weakening 
of  the  stock,  serious  increase  of  weight,  and,  worst  of  all,  great  complexity  and  delicacy 
— fatal  objections  in  the  rough  usage  of  active  service.  Nearly  all  sportsmen  now  use 
breech-loading  guns. 


BREECH-LOADING  GUNS  {ante).  The  introduction  of  these  arms  in  the  United 
States  dates  properly  from  1865,  from  which  date  muzzle-loading  arms  were  no  longer 
manufactured  at  the  Springfield  armory.  A short  time  before  the  late  rebellion,  the 
government  tested  a number  of  breech-loading  guns,  such  as  the  Burnside,  Cosmopoli- 
tan, Gallagher,  Joslyn,  Merrill,  Maynard,  Smith,  Lindner,  and  Sharp.  None  of  these 
are  now  used  except  the  Sharp  gun,  which  has  been  adapted  to  the  metallic  cartridge. 
During  the  war  the  Spencer  rifle  was  much  used  by  the  U.  S.  cavalry;  it  has  a magazine 
in  the  butt  of  the  stock,  holding  7 cartridges  that  are  admitted  one  at  a time  by  the 
movement  of  the  trigger-guard  used  as  a lever.  The  shell  of  an  exploded  cartridge  is 
expelled  by  the  same  movement.  It  may  be  used  also  as  a single  breech-loader,  but  the 
magazine  must  first  be  shut  off.  The  Henry  gun  (not  to  be  mistaken  for  the  Martini- 
Henry  gun)  has  the  magazine  under  the  barrel.  By  movements  of  the  lever.  17  metallic 


27 


Breech-loading. 

Breed. 


cases  or  cartridges  can  be  brought  into  the  chamber  in  succession.  This  gun,  like  the 
Spencer,  can  be  used  as  a single  breech-loader  by  shutting  off  the  magazine.  It  has 
been  changed,  however,  by  O.  F.  Winchester,  and  is  now  termed  the  Winchester  gun. 
Among  other  magazine  guns  may  be  mentioned  the  Ball,  Fogarty,  and  Gardner  guns. 
The  well-known  Kemington  gun  is  a single  breech-loader,  and  has  an  iron  receiver  that 
is  screwed  to  the  breech  of  the  barrel,  in  which  the  breech-block  and  lock  are  to  be 
found.  It  uses  metallic-cased  cartridges,  and  has  been  adopted  by  the  governments  of 
Egypt,  Spain,  and  several  other  countries.  The  Remington  gun  is  used  in  the  U.  S. 
navy. 

In  1866,  the  secretary  of  war  called  a board  of  oflScers,  gen.  Hancock  acting  as  presi- 
dent, to  report  the  form  and  caliber  which  should  be  adopted  for  breech-loading  mus- 
kets and  carbines,  and  the  method  of  converting  muskets  from  muzzle-loading  to  breech- 
loading arms.  After  an  examination  of  22  different  breech-loading  muskets  and  17 
different  breech-loading  carbines,  the  board  reported  the  best  caliber  for  muskets  to  be 
0.45  of  an  inch,  the  best  charge  of  powder  from  65  to  70  grains,  and  the  best  weight  of 
ball  from  480  to  500  grains.  In  1869.  a board  of  ofiScers,  presided  over  by  gen.  Schofield, 
was  called  to  meet  at  St.  Louis  to  select  the  six  best  patterns  of  muskets  for  infantry 
and  carbines  for  cavalry.  After  examining  a great  number  of  different  breech-loaders, 
they  reported  that  the  only  guns  suitable  for  military  service  were  those  of  the  Reming- 
ton,  Springfield,  and  Sharp  systems.  These  guns  were  tried  accordingly  until  1872, 
when,  in  compliance  with  an  act  of  congress,  a board  of  officers,  gen.  A.  H.  Terry  as 
president,  was  appointed  to  meet  in  New  York  and  Springfield,  “ to  recommend  a breech- 
loading  system  for  muskets  and  carbines  to  be  adopted  for  the  military  service,  w^hich 
system,  when  so  adopted,  shall  be  the  only  one  to  be  used  by  the  ordnance  department 
in  the  manufacture  of  muskets  and  carbines  for  the  military  service.”  After  testing 
over  100  breech-loading  guns,  the  board  recommended  (May,  1873)  that  the  Springfield 
breech-loading  system  be  adopted  for  military  service,  and  this  report  being  approved, 
that  system  is  now  used  by  the  government  for  the  13.  S.  army  and  militia.  This  breech- 
loader has  a receiver  screwed  to  the  breech  of  the  barrel.  The  shell  of  the  exploded 
cartridge  is  ejected  by  a combined  cam  and  spring  through  a motion  of  the  hinge  in  the 
opening  of  the  breech-block.  The  firing-pin  goes  through  the  breech-block  in  an  inclined 
direction  from  the  nose  of  the  hammer  at  the  side  to  the  center  of  the  rear  of  the  cham- 
ber, where  it  strikes  the  head  of  the  cartridge,  exploding  the  fulminate  when  its  rear 
end  is  struck  by  the  hammer. 

BREED,  in  domestic  animals,  a variety  or  often  merely  a race  distinguished  by  the 
possession  of  particular  qualities,  but  not  differing  from  the  ordinary  type  of  the  species  se 
as  to  constitute  what  naturalists  usually  designate  a variety.  The  peculiarities  of  breeds 
in  animals  find  an  exact  counterpart  in  cultivated  plants,  the  value  of  particular  kinds 
often  depending,  in  a great  measure,  upon  characters  scarcely  capable  of  being  defined 
in  the  language  of  scientific  description,  but  to  the  production  and  perpetuation  of  which 
the  attention  of  the  cultivator  cannot  be  too  earnestly  directed.  These,  also,  in  plants, 
as  in  animals,  have  of  themselves  little  permanence,  and  the  preservation  or  perpetuation 
of  them  depends  upon  the  same  assiduous  attention  and  high  cultivation  from  which, 
more  frequently  than  from  any  mere  accidental  circumstances,  they  have  originated. 
Thus  it  happens  that  the  most  improved  varieties  of  garden-plants  usually  degenerate 
even  under  ordinary  horticultural  treatment)  and  the  choice  pansies  of  the  florist  lose 
their  characteristic  excellences  if  a place  is  simply  assigned  to  them  in  a common  flower- 
border.  The  improvements  which  cultivation  has  effected  in  the  productions  of  the 
fruit,  flower,  and  kitchen  garden  do  not,  however,  possess  an  economic  importance  to 
be  compared  to  that  of  the  similar  improvements  in  the  cereals  and  other  plants  cultiv- 
ated on  the  most  extensive  scale,  or  in  the  breeds  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  domestic 
animals.  To  the  breeding  of  these,  great  attention  has  of  late  been  paid — probably  more 
since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c.  than  in  all  the  previous  history  of  the  world — and 
with  results  the  magnitude  of  which  may  in  some  measure  be  estimated  from  the  state- 
ment made  on  very  competent  authority,  that  within  the  last  thirty  years  the  weight  of 
mutton  produced  has  been  about  doubled  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  sheep  kept 
To  the  improvement  of  the  B.  of  horses,  attention  has  been  paid  for  a much  longer  time 
than  to  that  of  oxen  and  sheep;  and  to  this  must,  in  a great  measure,  be  ascribed  the 
different  excellences  of  some  of  the  well-known  breeds  employed  for  very  different  pur- 
poses. The  use  of  the  horse  in  war,  and  for  purposes  of  pomp  and  luxury,  appears  to 
have  been  the  reason  of  the  higher  degree  of  attention  thus  paid  to  it,  even  from  ancient 
times.  The  Arabs  have  long  been  particularly  careful  of  the  B.  of  their  horses,  and 
diligently  preserve  a record  of  their  pedigree.  What  is  called  blood  in  horses,  however, 
only  fits  them  in  a higher  degree  for  certain  purposes;  and  with  regard  to  this  as  to  other 
animals,  the  judgment  of  the  breeder  must  be  exercised,  as  the  perpetuation,  increase, 
or  combination  of  particular  qualities  may  be  the  object  which  he  has  in  view.  Fleet- 
ness and  strength  are  important  qualities  in  horses,  the  extremes  of  which  never  co-exist 
in  the  same  animal,  but  of  which  a certain  combination  is  for  some  purposes  very  desir- 
able ; and  either  of  these  may  be  displayed  in  a great  degree  without  much  bottom,  or 
power  of  enduring  continued  severe  exertion — a quality  of  very  high  value.  The  prop- 
erties most  desired  in  sheep  and  oxen  are  very  different  from  those  most  highly  esteemed 


Breede. 

Breisach. 


28 


in  the  horse — the  fleece  and  the  flesh  being  chiefly  regarded  in  sheep,  the  flesh  and  the 
milk  in  oxen.  Sometimes  a perpetuation  of  good  qualities  is  the  great  object  of  the 
breeder,  and  a combination  of  them  in  the  highest  possible  degree  is  aimed  at;  some- 
times, the  production  of  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  beef  or  mutton  in  the  shortest 
time  being  almost  exclusively  designed,  the  breeder  neglects  considerations  which  would 
be  of  importance  if  his  stock  could  not  be  improved  by  animals  obtained  from  other 
quarters.  Extraordinary  differences  are  certainly  found  to  exist  among  animals  of  the 
same  species  in  the  readiness  with  which  they  convert  food  into  flesh  and  fat,  and  in  the 
age  at  which  they  are  flt  for  the  hands  of  the  butcher.  One  effect  of  the  attention 
bestowed  of  late  upon  the  breeding  of  stock,  has  been  to  supply  the  market,  to  a great 
extent,  with  the  flesh  of  younger  animals  than  could  previously  be  sent  to  it — a change 
evidently  tending  not  only  to  the  beneflt  of  the  farmer,  but  to  the  increase  of  the  national 
wealth;  because  that  land,  even  without  increased  produce  of  grass,  seuds  a greater 
amount  of  beef  and  mutton  to  market  within  the  same  term  of  years.  Those  sheep  and 
oxen  which  exhibit  in  the  highest  degree  the  qualities  just  referred  to,  are  also  charac- 
terized by  shortness  of  legs,  smallness  of  bones,  smallness  of  head,  and  flneness  of  skin ; 
qualities  the  very  opposite  of  those  which  would  fit  the  animal  for  a wild  state  and  an 
independent  existence. 

Some  of  the  most  important  breeds  of  domestic  animals  will  be  mentioned  under 
their  proper  heads.  It  remains  for  us  only  to  allude  here  to  the  rules  and  physiological 
principles  of  breeding ; but  the  latter,  in  so  far  as  application  of  them  has  yet  been  found 
practicable,  are  only  the  best  known  principles  of  physiology  (q.v.).  In  a great  measure, 
however,  the  rules  which  guide  the  breeding  of  stock  have  been  learned  by  experience, 
and  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  contributions  to  science  than  as  deductions  from  it.  The 
probable  relative  influence  of  the  male  and  female  parent  upon  their  progeny,  is  a point 
unquestionably  of  the  greatest  importance,  but  concerning  which  widely  different  opin- 
ions have  been  maintained ; and  another  much  controverted  and  important  point  is,  the 
propriety  of  breeding  in  and  in.  Practically,  the  rule  is  always  observed,  by  those  who 
seek  the  improvement  of  a breed,  of  selecting  the  very  finest  animals  possible,  both  male 
and  female;  although  a great  improvement  of  the  existing  stock  on  a farm  is  often 
effected  in  the  most  advantageous  manner  by  the  mere  introduction  of  males  of  better 
quality.  The  dangers  of  breeding  in  and  in  are  very  generally  acknowledged,  even 
whilst  it  is  contended  that  they  may  very  much  be  obviated  by  careful  rejection  of  eveiy 
faulty  animal,  and  that  in  this  way  the  utmost  advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  very 
highest  improvements ; but  it  is  likewise  very  generally  admitted  that,  if  equally  im- 
proved individuals  can  be  obtained  not  so  nearly  related,  it  is  better  to  seek  the  perpetu- 
ation of  the  B.  by  their  means.  It  is  a rule  also  of  much  practical  importance,  that  an 
improvement  of  B.  is  to  be  attained  not  by  a cross  between  animals  of  very  different 
breeds,  as  between  a dr^-horse  and  a race-horse,  but  only  between  those  which  are 
comparatively  similar.  The  result  of  the  intermixture  of  very  dissimilar  breeds  is  never 
in  any  respect  satisfactory. 

BBEED'E,  a river  in  Cape  Colony,  flowing  chiefly  through  the  district  of  Zwellendam, 
which  contains  cape  Agulhas,  the  most  southerly  point  of  Africa.  It  rises  in  the  Warm- 
Bokkeveld,  a mountain-basin  about  lat.  33°  10' s.,  and  long.  19°  30'  e.,  running  first  to 
the  w.,  and  afterwards  to  the  s.e. ; and  it  enters  St.  Sebastian’s  bay  or  Port  Beaufort, 
from  which,  upwards,  it  is  navigable  to  a distance  of  40  miles.  Its  exports  are  wool, 
aloes,  skins,  feathers,  grain,  butter,  cattle,  mules,  etc. 

BREEZE.  See  Wind. 

BREESE,  Samuel  L.,  1794H870;  b.  New  York.  He  entered  the  TJ.  S.  navy,  serv- 
ing in  the  war  with  England  and  Mexico,  but  was  retired  before  the  war  of  the  rebellion 
broke  out,  his  rank  being  rear-admiral. 

BRE'GENZ,  a frontier  t.  of  Austria,  capital  of  the  district  of  Vorarlberg,  is  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  small  river  Bregenz,  which  here  flows  into  the  lake  of  Constance, 
between  the  Swiss  and  Bavarian  territories,  about  80  m.  w.n.w.  of  Innspriick.  From 
the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Ilohenbregenz,  on  a hill  near  the  town,  a very  beautiful  pros- 
pect is  obtained  of  the  lake  and  its  surrounding  vineyards,  etc.  B.  is  one  of  the  oldest 
towns,  and  was  formerly  one  of  the  chief  fortified  places  in  the  southern  part  of  Ger- 
many. The  inhabitants  (1869),  3686  in  number,  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  horticulture, 
and  cattle-keeping.  Cotton-spinning  and  weaving  are  also  carried  on;  and  articles  of 
wood,  gold,  and  iron  are  manufactured.  Its  position  secures  B.  a large  transit-trade  in 
the  produce  of  the  district.  In  the  neighborhood  lies  the  mountain-pass,  the  Bregemer- 
Klause,  formerly  a strong  military  position  between  Swabia  and  the  Tyrol.  During  the 
thirty  years’  war,  the  Swedes,  in  1646,  stormed  and  captured  the  fortress  of  B.,  and 
destroyed  the  works  in  the  pass. 

BRE'HON  LAWS  (in  Irish,  dlighidh  breitheamhuin — that  is,  “judges’  laws”),  the 
name  usually  given  to  the  system  of  jurisprudence  which  prevailed  among  the  native 
Irish  from  an  early  period  till  towards  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  The  breitheam- 
liuin  (pronounced  brei-hoo-in,  or  brehon),  from  whom  the  laws  had  their  name,  were 
hereditary  judges,  who  administered  justice  among  the  members  of  their  tribe,  seated 
in  the  open  air,  upon  a few  sods,  on  a hill  or  rising  ground.  The  poet  Spenser,  in  his 


29 


Breede. 

Breisach. 


View  of  the  State  of  Ireland,  written  in  1596,  describes  the  B.  L.  as  “ a rule  of  right 
unwritten,  but  delivered  by  tradition  from  one  to  another,  in  which  oftentimes  there 
appeareth  great  share  of  equity,  in  determining  the  right  between  party  and  party,  but 
in  many  things  repugning  quite  both  to  God’s  law  and  man’s:  as,  for  example,  in  the 
case  of  murder,  the  brehon — that  is,  their  judge — will  compound  between  the  murderer 
and  the  friends  of  the  party  murdered,  which  prosecute  the  action,  that  the  malefactor 
shall  give  unto  them,  or  to  the  child  or  wife  of  him  that  is  slain,  a recompense,  which 
they  call  an  eric;  by  which  vile  law  of  theirs  many  murders  amongst  them  are  made  up 
and  smothered : and  this  judge  being,  as  he  is  called,  the  lord’s  brehon,  adjudgeth  for 
the  most  part  a better  share  unto  his  lord,  that  is,  the  lord  of  the  soil,  or  head  of  the 
sept,  and  also,  unto  himself  for  his  judgment,  a greater  portion  than  unto  the  plaintiffs 
or  parties  grieved.”  Spenser  was  ignorant  that  pecuniary  compensation  for  man- 
slaughter had  obtained  in  the  ancient  laws,  as  well  of  England  as  of  most  European 
nations.  He  was  mistaken,  too,  in  believing  that  the  B.  L.  was  an  unwritten  code. 
Many  manuscript  collections  of  the  B.  L.  still  exist  in  public  and  private  libraries  in 
Ireland,  England,  and  Belgium.  These  manuscripts  are  regarded  as  varying  in  date 
from  the  early  part  of  the  14th  to  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  For  the  laws  them- 
selves, a much  higher  antiquity  is  claimed.  On  this  point,  we  must  be  content  to  quote 
what  has  been  said  on  the  part  of  the  very  few  persons  who  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
making  themselves  acquainted  with  the  existing  collections  of  the  brehon  laws.  ‘ ‘ So 
far  as  we  have  external  evidence  to  guide  us,”  say  Dr.  J.  H.  Todd  and  Dr.  C.  Graves, 
two  eminent  Irish  antiquaries,  “ there  is  no  reason  to  suspect  that  the  brehon  laws  have 
undergone  any  material  change  since  the  time  of  Cormac  Mac  Cuilleanain,  king  and 
bishop  of  Cashel,  who  died  908  a.d.  He  was  a man  of  great  learning  and  energy,  who 
certainlj^  promoted  the  execution  of  considerable  literary  w^orks,  and  under  whose  influ- 
ence it  is  not  improbable  that  a systematic  compilation  of  the  law’^s  may  have  been 
effected.  Of  this,  however,  we  have  no  distinct  record.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find 
scattered  through  all  parts  of  the  laws  allusions  to  a general  revision  of  them  made  in 
the  5th  c.,  at  the  instance  of  St.  Patrick,  who,  in  conjunction  with  certain  kings  and 
learned  men,  is  said  to  have  expunged  from  them  all  those  institutions  Tvhich  savored 
of  paganism,  and_  to  have  framed  the  code  called  the  Seanchus  Mor.  These  same  docu- 
ments assert  the  existence  of  still  more  ancient  written  laws,  the  greater  part  of  which 
are  ascribed  to  Cormac  Mac  Art,  monarch  of  Ireland,  in  the  middle  of  the  3d  century. 
However  slow  we  may  be  to  acquiesce  in  statements  of  this  kind,  which  contradict  what 
we  have  learned  concerning  the  progress  of  legislation  in  the  remaining  parts  of  western 
Europe,  we  may  readily  admit  that  the  subject  matter  of  many  of  the  laws  demonstrates 
their  great  antiquity,  as  it  indicates  the  primitive  nature  of  the  society  in  which  they 
prevailed.  In  spite  of  the  attempts  to  efface  it,  traces  of  heathenism  are  still  discernible 
in  many  parts  of  them.  They  enumerate  various  ordeals  of  a pagan  character,  which 
are  expressly  termed  magical,  and  specify  the  occasions  on  w’hich  a resort  to  them  was 
prescribed.  There  are  also  provisions  in  the  laws  of  marriage  which  prove  that  Chris- 
tianity could  have  exercised  but  a feeble  infiuenf.e  at  the  time  when  they  w^ere  enacted. 
The  language  in  which  the  brehon  laws  are  written  is  a convincing  proof  of  their  antiq- 
uity. They  are  not  composed  in  a peculiar  dialect,  as  many  writers  have  maintained; 
but  if  their  style  differs  from  that  of  the  vernacular  Irish  of  the  present  day.  as  Anglo- 
Saxon  does  from  modern  English,  this  dissimilarity  is  to  be  ascribed  mainly  to  the  effects 
•of  time,  by  which  the  orthography  and  grammatical  forms  of  the  language  have  been 
modified,  and  legal  terms  and  phrases  of  constant  recurrence  have  become  obsolete.” 
The  world  of  letters  will  be  ab^e,  in  no  long  time,  to  judge  for  itself  on  the  opinions 
thus  expressed.  It  is  now  upwards  of  twenty  years  since  the  publication  of  the  B.  L., 
at  the  charge  of  the  Irish  government,  was  strongly  urged  by  such  men  as  Guizot, 
Grimr^,  and  Rank  abroad,  and  Hallam,  Macaulay,  and  earl  Stanhope  at  home.  A 
commission  was  accordingly  appointed  by  the  earl  of  Eglinton  in  1852,  “to  direct, 
superintend,  and  carry  into  effect  the  transcription  and  translation  of  the  ancient  laws 
of  Ireland,  and  the  preparation  of  the  same  for  publication.”  The  commissioners 
intrusted  the  transcription  and  translation  of  the  B.  L.  to  the  two  most  eminent  of 
Irish  scholars — the  late  Dr.  John  O’Donovan,  professor  of  Celtic  in  the  queen’s  college 
at  Belfast;  and  the  late  Eugene  O’Curry,  professor  of  Irish  archaeology  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  university  of  Ireland.  These  gentlemen  having  finished  their  task  the  editor- 
ship of  the  work  was  intrusted  to  Mr.  W.  J.  Hancock,  late  professor  of  political  econ- 
omy in  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  the  Rev.  Thaddeus  O’Mahony,  professor  of  Irish  in 
the  university  of  Dublin.  The  publication,  it  is  reckoned,  will  extend  to  eight  volumes, 
of  about  550  pages  each.  Three  of  these  have  already  appeared — the  last  in  1873 — 
under  the  title  of  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  <f  Ireland.  Along  with  the  Irish  text,  an 
English  translation  is  given,  accompanied  with  preliminary  dissertations,  glossaries,  and 
indexes,  and  they  give  a vivid  and  characteristic  picture  of  the  polity  and  social  life  of 
a Celtic  people.  A fac-simile  reprint  of  the  B.  L.  has  recently  been  published  in  17  vol- 
umes by  the  B.  L.  commission. 

BEEISACH',  Alt,  a very  old  t.  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  situated  on  an  isolated 
basalt  hill  on  the  right  side  of  the  Rhine,  about  12  m.  w.  of  Freiburg.  As  early  as  the 
time  of  Julius  Caesar,  Mons  Brisiacus  was  known  as  a strong  military  position,  and  was 


Breisaoh. 

Brenner. 


30 


taken  by  Ariovistus  when  he  invaded  Gaul.  Being  regarded  as  the  key  to  the  w.  of 
Germany,  it  was  a prominent  scene  of  action  during  the  thirty  years’ war,  at  the  conclusion 
of  which  it  was  ceded  to  the  French.  During  the  next  century,  it  frequently  changed 
masters,  now  belonging  to  France,  and  now  to  Austria.  The  French  destroyed  its  for- 
tifications in  1744,  and  during  the  war  of  the  revolution  in  1793,  part  of  the  town  was 
burned  by  them.  In  1806,  the  French  handed  it  over  to  the  house  of  Baden.  The  min- 
ster of  St.  Stephen  is  a venerable  structure  in  good  preservation,  and  contains  several  old 
monuments.  Pop.  ’71,  3255. 

BREISACH,  Neu,  a t.  in  Alsace,  opposite  to  Old  B. , 2 m.  w.  of  the  Rhine,  on  the 
Rhine  and  Rhone  canal;  pop.  ’66,  1981.  It  was  fortified  by  Vauban  by  order  of  Louis 
XIV. 

BREISLAK,  SciPiONE,  1748-1826;  an  Italian  geologist.  He  was  professor  in  a 
Roman  college,  and  devoted  his  leisure  to  geological  researches  in  the  papal  states.  The 
king  of  Naples  appointed  him  professor  of  mineralogy  to  the  royal  artillery,  and  under 
his  direction  the  sulphur  refining  works  in  the  district  of  Solfatara  were  erected.  In 
1798,  he  published  his  Physical  Topography  of  the  Campagna,  and  followed  with  various 
works  on  similar  topics. 

BREI'TENFELD,  a village  and  manor  of  Saxony,  about  5 m.  n.  of  Leipsic.  It  is  his- 
torically remarkable  for  three  battles,  fought  on  a plain  in  its  neighborhood.  The  first 
of  these,  between  the  Swedes  and  the  Imperialists,  which  was  fought  on  the  7th  Sept., 
1631,  was  of  the  highest  importance  to  Europe,  as  it  secured  the  permanency  of  Protes- 
tantism and  the  freedom  of  Germany.  Tilly’s  pride  had  reached  its  highest  point  after 
the  fall  of  Magdeburg,  which  took  place  on  the  10th  of  May,  1631 ; and  in  the  early  part 
of  Sept,  of  the  same  year,  he  advanced  against  the  Saxons,  with  an  army  of  about 
40,000  men,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  elector,  John  George  1.  (who  would  not  sub- 
mit to  the  edict  of  restitution,  and  w'as  treatirg  with  the  Swedish  king,  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus), into  an  alliance  with  the  emperor.  No  other  way  remained  than  for  the  elector 
to  join  the  Swedish  king,  who  had  just  entered  Pomerania.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  joined 
by  the  Saxons,  advanced  towards  Leipsic,  where  Tilly  lay,  who  advanced  into  the  plain 
of  Breitenfeld.  The  imperial  forces  were  completely  defeated,  and  their  three  most  dis- 
tinguished generals,  Tilly,  Pappenheim,  and  Fiirstenberg,  wounded.  The  second  battle 
which  B.  witnessed  again  resulted  in  the  triumph  of  Swedish  valor:  it  took  place  on  the 
23d  of  Oct.,  1642,  between  the  Swedes,  headed  by  Torstenson,  one  of  the  pupils  of  Gus- 
tavus, who  had  invested  Leipsic,  and  the  archduke  Leopold,  with  gen.  Piccolomini,  who 
were  advancing  from  Dresden  to  its  relief.  The  Swedes  gained  a complete  victory  over 
the  imperialists,  who  fled  into  Bohemia,  leaving  behind  them  46  cannon,  121  flags,  69 
standards,  and  the  whole  of  their  baggage.  The  third  battle  of  which  B.  was  the  scene, 
was  fought  on  the  16th  of  Oct.,  1813,  and  was  part  of  the  great  contest  known  as  the 
battle  of  Leipsic. 

BREITMANN,  Hans.  See  Leland,  Charles  Godfrey. 

BRE'MEN,  one  of  the  three  free  cities  of  Germany,  is  situated  on  the  Weser,  about 
50  m.  from  its  mouth.  Pop.  ’75,  102,177,  nearly  all  Protestants.  B.  is  divided  into  the 
old  and  the  new  town— the  former  on  the  right,  the  latter  on  the  left  side  of  the  river, 
which  is  spanned  by  four  bridges.  The  ramparts  and  bastions  round  the  old  town  have 
been  leveled,  and  formed  into  public  promenades,  which  are  laid  out  with  excellent 
taste.  Among  the  principal  buildings,  the  cathedral  (built  about  1160),  the  Gothic 
town-hall  (begun  about  1405),  with  its  famous  wine-cellar,  said  to  contain  hock  of  the 
vintage  of  1624,  the  exchange,  the  museum,  the  post-office,  and  the  observatory  of  Dr. 
Gibers,  from  which  he  discovered  the  planets  Pallas  and  Vesta,  are  remarkable.  The 
position  of  B.  makes  it  the  emporium  of  Brunswick,  Hesse,  and  other  countries  through 
which  the  Weser  flows.  Besides  its  excellent  water  communication,  it  is  connected  by 
railways  with  the  whole  of  western  and  central  Germany.  B.  is  an  exceedingly  thriv- 
ing place,  its  trade  having  more  than  doubled  within  the  last  ten  years.  Large  vessels- 
stop  at  Bremerhaven,  where  there  is  a spacious  harbor  constructed,  about  38  m.  below 
B.,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  electric  telegraph.  Vessels  not  drawing  more  than 
7 ft.  of  water  can  come  up  to  the  town  itself.  B.  carries  on  an  extensive  commerce 
with  the  United  States  of  America,  the  West  Indies,  Africa,  the  East  Indies,  China,  and 
Australia.  Its  great  foreign  trade,  however,  is  with  the  United  States,  from  which 
alone,  in  1870,  it  imported  produce  of  the  estimated  value  of  30,000,000  dollars,  export- 
ing in  return  goods  to  the  value  of  17,500,000  dollars.  With  the  exception  of  Hamburg, 
no  continental  port  ships  so  many  emigrants  to  the  United  States  as  B.,  through  its 
main  port  at  Bremerhaven.  The  total  number  of  vessels  arriving  at  B.  in  1874  was 
3407,  and  the  number  departing,  3243.  The  number  of  ships  belonging  to  the  port 
in  1875  was  226,  with  an  aggregate  burden  of  176,115  tons.  In  1873,  the  value  of  the 
imports  amounted  to  £26,270,500,  exports  to  £20,381,900,  a very  great  increase  as  eom- 
pared  with  the  year  1858,  when  the  imports  were  valued  at  £8,237,000,  and  the  exports  at 
about  £8,000,000.  The  chief  imports  are  tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  rice,  skins,  dye- 
woods,  wines,  timber,  hemp,  etc.  The  exports  consists  of  woolen  goods,  linens,  glass, 
rags,  wool,  hemp,  hides,  oil-cake,  wooden  toys,  etc.  Large  quantities  of  tobacco  are 
re-exported.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolens  and  cottons,  cigars,  paper,  and  starch. 


31 


Breisaclu 

Brenner. 


and  extensive  ship-building  yards,  breweries,  distilleries,  and  sugar-refineries.  The 
cigar  and  sugar  manufactures  have  of  late  declined,  the  former  on  account  of  the 
increase  of  duty.  In  1872,  it  is  said  that  2500  hands  were  engaged  in  making  cigars. 
It  has  steam  communication  with  New  York,  and  Hull,  Havana,  the  n.  coast  of  South 
America,  etc. 

B.  first  became  of  historical  note  in  the  8th  c.,  when  it  was  erected  into  a bishopric 
by  Charlemagne.  It  soon  attained  considerable  commercial  importance,  and  became 
one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Hanseatic  league  (q.v.).  Having  frequently  suffered  at 
the  hands  of  the  French,  it  was,  in  1810,  incorporated  with  that  empire ; but  it  recovered 
its  independence  in  1813,  and  by  the  congress  of  Vienna  was  admitted,  in  1815,  as  one 
of  the  Hanse  towns,  into  the  Germanic  confederation.  In  1867,  it  became  a member  of 
the  North  German  confederation,  and  now  it  forms  part  of  the  German  empire.  The 
area  of  its  territory  is  about  100  sq.m.;  pop.,  including  the  town  of  B.  (1875),  141,848. 
The  government  is  intrusted  to  a senate  of  18  members,  two  of  whom  are  chosen  burgo- 
masters, and  to  a municipal  council  of  150  burgesses. 

Bremerhaven,  a port  on  the  Weser,  near  10  m.  from  its  mouth,  was  founded  by 
Bremen  in  1827,  on  ground  acquired  from  Hanover,  and  soon  became  a thriving  place. 
It  has  extensive  docks  and  quays,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  seaport  of  Bremen. 
Pop.  in  1875,  12,501. 

BREMER,  a co.  in  n.e.  Iowa,  on  Cedar  river;  430  sq.m. ; pop.  ’70, 12,528;  ’80, 14,078; 
good  soil,  well  watered  and  timbered.  Communication  is  had  by  the  Cedar  Falls  and 
Minnesota  railroad.  Agricultural  productions.  Co.  seat,  Waverly. 

BREMER,  Fredrika,  the  well-known  Swedish  novelist,  was  b.  near  Abo,  in  Fin- 
land, 17th  Aug.,  1801;  but  when  she  was  only  three  years  old,  her  father  removed  to 
Sweden.  As  a child  of  eight,  she  had  already  begun  to  write  verses;  and  the  works  of 
German  poets,  Schiller  more  especially,  exercised  a most  powerful  influence  over  her 
youthful  imagination.  Her  original  novels  flrst  made  their  appearance  under  the  gen- 
eral title  Tekningar  ur  Hmrdagslifvet,  at  Stockholm,  in  1835.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
1842  that  the  English  public  hailed  with  delight  the  appearance,  in  an  English  dress,  of 
The  Neighbors,  perhaps  the  most  universally  popular  of  all  Fredrika  B.  ’s  charming  pictures 
of  domestic  life  in  Sweden.  Encouraged  by  its  enthusiastic  reception,  Mrs.  Howitt 
subsequently  published  translations ' of  The  Diary,  The  H.  Family,  The  President’s 
Daughters.  Brothers  and  Sisters,  Life  in  Delecarlia,  and  The  Midnight  Sun.  In  1849,  Miss 
B.  visited  the  United  States,  and  there  spent  two  years,  passing  some  time  in  England 
on  her  return.  In  her  Homes  of  the  New  World,  published  simultaneously  in  England, 
America,  and  Sweden,  in  1853,  she  not  only  presents  us  with  exquisite  descriptions  of 
scenery,  and  vivid  pictures  of  social  life,  but  with  sound  and  comprehensive  views  on 
political  and  moral  subjects.  Returning  to  her  home  in  Sweden,  to  find  a beloved  sister 
dead.  Miss  B.  devoted  her  talents  and  energies  to  the  carrying  out  of  certain  philan- 
thropic objects,  in  which  she  had  throughout  life  felt  deep  interest,  more  especially  the 
education  of  the  poorest  classes.  As  a writer  of  fiction,  she  is  distinguished  for  femi- 
nine delicacy,  shrewd  sense,  humor,  deep  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  a graphic 
and  forcible  style.  Her  works  have  been  translated  into  almost  all  the  languages  of 
Europe.  She  died  in  1865.  Her  life  and  unpublished  writings  were  issued  by  her 
sister  in  1868. 

BRENDAN,  or  Brandantjs,  the  legendary  hero  of  great  ocean  voyages  made  under 
the  protection  of  angels;  revered  in  Ireland  as  a saint,  where,  and  in  England,  he  is  sup- 
posed to  have  founded  religious  establishments.  His  death  is  set  down  in  578  a.d. 

BRENHAM,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Washington  co.,  Tex.,  on  a branch  of  the  Houston 
and  Texas  Central  railroad,  72  m.  w.n.w.  of  Houston;  pop.  ’70,  2221;  in  ’80,  4101.  It 
is  in  a cotton-raising  region.  There  are  eight  churches,  the  Live  Oak  female  seminary, 
an  opera  house,  and  a number  of  manufactories. 

BRENNER  PASS,  a pass  in  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps,  on  the  road  between  Innsbruck 
(q.v.)  on  the  n.  and  Botzen  (q.v.)  on  the  s.,  connecting  the  s.  of  Germany  with  Venice 
and  the  n.e.  of  Italy.  The  B.  P.  is  the  lowest  which  crosses  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps, 
the  summit  being  only  4775  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Lofty  mountains  rise  above 
it  to  the  further  height  of  more  than  7500  ft.,  yet  the  scenery  of  the  pass  is  less  sublime 
and  interesting  than  that  of  any  other  of  the  great  passes  of  the  Alps.  It  is  open  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year.  At  the  summit  of  the  pass  is  the  village  of  Brenner,  a resting-place 
for  travelers,  with  a pop.  of  about  400.  The  climate  here  is  so  severe  that  corn  seldom 
ripens.  Here  the  traveler  finds  in  close  contiguity  the  Eisach,  a small  stream,  which, 
after  growing  to  be  a considerable  river,  joins  the  Adige  and  the  Sill,  a tributary  of  the 
Inn ; the  one  stream  flowing  to  the  gulf  of  Venice,  and  the  other  into  the  Black  sea.  On 
18th  Aug.,  1867,  a railway  through  the  B.  P.  was  opened,  and  thus  a complete  line  of 
railway  communication  was  established  between  Germany  and  Italy;  Botzen  having 
already  been  connected  by  a railway  through  the  valley  of  the  Adige  with  Verona,  and  so 
with  the  whole  of  Italy — Innsbruck  being  likewise  connected  with  the  railway  systeni 
of  Germany.^  This  work  was  begun  by  the  Austrian  government  when  Venetia  belonged 
to  the  Austrian  empire,  and  with  the  view  not  only  of  facilitating  military  operations, 
but  of  restoring  the  commercial  prosperity  of  Venice,  by  making  it  the  port  of  southern 


Srennus. 

Breslau. 


32 


Germany.  The  prosecution  of  the  works,  however,  was  not  arrested  by  the  great  politi- 
cal changes  which  took  place.  A liberal  commercial  treaty,  recently  made  between  Aus- 
tria and  Italy,  binds  the  two  countries  together  in  community  of  interests,  restoring,  In 
fact,  the  natural  state  of  things  with  which  political  animosities  had  long  interfered ; and 
it  has  been  made  quite  apparent,  from  the  activity  with  which  the  roads  have  been 
repaired  on  some  of  the  Alpine  passes,  and  particularly  that  of  the  Stelvio,  that  both 
Germans  and  Italians  appreciate  the  importance. of  an  intimate  commercial  intercourse. 
The  distance  from  Innsbruck  to  Botzen  in  a direct  line  is  only  52  m. , but  by  the  wind- 
ings of  the  road  or  of  the  railway,  it  is  much  increased. 

BRENNTJS,  the  name  or  rather  the  title  of  several  Gallic  princes,  is  probably  a Latin- 
ized form  of  the  Kymric  word  brenhin,  which  signifies  a king.  The  most  famous  B.  was 
that  leader  of  the  Gauls  who,  in  390  b.c.,  crossed  the  Apennines,  and  hurrying  through 
the  country  of  the  Sabines,  at  the  head  of  70,000  men,  encountered  and  overthrew  on  the 
banks  of  the  Allia  (q.v.)  the  Roman  army.  Had  the  barbarians  immediately  followed 
up  their  advantage,  Rome  might  have  been  obliterated  from  the  earth ; but  instead  of 
doing  so  they  abandoned  themselves  to  drunken  delights  on  the  battlefield,  and  gave  the 
Romans  time  to  fortify  the  capitol,  whither  were  removed  all  the  treasures  and  holy 
things  of  the  city.  When  B.  entered  the  gates  he  found  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
city  had  fled,  with  the  exception  of  the  women  and  children,  and  old  men,  the  last  of 
whom,  with  pathetic  heroism,  had  resolved  not  to  survive  the  destruction  of  their  homes, 
and  so  the  chief  among  them,  clothed  in  their  robes  of  sacerdotal  or  consular  dignity, 
an  i sitting  in  the  curule  chairs,  waited  the  approach  of  their  enemies,  and  received  their 
death  in  majestic  silence.  B.,  having  plundered  the  city,  now  besieged  the  capitol  for 
six  months.  During  the  beleaguerment  occured  the  famous  night-attack,  which  would 
have  been  successful  had  not  the  cackling  of  the  geese,  kept  in  Juno’s  temple,  awakened 
the  garrison.  At  length,  however,  the  Romans  were  compelled  to  enter  into  negotiations 
with  the  besiegers.  They  offered  1000  lbs.  of  gold  for  their  ransom,  which  was  agreed 
to.  According  to  Polybius,  B.  and  his  Gauls  returned  home  in  safety  with  their  booty  ; 
but  the  rather  mythical  Roman  traditions  affirm  that,  just  as  the  Gauls  were  leaving  the 
city,  Camillus,  who  had  been  recalled  from  banishment  and  appointed  dictator,  appeared 
at  the  head  of  an  army,  attacked  them,  and,  in  two  bloody  battles,  slew  the  whole  of  the 
barbarians  to  a man. 

Another  B. , who  occupies  a conspicuous  place  in  history,  was  that  Gallic  chief  who 
invaded  Greece,  279  b.c.,  at  the  head  of  150,000  foot  and  61,000  horse.  After  desolating 
Macedonia,  B.  forced  his  way  through  Thessaly  to  Thermopylae.  The  Grecian  army 
fled  at  his  approach.  B.  now  rushed  on  with  a division  of  his  great  host  to  Delphi, 
which  he  had  resolved  to  plunder;  but  the  Delphians  having  ta&n  up  a very  advan 
tageous  position  on  some  rocks,  resisted  his  further  progress.  Assisted  by  the  terrors  of 
an  earthquake  and  a terrible  storm,  besides,  according  to  reverential  tradition,  by  the 
supernatural  help  of  Apollo,  they  utterly  routed  the  Gauls,  who  fled  in  dismay.  B. 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  drank  himself  to  death  in  despair. 

BRENTA  (Medoacus  Major),  a river  of  n.  Italy,  rises  from  two  small  lakes  in  the 
Tyrol;  flows  first  in  a southern,  then  in  an  eastern  course  through  the  Venetian  territory; 
passes  the  towns  Cismona  and  Bassano;  receives  an  arm  of  the  Bacchiglione  below 
Padua,  where  it  becomes  navigable;  and  falls  into  the  gulf  of  Venice,  at  the  haven  of 
Brondolo.  The  ancient  bed  of  the  B.  was,  some  centuries  ago,  altered  by  the  Venetians, 
who  feared  that  their  lagoons  might  be  choked  with  sand  by  its  floods.  Afterwards,  the 
old  bed  of  the  river  was  made  use  of  as  a canal,  the  Nariglio  di  Brenta  Magra,  which 
forms  the  chief  communication  by  water  between  Venice  and  Padua,  while  the  B.  is  but 
little  used  for  navigation. 

BRENTA'NO,  Clemens,  known  as  a novelist  and  dramatic  poet,  and  as  the  brother  of 
Goethe’s  “ Bettina,”  was  born  at  Frankfort-on -the-Maine,  1777.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and 
afterwards  resided  successively  at  Frankfort,  Heidelberg,  Vienna,  and  Berlin.  In  1818. 
through  a morbid  discontent  with  himself  and  his  fellow-men,  he  retired  to  the  cloister  at 
Diilmen,  in  Munster.  Latterly  he  resided  at  Regensburg,  Munich,  and  Frankfort-on-the 
Maine,  where  he  led  the  life  of  a recluse,  and  gained  a considerable  reputation  on  account 
of  his  sarcastic  wit.  He  died  at  Aschaffenburg,  on  the  28th  of  June,  1842.  In  his  earliest 
poems  the  peculiarities  of  the  “ romantic  school  ” of  his  time  are  carried  to  excess.  His 
dramatic  productions,  such  as  The  Merry  Musicians,  a Musical  Drama  (Frankfort, 
1803),  in  which  there  are  some  gems  of  lyric  poetry;  Ponce  de  Leon  (Gottingen,  1804), 
etc.,  are  characterized  by  great  dramatic  power,  amusing  though  rather  far-fetched  wit, 
and  a wonderful  flow  of  humor.  Perhaps  his  most  successful  piece  as  a drama,  is  The 
Founding  of  Prague  (Pesth,  1816).  B.  was  most  successful  in  his  smaller  novels,  par- 
ticularly in  the  History  of  Caspar  the  Brave  and  the  Fair  Annerl  (2d  edit.  Berlin,  1831), 
which  German  critics  call  a chef  d'aiuvre  in  miniature.”  His  last  work,  the  legend  of 
Ookel,  HinJcel,  and  Oakeleia  (Frankfort,  1838),  was  intended  as  a satire  upon  the  times  in 
which  he  lived.  He  has  received  the  grateful  acknowledgment  of  his  countrymen  for 
his  renovation  of  the  good  old  history  of  George  Wickram,  of  Kolmar,  which  he  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  The  Thread  of  Gold  {Der  Ooldfaden,  Heidelb.,  1809). 

BRENT'FORD,  the  co.  t.  of  Middlesex,  on  both  sides  of  the  Brent,  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Thames,  7 m.  w.s.w.  of  London,  and  where  the  Thames  is  crossed  by  a bridge 


33 


Brennug. 

Breslau. 


leading  to  Kew.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  irregular  street.  Pop.  ’71,  11,091.  It 
lias  large  gin-distilleries,  a soap-work,  and  the  works  of  the  West  London  water  company. 
"There  are  many  market-gardens  in  the  vicinity.  Here  Ironside  defeated  the  Danes  in 
1016,  after  expelling  them  from  London;  in  1558,  six  martyrs  were  burned  at  the  stake; 
and  in  1642,  the  royalists,  under  Rupert,  defeated  the  parliamentarians  under  col. 
Hollis. 

BRENT  GOOSE,  or  Brent  Barnacle,  This  bird  has  been  already  noticed  under 
Barnacle  (q.v.).  We  add  here  a few  sentences  from  col.  Hawker’s  Instructions  to 
Young  Sportsmen,  which  we  borrow  from  Yarrell’s  British  Birds.  They  refer  to  wild- 
fowl shooting  on  the  coasts  of  Dorsetshire  and  Hampshire.  “Towards  Nov.  or 
Dec,,  we  have  the  Brent  geese,  which  are  always  wild,  unless  in  very  hard  weather. 
In  calm  weather,  these  geese  have  the  cunning,  in  general,  to  leave  the  mud  as  soon  as 
the  tide  flows  high  enough  to  bear  an  enemy;  and  then  they  go  off  to  sea,  and  feed  on 
the  drifting  weeds.  To  kill  Brent  geese  by  day,  get  out  of  sight  in  a small  punt,  at  low 
water,  and  keep  as  near  as  possible  to  the  edge  of  the  sea.  You  will  then  hear  them 
coming  like  a pack  of  hounds  in  full  cry,  and  they  will  repeatedly  pass  within  fair  shot, 
provided  you  are  well  concealed,  and  the  weather  is  windy  to  make  them  fly  low. 
Before  you  fire  at  them,  spring  suddenly  up,  and  these  awkward  birds  will  be  in  such  a 
fright  as  to  hover  together  and  present  a mark  like  a barn-door.” — The  extensive  muddy 
and  sandy  flats  between  Holy  island  and  the  coast  of  Northumberland  are  a great  winter 
resort  of  this  species.  It  is  also  particularly  abundant  on  muddy  and  sandy  flats  in 
Cromarty  bay.  The  markets,  both  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  are  well  supplied  with  it 
during  winter.  The  B.  G-.  is  known  in  some  parts  of  England  as  the  black  goose ; it  is 
considered  the  most  delicate  for  table  of  all  its  tribe,  and  is  perhaps  as  much  sought 
after  as  any.  The  B.  G.  differs  in  its  habits  from  the  common  gray  lag  and  several  other 
species,  inasmuch  as  it  never  feeds  on  fresh-water  herbage,  its  tastes  being  exclusively 
salinous.  B.  G.  may  be  distinguished,  when  on  the  wing,  by  their  black  bodies  and 
white  tails.  Folkhard,  in  his  excellent  work.  The  Wild  Fowler,  gives  much  interesting 
information  regarding  this  bird. 

BRENTON,  Edward  Pelham,  1774-1839;  a capt.  in  the  British  navy.  He  wrote 
^ Naml  History 'of  Great  Britain,  from  to  1822.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Chil- 

dren’s Friend  Society. 

BRENTON,  William,  d.  Newport,  R.  I.,  1674;  an  emigrant  from  England,  who 
held  important  offices  in  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  being  governor 
>of  the  latter,  1666-69. 

BRENZ,  Johann,  1499-1570;  a German  reformer  under  Luther;  a writer  of  great 
^ability  and  popularity.  One  of  his  teachings  was  that  the  body  of  the  Lord  is  every- 
where present;  hence  his  followers  were  called  “ Ubiquitarians. ” 

BRESCIA,  or  Bresciano,  a province  in  Lombardy,  Italy,  separated  from  Verona  by 
Lago  di  Garda;  1784  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71,  456,023.  The  n.  part  is  occupied  by  a chain  of 
the  Rhsetian  Alps ; the  remainder,  about  two  thirds  of  the  province,  is  a part  of  the 
-great  and  fertile  plain  of  Lombardy.  The  rivers  are  the  Oglio,  the  Mella,  and  the 
Chiese,  tributaries  of  the  Po.  Corn,  flax,  hemp,  grapes,  and  olives  are  cultivated.  The 
mountains  yield  iron,  copper,  marble,  alabaster,  and  granite.  There  are  manufactures 
of  silk,  wool,  cotton,  linen,  iron,  steel,  copper,  glass,  and  paper.  The  chief  towns  are 
Rovato,  Chiara,  Orzinnovo,  Monte-Chiaro,  Salo,  and  Pontevico. 

BRESCIA,  a city  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  in  Lombardy, 
rabout  60  m.  e.n.e.  of  Milan.  It  is  romantically  situated  on  the  rivers  Mella  and  Garza, 
in  a wide  fertile  plain,  at  the  base  of  several  hills.  The  railway  from  Milan  to  Venice 
passes  through  Brescia.  The  city  is  for  the  most  part  regularly  built, 'and,  besides  two 
•cathedrals,  the  old  and  the  new,  it  has  numerous  ancient  churches,  adorned  with  pictures 
and  frescos,  including  many  by  masters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Several  interesting 
antiquities  have  been  discovered.  It  has  a valuable  public  library,  the  BiUioteca  Qui- 
riniana,  founded  and  nobly  endowed  about  1750,  by  cardinal  Quirini,  a munificent 
•encourager  of  literature.  It  contains  upwards  of  30,000  volumes,  with  many  rare  manu- 
scripts. The  pop.  in  1872  was  38,906.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolen,  silk,  leather, 
paper,  etc.,  and  its  wine  is  of  good  quality.  The  old  name  of  B.  was  Brixia,  and  its 
inhabitants  were  allied  with  the  Romans  when  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Huns  during  their  migrations,  and  afterwards  passed  through  the  hands  of 
the  Longobards,  Charlemagne,  the  Franks,  and  the  Germans.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  under  Gaston  de  Foix,  in  1512,  when  it  is  stated  that  more  than  40,000  of  the 
inhabitants  were  massacred.  The  city  never  fully  recovered  from  the  effects  of  that 
inhurnan  sack  and  pillage.  In  Mar.,  1849,  B.,  as  the  only  important  town  opposed  to 
Austrian  rule  in  Lombardy,  was  besieged  by  Haynau,  and  forced  to  capitulate. 

BRESLAU,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Silesia,  Prussia,  is  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Ohlau  and  Oder.  Next  to  Berlin,  it  is  the  most  populous  city  in  Prussia;  its  pop. 
was  207,997  in  1871;  and  in  1875,  239,050,  more  than  the  half  of  whom  are  Protestants. 
The  Oder  divides  it  into  two  parts,  which  are  connected  by  numerous  handsome  bridges. 
The  fortifications  have  been  converted  into  beautiful  promenades,  and  the  ditch  has 
■;been  transformed  into  an  ornamental  sheet  of  water.  The  streets  of  the  new  portion  of 
U.  K.  III.— 3 


Bressani. 

Breton. 


34 


B.  are  spacious  and  regular,  and  the  houses  stately  and  handsome,  affording  a pleasant- 
contrast  to  the  somber,  massive  structures  of  the  old  town.  Educational  institutions- 
are  numerous,  including  a university  founded  by  the  emperor  Leopold  I.  in  1702,  and 
now  accommodating  from  900  to  1000  students.  The  library  contains  300,000  volumes. 
B.  has  many  churches,  the  most  remarkable  being  the  Protestant  church  dedicated  to 
St.  Elizabeth,  with  a steeple  364  ft.  in  height  (the  highest  in  Prussia),  and  a splendid 
organ.  The  position  of  B. , in  the  center  of  the  manufacturing  districts  of  the  province, 
secures  it  a large  trade,  which  its  railway  connection  with  all  the  important  cities  on 
every  side,  in  addition  to  the  facilities  of  communication  which  the  Oder  affords,  enables 
it  to  turn  to  the  best  account.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  woolens,  cotton,  silks,  lace, 
jewelry,  machines,  earthenware,  soap,  alum,  starch,  etc.,  and  upwards  of  100  distilleries; 
and  a trade  in  corn,  coal,  metals,  timber,  hemp,  and  flax.  B.  is  a city  of  Slavonic  ori- 
gin, and  was  for  many  centuries  occupied  alternately  by  the  Poles  and  the  Bohemians.  It- 
afterwards  passed  to  Austria,  from  which  it  was  taken  by  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  in 
1741.  Six  years  afterwards,  it  was  captured  by  the  Austrians,  after  a bloody  battle,  but 
retaken  by  Frederick  in  about  a month.  From  that  time  until  1814,  when  its  fortifica- 
tions were  completely  demolished,  it  was  frequently  besieged. 

BRESSA'NI,  Francesco  Giuseppe,  1612-72;  a Jesuit  missionary  among  the  Indians 
of  Canada.  In  1644,  he  was  sent  to  the  Huron  country,  but  was  captured  and  tortured, 
by  the  Iroquois.  After  great  suffering  he  was  sent  to  the  Dutch  settlements  at  Albany, 
where  he  was  ransomed  for  a large  sum.  He  returned  to  France,  but  came  back  to 
missionary  work  and  labored  many  years  among  the  Hurons. 

BRESSAT,  one  of  the  Shetland  isles,  e.  of  the  Mainland,  and  separated  from  Lerwick 
by  Bressay  sound.  It  is  6 m.  long  and  2 broad,  and  is  composed  of  Devonian  rocks. 
It  supplied  Lerwick  with  peat,  until  the  proprietor,  fearing  that  the  peat  might  be 
exhausted,  stopped  exportation;  and  it  continues  to  supply  the  Shetland  isles  with  slates. 
Pop.  ’71,  878,  chiefly  fishermen.  Bressay  sound  is  one  of  the  finest  natural  harbors  in 
the  world,  and  is  a rendezvous  for  herring-boats,  and  for  all  whalers  and  other  vessels: 
proceeding  north.  East  of  B.,  and  separated  from  it  by  a narrow  and  dangerous  sound, 
is  a rocky  isle,  called  Noss,  6 m.  in  circuit,  girt  on  all  sides  by  perpendicular  cliffs,  and 
rising  abruptly  from  the  sea  to  the  height  of  nearly  600  ft.,  with  a flattish  top.  A 
detached  rock,  or  holm,  on  the  s.e.  side  of  the  Noss,  used  to  be  communicated  with  by 
means  of  a cradle  or  wooden  chair  run  on  strong  ropes,  stretched  across  a yawning  gulf, 
and  admitting  a man  with  a sheep  to  be  drawn  over  at  a time. 

BREST,  a strongly  fortified  city,  in  the  department  of  Finist^re,  France,  and  one  of 
the  chief  naval  stations  of  the  empire,  is  situated  in  lat.  48°  24'  n.,  and  long.  4°  29'  w., 
on  the  n.  side  of  the  bay  or  road  of  Brest,  which  forms  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the 
world.  The  only  entrance  to  the  bay  is  by  a narrow  channel  called  Le  Goulet,  which  is 
scarcely  a mile  wide,  and  is  strongly  defended  by  batteries;  the  difficulty  and  danger  of 
access  to  hostile  ships  being  increased  by  certain  rocks  in  the  center  of  the  channel.  A 
new  floating  dock,  quays,  and  pier  were  completed  in  1876,  at  a cost  of  22,500,000*' 
francs.  The  small  river  Penfel  flows  through  the  town,  which  is,  on  the  whole, 
irregularly  built  on  an  uneven  site,  and  has  steep,  narrow,  dark,  and  very  dirty  streets. 
In  some  parts  communication  between  the  lower  and  upper  parts  of  the  town  can  be 
effected  only  by  stairs.  The  new  quarter,  the  parade,  and  the  quays,  are  more  cleanly. 
B.  has  extensive  ship-building  yards,  rope-walks,  store-houses,  etc. ; its  industry,  indeed, 
is  confined  entirely  to  the  equipment  of  the  navy  in  its  various  branches.  It  has  tele- 
graphic communication  with  America  by  a submarine  cable.  The  Bagnes  (q.v.)  or 
hulks  no  longer  exists,  the  prisoners  having  been  removed  to  the  penal  colony  of 
Cayenne.  Pop.  ’76,  exclusive  of  garrison,  66,828.  B.  is  a very  ancient  place,  but  it 
was  not  of  much  importance  until  the  17th  century.  Its  splendid  position  made  it  an 
object  of  contention  to  French,  English,  and  Spaniards.  In  1631,  Cardinal  Richelieu 
resolved  to  make  it  a naval  station,  and  commenced  the  fortifications,  which  were 
completed  by  Vauban,  but  have  since  been  greatly  extended.  In  1694,  the  English 
under  lord  Berkeley  were  repulsed  here  with  great  loss.  In  1794,  the  French  fleet, 
under  admiral  Villaret-Joyeuse,  was  defeated  off  B.  by  the  English  fleet  under  admiral 
Howe. 

BREST-LITOVSK,  a t.  in  the  government  of  Grodno,  Russia,  131  m.  s.  of  Grodno, 
in  52°  5'  n.  and  23°  27'  e.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Mukhovetz  and  the  Bug.  It  is  the  seat 
of  an  Armenian  bishop,  who  has  authority  over  the  Armenians  in  all  the  country.  It 
has  a varied  and  extensive  trade,  by  means  of  the  two  rivers  and  the  royal  canal,  in 
grain,  flax,  hemp,  birch-tar,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  ’67,  22,493. 

BRETAGNE,  or  Brit'tany  {Bntannia  Minor),  a peninsula  in  the  n.w.  of  France, 
formerly  a province,  and  now  divided  into  the  departments  of  Finist^re,  Cotes-du-Nord, 
Morbihan,  Loire-Inferieure,  and  Ille-et-Vilaine,  is  surrounded  by  the  sea  on  the  n.w. 
and  s.w.  Though  the  height  of  the  mountains  is  nowhere  considerable,  their  structure 
gives  to  the  peninsula  a wild  and  savage  aspect.  Clay-slate  forms  the  center  of  the 
country,  and  masses  of  granite  rise  in  the  n.  and  the  south.  The  climate  is  often  foggy, 
and  subject  to  violent  storms  of  wind.  Large  tracts  of  land  lie  uncultivated;  but  in  the 
well- watered  valleys,  vegetation  is  luxuriant.  In  ancient  times,  B.,  under  the  name  of 


35 


Bressanl. 

Breton. 


Armorica,  was  the  central  seat  of  the  confederated  Armorican  tribes,  who  were  of  Celtic 
and  Kymric  origin.  Traces  of  them  still  remain  in  the  old  Kymric  dialect  of  the  three 
most  westerly  departments,  and  in  the  numerous  so-called  Druidical  monuments.  The 
name  Armorica  was  changed  for  that  of  B.,  in  consequence  of  the  numerous  immigra- 
tions from  Great  Britain  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries.  The  peculiar,  shut-in  situation, 
and  the  characteristics  of  soil  and  climate  in  B.,  seem  to  have  had  a powerful  effect  on 
the  character  of  its  people.  The  Breton  has  generally  a tinge  of  melancholy  in  his 
disposition;  but  often  conceals,  under  a dull  and  indifferent  exterior,  a lively  imagin- 
ation  and  strong  feelings.  “ The  tenacity  with  which  the  Breton  clings  to  the  habits 
and  belief  of  his  forefathers,  is  apparent  by  his  retention  of  the  Celtic  language  almost 
universally  in  Basse  B.,  and  by  his  quaint  costume,  which  in  many  districts  is  that  of 
the  16th  century.”  The  greater  number  of  the  people  are  found  to  be  ignorant  and 
coarse  in  their  manners,  and  their  agriculture  is  of  a very  rude  character,  by  no 
means  calculated  to  develop  the  natural  resources  of  the  country.  Until  within 
recent  years,  B.  had  escaped  the  observation  of  tourists;  but  it  has  now  been  found  out, 
and  seems  likely  to  be  considerably  run  upon,  as  well  as  to  have  a pretty  extensive 
literature  of  its  own.  It  will  be  some  time  yet  before  it  is  exhausted,  and  apart  from 
the  beauty  of  its  scenery,  it  possesses  great  interest,  as  the  only  place  where  men  can  be 
seen  living  and  acting  much  as  our  forefathers  did  three  centuries  ago.  Under  the 
Romans,  the  country,  after  58  b.  c.  , was  made  the  Provinda  Lugdunenm  Tertia;  but  its 
subjugation  was  hardly  more  than  nominal,  and  it  was  entirely  liberated  in  the  4lh  c., 
when  it  was  . divided  into  several  allied  republican  states,  which,  afterwards,  w^ere 
changed  into  petty  monarchies.  B.  became  subject  to  the  Franks  in  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne,  and  was  handed  over  by  Charles  the  simple  to  the  Northmen  in  912. 
After  some  fierce  struggles,  the  Bretons  appear  to  have  at  length  acknowledged  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Norman  dukes.  Geoffroi,  count  of  Rennes,  was  the  first  to  assume 
the  title  of  duke  of  Bretagne  in  992.  The  duchy  of  B.  was  incorporated  with  France  in 
1532,  by  Francis  I.,  to  whom  it  had  come  by  marriage,  and  subsequently  shared  in  the 
general  fortunes  of  the  empire,  but  retained  a local  parliament  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution.  During  the  revolution,  B.,  which  was  intensely  loyal,  was  the  arena  of 
sanguinary  conflicts,  and  especially  of  the  movements  of  the  Chouans  (q.v.),  who  reap- 
peared as  recently  as  1832.  Daru,  Histoire  de  B.  (Par.  1826);  Roujoux,  Histoire  des  Bois 
des  Dues  de  B.  (Par.  1829);  Courson,  La  B.  du  5«  au  12«  Sihle  (1863);  Le  Saint,  La  B. 
Ancienne  et  Moderne  (1873);  De  Kerorguen,  Becherches  sur  les  Etats  de  B.  (1875). 

BRETHREN,  WHITE,  a sect  of  the  15th  c.  that  sprang  up  in  the  Italian  Alps. 
Their  leader  claimed  to  be  Elias  the  prophet ; they  were  clad  in  white,  and  carried  cruci- 
fixes from  which  blood  appeared  to  come.  The  leader,  who  appears  to  have  left  no 
name,  prophesied  the  destruction  of  the  world,  and  for  a time  had  great  success;  but 
Boniface  IX.  seized  the  prophet  and  burnt  him  at  the  stake,  and  within  a year  the  sect 
passed  out  of  existence. 

BRETHREN  AND  CLERKS  op  the  COMMON  LIFE,  or  op  the  Common  Lot. 
See  Brotherhoods,  Religious,  ante. 

BRETHREN  AND  SISTERS  op  the  FREE  SPIRIT,  or  Spiritualists.  See 
Beguines,  ante;  and  Brotherhoods,  Religious,  ante. 

BRETHREN  op  the  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS,  an  order  established  at  Rheims  in 
1679,  and  sanctioned  by  Benedict  XHI.  in  1725,  having  for  its  object  furnisbing  the  poor 
with  instruction.  In  Paris,  in  1792,  they  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  obedience  to  the 
•civil  constitution,  and  were  driven  from  their  houses  and  prohibited  from  teaching.  In 
1801,  they  returned  and  soon  spread  over  France,  Italy,  and  other  countries.  About 
1830,  they  opened  evening  schools  for  adults.  Their  chief  house  is  in  Paris,  and  in  1868 
they  had  more  than  10,000  brethren,  teaching  300,000  persons  in  France  alone.  There 
are  a number  of  them  in  the  United  States. 

BRETHREN  op  the  HOLY  TRINITY,  a society  of  the  12th  c.,  in  France,  whose 
members  were  pledged  to  give  a third  of  their  revenues  towards  the  redemption  of  Chris- 
tians who  were  in  Mohammedan  or  infidel  slavery. 

BRETIGNY,  a village  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Eure-et-Loir,  about  6 m. 
s.e.  of  Chartres,  on  the  railway  between  Paris  and  Orleans.  B.  is  celebrated  as  the  place 
where,  in  1360,  Edward  III.  concluded  a peace  with  France,  by  which  John  II.  of 
France  was  released  from  his  captivity  in  England,  on  agreeing  to  pay  3 million  crowns 
for  his  ransom,  England  renouncing  her  pretensions  to  Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  and 
Touraine,  and  being  confirmed  in  her  possession  of  Gascon}'-,  Guienne,  and  several  other 
parts  in  France  recently  acquired  by  conquest. 

BRETON,  Jules  Adolphe,  a French  painter  of  the  present  day,  excelling  in  rural 
life  and  scenes,  for  which  he  has  received  medals.  Among  his  works  are  “The 
Gleaners,”  “Evening,”  “Blessing  the  Grain,”  “The  Weeders,”  etc. 

BRETON  DE  LOS  HERREROS,  Don  Manuel,  the  most  popular  of  modern  Spanish 
poets,  was  b.  19th  Dec.,  1800,  at  Quel,  in  the  province  of  Logrono;  received  his  earliest 
•education  in  Madrid;  and  served  as  a volunteer  in  the  army  from  1814  to  1822.  Subse- 
quently, he  held  several  situations  under  government,  but  always  lost  them  on  account 
•of  his  expression  of  liberal  opinion.  As  early  as  his  17th  year,  he  wrote  a comedy, 


Bretsclineider. 

Breve. 


36 


entitled  A la  Yejez  Yiruelas,  whicli,  in  1824,  was  brought  upon  the  stage  with  great, 
success.  Henceforward  he  furnished  theatrical  managers  with  more  than  150  pieces, 
partly  original,  partly  adaptations  from  the  older  Spanish  classics,  and  partly  translai- 
tions  from  the  Italian  and  French,  most  of  which  have  been  highly  popular.  In  addition 
to  these,  Breton  de  los  Herreros  published  Poesias  Sueltas  (Madrid,  1831,  and  Paris, 
1840);  several  volumes  of  satirical  verse ; a long  humorous  poem,  called  La  Desmrguenza, 
Poema  Jocoserio  (Madrid,  1858),  etc.  All  Breton  de  los  Herreros’s  poems  are  remarkable- 
for  their  singularly  sweet,  yet  powerful  diction,  and  for  the  harmony  of  tlie  versifica- 
tion. His  peculiar  sphere  is  the  comic  and  the  satirical,  in  which  the  Spanish  or 
national  qualities  of  his  genius  find  their  freest  expression,  and  in  which  also  he  displays, 
most  ease  and  self-reliance.  Breton  de  los  Herreros  superintended  the  issue  of  a col- 
lected edition  of  his  poetical  works  in  1850-52  (5  vols.,  Madrid).  He  died  at  Madrid  in. 
Nov.,  1873. 

BRETSCHNEIDER,  Heinrich  Gottfried,  a man  remarkable  for  his  unsettled  life, 
eccentric  habits,  and  satirical  writings,  was  b,  at  Gera,  Mar.  6,  1739,  He  was  first  sent, 
for  education  to  the  institute  of  Herrnhuters  at  Elbersdorf,  and  afterwards  to  the  gym- 
nasium at  Gera,  He  became  capt.  of  horse  in  a Prussian  volunteer  corps,  in  which, 
service  he  was  made  prisoner,  and  retained  in  a French  fortification  till  1763,  In  1775, 
B.  visited  England,  France,  and  Holland;  and  in  1778  was  nominated  librarian  to  the 
university  of  Ofen,  where  he  was  persecuted  by  the  Jesuits,  whose  hatred  he  had 
excited.  This  circumstance  brought  him  under  the  notice  of  Joseph  II.,  who,  in  1782, 
appointed  him  one  of  the  inspectors  of  studies.  He  died  in  Nov.,  1810.  B,  was  the 
author  of  tales,  poems,  and  satires.  The  latter  are  attacks  upon  every  kind  of  injustice 
and  falsehood.  In  his  “ Almanac  of  the  Saints  {Ahnanacli  der  Heiligen)  for  the  year 
1788,  with  copper-plates  and  music,  printed  at  Rome,  with  the  permission  of  the  prin- 
cipals,” the  priesthood  is  severely  attacked,  and  the  legends  of  the  monks  ridiculed. 
Like  Nicolai,  B.  was  very  bitter  against  the  “ Werther”  mania  which  was  so  prevalent, 
in  his  time. 

BRETSCHNEIDER,  Karl  Gottlieb,  a distinguished  German  theologian,  b.  lltli 
Feb.,  1776,  at  Gersdorf,  in  Saxony,  studied  theology  at  Leipsic,  was  appointed  pastor 
at  Schneeberg  in  1807,  general  superintendent  at  Gotha  in  1816,  and  in  1840  obtained 
the  dignity  of  a councilor  of  the  upper  consistory.  He  died  22d  Jan.,  1848.  B.  has. 
acquired  a reputation  for  sober,  reflective,  rationalistic  thought.  The  character  of  his. 
intellect  rendered  him  unable  to  enter  into  the  profound  speculations  of  men  like  Schlei- 
ermacher  and  Schelling;  but  nevertheless,  by  his  diligence,  clear,  incisive  understanding, 
and  strength  of  character,  he ’has  secured  a permanent  place  in  the  history  of  German 
theology.  His  most  important  work  in  dogmatics  is  the  Manual  of  the  Evangelical  Luth- 
eran Church  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1814-18).  In  1824,  B.  published  Lexicon  Manuale  Grceco- 
Latinum  in  Libros  Novi  Testainenti  (2  vols. , Leip.  1824).  In  1832,  appeared  Per  Simonis- 
mus  unddas  Christenthum;  in  1835,  Die  Iheologie  und  die  Revolution.  B.  also  published, 
many  sermons,  which  have  been  well  received,  and  in  other  departments  of  theology 
and  literature  he  is  considered  to  have  done  important  service. 

BRETT,  Philip  Milledoler,  d.d.,  1817-60;  b.  New  York;  a graduate  of  Rutgers, 
college ; ordained  in  the  Dutch  Reformed  church  in  1838,  and  held  pastorates  in  various- 
places  near  New  York.  A volume  of  his  sermons  is  in  print. 

BRET'TEN,  a t.  of  Baden,  about  13  m.  e.  of  Carlsruhe,  chiefly  noteworthy  as  the 
birthplace  of  Melanchthon.  The  house  in  which  he  was  born  is  pointed  out  to  trav- 
elers. Pop.  ’71,  3433. 

BRETTS  AND  SCOTS,  The  Laws  of  the  (Lat.  Leges  inter  Brettos  et  Scotos,  old  Fr. 
Lusage  de  Scotis  et  de  Bretis),  the  name  given,  in  the  13th  c.,  to  a code  of  laws  in  use- 
among  the  Celtic  tribes  in  Scotland.  The  “ Scots”  were  the  Celtic  people  dwelling  in 
the  western  and  more  mountainous  districts  n.  of  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  who,  when 
it  became  necessary  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Teutonic  inhabitants  of  the  low  coun- 
try, received  the  names  of  “the  wild  Scots,”  “the  Irishry  of  Scotland,”  and,  more 
recently,  “the  Scotch  highlanders.”  The  “ Bretts”  were  the  remains  of  the  British  or 
Welsh  people,  who  were  at  one  time  the  sole  or  chief  inhabitants  of  the  region  now 
divided  into  the  shires  of  Dumbarton,  Renfrew,  Ayr,  Lanark,  Peebles,  Selkirk,  Rov- 
burgh,  Dumfries,  and  Cumberland,  This  province  was  for  some  centuries  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom,  known  by  the  names  of  “Cambria,”  “ Cumbria,”  “ Strathclyde,”  and 
“Strathclyde  and  Reged.”  It  became,  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  c.,  a tributary 
principality  held  of  the  king  of  the  English,  by  the  heir  of  the  king  of  the  Scots.  It 
so  continued  till  after  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c.,  -when  Cumberland  having  been 
incorporated  with  England,  the  gradual  absorption  of  the  rest  of  the  territory  into  the 
dominions  of  the  king  of  the  Scots  seems  to  have  been  imperceptibly  completed.  The 
last  “ prince  of  Cumb^i'ia”  named  in  record  was  the  brother  and  heir  of  king  Alexander 
I.  of  Scotland,  “the  earl  David,”  as  he  was  called,  who,  on  his  brother’s  death  in  1124, 
himself  became  king  of  the  Scots.  No  more  is  heard  of  Cumbria  as  a principality;  but 
“ the  Welsh”  continue  to  be  named  among  its  inhabitants,  in  the  charters  of  king  David  ? 
grandsons — king  Malcolm  the  maiden  (1153-65),  and  king  William  the  lion  (1165-1214'. 
And  they  seem  to  have  retained  more  or  less  of  tlieir  ancient  Celtic  laws  until  after  th 


37 


Bretschneider. 

Breve. 


beginning  of  the  14th  century.  It  was  not  till  the  year  1305  that  an  ordinance  of  king 
Edward  I.  of  England,  who  appeared  then  to  have  reduced  all  Scotland  to  his  subjec- 
tion, decreed  “that  the  usages  of  the  Scots  and  the  Bretts  be  abolished,  and  no  more 
used.”  It  is  unknown  how  far  this  prohibition  took  effect.  Of  the  code  which  it  pro- 
scribed, only  a fragment  has  been  preserved.  It  was  first  printed  by  sir  John  Skene, 
in  his  Regiam  Majestatem  (Edin.  1609).  But  by  far  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Mr.  Thomas 
Thomson  and  Mr.  Cosmo  Innes,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Parliaments  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  pp. 
299-301  (Edin.  1844),  where  the  laws  are  given  in  three  languages — Latin,  French,  and 
English.  The  French  version,  which  is  the  oldest,  is  printed  from  a manuscript  of  about 
1270,  formerly  in  the  public  library  at  Bern,  in  Switzerland,  now  in  the  register  house 
at  Edinburgh.  The  fragment  of  the  “ laws  of  the  Bretts  and  the  Scots”  thus  published, 
is  of  much  the  same  nature  as  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  Welsh,  the 
Irish,  and  other  nations  of  Western  Europe.  It  fixes  the  cro,  or  price  at  which  every 
man  was  valued,  according  to  his  degree,  from  the  king  down  to  the  churl, 'and  which, 
if  he  were  slain^  was  to  be  paid  to  his  kindred  by  the  homicide  or  his  kindred.  The  cro 
of  the  king  was  1000  cows;  of  the  king’s  son,  or  of  an  earl,  150  cows;  of  an  earl’s  son 
or  of  a thane,  100  cows;  of  a thane’s  son,  66f  cows;  of  the  nephew  of  a thane,  or  of  an 
ogthiern,  44  cows  and  21f  pence;  and  of  a villain  or  churl,  16  cows — all  persons  of 
lower  birth  than  a thane’s  nephew,  or  an  ogthiern,  being  accounted  villains  or  churls. 
The  cro  of  the  married  woman  was  less  by  a third  than  the  cro  of  her  husband.  The 
cro  of  the  unmarried  woman  was  as  much  as  the  cro  of  her  brother.  Other  chapters  fix 
every  man’s  helchyn  or  gelchach,  gallnes,  and  enauch — Celtic  terms  not  yet  satisfactorily 
interpreted,  but  apparently  equivalent  to  the  fyhtwite,  mund,  and  manhot  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon,  as  the  cro  of  the  Bretts  and  Scots  appears  to  answer  to  the  wergild  of  the  English. 
A chapter  “of  blood-drawing” — corresponding  with  the  Uodwyte  of  the  Anglo-Saxons — 
fixes  the  fine  to  be  paid  for  a blow  to  the  effusion  of  blood,  according  to  the  degree  of 
the  person  wounded  and  the  place  of  the  wound. 

BEETJGHEL,  the  name  of  a famous  family  of  Dutch  painters. — Peter  B.,  the  head 
of  the  family,  wash,  in  the  village  of  B.,  near  Breda,  in  1510  (or,  as  others  say,  1530\ 
and  d.  at  Brussels  in  1570  or  1590.  He  was  a scholar  of  Peter  Koeck  van  Aelst,  traveled 
through  Italy  and  France,  and  on  his  return,  fixed  his  residence  at  Antwerp.  He  painted 
chiefly  the  pleasures  of  rustic  life,  for  which  he  himself  had  a great  relish,  and  which  he 
transferred  to  his  canvas  with  clear  insight  and  vivid  coloring,  though  unnecessarily 
exceeding  at  times  the  coarseness  of  his  subject.  He  also  executed  several  historical 
pieces,  such  as  his  “Building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,”  now  preserved  in  the  gallery  at 
Vienna. — His  son,  Peter  B.,  distinguished  by  the  strange  title  “Hellish  Breughel” — 
because  he  loved  to  paint  scenes  in  which  the  leading  characters  were  devils,  hags,  rob- 
bers, etc. — was  b.  about  1569,  and  d.  1625.  His  paintings  of  “Orpheus”  and  the 
“Temptation  of  St.  Antony”  are  the  most  remarkable  of  his  pieces. — Jan  B., 
brother  of  the  preceding,  and  on  account  of  the  splendid  apparel  which  he  wore  when 
he  became  rich,  usually  called  Velvet  B.,  was  b.  1568  or  1575,  and  d.  1625  or  1640.  He 
was  an  industrious  painter,  distinguished  for  his  landscapes  and  for  his  minute  finish  of 
small  figures.  In  concert  with  Rubens,  who  supplied  the  two  chief  figures,  he  painted 
“Adam  and  Eve  in  Paradise,”  and  “ Vertumnus  and  Bellona.”  These,  with  the  “ Four 
Elements,”  are  his  chief  works. — Other  members  of  the  same  family  were  known  as 
painters:  Ambrose  B.,  director  of  the  academy  of  painting,  Antwerp,  between  the  years 
1635  and  1670;  Abraham  B.,  a painter  of  fruits,  flowers,  and  birds,  lived  long  in  Rome 
and  Naples,  where  he  d.  in  1690;  Jan  Baptist  B.,  b.  in  Rome,  d.  1700;  and  Anally, 
Caspar  B.  , both  of  whom  were  flower-painte^. 

BREVARD,  a large  co.  in  s.e.  Florida,  on  the  Atlantic  ocean;  5600  sq.m.;  pop,  ’80, 
1478.  It  is  low,  flat,  and  full  of  lakes  and  marshes.  Along  the  coast  is  Indian  river,  an 
inlet  of  the  ocean.  There  is  little  cultivation  and  there  are  no  large  villages. 

BREVE.  See  Ant-catcher. 

BREVE,  a note  in  music,  which,  in  the  old  notation  of  Guido  d’ Arezzo,  had  the  value 
of  two  whole  bars.  It  is  written  thus,  |zz:|  , or  |s>| , or  \\s\\.  The  note  for  a whole  bar 
in  modern  notation  is  called  semibreve,  and  has  the  value  of  four  crotchets.  In  triple 
time,  the  B.  contained  three  semibreves.  The  B.  is  now  only  used  in  a la  capella  move- 
ments, psalm-tunes,  and  fugues,  or  at  the  close  of  a composition. 

BREVE,  or  Brieve,  in  the  practice  of  the  Scotch  law,  is  a writ  issuing  from  chancery 
in  the  name  of  the  crown,  to  a judge,  ordering  him  to  try  by  jury  the  points  or  ques- 
tions stated  in  the  breve.  In  ancient  times,  these  writs  appear  to  have  been  the  founda- 
tion of  almost  all  civil  actions  in  Scotland;  but  they  are  now  only  used  in  the  following 
cases;  1.  B.  of  inquest,  now,  however,  superseded  by  a petition  of  service,  according  to 
the  10  and  11  Viet.  c.  47.  The  object  of  the  proceeding  is  judicially  to  ascertain  che  heir 
of  a deceased  person.  2.  B.  of  tutory,  the  purpose  of  which  is"  the  appointment,  as 
guardian  to  a pupil,  of  the  nearest  agnate  or  person  most  nearly  related  through  the 
father.  3.  Breves  of  idiotry  and  furiosity,  by  which  the  mental  condition  of  a party 
ma}^  be  determined  for  the  appointment,  in  case  of  ascertained  insanity,  of  a guardian 
or  curator.  In  the  B.  of  idiotry,  the  direction  is  to  inquire  whether  the  person  is  of 
unsound  mind,  furious,  and  naturally  an  idiot.  In  the  breve  of  furiosity,  it  is  whether 


firevet. 

Brevipennes. 


38 


he  be  of  unsound  mind,  prodigal,  and  furious.  4.  B,  of  terce.  The  object  of  this  writ 
is  to  “cognosce  the  widow  to  her  terce  ” — that  is,  to  enable  her  to  recover  her  terce  or 
dower.  It  is  issued  to  the  sheriff  of  the  county,  and  the  jury  under  his  presidency  are 
directed  to  inquire  whether  the  claimant  was  the  lawful  wife  of  the  deceased,  and 
whether  the  husband  died  infeft  in  the  lands  from  which  the  terce  is  claimed.  The 
verdict  of  the  jury  gives  the  widow  her  terce,  and  the  judge  then  “ kens  ” her  to  it.  See 
Terce,  and  Kenning  to  the  Terce.  5.  B.  of  division  amongst  heir-portioners.  By 
means  of  this  B.,  an  heir-portioner — that  is,  one  of  two  or  more  sisters  succeeding  iu 
equal  portions  to  a landed  estate — may  have  her  share  of  the  lands  separated  or  set  apart 
by  a judge,  who  appoints  an  inquest,  or  jury  of  fifteen  persons,  to  measure  the  land,  and 
make  a division;  the  jury  report  to  the  judge;  and  lots  being  cast  for  the  different 
shares,  the  judge  decides  accordingly.  The  form  is,  however,  now  seldom  used,  an  arbi- 
tration being  more  generally  resorted  to.  See  Inheritance,  Succession,  Heirs-Por- 

TIONERS. 

BREVET'  (Fr.  a writ  or  warrant),  in  the  British  army,  is  a promotion*of  officers,  now 
strictly  limited  in  its  application,  but  before  1854  a recognized  though  occasional  mode 
of  conferring  a large  measure  of  general  promotion  throughout  the  army.  It  took  place 
under  various  circumstances.  If  no  special  cause  interfered,  a general  promotion  by  B. 
used  in  former  times  to  be  made  once  in  about  six  years;  but  in  more  recent  years 
it  was  limited  to  very  special  occasions,  as  a coronation,  the  birth  of  an  heir  to 
the  throne,  the  termination  of  some  great  war,  etc.,  and  was  limited  to  officers 
who  had  some  particular  claim  to  promotion.  The  officers  so  promoted  obtained  an 
increase  of  rank,  and  in  some  cases  pay,  even  if  they  had  never  served  in  the  field. 
A B.  was  determined  on  by  the  cabinet,  and  carried  out  by  the  commander-in-chief. 
The  officers  expected  it,  as  one  of  the  implied  conditions  on  entering  the  service,  and  it 
had  formed  part  of  the  British  military  system  ever  since  the  time  of  James  II. ; but  it 
was  unsatisfactory,  because  the  flow  of  promotion  caused  by  it  was  arbitrary,  uncertain, 
and  much  liable  to  abuse.  There  were  brevets,  arising  out  of  the  various  circumstances 
above  indicated,  in  1837,  1838,  1841,  1846,  1851,  and  1854.  On  these  occasions,  lieut.- 
generals,  maj. generals,  colonels,  lieut.  colonels,  majors,  and  captains  received  a promo- 
tion of  one  grade  in  rank.  On  one  of  these  occasions,  200  colonels  were  at  once  made 
maj. generals.  The  higher  the  rank,  the  higher  the  pay,  as  a general  rule;  and  therefore 
the  cost  to  the  nation  is  always  increased  for  a time  after  each  brevet.  Thus  the  B.  of 
1837  occasioned  an  annual  increase  of  £11,000;  that  of  1838,  £7000;  of  1841,  £15,000; 
of  1846,  £21,000,  etc. ; but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  death  and  sales  had  in  the 
intervals  cleared  off  perhaps  an  equal  number  of  officers  at  the  higher  rates  of  pay.  In 
1854,  the  new  maj. generals  alone  involved  an  additional  charge  of  £18,000  a year. 

The  above  description  applied  before  1854.  In  that  year,  general  brevets  were  abol- 
ished— a fixed  establishment  of  general  officers  being  substituted.  The  only  brevets  now 
are  obtained  by  service  of  five  years  as  lieut.col.  (making  the  officer  brevet  col.,  with- 
out increase  of  pay);  by  distinguished  service  in  the  field,  applicable  to  lieut. colonels, 
majors,  and  captains  (carrying  the  substantive  pay  of  the  higher  rank,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  lieut.col.);  and  by  succession,  when  a death  occurs  among  the  establishment  of 
general  officers.  In  this  last  case  there  is  no  brevet  promotion  to  the  rank  of  col.,  but 
tile  senior  maj.  in  the  whole  army  and  marines  becomes  a brevet  lieut.col.  without 
increase  of  pay,  and  the  senior  capt.  a brevet-maj.  with  2s.  a day  extra.  Officers  become 
maj.  generals,  in  accordance  with  their  seniority  as  brevet  colonels,  and  it  will  be  seen, 
from  the  above  description,  that  the  brevet  rank  of  col.,  which  is  the  stepping-stone  to 
maj.gen.,  is  obtainable  ^ 

Other  matters  having  reference  to  this  subject  will  be  found  treated  under  the  article 
Commissions,  Army. 

As  brevet  rank  was  neither  purchasable  nor  salable,  the  abolition  of  the  purchase-sys- 
tem made  no  alteration. 

There  is  no  B.  promotion  in  the  navy. 

BREVET  (ante),  in  the  U.  S.  arm)^  a commission  giving  an  officer  a nominal  rank 
higher  than  that  for  which  he  has  a salary.  A great  number  of  these  honorary  titles 
were  bestowed  during  and  after  the  civil  war. 

BREVIA'RIUM  ALARICA'NUM,  a collection  of  Roman  laws  compiled  by  order  of 
Alaric  II.,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  in  506  a.d.  The  chief  value  of  this  compilation  is  that 
it  preserves  the  first  five  books  of  the  Theodosian  code  and  five  books  of  the  Senientim 
Receptee  of  Julius  Paulus,  which  are  nowhere  else  found. 

BREVIARY.  B}'’  this  title  we  are  to  understand  an  abbreviation,  as  well  as  an 
amended  arrangement  of  the  more  ancient  offices  used  at  the  seven  canonical  hours, 
which  are  matins,  prime,  tierce,  sext,  nones,  vespers,  and  compline.  See  (Canonical 
Hours.  The  books  in  which  these  offices  were  contained  were  formerly  distinct — viz. : 
1.  The  Psalter,  which  included  the  Psalms  of  David  according  to  St.  Jerome’s  Galbian 
version,  the  Te  Deum,  the  Athanasian  creed,  etc. ; 2.  The  Bible;  3.  The  Antiphonarium, 
containing  the  anthems  and  responsories ; 4.  The  Hymnarium;  5.  The  ColUctarium,  or 
the  collects  to  be  said  at  the  end  of  the  services;  6.  The  Homilarium,  Pasdonarium,  and 


39 


Brevet. 

Brevipennes. 


Ma/rtyrologium,  containing  the  comments  of  the  fathers  upon  the  gospel  of  the  day,  and 
accounts  of  the  martyrdoms  of  the  saints  for  each  distinct  festival.  Out  of  all  these  sep- 
arate books,  the  B.  was  compiled,  about  the  11th  c.,  by  pope  Gregory  VII.,  as  is  sup- 
posed; the  lessons,  anthems,  hymns,  and  rcsponsories  for  the  different  days  of  the  year 
being  all  arranged,  in  their  proper  places,  in  the  same  volume  with  the  psalter, 
prayers,  etc.  In  later  times,  the  B.  was  divided  into  two  parts,  one  for  each  half  of  tho 
year,  as  was  the  case  with  those  of  Salisbury,  York,  and  Hereford,  used  in  England;  and 
afterwards  into  four  parts,  so  as  to  be  more  portable,  whence  it  was  also  called  Porti- 
forium.  It  may  perhaps  be  necessary  to  inform  our  Protestant  readers  that  the  B.  is  an 
entirely  distinct  book  from  the  Missal  (q.v.),  the  latter  containing  the  proper  ofiSces  for 
the  service  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 

The  last  settlement  of  the  B.  was  under  the  pontificate  of  Pius  V.,  and  his  bull  of 
1568  was  that  by  which  the  present  daily  office  of  the  Roman  church  is  authorized. 
This  edition  was  compiled  by  the  college  of  sacred  rites  at  Rome,  in  conformity  with  the 
decrees  of  the. council  of  Trent,  because  of  the  variety  otuses,  as  they  were  called,  which 
at  that  time  existed  in  different  dioceses.  The  bull  of  Pius  V.  abolished  the  use  of  all 
breviaries,  except  such  as  could  prove  a prescription  of  200  years.  This  exception 
would  have  extended  to  the  breviaries  of  Salisbury  and  York,  if  the  church  of  England 
had  not  already  thrown  off  Rome’s  supremacy,  and  compiled  a new  book  of  common 
prayer  for  herself.  After  this,  in  1602,  Clement  VIII.  had  a standard  edition  printed  at 
the  Vatican,  to  which  all  future  editions  were  to  conform;  and  again,  in  1631,  Urban 
VIII.  caused  the  meters  of  the  hymns  and  the  Latinity  of  the  whole  to  be  carefully  revised. 
It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  the  B.  is  in  Latin,  portions  of  it  being  sometimes 
translated  for  the  use  of  the  unlearned.  Itis  necessarily  a very  bulky  volume,  when  com- 
plete ; and  although  some  of  the  legends  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  may  be  of  doubtful 
authenticity,  yet  it  is  a mine  of  interesting  and  devotional  reading.  Its  general  contents 
may  be  judged  of  from  what  has  been  already  stated  as  to  the  sources  from  which  they 
were  drawn,  every  saint  in  the  calendar  having  his  proper  services  for  the  different 
canonical  hours.  The  festivals  of  the  Roman  church  have  their  services,  according  to 
their  importance,  duplex,  semi-duplex,  or  simplex — i.e.,  double,  semi-double,  or  simple; 
these,  again,  are  further  distinguished,  so  that  there  are  no  less  than  9 classes  of  services 
— the  Ferial  or  ordinary  week-day,  the  simple,  the  day  with  an  octave,  the  semi-double, 
the  dominical  or  Sunday,  the  double,  greater  double,  double  of  the  second  class,  double 
of  the  first  class.  Indeed,  so  elaborate  and  perplexing  are  the  rubrical  directions,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  form  any  idea  of  them  without  consulting  the  B.  itself,  and  there  are 
probably  but  few  of  the  priests  who  are  thoroughly  conversant  with  their  own  ritual. 

The  B.  contains,  besides  an  office  for  the  dead  and  other  smaller  offices,  three  kinds 
of  office  in  honor  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary — viz. : 1.  The  full  office,  said  on  such  festi- 
vals as  the  Purification,  Annunciation,  Immaculate  Conception,  Assumption,  etc. ; L.  the 
office  of  the  Virgin  Mary  on  Saturdays;  3.  What  is  called  the  “little  office,”  or  the  hours 
of  the  Virgin.  This  last  was  in  use  as  early  as  the  7c.,  and  was  enjoined  by  the  council 
of  Claremont,  1096,  to  be  said  by  the  clergy  daily,  and  by  the  laity  on  Saturdays,  but 
the  bull  of  Pius  V.  removed  this  obligation  except  as  to  clergy  in  choirs.  The  Roman 
church  enjoins,  under  pain  of  excommunication,  all  “ religioiis”  persons — i.e.,  all  per- 
sons, male  or  female,  who  have  taken  vows  in  any  religious  order — to  repeat,  either  in 
public  or  private,  the  services  of  the  canonical  hours  as  contained  in  the  breviary.  For 
the  infiuence  of  the  old  breviaries  on  the  English  common  prayer-book  (q.v.),  consult 
Palmer’s  Antiquities  of  the  English  Ritual,  and  Maskell’s  Monumenta  Ritualia.  The  matins 
or  morning-prayer  of  the  English  prayer-book  is  an  abridgment,  with  many  omissions 
and  additions,  of  the  matins,  lauds,  and  prime  of  the  B.,  whilst  the  office  of  even-song, 
or  evening-prayer,  is  in  like  manner  an  abridgment  of  the  ancient  vespers  and  compline. 

BREVIPEN'NES  (Lat.  short- winged),  in  ornithology,  according  to  the  system  of  Cuvier, 
that  tribe  of  the  order  grallatores  (q.v.)  in  which  the  ostrich,  cassowary,  rhea  or  nandou, 
emu,  and  apteryx  are  comprised,  and  also  the  extinct  dodo. — See  these  articles.  The  B. 
are  characterized  by  a shortness  of  wing  which  incapacitates  them  for  flight,  but  use 
their  wings  to  aid  them  in  running,  which  they  do  with  great  rapidity.  Their  sternum 
(breast-bone)  has  no  ridge  or  keel.  They  constitute  the  family  struthionidce  of  many 
ornithologists,  and  by  some  are  placed  among  gallinaceous  (q.v.)  birds,  to  which  they 
are  allied  by  the  form  of  their  bill  and  their  choice  of  food.  They  are,  however,  very 
different  from  all  other  birds,  and  whether  ranked  among  grallatores  or  gallinaceous 
birds,  do  not  seem  to  form  a natural  part  of  the  order.  The  gigantic  dinoris  (q.v.)  and 
o'ther  fossil  birds  of  great  interest  exhibit  the  characters  of  the  hreripennes. 

Gigantic  birds,  of  which  the  footsteps  appear  imprinted  on  sandstones  in  the  valley 
of  the  Connecticut  and  elsewhere,  seem  also  to  have  belonged  to  this  tribe.  No  remains 
or  traces  of  such  birds  are,  however,  found  nearly  so  ancient  as  many  remains  of  quad- 
rupeds. But  to  whatever  geological  period  the  commencement  of  their  existence  is  to  be 
referred,  a peculiar  interest  is  attached  to  them,  because  its  close  may  be  regarded  as 
probably  near.  There  is  no  tribe  of  birds  that  more  generally  shuns  man,  or  disappears 
before  the  increase  of  population  and  the  progress  of  colonization.  The  cassowary  and 
the  emu  are  rapidly  becoming  rare.  The  ostrich,  the  rhea,  the  apteryx,  the  notornis, 
etc.,  are  only  found  in  deserts  or  other  deep  solitudes. 


Brevlpennes. 

Bribery. 


40 


BREVIPENNES,  or  Brevipennates,  meaning  “ short-winged,”  a term  for  such 
birds  as  the  ostrich,  cassowary,  apteryx,  and  others  having  very  short  wings,  not  fitted 
for  flying.  Such  birds  usually  live  in  solitary  places  or  deserts. 

BREWER,  at.  in  Penobscot  co..  Me.,  on  the  Penobscot  river,  opposite  the  cit}’’ of 
Bangor,  on  the  Bucksport  and  Bangor  railroad;  pop.  3214.  It  has  lumber  and  leather 
manufactories. 

BREWING.  For  the  process  of  B.  see  Beer.  The  legal  requirements  for  the  B.  of 
beer  for  sale  will  be  found  in  many  acts  of  parliament,  from  the  12  Chas.  II.  c.  24,  to  33 
and  34  Viet.  c.  32  s.  10,-  changes  being  of  late  frequent.  Instead  of  licenses  to  brew,  as 
formerly,  duties  are  levied  on  the  quantity  of  beer  brewed,  according  to  a scale  which 
ranges  from  a quantity  not  exceeding  20  barrels  to  one  that  shall  exceed  40,000  barrels, 
the  duty  itself  beginning  at  10s.,  and  rising  up  to  £75,  according  to  the  quantity.  In 
the  case  of  that  kind  of  beer  called  table  beer,  it  is  provided  that  the  duty  on  such  shall 
in  no  case  exceed  £2,  no  matter  how  large  the  quantity  brewed  may  be.  Brewers  are 
not  to  retail  or  sell  beer  at  any  other  place  than  their  licensed  B.  premises,  and  if  they 
wish  to  sell  beer  at  other  places,  they  must  get  a license  for  these  places  also ; but  it  is 
provided  that  the  taking  orders  for  the  sale  of  beer  in  any  quantity  amounting  to  or 
exceeding  4^  gallons,  or  two  dozen  reputed  quart  bottles  at  one  time,  sent  to  the  purchaser 
direct  from  the  B.  premises,  shall  not  be  deemed  a selling  of  beer  at  any  other  place. 
Several  of  the  above  acts  (the  13  and  14  Viet.)  contain  provisions  respecting  the  duties 
to  be  levied  on  sugar  used  in  B.,  providing  that  such  duties  shall  be  at  the  rate  of  Is.  4d. 
for  every  cwt.  of  sugar;  and  brewers  are  to  make  true  entry,  in  the  book  kept  for  that 
purpose  by  the  exeise,  of  the  quantity  of  sugar,  in  pounds-weight  avoirdupois,  used  in 
B.,  under  a penalty  of  £200,  over  and  above  any  other  penalties  to  which  they  may  be 
liable.  The  acts  contain  numerous  other  regulations,  too  minute  for  further  detail  here. 
3ee  Beer,  Beer  Acts,  Licenses. 

Anciently,  in  Scotland,  the  privilege  of  B.  was  given  by  a license  from  the  superior 
Dr  lord,  in  whose  deed  of  gift  or  charter  to  his  vassals  there  was  generally  a clause  cum 
Wueriis.  But  these  forms  have  long  been  dispensed  with.  It  appears,  however,  that  a 
person  with  the  right  of  barony  may  prevent  a feuar,  that  is,  a tenant  of  property  within 
the  barony  or  a stranger,  from  importing  and  vending  ale  within  the  baronial  limits 
without  his  license. 

BREWSTER,  Sir  David,  an  eminent  natural  philosopher  and  eloquent  writer,  was  b. 
at  Jedburgh,  Dec.  11,  1781.  He  was  educated  for  the  church  of  Scotland  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  where  he  highly  distinguished  himself.  In  1808,  he  undertook  the  editor 
ship  of  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia,  to  which  he  contributed  many  important  scientific 
articles.  Previous  to  this,  he  had  entered  deeply  on  the  study  of  optics,  with  which  his 
name  is  now  enduringly  associated.  The  beautiful  philosophical  toy,  called  the  kaleid- 
oscope, was  invented  by  him  in  1816.  In  1819,  in  conjunction  wdth  prof.  Jameson, 
he  established  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal;  and  in  1831  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
originators  of  the  British  association  for  the  advancement  of  science.  The  honors  con- 
ferred on  this  distinguished  man  make  up  a long  catalogue.  In  1815,  he  obtained  the 
Copley  medal  of  the  royal  society  for  one  of  his  optical  discoveries,  and  soon  after  was 
elected  a fellow;  in  1816,  he  received  half  the  physical  prize  bestowed  by  the  French 
institute  for  two  of  the  most  important  scientific  discoveries  made  in  Europe  during  the 
two  preceding  years;  in  1819,  the  royal  society  awarded  him  the  Rumfordgold  and  silver 
medals,  for  his  discovery  on  the  polarization  of  light;  in  1825,  he  became  corresponding 
member  of  the  institute  of  France;  in  1832,  he  was  knighted,  and  had  a pension  con- 
ferred upon  him;  in  1838,  he  was  chosen  principal  of  the  united  colleges  of  St.  Leonard 
and  St.  Salvador,  St.  Andrews;  in  1849,  on  the  death  of  Berzelius,  in  the  preceding  year, 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  associates  of  the  French  institute,  the  highest 
scientific  distinction  in  Europe.  Sir  David  was  also  a member  of  the  imperial  and  royal 
academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Berlin,  Copenhagen,  and  Stockholm;  presided  over  the 
British  association,  and  in  1851,  over  the  peace  congress  held  in  London.  In  1859,  on 
the  death  of  Dr.  John  Lee,  he  was  chosen  principal  of  the  Edinburgh  university.  His 
principal  work  is  his  Life  of  Newton,  first  published  in  1828,  in  the  Family  Library,  and 
issued  in  a totally  new  and  greatly  enlarged  form  in  1855.  Among  his  other  works  are 
his  interesting  Letters  on  Natural  Magic,  addressed  to  sir  Walter  Scott,  also  published  in 
the  Family  Library;  More  Worlds  than  One  (1854);  his  treatises  on  the  kaleidoscope  and 
on  optics  (Cabinet  Oydopcedia)-,  his  Martyrs  of  Science;  and  his  treatises  in  the  Encyclope- 
dia Briiannica  on  electricity,  magnetism,  optics,  the  stereoscope,  etc.  Among  other 
periodicals  to  which  he  contributed  largely  are  the  Edinburgh  and  North  British 
Reviews.  He  died  Feb.,  1868.  See  Home  Life  of  B.  by  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Gordon 
(1869). 

BREWSTER,  William,  1560-1644;  b.  England;  one  of  the  pilgrims  who  landed  at 
Plymouth.  He  went  with  Bradford  to  Holland,  where  he  taught  school  in  English, 
became  an  elder  in  the  church,  and  held  the  same  position  in  New  England,  though,  as 
he  had  never  been  ordained,  he  always  refused  to  administer  the  sacraments.  He  is 
more  generally  known  in  history  as  “Elder  Brewster.” 


41 


Brevipennes. 

Bribery. 


BREZO  'WA,  a market  t,  of  Hungary,  in  the  co.  of  Neutra,  on  a river  of  the  same 
name,  about  19  m.  n.w.  of  Leopoldstadt.  It  has  a Roman  Catholic  church  and  a Prot- 
estant church,  tanneries,  and  distilleries.  Pop.  ’69,  5886. 

BRIALMONT,  Henri  Alexis,  b.  1821 ; a Belgian  engineer  and  military  writer,  and 
member  of  various  learned  societies.  He  has  published  a number  of  works  on  the  art 
and  methods  of  military  fortifications,  on  which  he  is  accepted  as  one  of  the  best  author- 
ities. 

BRIAN  BOROIMHE  (pron.  boru'),  a famous  king  of  Ireland,  ascended  the  throne  of 
both  Munsters — answering  to  the  present  counties  of  Tipperary  and  Clare — in  978. 
Some  time  afterwards,  he  deposed  O’Maelachaghlin,  and  became  supreme  ruler  of  Ire' 
Jand.  The  surname,  Boroimhe,  signifying  tax,  was  given  him  in  consequence  of  the 
tribute  in  kind  he  levied  from  the  various  provinces.  King  Brian  supported  a rude  but 
princely  state  at  his  chief  castle  at  Kiucora,  a place  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern 
town  of  Killaloe,  and  he  had  also  seats  at  Tara  and  Cashel.  The  vigor  of  his  reign 
brought  prosperity  to  his  country.  He  defeated  the  Danes  in  upwards  of  20  pitched, 
battles,  restricting  their  influence  to  the  four  cities  of  Dublin,  Wexford,  Waterford,  and 
Limerick  alone.  In  the  battle  of  Clontarf  (1014),  in  which  he  was  killed,  he  gained  a 
signal  victory  over  a united  army  of  revolted  natives  and  Danes,  the  power  of  the  latte] 
receiving  a shock  from  which  it  never  recovered. 

BRI ANCON  (ancient  Brigantium),  a t.  of  the  department  of  the  Hautes-Alpes,  France, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Durance,  about  35  m.  n.e.  of  Gap.  It  is  the  highest  town  ir 
the  French  empire,  being  situated  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  4300  ft.  above  the  sea-level. 
As  the  principal  arsenal  and  depot  of  the  French  Alps,  B.  is  very  strongly  fortified, 
while  several  forts  guard  the  approaches,  and  every  height  in  the  vicinity  is  a point  of 
defense.  It  is  considered  impregnable.  Troops  can  readily  be  marched  from  it  on  to 
the  passes  of  the  Simplon,  St.  Bernard,  Mont  Cenis,  and  the  Col  de  Tende.  Mont 
Gen^vre  affords  a practicable  passage  into  Italy  from  the  town  itself.  B.  has  some 
manufactures  of  cotton-goods,  hosiery,  cutlery,  crayons,  etc.  Pop.  ’76,  exclusive  of 
garrison,  2321. 

BRIANSK'j'a  t.  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Orel,  70  m.  w.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Desna,  is  surrounded  with  earthen  ram- 
parts, and  has  a considerable  trade  in  grain,  hemp,  wax,  linen,  cables,  cordage,  iron, 
etc.,  with  Kherson,  Odessa,  and  other  ports  on  the  Black  sea.  B.  has  a cannon-foundry 
and  13  churches.  Pop.  ’67,  13,881. 

BRIARE,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Loiret,  France,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Loire,  at  the  point  where  the  canal  de  Briare  enters  that  river,  about  43  m.  s.e.  of 
Orleans.  The  canal,  which  unites  the  Loire  and  the  Seine,  is  remarkable  as  the  first 
that  was  constructed  in  France,  having  been  begun  by  Sully,  and  finished  in  1642.  B. 
has  a considerable  trade  in  wine,  wood,  and  charcoal.  It  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Brivodurum.  Pop.  ’76,  3970. 

BRIA'REUS,  or  JSoiEON,  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Uranus  and  Gaia;  the  others  were 
Cottus  and  Gyges,  and  each  of  the  three  had  a hundred  arms.  They  assisted  Zeus  when 
the  Titans  made  war  against  Olympus.  One  account  represents  B.  as  assailing  Olym 
pus  and  being  defeated  and  buried  under  Mt.  Etna.  As  B.  is  sometimes  called  a marine 
deity,  it  has  been  thought  probable  that  the  hundred  arms  symbolized  the  waves  of  the 
sea. 

BRIBERY.  The  corrupt  practices  known  by  the  term  B.  might  well  form  the  theme 
of  an  extended  essay.  Here  we  can  point  only  to  a few  of  the  more  conspicuous  feat- 
tures  of  this  grave  social  disorder,  and  chiefly  as  concerns  B.  at  elections. 

Election  B.,  a well-known  form  of  corruption,  may  be  called  the  canker  and  disgrace 
pf  constitutional  government.  Individuals,  with  little  to  recommend  them  but  wealth, 
and  it  may  be  some  local  distinction,  wishing  to  be  elected  representatives  in  the  legisla- 
ture, do  not  scruple,  through  various  devices,  to  buy  the  votes  of  the  meaner  order  of 
electors  by  bribes.  B.  at  elections  is  perhaps  more  openly  and  audaciously  practiced  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States  than  it  is  in  England;  nor  are  base  influences  of  this 
kind  unknown  in  connection  with  the  more  meager  constitutional  forms  of  some  conti- 
nental states.  But  in  the  eye  of  the  world,  England  had  the  unenviable  notoriety  of 
being  the  country  in  which  B.  was  reduced  to  a regular  and  continuous,  though  covert, 
system.  It  had  been  demonstrated  by  parliamentary  inquiry,  that  masses  of  the  popula- 
tion in  certain  towns — more  particularly  the  class  called  freemen — look  upon  the  fran- 
chise as  a privilege  which,  for  personal  benefit,  entitles  them  to  exact  so  much  money 
for  their  votes.  Public  considerations  had  no  weight  with  them  whatever.  It  seemed 
to  them  to  be  alike  their  duty  and  their  interest  to  sell  their  votes  to  the  highest  bidder, 
The  earl  of  Dundonald  mentions  in  his  Autobiography,  that  when,  as  lord  Cochrane,  he 
offered  himself  as  a candidate  for  Honiton,  he  was  barefacedly  told  by  one  of  the  elec- 
tors, “ that  he  always  voted  for  Mister  Most;”  and  not  choosing  to  bribe,  he  lost  his 
election.  The  amount  of  bribe  ordinarily  paid  at  elections  in  this  venal  class  of  boroughs, 
varied  from  £1  to  £10,  according  to  circumstances;  as  high  a sum  as  £20,  and  even  £50, 
had  been  known  to  be  given  in  the  extremities  of  a contest.  For  these  corrupting  and 
disgraceful  practices,  the  law  threatens  certain  penalties;  but  to  avoid  incurring  these. 


Bribery. 

Brick. 


42 


as  well  as  for  the  sake  of  decency,  the  candidates  employed  a mean  class  of  agents,  or 
were  in  some  obscure  way  assisted  by  confederates,  of  whose  proceedings  it  was  difficult 
to  substantiate  any  guilty  knowledge  on  their  part.  The  agents  more  immediately  con 
cerned  did  the  business  of  bribing  in  private,  sometimes  in  darkened  apartments,  where 
no  one  could  be  seen.  Formerly,  the  treating  of  voters  in  taverns  was  added  to  other 
varieties  of  corruption,  and  the  demoralization  that  ensued  on  occasions  of  this  kind 
amounted  almost  to  a universal  saturnalia.  The  law  having  interposed  to  check  this 
gross  form  of  B.,  the  evil  had  latterly  subsided  into  a common -place  routine  of  secret 
money-dealings.  Of  course,  by  this  illegal  expenditure,  along  with  the  necessary  out- 
lays which  the  law  allows,  the  cost  of  an  election  was  in  many  cases  enormous.  Few 
seats  of  English  borough  members  cost  less  than  £1800;  but  double  and  triple  this  sum 
was  a common  outlay.  It  is  a well-known  fact,  that  for  certain  boroughs  any  man — no 
matter  what  be  his  political  opinions  or  private  character — might  be  returned  by  advanc- 
ing £4000,  and  asking  no  questions  as  to  what  was  done  with  it.  As  the  B.  was  on  both 
sides,  it  may  be  safely  averred  that  the  money  spent  at  some  contested  elections  amounted 
to  £10,000.  As  regards  elections  for  counties,  the  influences  brought  -to  bear  are  ordi- 
narily of  a different  kind;  but  though  morally  wrong,  they  do  not  come  within  the  scope 
of  tlie  present  article.  The  Scotch  have  some  reason  to  boast  that  their  country  is  com- 
paratively exempt  from  this  social  disorder — that  their  representatives  are  not  so  depraved 
as  to  offer,  nor  the  electors  so  weak  and  needy  as  to  accept,  money-bribes.  Such  may 
be  said  as  a general  truth.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  national  integrity  is  in  this 
respect  not  quite  unblemished,  for  the  member  returned  for  the  Falkirk  burghs,  in  1857, 
was  unseated  for  bribery.  To  avert  every  form  of  corrupt  influence,  the  ballot  (q.  v.)  was 
long  vehemently  urged;  and  an  act  to  secure  the  use  of  the  ballot  in  parliamentary  and 
municipal  elections  throughout  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  finally  passed  in  July, 
1872.  So  far  bribery  seems  to  have  been  almost  unaffected  by  the  ballot  act.  The 
improved  mode  of  trying  election  petitions  by  judges  has  worked  well.  See  Corrupt 
Practices  Act,  and  Parliament. 

Bribery  in  Municipal  Elections.  By  the  corrupt  practices  (municipal  elections) 
act,  1872,  the  offense  of  B.  is  put  on  the  same  footing  as  in  parliamentary  elections.  The 
guilty  person  is  forever  disabled  from  voting  at  other  municipal  elections,  and  also  from 
holding  any  office  or  franchise  in  the  borough.  See  Municipality, 

Bribery  op  Custom-house  and  Excise  Officers.  By  the  customs  consolidation 
act,  the  16  and  17  Viet.  c.  107,  s.  262,  every  person  who  shall  give  or  offer  any  bribe,  or 
make  any  collusive  arrangement  with  any  officer  of  customs  or  excise,  or  other  person 
employed  for  the  prevention  of  smuggling,  in  order  to  induce  him  to  neglect  his  duty, 
shall  forfeit  the  sum  of  £200.  A former  act,  passed  in  1827,  the  7 and  8 Geo.  IV.  c.  53, 
s.  12,  still  in  force,  specially  enacts  in  the  case  of  the  excise,  that  persons  in  such  service 
taking  money  or  reward,  or  entering  into  any  collusive  agreement  contrary  to  their  duty, 
shall  for  every  such  offense  forfeit  the  sum  of  £500,  and  be  incapable  of  serving  the 
crown  in  any  office  or  employment;  and  any  person  giving  or  offering  money  or  reward 
to  excise  officers,  in  order  to  corrupt  and  prevail  upon  them,  shall  forfeit  the  like  sum  of 
£500,  but  simply  and  without  any  further  penalty  of  disqualification. 

Bribery  op  Judges.  This  offense  in  the  old  Scotch  law  was  called  Barratry  (q.v.) 

BRIBERY  {ante),  in  general  the  same  here  as  in  England,  and  always  a crime  diffi- 
cult to  prove  and  more  difficult  to  punish.  It  is  defined  as  the  receiving  or  offering  any 
improper  reward  by  or  to  any  person,  that  may  in  any  way  relate  to  the  administration 
of  justice,  or  influence  behavior  in  a matter  of  official  duty,  or  lead  the  person  to  act 
contrary  to  the  common  rules  of  honesty  and  integrity.  Nearly  all  the  states  have  special 
statutes  and  severe  penalties  for  the  offense. 

BRICK.  The  earliest  examples  of  this  branen  of  the  ceramic  art  were  doubtless  the 
sun-dried  bricks  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia.  Remarkable  to  say,  many  of  these, 
which,  in  a northern  climate,  the  frosts  of  a single  winter  would  destroy,  have  been 
preserved  for  some  3000  years  by  the  dry,  warm  atmosphere  of  those  countries.  Sun- 
baked bricks  of  ancient  date  are  also  found  in  the  mud  walls  of  old  towns  in  India. 
Kiln-baked  bricks  must  have  been  the  products  of  a later  time;  but  they  are  found  in 
all  the  chief  ruins  of  ancient  Babylonia,  where  they  were  often  used  to  face  or  bind 
together  walls  of  sun-dried  bricks,  and  occasionally  they  were  even  ornamented  with 
enameled  colors.  Burnt  bricks  were  employed  in  the  foundations  of  the  tower  of  Babel 
(Gen.  xi.  3).  These  ancient  bricks,  whether  baked  by  the  sun  or  by  fire,  were  all  made 
of  clay  mixed  with  grass  or  straw.  The  ancient  Greeks,  probably  owing  to  their  pos- 
sessing plenty  of  stone,  cared  little  for  building  with  burned  clay;  but  most  of  the  great 
ruins  in  Rome  are  built  of  brick,  and  the  Romans  appear  to  have  introduced  the  art  into 
England.  Interesting  historical  information  has  been  obtained  from  the  impressions  on 
Roman  and  especially  on  Babylonian  bricks.  In  many  instances,  the  Roman  bricks 
found  in  England  have  been  removed  from  their  original  position,  and  employed  in  the 
construction  of  buildings  of  later  date.  The  earliest  instance  in  which  bricks  of  the  mod- 
ern or  Flemish  make  occur  in  England,  is  Little  Wenham  hall,  in  Suffolk,  1260. 

Manufacture  of  Brickn. — Clay  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  common  bricks  is  an 
abundant  substance,  but  there  is  a great  difference  in  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  clays 
found  in  various  localities.  The  b^is  of  clay  consists  of  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina, 


43 


Bribery. 

Brick. 


with  a varying  proportion  of  other  mineral  matters,  chiefly  free  silica  (sand),  iron,  lime, 
magnesia,  and  potash.  Great  advantage  is  derived  from  digging  clay  in  autumn,  and 
exposing  it  all  winter  to  the  disintegratiug  action  of  frost.  This  is  not  always  attended 
to,  but  when  neglected,  the  bricks  made  from  it  are  apt  to  be  unsound,  and  faulty  in 
shape.  The  next  process  is  that  of  tempering  or  mixing  the  clay  into  a homogeneous 
paste,  which  is  sometimes  done  by  the  spade,  but  more  commonly  in  the  pug-mill  (see 
article  Pottery)  or  by  crushing  between  a pair  of  rollers;  often,  indeed,  both  are  em- 
ployed. In  making  bricks  by  the  old  hand  process,  the  shape  is  given  by  a mold 
either  entirely  of  wood,  or  of  wood  faced  with  metal,  and  without  top  or  bottom.  This 
admits  of  the  clay  being  pressed  into  it  by  a tool  called  a plane,  which  is  also  used  to 
produce  an  even  surface  on  the  upper  and  lower  beds  of  the  brick,  by  working  off  the 
superfluous  clay.  Sand  is  used  to  part  the  wet  clay  from  the  mold  and  the  table  on 
which  it  rests. 

Although  hand-made  bricks  are  still  very  common,  yet  machinery  is  now  always 
employed  when  large  quantities  are  required.  Brick-making  machines  are  of  two  lead- 
ing kinds;  one  class  of  them  being  constructed  to  work  the  clay  in  a wet  plastic  state, 
the  other  class  requiring  it  to  be  in  a semi-dry  condition.  Of  the  two  sorts,  the  wet- 
clay  machines  are  the  simpler,  cheaper,  and  can  be  worked  by  less-skilled  workmen. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  dry-clay  machines,  which  make  the  bricks  by  forcing  the  clay 
into  molds  by  strong  pressure,  shorten  the  process,  as  no  time  is  required  for  drying 
them.  The  bricks  so  made,  too,  are  not  only  of  a more  perfect  shape,  but  they  can  be 
molded  into  any  form,  and  may  even  be  made  highly  ornamental  at  a very  slight  addi- 
tional cost. 

As  might  be  expected,  both  the  dry  and  the  wet-clay  machines  of  different  makers 
vary  considerably  in  tlieir  details.  The  general  plan  on  which  most  of  the  wet-clay 
machines  work  is  as  follows:  The  machine  is  driven  by  steam,  and  the  clay  is  fed  by  a 
hopper  into  a pug-mill,  on  the  central  shaft  of  which  strong  pugging  blades  are  placed 
in  a spiral  manner.  These  prepare  and  force  the  clay  out  at  the  bottom,  whence  it 
passes  over  the  carrying  rollers  to  the  pressing  rollers,  which  force  it  through  a die  in  a 
rectangular  stream,  so  exactly  shaped  to  the  required  size  that  nothing  more  is  necessary 
than  to  cut  it. into  single  bricks  by  wires.  These  are  set  in  a rocking  frame,  which  can 
be  so  adjusted  as  to  cut  the  bricks  on  the  square  or  at  an  angle ; the  one  plan  being 
adopted  when  the  clay  is  at  rest,  the  other  while  it  is  in  motion.  When  double-ended, 
the  clay  is  forced  out  at  opposite  sides  of  the  pugging  cylinder,  and  there  is  then,  of 
course,  a cutting-table  at  either  side,  instead  of  only  one.  Some  of  these  machines  are 
provided  with  a pair  of  powerful  crushing  rollers,  which  reduce  any  hard  lumps  or 
stones  before  the  clay  enters  the  pug-mill.  One  of  the  best  known  wet-clay  machines  is 
that  made  by  Clayton,  Son  & Co.,  London.  When  of  a size  which  can  be  worked  by 
a steam-engine  of  16-horse  power,  it  produces  from  20,000  to  30,000  bricks  per  day,  and 
its  price  in  1871  was  £330.  Drain  tiles  are  made  by  the  same  kind  of  machinery,  with 
a peculiarly  constructed  die,  so  as  to  make  clay  into  a hollow  tube;  so  also  are  hollow 
bricks,  with  again  an  alteration  in  the  shape  of  the  die.  Hollow  bricks,  having  less 
body  than  those  which  are  solid,  are  more  easily  and  usually  more  thoroughly  fired. 
On  account  of  this,  as  well  as  by  reason  of  their  admitting  of  a current  of  air  through 
them,  they  form,  as  a rule,  dryer  walls. 

The  green  bricks,  after  being  carefully  dried,  either  in  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat, 
are  usually  baked  in  a kiln  with  a suitable  arrangement  of  fires  and  flues.  Kilns  are  of 
many  forms,  and  the  time  required  for  firing  in  them  varies  from  40  to  60  hours  for 
common  red  and  white  bricks,  while  for  some  fire-bricks  150  hours  are  necessary. 
Where  kilns  are  not  used,  bricks  are  burned  in  clamps,  the  clay  requiring  to  be  mixed 
up,  in  the  process  of  tempering,  with  a quantity  of  ground  coal  sufficient  to  burn  them. 
A good  test  of  the  character  of  a clay  is  obtained  by  the  result  of  firing.  The  average 
contraction  in  the  kiln  for  prepared  clays  is  7i  per  cent.  If  a brick  contracts  much 
more  than  this,  the  clay  is  too  fusible;  if  less,  then  it  is  likely  to  be  of  an  open  porous 
body,  which  retains  its  shape  well  during  the  firing  process. 

All  brick  clays  contain  iron,  and  the  color  of  a burned  brick  almost  entirely  depends 
on  the  amount  of  it  which  is  present;  thus  clays  containing  less  than  1 or  1-1  per  cent  of 
iron,  change  in  the  kiln  to  various  shades  of  cream  color  and  buff,  whilst  those  contain- 
ing more  than  2 per  cent,  range  in  color  from  yellowish-fawn  to  dark  red.  Blue  bricks 
are  made  from  the  same  clay  as  the  red,  by  controlling  in  a peculiar  way  the  supply  of 
air  in  firing,  and  by  carrying  the  heat  slightly  further.  It  is  asserted  by  some  that  the 
red  is  changed  to  the  black  oxide  of  iron  in  the  process. 

Fire-bricks  are  made  from  clay  as  free  as  possible  from  oxide  of  iron  and  alkaline 
substances,  so  that  there  may  be  no  tendenc}'-  to  fuse  in  the  kiln,  however  high  the  heat. 
Fire-clays  are  abundant  in  the  coal-measures,  some  of  fine  quality  being  found  about 
Newcastle  and  Glasgow,  but  the  most  celebrated  is  that  of  Stourbridge,  which  is  ex- 
ported to  all  parts  of  the  world.  See  Fire-Clay. 

Much  attention  has  been  paid  of  late  years  to  the  manufacture  of  fine  bricks  and 
terra  cotta,  which  is  only  another  name  for  ornamental  bricks  of  various  shapes,  or 
architectural  enrichments  of  the  same  material.  The  effect  of  some  of  the  public  build- 
ingsirecently  erected  in  London  and  elsewhere,  in  which  terra  cotta  has  been  used,  is 
really  beautiful.  Although  it  cannot  be  said  to  equal  sandsone  in  appearance,  it  has 


'Brick. 

Bride. 


44 


yet  the  advantage  of  giving  a much  greater  variety  of  color,  and  is  infinitely  better  and 
more  enduring  than  a facing  of  stucco  or  cement. 

The  duties  formerly  levied  on  bricks  -were  wholly  repealed  in  1850. 

BRICK  {ante),  made  in  the  United  States  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  in  England. 
The  size  varies  in  various  sections  from  7f  to  8^  in.  long,  4 to  4^  wide,  and  2 to  2^  thick, 
and  is  therefore  smaller  than  that  of  English  B.,  which  are  usually  9 by  4^  and  24. 
Philadelphia  pressed  bricks  are  in  great  demand  for  outer  or  front  walls  in  consequence 
of  their  perfection.  Immense  quantities  of  B.  are  made  at  Haverstraw  and  other  places 
on  the  Hudson  river.  Excellent  fire-brick  are  made  at  South  Amboy,  N.  J. ; at  Athens, 
on  the  Hudson;  at  Chicago,  Peoria,  and  other  places.  Milwaukee  bricks  have  a pleasing 
^^llowish  cream  color;  and  these,  with  others  variously  colored  in  the  manufacture,  find 
much  favor  for  outer  walls.  Bricks  are  found  to  stand  fire  better  than  stone. 

BRICKLAYING— BRICKWORK.  The  material  of  which  a town  is  built  depends 

mainly  on  the  geology  of  the  surrounding  district.  In  a mountainous  country  like 
Scotland,  cities  of  stone,  such  as  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Aberdeen,  naturally  abound; 
while  London  and  most  of  the  great  towns  of  England,  situated  in  alluvial  valleys  and 
plains,  are  built  of  bricks  derived  from  the  alluvial  clay  beneath  and  around  them.  In 
Holland,  where  the  whole  country  is  but  the  delta  cf  the  Rhine,  and  no  stone  is  to  be 
found,  brick  is  universal,  even  to  the  paving  of  the  streets. 

The  standard  size  of  English  bricks  being  9 in.  by  4|,  the  thickness  of  walls  is  regu- 
lated thereby.  They  are  either  half-brick,  1 brick,  li,  2,  3,  or  4 bricks  in  thickness.  In 
moderate-sized  modern  English  houses,  the  inside  partition-walls  are  usually  half-brick, 
the  outer  walls,  1 or  1^.  In  larger  houses  of  superior  construction,  a thickness  of  two 
or  three  bricks  is  sometimes  used.  This  latter  thickness  is  seldom  exceeded,  except  in 
large  public  works.  Modern  brick-houses  are,  for  the  most  part,  far  less  substantial 
than  those  erected  by  our  forefathers.  Building  leases  being  usually  granted  for  ninety- 
nine  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  term,  the  whole  property  reverts  to  the  'free- 
holder, the  object  of  the  builder  is  merely  to  make  a house  that  shall  stand  for  that 
period,  and  not  to  expend  any  money  for  the  sake  of  further  stability.  Garden-walls  are 
commonly  built  but  half -brick  in  thickness ; these,  however,  are  strengthened  by  9-in. 
piers  at  intervals  of  10  or  12  feet.  In  laying  the  foundations  of  walls,  the  first  courses 
should  be  thicker  than  the  intended  superstructure,  and  the  projections  thus  formed, 
usually  of  quarter  brick  on  each  side,  are  called  ‘ ‘ set-offs.”  Before  laying  walls  of  houses, 
trenches  are  dug,  and  the  foundation  tried  with  a crowbar  or  rammer.  If  it  is  found  to 
be  loose,  and  the  looseness  due  to  superficial  soil,  this  is  removed,  and  its  place  supplied 
with  fragments  of  stone  and  old  broken  bricks,  which  are  closely  rammed  together. 
In  some  cases  inverted  arches  of  brick  are  built  for  foundation,  or  a stratum  of  concrete 
laid  down.  See  Concuetb. 

Mortar  composed  of  lime  and  sand  is  the  common  cement  for  brick'work.  It  should  be 
equally  and  carefully  applied ; and  the  bricks  wetted,  in  order  that  the  mortar  may  adhere 
more  firmly,  by  being  absorbed  into  their  pores.  The  force  with  which  good  mortar 
is  capable  of  adhering  to  bricks  is  very  remarkable.  It  is  found  to  be  the  greatest  in  old 
structures  that  have  been  exposed  to  the  continuous  action  of  water.  Such  B.  is  said 
to  be  “ w'ater-bound  ” by  workmen,  and  can  scarcely  be  separated  without  breaking 
the  bricks. 

A fundamental  principle  to  be  rigidly  observed  in  laying  all  kinds  of  brick  is,  that  no 
two  contiguous  perpendicular  joints  shall  fall  immediately  below  each  other,  or,  to  use  the 
bricklayer’s  phrase,  the  work  must  “break  bond.”  The  mode  of  arrangement  of  the 
bricks  to  effect  this  is  called  the  bond;  a layer  or  stratum  of  bricks  is  called  a course. 
Bricks  laid  with  their  lengths  in  the  direction  of  the  course,  and  their  sides  to  the  wall- 
face,  are  called  stretchers;  those  laid  across  the  line  of  the  course,  with  their  ends  form- 
ing the  wall-face,  headers;  a layer  of  headers;  a heading  course,  of  stretchers,  ?>, stretching 
course. 

The  two  kinds  of  bond  almost  exclusively  used  in  England  are  the  English  and 
Flemish  bond.  English  bond  consists  of  alternate  stretching  and  heading  courses; 
Flemish  bond,  of  a stretcher  and  header  laid  alternately  in  each  course  English 
bond  is  the  strongest;  Flemish  bond,  the  more  ornamental;  and  they  are  used  accord- 
ingly. There  are  two  other  kinds  of  bond  occasionally  n&ed— herring  bond,  and 
garden-wall  bond.  The  former  is  applied  to  form  the  core  of  think  walls,  w'here  Flemish 
bond  is  used  for  the  facing.  A course  of  bricks  is  laid  obliquely  at  an  angle  of  45°  to 
the  face  of  the  wall;  then  above  it,  another  course  at  the  same  angle,  but  inclined  in  the 
opposite  direction,  so  that  the  joints  may  cross  the  first.  This  is  considered  to  add  to 
the  strength  of  Flemish  bond,  but  is  objectionable  on  account  of  the  triangular  inter 
slices  necessarily  left  between  the  oblique  bricks  and  the  bricks  of  the  facing.  Garden- 
wall  bond  is  only  used  for  9-inch  walls,  and  formed  by  laying  three  stretchers  and  one 
header,  and  so  on  in  each  course.  In  order  to  strengthen  Flemish  bond,  bands  of  hoop- 
iron  are  sometimes  laid  flatwise  between  the  courses.  Tliis^  “hoop-iron  bond”  has 
superseded  the  old  practice  of  using  bond-timbers,  which  were  inserted  the  whole  length 
of  the  wall.  The  hoop-iron  should  be  slightly  rusted,  to  secure  the  complete  adhesion 
of  the  mortar. 

In  constructing  arches  of  brick-work,  much  care  and  skill  are  required.  A wooden 


45 


Brick. 

Bride. 


•centering  is  always  used ; and  when  very  rude  work  only  is  required,  common  bricks  are 
laid  upon  the  centering,  and  the  gaping  interstices  at  the  upper  ends  tilled  with  rough 
•brick  wedges.  For  better  work,  each  brick  has  to  be  properly  beveled,  according  to 
the  curve.  When  semicircular  arches  are  made,  all  the  bricks  require  an  equal  bevel, 
and  therefore  bricks  molded  uniformly  to  the  required  angle  may  be  used;  but  for 
other  curves  and  for  flat  arches,  each  brick  has  to  be  separately  shaped  by  the  brick- 
layer. In  order  to  do  this,  a drawing  of  the  required  arch  is  made  of  the  full  size  on  a 
board;  the  bricks  are  laid  upon  this  side  by  side,  and  shaped  to  the  lines  of  the  drawing; 
they  are  then  transferred  to  their  corresponding  place  in  the  structure.  The  bricks  are 
first  rudely  shaped  by  the  hrick-axe,  then  finished  on  the  rubbing-stone,  a piece  of  rough- 
‘grained  stone  about  20  in.  in  diameter.  In  all  kinds  of  B.,  the  walls  should  be  built 
up  level  throughout,  in  order  that  the  settlement  may  be  equal.  An  unequal  settlement 
may  produce  a rupture  of  the  wall. 

B.  is  measured  by  the  rod  or  by  thousand.  A rod  contains  272  sq.ft,  of  standard 
thickness — that  is,  brick.  This  is  equal  to  306  cubic  ft.,  and  will,  on  an  average, 
require  4500  bricks,  allowing  for  waste.  The  weight  of  a rod  of  B.  containing  4500 
bricks,  27  bushels  of  lime,  and  3 single  loads  of  sand^,  is  about  13  tons.  The  bricklayer 
is  always  attended  by  a laborer  or  hodman,  who  carries  his  bricks  and  mortar  in  a 
^‘hod” — a triangular  wooden  box,  open  at  the  top  and  one  end,  and  supported  on  a 
round  leg,  by  which  the  hodman  holds  it  on  his  shoulder.  A bricklayer’s  wages  are 
considerable  higher  than  those  of  the  hodman.  The  laborers  are  generally  Irishmen. 

The  surface  of  brick-work  is  sometimes  ornamented  by  'pointing.  This  is  done  by 
raking  out  the  mortar  of  the  joints  to  a small  depth,  and  filling  up  again  with  blue  mor- 
tar, and  marking  the  courses  with  the  edge  of  the  trowel.  This  is  called  point- 

ing. When  the  courses  are  marked  by  a neatly  pared  raised  line  of  white  plaster  of 
-about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  laid  upon  the  blue  mortar,  it  is  called  tuck  or  tuck-joint 
pointing.  Colored  bricks,  as  a means  of  external  ornament,  have  been  extensively  and 
most  effectively  used  in  n.  Italy  and  Germany.  The  works  of  Mr.  Buskin,  Mr.  Gaily 
Knight,  W ebb’s  Continental  Ecclesiology , Street’s  Brick  and  Marble  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
Fergusson’s  Hand-book  of  Architecture,  may  be  consulted  for  illustrated  examples  of 
these. 

Chromatic  -brick- work  is  now  becoming  very  extensively  used  in  England,  especially 
by  architects  who  are  endeavoring  to  revive  the  style  of  architecture  called  by  theni- 
selves  English  Gothic,  and  by  some  others  Venetian  Gothic,  in  which  the  pointed  arch, 
formed  of  colored  bricks,  forms  one  of  the  prominent  features.  These  architects  main- 
tain that,  as  they  are  compelled  to  construct  withB.,  it  is  more  honest  to  use  bricks 
ornamentally,  than  by  means  of  stucco  to  obtain  an  external  imitation  of  stone;  and  as 
B.  admits  of  but  little  ornamentation  in  relief,  they  use  variation  of  color,  of  which  B. 
is  peculiarly  susceptible,  and  thus  produce  a sort  of  architectural  mosaic.  The  eloquent 
and  popular  advocacy  of  these  views  by  Mr.  Buskin,  and  the  skill  and  enthusiasm  with 
which  many  young  and  rising  architects  are  carrying  them  out,  seem  likely  to  bring 
about  a great  development,  almost  amounting  tO  a revolution  in  English  domestic  and 
ecclesiastical  architecture. 

BEICOLLE.  See  Ballista. 

BBIDAINE,  Jacques,  a French  home-missionary  preacher,  1701-67.  Though  a 
strict  Boman  Catholic  in  principle,  he  frequently  advocated  the  cause  of  the  Protestants 
with  great  boldness,  and  displayed  personal  kindness  to  many  who  were  suffering  per- 
secution. He  made  more  than  250  journeys  in  all  parts  of  France,  and  became  univer- 
sally popular.  His  sermons  and  spiritual  songs,  or  hymns,  have  been  printed. 

BRIDE — BRIDAL.  The  word  bride  (the  radical  signification  of  which  is  thought  by 
some  to  be  “ appropriated,”  “owned”)  is  common  to  all  the  Gothic  languages,  and  also 
to  Welsh  (Ger.  braut,  ~We\Ai.  priod),  and  signifies  betrothed  or  newly  married.  Alone, 
the  word  denotes  the  newly  married  woman;  with  the  addition  of  the  syllable  groom  (a 
corruption  of  guma  = .Lat.  homo,  a man),  it  denotes  the  newly  married  man  (Ang.  Sax. 
brydguma,  Ger.  brautigam).  In  Welsh,  priod-fab  (betrothed  youth)  is  bridegroom,  and 
priod-ferch  (betrothed  maid)  is  bride.  Bride  is  the  root  of  a variety  of  terms  connected 
with  marriage,  as  bride- favors,  bride-cake,  etc.  Bridal  is  for  bride-ale  (Ang.  Sax.  bryd- 
eale),  the  marriage-feast.  Bridemaids,  or  attendants  on  brides,  appear  to  have  been  in 
use  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  are  mentioned  in  early  accounts  of  marriage  cere- 
monies. A part  of  their  duty  consisted  in  dressing  and  undressing  the  bride.  Bride- 
maids,  as  mere  ceremonious  attendants  at  marriages,  are  still  in  use  in  England.  The 
husband  had  an  analogous  body  of  attendants,  called  bridegroom-men;  but  they  have 
disappeared  in  modern  usage,  and  their  only  representative  is  one  confidential  friend  in 
attendance.  In  Scotland,  this  personage  is  called  the  best  man.  One  of  his  duties  is 
to  pull  off  the  bridegroom’s  right-hand  glove,  while  one  of  the  bridemaids  does  the  same 
service  for  the  bride,  when  the  pair  are  requested  to  join  hands. 

Bride-favors  are  small  knots  of  white  ribbons,  which  are  pinned  to  the  breasts  of 
all  who  are  in  attendance  at  weddings,  nor  are  even  the  postboys  and  their  horses’  heads 
reft  undecorated  with  these  gay  trappings.  The  origin  of  the  bride-favor  is  said  to  be 
the  true-lovers’-knot — something  symbolical  of  the  union  of  hearts  and  hands  on  the 


Bridewell. 

Bridge. 


46 


occasion.  In  various  old  plays  and  poems  there  are  allusions  to  bride-favors  or  ribbons^ 
as  that  in  Herrick’s  Hespendes : 

What  posies  for  our  wedding-rings. 

What  gloves  we’ll  give  and  ribbonings. 

The  Bride-cake  is  also  symbolical  in  its  origin.  “The  ceremony  used  at  the 
solemnization  of  marriage  among  the  Romans  was  called  confarreation,  in  token  of  a 
most  firm  conjunction  between  the  man  and  wife,  v^ith  a cake  of  wheat  or  barley.  This, 
Blount  tells  us,  is  still  retained  in  part  with  us,  lay  that  which  is  called  the  bride-cake 
used  at  weddings.” — Brand’s  Popular  Antiquities.  The  old  English  and  also  Scottish 
custom  of  breaking  a cake  over  the  head  of  the  bride  on  entering  her  new  dwelling, 
perhaps  points  to  a usage  of  the  most  remote  antiquity — the  sprinkling  with  wheat  as  a 
token  of  plenty.  In  modern  times,  the  bride-cake  is  a stately  piece  of  confectionary,  con- 
sisting of  a rich  cake  as  a basis,  on  which  is  reared  a castellated  structure,  with  various 
fanciful  devices,  the  whole  being  covered  with  a preparation  of  white  sugar.  This, 
fabric  is  cut  up  and  given  in  pieces  to  the  guests,  as  part  of  the  wedding  jovialty. 


BRIDE'WELL,  a well  between  Fleet  street  and  the  Thames,  dedicated  to  St.  Bride„ 
which  has  given  its  name  to  a palace,  parish,  and  house  of  correction.  A palace, 
described  as  “ a stately  and  beautiful  house,”  was  built  here,  in  1522,  by  Henry  VIII., 
for  the  reception  and  accommodation  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  his  retinue;  and 
king  Henry  himself  also  often  lodged  here,  as,  for  instance,  in  1525,  when  a parliament 
was  held  in  Blackfriars;  and  in  1529,  the  same  regal  personage  and  his  queen,  Catharine, 
lived  in  the  B.  while  the  question  of  their  marriage  was  argued.  In  1558,  Edward  VI. 
gave  it  over  to  the  city  of  London,  to  be  used  as  a workhouse  for  the  poor,  and  a hous© 
of  correction  “for  the  strumpet  and  idle  person,  for  the  rioter  that  consumeth  all,  and 
for  the  vagabond  that  will  abide  in  no  place.  ” Queen  Mary  having  confirmed  the  gift, 
it  was  formally  taken  possession  of  in  1555  by  the  lord  mayor  and  corporation.  The  B. 
was  afterwards  used  for  other  persons  than  the  class  above  named,  and  at  last  became 
a place  of  punishment,  as  it  now  is.  As  a house  of  correction,  it  is  not  under  the 
sheriff’s  charge,  but  is  governed  by  a keeper  wholly  independent  of  that  officer. 

By  the  15  and  16  Viet.  c.  70  a new  house  of  correction  is  established  for  the  city  of 
London.  See  Correction,  House  op. 


BRIDGE  (Ang.-Sax.  hrycg;  Dutch,  hrng;  Ger.  hrucke)  is  a structure  for  carrying  a 
road  over  a stream,  river,  ravine,  low  ground,  or  other  impediment  to  its  course.  A 
bridge  for  carrying  a canal  or  other  water-course,  is  called  an  aqueduct  (q.v.);  one  for 
carrying  a railway  is  sometimes  called  by  the  recently  coined,  though  not  very  correct, 
word  viaduct  (q.v.).  Bridges  are  formed  of  stone,  brick,  cast-iron,  or  timber  arches;, 
of  timber  beams  or  frame-work,  supported  on  piles  or  on  masonry;  of  iron  rods  or 
chains,  in  which  case  they  are  called  suspension-bridges;  of  lattice-work;  or  of  cast  or 
wrought-iron  girders.  Sometimes  a combination  of  beams  and  suspension-rods  is  used. 
Of  late  years,  the  plan  of  tubular  or  hollow  wrought-iron  girders  has  been  frequently 
and  successfully  employed,  the  first  great  example  being  the  Britannia  bridge  (q.v.). 

Bridges  are  either  fixed  or  movable.  Of  movable  bridges  there  are  various  kinds. 
Flying-bridges  and  floating-bridges  are,  in  fact,  mere  ferry-boats  (see  Ferry)  with  gang- 
ways attached,  and  other  provisions  for  safe  and  ready  transport,  and  which  are  drawn 
across  the  stream  by  ropes.  Draw-bridges  and  swing-bridges  are  constructed  in  two  parts, 
that  turn  on  pivots — in  the  former,  the  parts  are  lifted  vertically;  in  the  other,  they  are 
moved  round  horizontally.  A sliding-bridge  runs  backward  and  forward  on  wheels  or 
rollers.  Another  kind  is  much  in  use  in  low  districts  like  Norfolk,  where  the  water 
flaws  lazily,  and  almost  on  the  land-level.  These  are  sometimes  called  pontoon-bridges, 
from  the  movable  roadway  being  balanced  at  a small  height  above  the  water-level  on  a 
pivot  working  in  a large  pontoon  or  hollow  cylinder  sunk  in  the  bed  of  the  river — the 
ends  of  the  roadway  of  the  B.,  when  laid  across  the  river,  resting  freely  on  piers  on 
either  side.  There  are  several  such  bridges  in  use  over  the  Ouse.  The  pivot  is  set  in 
the  center  of  the  stream,  and,  when  necessary,  the  B.  is  turned  round  on  it  by  machinery, 
till  it  lies  parallel  to  the  banks,  and  permits  the  passage  of  barges  on  either  side.  In 
a flat  district,  these  bridges  are  exceedingly  appropriate.  See  also  Bridge,  Military. 

Convenience  must  have  led  men  in  a very  rude  state  of  society  to  form  bridges,  in 
order  to  the  easier  communication  between  districts  separated  by  rivers.  On  most 
streams  there  occur  fords,  but  often  these  are  not  to  be  found  where  they  would  be 
most  desirable.  The  most  rudimentary  form  of  a B.  may  be  assumed  to  be  a series  of 
stepping-stones,  such  as  are  yet  almost  everywhere  to  be  found  on  river-courses  at  some 
point.  Large  stones  deposited  in  the  streams  at  the  shallows  or  fords,  would  first  give 
a chance  to  a passenger  of  getting  across  dry  shod;  by  and  by,  where  one  or  two  stones- 
were  wanting  to  complete  the  steps  in  the  passage,  they  would  be  supplied.  Next,  it 
would  naturally  occur  to  give  greater  security  to  the  passage,  by  laying  planks  or  trees 
across  the  stepping-stones,  so  as  to  avoid  the  risks  attending  stepping  or  leaping  from 
the  one  to  the  other.  In  the  arrangement  of  planks  resting  thus  on  stones,  we  have  the 
first  advance  in  the  art  of  bridge  building,  the  suggestion  at  once  both  of  piers  and  roiid- 
ways;  and  beyond  this  stage,  the  art  would  appear  not  to  have  advanced  for  a very 
long  period.  From  the  Greeks,  we  have  accounts  of  bridges  built  by  Semiramis, 


47 


Bridewell. 

Bridge. 


i)arius,  Xerxes,  and  Py^hus;  and  in  Egypt,  necessity  early  compelled  the  formation  of 
bridges  in  connection  with  the  canals  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation.  But 
-all  these  would  appear  to  have  been  rudimentary  in  form,  and  to  have  consisted  simply 
of  piers,  with  the  intervals  between  them  spanned  by  beams  of  timber  or  large  flat 
stones.  Sometimes  boat:<  moored  in  the  stream  served  the  purpose  of  piers,  as  was  the 
■case  with  the  famous  B.  of  Xerxes  across  the  Hellespont.  Bridges  of  boats  are  in  use 
to  this  day.  The  principle  of  the  arch  was  long  known  before  it  was  applied  to  the  art 
of  bridge-building.  See  Arch.  That  application  we  owe  to  the  Romans,  whose  first 
great  work  in  which  the  arch  was  employed,  the  Cloaca  Maxima  (q.v.),  is  referable  to 
the  time  of  the  Tarquins.  The  Ponto  de  Rotto,  or  Senators’  B.  (127  b.c.),  erected  by 
Caius  Flavius,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  instance  of  its  application  to  bridges.  In 
the  course  of  the  great  engineering  undertaking  of  the  Roman  empire  under  Augustus 
Caesar  for  the  formation  of  roads  and  supply  of  water  to  Rome,  its  application  became 
general ; and  afterwards,  the  empire  having  extended  its  bounds,  the  necessity  for  ready 
communication  between  its  provinces,  led  to  the  erection  of  numerous  splendid  bridges 
therein,  many  of  which,  indeed,  surpassed  in  their  greatness  those  of  Rome  itself.  But 
although  the  Romans  have  unquestionably  the  merit  of  having  originated  the  art  of 
bridge-building  proper  in  Europe,  yet  it  seems  doubtful  whether  the  principle  of  the 
arch  was  not  applied  by  eastern  nations  to  bridge-building  long  before  the  dawn  of  the 
greatness  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Chinese  are  said  to  have  been  before  the  west  in 
this  as  in  other  arts,  though  the  antiquity  of  some  of  the  bridges  on  which  this  assertion 
is  rested  may  well  be  doubted,  considering  the  uncertainty  which  pervades  the  chro- 
nology of  that  extraordinary  people. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  trace  in  detail  the  progress  of  the  art.  For  a long  tiijie  after 
the  decay  of  the  Roman  empire,  it  made  no  progress.  It  revived  in  the  11th  c.,  but 
again  languished  to  the  beginning  of  the  18th,  when  the  formation  of  the  corps  of  the 
Fonts  et  Chaussees  in  France  favored  its  further  growth.  Henceforth,  many  splendid 
bridges  were  erected  both  in  Britain  and  the  continent.  In  1775,  Mr.  Pritchard  of 
Shrewsbury,  introducing  the  use  of  cast  iron  in  the  erection  of  bridges,  originated  a 
valuable  style  of  construction.  The  genius  and  works  of  Telford  bring  us  to  the  present 
time.  Within  half  a century,  the  use  of  steam,  the  development  of  the  canal  system, 
and  the  necessity  especially  for  railway-bridges,  with  the  immense  amount  of  capital  at 
the  disposal  of  engineers  for  purposes  of  bridge-building,  have  caused  a rapid  evolution  of 
all  the  principles  and  possible  modes  of  the  art.  Among  the  new  forms  called  forth 
within  the  century  by  the  increasing  demand  for  facilities  of  communication,  are  the 
suspension  B.,  the  wrought-iron  girder  and  tubular  bridges,  and  the  lattice-bridges.  Sev- 
eral of  the  new  bridges  over  the  Thames  are  models  of  engineering  skill  and  taste.  The 
Menai  and  Britannia  bridges  were  regarded  when  erected  as  perfect  marvels  of  the  art, 
and  yet  they  have  since  been  surpassed.  In  America,  the  B.  of  Trenton,  over  the  Dela- 
ware, the  great  Portage  viaduct,  and  the  Niagara  suspension  B.,  are  equal  to  any  similar 
works  in  the  world.  The  Tay  B.,  opened  in  May,  1878,  is  the  longest  (2  m.  in 
length)  and  perhaps  the  greatest  achievement  of  modern  engineering  skill.  The  variety 
of  complex  structures  of  wood  and  of  iron  that  now  span  streams  and  hollows  is  endless. 
For  some  of  the  more  important  forms,  see  Frame,  Lattice,  Tubular,  and  Suspen- 
sion Bridges.  What  follows  here,  relates  chiefly  to  arched  or  masonic  bridges,  and  is 
confined  to  the  more  general  and  obvious  conditions  which  such  bridges  must  fulfill, 
avoiding  the  mechanical  theory  of  their  stability  as  too  abstruse  for  popular  exposition. 

An  arched  B.  rests  between  masses  of  masonry  on  opposite  sides  of  a river,  called 
its  abutments  (q.v.).  The  intermediate  points  of  support  of  the  arches  are  the  piers 
(q.v.),  which  are  rarely  built  so  strong  as  to  be  able  of  themselves  to  resist  the  lateral 
thrust  of  the  arches  resting  on  them,  if  the  thrust  of  one  arch  did  not  counteract  that  of 
another.  The  arch  itself  is  the  curved  construction  between  adjacent  piers.  The  chief 
terms  used  in  speaking  of  the  arch  itself  are  explained  under  Arch.  In  addition,  may 
be  noticed  the  spandril,  the  name  given  to  the  filling  in  above  the  extrados  to  the  road- 
way. The  chord  or  span  is  the  distance  between  the  piers ; while  the  rise  of  the  arch  is 
the  perpendicular  distance  between  the  level  of  the  springing  and  the  horizontal  through 
the  key. 

When  a B.  has  to  be  erected,  the  question  of  what  form  it  should  be,  falls  to  be  set- 
tled by  a variety  of  considerations.  Regard  to  appearance  affects  the  question,  but  the 
material  points  are  its  sufficiency  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  its 
security  and  durability  The  nature  of  the  embankments  and  of  the  soil  in  the  water-bed, 
together  with  the  nature  of  the  water-shed,  or  country  drained  by  the  stream,  may  make 
it  necessary  that  the  B.  should  not  be  an  arched  bridge  at  all,  but  a suspension  or  tubu- 
lar bridge.  But  if  it  is  to  be  an  arched  B.,  then  the  most  important  questions  respect  the 
number  of  its  piers  and  the  form  of  its  arches.  If  vessels  must  be  free  to  pass  under  it,  . 
the  arches  must  be  lofty,  and  the  abutments  high;  so  also  must  they  be  if  the  river  is 
exposed  to  sudden  elevations  of  its  level  by  floods.  Formerly,  a prejudice  existed  against 
laying  a B.  across  a stream  at  any  other  angle  than  at  right  angles  to  its  course.  The 
reason  was,  that,  the  theory  of  the  skewed  arch  (q.v.)  being  unknown,  the  obliquity  of 
the  B.  to  the  water-course  involved  a corresponding  obliquity  of  its  piers  to  the  water, 
which  greatly  increased  the  risk  of  the  B.  suffering  from  floods.  But  the  skewed  arch 
allows  a B.  to.be  thrown  at  any  angle  across  a river,  with  its  piers  all  parallel  to  the 


Bridge. 

Stream;  and  many  an  awkward  turn  in  our  public  roads  would  have  been  spared  us,  had 
the  skewed  arch  only  been  earlier  known. 

After  making  allowance  for  the  requirements  of  position  and  traffic,  the  form  next, 
must  be  considered,  more  particularly  in  relation  to  the  stream.  The  stream  prineipally 
affects  the  form,  through  prescribing  the  number  of  piers.  Each  pier  takes  up  so  much 
®f  the  water-course,  and  thus  narrows  the  effective  passage  of  the  water.  The  imme- 
diate consequence  of  narrowing  the  channel  is  to  increase  the  velocity  of  the  stream.  As 
Uie  velocity  of  the  stream  increases,  it  tends  more  and  more  to  carry  off  the  soil  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  piers,  and  finally,  by  deepening  its  course,  to  undermine  them. 
From  this  consideration,  the  effect  of  too  many  piers  will  be  obvious;  but  indeed  this 
is  not  matter  of  speculation,  for  many  bridges— among  others,  a B.  of  Smeaton’s  at  Hex- 
ham— have  been  destroyed  from  this  cause,  thus  falling  from  the  very  overabundanee  of 
support!  To  know  how  many  piers  may  with  safety  be  used,  the  volume  of  water  that- 
flows  through  the  channel,  both  ordinarily  and  in  winter-floods,  must  be  ascertained, 
which  can  be  done  very  nearly  by  calculating  the  mean  of  many  soundings  taken  at  dif- 
ferent states  of  the  river,  and  at  a succession  of  points  across  its  bed.  There  is  another 
way  in  which  the  stream  affects  the  form.  If  it  is  liable  to  floods,  care  must  be  taken  tO' 
make  the  piers  so  high  as  to  elevate  the  spring  of  the  arches  above  the  highest  level 
attainable  by  the  water.  In  connection  with  this  part  of  the  subject,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, too,  that  floods  are  apt  to  carry  down  trees  and  other  floating  masses,  which,  if 
the  arches  do  not  afford  them  passage,  become  powerful  levers  for  the  destruction  of  the 
bridge. 

The  form  of  the  B.  being  determined  on,  the  remaining  questions  relate  to  its  stabil- 
ity. This  depends  on  the  strength  of  the  abutments  and  piers,  and  the  balanced  equi- 
librium of  the  arches.  The  importance  of  securing  proper  foundations  for  the  abut- 
ments and  piers  cannot  be  over-estimated,  and  very  frequently  their  foundations,  owing 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  have  to  be  artificially  constructed.  See  Piles,  Coffer-dam, 
and  Concrete.  In  considering  the  stability  of  the  B.,  the  first  thing  is  to  ascertain  the^ 
forces  which  wdllact  to  destroy  it.  This  is  ascertained  by  calculating  the  extreme  pass- 
ing load,  and  also  the  weight  of  the  structure  above  the  arches,  and  of  the  arches  them- 
selves. A scientific  and  skilled  engineer  is  then  able  to  judge  what  amount  of  strain  or’ 
destructive  pressure  wilf  be  exercised  by  these  weights  on  the  several  parts  of  the  struc- 
ture, and  thus  to  adapt  the  strength  at  every  point  to  the  strain.  As  to  the  passing  load, 
it  is  usual  to  calculate  on  240  lbs.  per  foot,  superficial,  of  the  whole  area  in  ordinary 
bridges,  and  on  960  lbs.  in  railway  bridges.  The  weight  of  the  superstructure  and 
arches  is  a question  for  practical  measurement.  As  to  the  remaining  pressure — viz., 
that  of  the  stream — it  must  be  ascertained  for  the  highest  floods.  It  is  calculated  from 
knowing  the  mean  velocity  of  the  stream,  and  the  amount  of  surface  exposed  to  it. 
The  surface  is  readily  observed  oy  means  of  floats;  and  when  this  is  under  10  ft.  per 
second,  the  mean  velocity  is  found  to  be  about  one  fifth  less.  The  stress  of  the  stream 
on  the  bridge  is  diminished  by  the  expedient  known  as  a cut-water,  which  is  an  angular 
projection  from  the  pier.  The  best  form  for  a cut-water  has  practically  been  ascertained 
to  be  an  equilateral  prism,  presenting  an  angle  of  60°  to  the  water-course.  In  all  bridges, 
these  are  to  be  found  on  the  sides  of  the  piers  presented  to  the  stream ; and  in  tidal  rivers, 
they  are  built  on  the  lower  side  as  well. 

After  the  conditions  already  mentioned  are  satisfied,  taste  has  more  to  do  with  the- 
form  of  the  arches  than  anything  else.  The  forms  in  use  are  the  old  semicircular,  the 
elliptical — usually  got  at  by  putting  together  several  circular  arches  of  different  radii — 
and  the  segmental  arch.  The  semicircular  arch  was  almost  exclusively  used  in  the  more^ 
ancient  bridges.  This  arch  is  the  most  solid  and  most  easily  constructed,  as  all  the 
voussoirs  may  be  worked  from  the  same  mold.  It  requires,  however,  high  banking,  as- 
its  height  is  equal  half  its  breadth;  and  where  the  water-level  greatly  changes,  it  is  par- 
ticularly unsuitable,  from  the  great  height  necessary  to  be  given  to  the  piers,  to  carry 
the  intrados  out  of  water-reach.  The  elliptical  arch  and  the  segmental  of  60°  are,  besides, 
far  more  pleasing  in  appearance. 

In  possible  extent  of  span,  the  masonic  bridge  is  far  exceeded  by  suspension  and 
girder  bridges.  At  Chester  there  is  a stone  arch  with  a span  of  200  ft. ; in  the  Britannia 
tubular  bridge  the  span  is  460  ft, ; in  the  suspension  bridge  over  the  Menai  strait,  600  ft. ; 
and  in  the  suspension  bridge  at  Freiburg,  Switzerland,  870  feet.  The  railway  bridge 
across  the  Tay,  near  Dundee,  of  iron  girders  is  remarkable  for  its  great  length,  3450  yards. 
See  Tubular  Bridge  and  Suspension  Bridges, 

The  principal  objection  to  the  wooden  B.  is  its  liability  to  decay,  besides  which  it  is 
liable  to  warping,  through  the  swelling  and  contracting  of  its  beams.  The  latter  objec- 
tion applies  also  to  iron  bridges,  but  in  their  case,  the  contractions  and  expansions  may 
be  compensated  for,  as  in  the  compensation  balance  of  a watch,  or  the  compensation 
pendulum. 

Public  bridges  are  maintainable  at  the  expense  of  the  counties  in  which  they  are  sit- 
uated; but  in  many  cities  and  boroughs,  the  inhabitants  have  acquired  by  prescription  a. 
liability  for  this  expense,  and  by  the  13  and  14  Viet.  c.  64,  the  management  and  control  of 
such  bridges  is  given  to  the  council  of  the  city  or  borough.  If  part  of  a public  bridge 
be  within  one  county  or  other  place  on  which  the  liabilty  rests,  and  the  other  part  of  the 
bridge  be  within  another,  each  party  or  body  shall  repair  that  part  of  the  bridge  which. 


49 


Bridge* 


is  'within  its  own  boundaries.  Besides  the  bridge  itself,  the  county  liable  is  bound  by  the 
22  Henry  VIII.  c.  5,  to  repair  300  ft.  of  the  road  eitlier  way  from  the  bridge.  And  such 
is  still  the  state  of  the  law  as  to  all  bridges  built  prior  to  the  passing  of  the  highway  act, 
5 and  6 Will.  IV.  c.  50.  But  by  that  act  it  is  provided  that,  in  the  case  of  all  bridges 
thereafter  to  be  built,  the  repair  of  the  road  itself  passing  over  or  adjoining  to  a bridge, 
shall  be  done  by  the  parish,  or  other  parties  bound  to  the  general  repair  of  the  highway 
of  which  it  forms  a portion — the  county  being  still  subject,  however,  to  its  former  obli- 
gation as  regards  “the  walls,  banks,  or  fences  of  the  raised  causeways,  and  raised 
approaches  to  any  bridge,  or  the  land  arches  thereof.”  See  Stephen’s  Co7n.,  vol.  iii.  p. 
234.  The  neglect  to  make  such  repairs  is  treated  in  law  books  as  a kind  of  negative 
offense;  but  tliere  are  positive  offenses  against  bridges,  Avhich  in  the  statutes  are  called 
nuisances,  as  to  which,  see  the  43  Geo.  III.  c.  59.  An  act  to  amend  the  law  in  regard 
to  the  maintenance  and  management  of  roads  and  bridges  in  Scotland  was  passed  iu 
1878,  entitled  “ Roads  and  Bridges  act.”  Private  bridges  are  those  erected  and  main- 
tained under  contracts  authorized  by  private  acts  of  parliament.  See  Road. 

BRIDGE  {ante).  The  most  important  American  bridge  now  under  construction  is 
that  over  the  East  river  between  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  commonly  known 
as  the  “Brooklyn  bridge.”  The  land  approaches  are  of  stone  and  brick  in  arches  and 
piers,  terminating  at  the  river  in  the  grand  stone  piers  that  rise  278  ft.  above  high  water. 
The  following  official  account  of  dimensions  and  progress  is  down  to  the  close  of  1879: 
construction  commenced  Jan.  2,  1870;  size  of  New  York  caisson,  172x102  ft.;  size  of 
Brooklyn  caisson,  168x102  ft. ; timber  and  iron  in  caisson,  5253  cubic  yards;  concrete  ip. 
well-holes,  chambers,  etc.,  5669  cubic  ft.;  weight  of  New  York  caisson,  about  7000  tons; 
weight  of  concrete  filling,  about  8000  tons;  New  York  tower  contains  46.945  cubic  yards 
of  masonry ; Brooklyn  tower  contains  38, 214  cubic  yards  of  masonry ; length  of  river  span 
1595  ft.  6 in. ; length  of  each  land  span,  930  ft. — 1860  ft. ; length  of  Brooklyn  approach, 
971  ft. ; length  of  New  York  approach,  1562  ft.,  6 in. ; total  length  of  bridge,  5989  ft.,  or 
1.134  m.;  width  of  bridge,  85  ft.;  number  of  cables,  4;  diameter  of  each  cable,  15|  in. ; 
first  wire  was  run  out  May  20,  1877;  cable-making  really  commenced  June  11,  1877; 
length  of  each  single  wire  in  cables,  3578  ft.  6 in. ; ultimate  strength  of  each  cable,  12,200 
tons;  weight  of  wire,  12  ft.  per  lb.;  each  cable  contains  5296  parallel  (not  twisted) 
galvanized  steel,  oil-coated  wires,  closely  wrapped  to  a solid  cylinder  15f  in.  in  diameter; 
depth  of  Brooklyn  tower  foundation  below  high-water,  45  ft. ; depth  of  New  York  tower 
foundation  below  high  water,  78  ft. ; size  of  towers  at  high-water  line,  140x59  ft. ; size 
of  towers  at  roof  course,  136x53  ft.;  total  height  of  towers  above  high-water,  278  ft.; 
clear  height  of  bridge  in  center  of  river  span  above  high-water,  at  90°  Fah.,  135  ft.; 
height  of  floor  at  towers  above  high  water,  119  ft.  3 in. ; grade  of  roadway,  3^  ft.  in  100 
ft.;  height  of  towers  above  roadway,  159  ft.;  size  of  anchorages  at  base,  129X119  ft.; 
size  of  anchorages  at  top,  117x104  ft. ; height  of  anchorages,  88  ft.  front  and  85  ft.  rear; 
weight  of  each  anchor  plate,  23  tons;  total  cost  of  bridge,  exclusive  of  land,  $9,000,000. 
The  bridge  will  probably  be  completed  in  1882.  Engineer,  col.  W.  A.  Roebling.  The 
towers  were  flnished  long  ago;  so  were  the  cables,  and  the  construction  of  the  floor,  with 
the  many  rods  suspending  it,  will  finish  the  bridge  proper. 

Some  other  American  bridges  may  be  briefly  described.  One  of  the  earliest  of  note 
is  that  over  the  Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia,  which  Fanny  Kemble  poeticall}^  described  as 
“a  scarf  rounded  by  the  wind  and  thrown  over  the  river.”  It  was  accidentally  burned 
in  1838.  The  railroad  bridge  at  Bellows  Falls,  built  in  1850,  has  a span  of  250  feet.  The 
Susquehanna  bridge  (of  the  Wilmington  and  Baltimore  railroad)  is  3500  ft.  long,  Avith  13 
^iers  and  2 guard  piers  at  the  draw.  The  spans  are  250  ft.  long,  and  the  draw-span  176 
feet.  The  Niagara  Suspension  bridge  has  a span  from  center  to  center  of  towers  of  821 
ft.,  and  is  245  ft.  above  the  river.  The  bridge  (suspension)  over  the  Ohio  between  Cin- 
cinnati and  Covington  has  a span  of  1067  ft.  and  is  91  ft.  above  low-water.  The  Clifton 
bridge  (over  Niagara  river  just  below  the  falls  and  above  the  suspension  bridge)  is  1190 
ft.  from  bank  to  bank,  and  1268  ft,  between  the  points  of  suspension  on  the  toAvers,  and 
is  193  ft.  above  the  water.  The  Victoria  tubular  bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Mon- 
treal has  a length  of  tube  of  6600  ft.,  carried  over  25  openings  of  240  ft.  each,  and  one 
of  330  ft. ; with  the  approaches  this  bridge  is  9084  ft.  long.  The  Quincy  bridge  over 
the  Mississippi  (draAv)  has  17  spans,  two  of  250  ft.,  three  of  200,  11  of  137,  and  a draw- 
span  of  360  feet.  The  bridge  over  the  Missouri  at  Omaha  is  2800  ft.  long  in  11  spans. 
The  bridge  of  the  New  York  Central  railroad  over  the  Hudson  at  Albany  is  1740  ft. 
long,  in  15  spans  and  a draw.  But  the  most  noteworthy  of  railroad  bridges  is  that  over 
the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis.  It  is  in  three  immense  spans,  those  at  the  end  being  497 
ft.  each,  and  the  middle  one  515  feet.  Over  the  railroad  floor  is  a carriage  and  foot  road- 
way 34  ft.  wide  between  the  foot-walks  which  are  each  8 ft.  wide. 

The  terrible  disaster  of  the  fall  of  the  Tay  bridge  in  Scotland,  the  center  portion  of 
which  Avent  down  in  a furious  gale  on  the  night  of  the  27th  Dec.,  1879,  justifies  a brief 
description  of  tlia  t structure.  It  was  the  largest  iron  bridge  in  the  world,  crossing  the 
liver,  or  arm  of  tlie  sea,  a mile  and  a quarter  w.  of  Dundee,  with  a length  from  shore 
to  shore  of  10,320  ft.  (only  240  ft.  less  than  two  miles).  Commencing  at  the  s.  or  Fife 
shore  there  were  three  spans  of  60  ft.,  two  of  80  ft.,  22  of  120  ft.,  14  of  200  ft.,  16  of  120 
ft.,  25  of  66  ft.,  one  of  160  ft.,  and  six  of  27  ft.  in  aU  89  spans,  the  rails  being  88  ft. 
U.  K.  III.-4 


l$ridge. 


50 


^ibove  the  water.  The  portion  which  fell  consisted  of  12  spans  somewhere  near  the 
middle  of  the  bridge.  A train  of  six  passenger  cars  and  the  brakemen’s  van  either  went 
down  with  the  bridge  or  ran  into  the  vacancy  in  the  dark,  and  not  one  person  survived. 
There  were  over  90  lives  lost. 

The  following  statement  comprises  a list  of  the  most  important  railway  bridges  and 
viaducts  constructed  by  European  and  American  railway  companies.  There  are  stone, 
wood,  and  iron  structures,  all  of  which  appear  under  a separate  head: 

Stone  Bridges  and  Viaducts. — Ballochmoyle  viaduct,  Glasgow,  and  S.  W.,  width  of 
span,  181  ft.;  viaduct  at  Nogent,  S.  M.,  near  Paris,  164  ft.;  Durham  Junction  viaduct, 
160  ft.;  bridge  near  Wolmsdorf,  Silesia,  150  ft.;  bridge  near  Maidenhead,  built  by 
Brunei,  1835,  129  feet.  There  are  three  or  four  structures  to  be  added  to  the  foregoing, 
whose  w/idths  of  openings  exceed  100  feet.  This  includes  the  bridge  at  the  Point-du-Jour, 
s.t  Paris ; the  viaduct  near  Loebau,  in  Saxony,  and  the  bridge  at  Point-de-Pille,  on  the 
line  between  Orleans  and  Bordeaux.  The  highest  arches  are  principally  found  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  the  second  line  in  various  parts  of  France. 

Viaducts  of  Stone  and  Brick. — Height  of  arch;  over  the  Goeltz  valley,  in  Saxony, 
256  ft. ; over  the  Elster  valley,  in  Saxony,  223  ft. ; over  the  Riofredo,  in  Austria,  197  ft. ; 
at  Diedenmuhle,  near  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  170  ft. ; at  Chaumont,  Paris  to  Mulhouse,  164 
ft. ; at  Kalte  Rinne,  Semmering,  Austria,  151  ft. ; at  Fure,  near  Grenoble,  135  ft. ; at 
Comelle,  near  Creil,  Paris,  131  ft.;  at  Wagnergraben,  Semmering,  Austria,  128ft.;  at 
Combe-Bouchard,  Paris-Lyons  railway,  128  feet.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  several 
other  bridges  and  viaducts  whose  height  varies  from  100  to  125  feet.  Among  the  prin- 
cipal are:  the  viaduct  over  the  Tranz  valley,  in  Austria;  bridge  across  the  river  Fulda, 
near  Kragenhof,  Hanover;  the  Goel  viaduct  at  Aix-la-Chapelle;  viaduct  at  Mireville,  on 
the  line  between  Havre  and  Rouen;  four  more  are  in  Saxon  Switzerland;  the  rest  in 
various  parts  of  France.  The  longest  viaducts  and  bridges  are  to  be  found  in  England; 
notably  the  viaduct  on  the  line  from  London  to  Greenwich ; the  system  of  the  South- 
western, South-eastern,  Chatham  and  Dover,  Great  Eastern,  and  of  other  lines  serving 
the  metropolis.  The  next  importance  attaches  to  the  bridge  spanning  the  Lagoons  and 
running  into  Venice,  the  bridge  and  viaduct  over  the  river  Elbe,  at  Dresden,  and  a few 
others. 

Timher-huilt  Bridges  and  Viaducts. — The  most  prominent  structures  are  the  following: 
Over  the  river  Mista,  on  the  Moscow  and  St.  Petersberg  railway,  nine  openings,  each 
200  ft.  wide ; over  the  river  Elbe,  at  Wittenberg,  with  14  openings,  varying  in  width 
from  140  to  100  ft. ; bridge  near  Woltenhofen,  on  the  road  from  Lindau  to  Augsburg, 
Bavaria,  one  opening,  170  ft.  wide ; bridge  near  Kempten,  on  the  same  line  as  the  fore- 
going, with  five  openings,  varying  in  width  from  85  to  140  ft.  each.  There  arQ  two 
wooden  bridges  on  the  North  Shields,  Newcastle  line,  one  with  seven,  the  other  with 
five  openings,  the  widest  of  which  spans  about  135  feet.  The  United  States  possess 
wooden  bridges  in  very  large  numbers,  and  of  much  greater  dimensions  than  are  found 
on  European  roads.  Among  those  noteworthy  is  the  bridge  over  the  Delaware  river,  on 
the  Erie  road,  with  two  openings,  each  of  a width  of  about  260  feet.  The  next  structure 
of  importance  is  a bridge  over  the  Susquehanna  river,  near  Columbia,  with  29  openings, 
each  about  200  ft.  wide.  There  are  two  bridges  crossing  the  Connecticut  river,  with 
spans  of  174  feet.  These  are  the  most  prominent  bridges;  but  there  are  numerous  other 
very  remarkable  structures,  which,  though  of  smaller  dimensions,  give  evidence  of  great 
engineering  skill. 

Iron  Bridges  and  Viaducts. — The  following  list  comprises  structures  of  this  class  of 
the  greatest  extent  in  length: 

Feet.  • 


Parkersburg  bridge.  West  Virginia,  U.  S 7,045 

St.  Charles  bridge,  Missouri,  U.  S 6,536 

Over  the  river  Ohio,  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  U.  S 5,310 

Over  the  river  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  U.  S 4,920 

Over  the  East  river.  New  York 5,000 

Victoria  bridge,  St.  Lawrence  river,  Canada 4,980 

Over  the  river  Rhine,  at  Mayence,  Germany 3,380 

Over  the  river  Tongabudda,  Bombay,  Madras 3,730 

Over  the  river  Mississippi,  near  Quincy,  U.  S 3,200 

Over  the  river  Missouri,  near  Omaha,  U.  S 2,790 

Over  the  river  Vistula,  near  Dirschau,  Germany 2,750 

Over  the  river  Danube,  near  Stadlau,  Austria 2,520 

Over  the  river  Po,  near  Mezzano-Corti,  Italy 2,485 

Over  the  river  Tamar,  near  Saltash 2,190 

Over  the  river  Lek,  near  Kuilenburg 2,185 

Over  the  river  Mississippi,  near  Dubuque,  U.  S 1,758 

Over  the  river  Sorai,  in  British  India 1,745 


The  foregoing  comprises  a list  of  the  longest  bridges  constructed  of  iron,  but  it  docs 
not  include  all  the  most  important  works  from  an  engineering  point  of  view.  ^ The 
bridges  which  have  the  widest  or  the  most  numerous  openings  are  given  in  the  subjoined 
list,  and  comprise  all  the  great  marvels  which  engineering  skill  and  ingenuity  have  pro- 
duced : Britannia  bridge,  Menai  straits : four  openings,  each  460  ft. , and  two  openings. 


51 


Bridge. 


each  230  feet;  built  by  Robert  Stephenson  and  Fairbank,  1846-50.  Conway  bridge, 
Menai  straits:  one  opening,  400  feet;  built  by  Stephenson,  1847-48.  Victoria  bridge, 
crossing  the  St.  Lawrence  river  at  Montreal:  one  opening  330  ft.,  and  24  openings,  each 
240  feet;  built  by  Stephenson.  Bridge  over  the  Garonne,  near  Langon,  on  the  Bor- 
deaux-Cette  line:  one  opening  of  245  ft.,  and  two  each  of  210  feet.  Over  the  Aire,  near 
Brotherton:  one  opening  of  225  feet.  Over  the  Trent,  near  Gainsborough,  on  the  Man- 
chester, Sheffield  and  Lincoln  line : two  openings,  each  150  ft.  wide.  Over  the  river 
Lek,  a branch  of  the  Rhine,  near  Kuilenburg,  Holland:  one  opening  of  150  ft.,  one  of 
80  ft.,  and  seven  of  57  feet;  built  1868-70.  Over  the  river  Ohio,  near  Louisville,  U.  S. ; 
one  opening  of  400  ft. ; one  of  370  ft. ; six,  each  of  236  ft. ; 14,  varying  in  width 
from  210  ft.  to  140  ft. ; one  of  100  ft.,  and  two,  each  of  50  feet;  built  in  1868.  Over 
the  Vistula,  near  Dirschau,  Berlin-KOnigsberg  line — built  1850-57,  by  Lentze;  six  open- 
ings, 350  ft.  each.  Over  the  Waal,  near  Lommel,  Belgium:  three  openings  of  400  ft. 
each,  and  eight  of  190  ft.  each.  Over  the  Rhine,  near  Griethausen:  one  opening  of  330 
ft.,  and  20  of  60  ft.  each;  built  in  1863-64,  by  Monie.  Over  the  Rhine,  near  Hamm: 
four  openings,  each  of  330  feet;  built  in  1868-70,  by  Pichier.  Over  the  Dieppe,  near 
Moerdyk,  Holland:  14  openings,  each  of  330  ft.,  and  two  of  51  feet.  This  structure 
resembles  in  a measure  the  unfortunate  Tay  bridge.  It  was  completed  in  1871.  Over 
the  Rhine,  near  Cologne:  four  openings  of  320  ft.  each;  built,  1856-60,  by  Lohse  and 
Wiedman.  Over  the  Nogat,  near  Marienburg,  Baltic:  two  openings  of  312  ft.  each.  Overthe 
Wye,nearChepstow:  one  opening  of  300ft.,  and  three,  each  of  100  feet;  built  by  Brunei, 
1850-52.  Over  the  Rhine,  near  Mannheim:  three  openings  of  295 feet.  Overthe  Boyne, 
near  Drogheda:  one  opening  of  270  ft.,  and  two  each  of  140 feet  ; built  by  Barton,  1855. 
Over  the  Danube  canal,  near  Vienna:  one  opening  260  ft.  wide;  built  in  1860  by  Koestlin. 
Over  the  Danube,  near  Stadlau,  Austri  a:  five  openings  each  of  250  ft.,  and  10  each  of 
110  feet  ; built  by  Ruppert,  1868-70.  Over  the  Trent,  near  Newark:  one  opening  of 
240  feet ; built  by  Fox  and  Henderson,  1851.  Overthe  Thames,  Blackfriars:  one  open- 
ing of  205  ft.,  two  of  195  ft.,  and  two  of  170  feet  ; built  1863-64.  Over  the  Kinzig,  near 
Olfenburg,  Germany;  one  opening  of  190  feet.  Over  the  Eipel,  Hungary;  one  opening 
of  185  ft.,  and  three  of  145  feet.  Over  the  Rhine,  near  Strasburg;  three  openings  of  185 
feet.  Over  the  Grau,  in  Hungary:  one  opening  of  166  ft.,  and  three  of  144  ft.  each, 
built  by  Ruppert,  1858.  Over  the  Saar,  near  Freibourg : five  openings,  each  of  160  ft.,  and 
two  of  142  feet.  Crumlin  Viaduct,  Newport- Abergavenny  line:  10  openings  each  of 
160  ft.  width;  built  by  Liddle  and  Gordon,  1853.  Overthe  Lahn,  near  Coblentz:  one 
opening,  150  ft.  wide.  Over  the  Thames,  near  Windsor:  one  opening  of  200  feet ; built 
by  Brunei,  1849.  Over  the  Weser,  near  Corvey,  Germany:  four  openings,  each  of  185 
feet;  built  by  Schwedler,  1863-64.  Overthe  Orne,  near  Caen,  France : one  opening  of 
145  feet.  Built  by  Maier,  1858.  On  the  Blackwall  line;  one  opening,  120  feet.  Over 
the  Tamar,  at  Saltash:  two  openings  of  450  ft.,  and  17  openings  varying  from  70  to  90 
feet;  built  by  Brunei.  Over  the  Rhine,  at  Mayence;  four  openings,  each  of  335  ft., 
six  of  115  ft.,  and  22  openings  varying  in  width  from  50  to  80  feet.  Over  the  Isar,  near 
Hesselohe,  Germany:  two  openings,  each  of  170  ft.,  and  two  each  of  85  feet.  Over  the 
Elbe,  at  Hamburg;  seven  openings,  each  of  335  ft.  , and  three  openings  of  310  feet;  built 
by  Lohse,  1870.  Over  the  Yssel,  near  Zutphen,  Holland:  one  opening  of  320  ft.,  and 
two  of  55  feet.  Over  the  Ohio,  near  Ben  wood.  United  States:  one  opening  of  320  feet. 
Over  the  Mersey,  near  Runcorn,  London  and  North-western  railw^ay:  three  openings  of 
300  ft.  each.  Over  the  Missouri,  near  Omaha,  United  States:  11  openings,  each  of  270 
feet;  built  by  Dodge,  1860-61.  Over  the  Danube,  near  Manthausen,  Austria:  five  open- 
ings of  260  ft.,  and  two  of  90  feet.  Over  the  Danube,  at  Vienna,  North-western  line:  four 
openings  of  260  ft.,  and  14  openings  of  95  feet;  built  by  Hell  wag  and  Gerlish,  1870-72. 

The  railway  suspension  bridge  over  the  Forth  at  Queensferry  will  be,  when  com- 
pleted, the  most  remarkable  application  of  the  suspension  principle  in  the  world.  The 
breadth  of  the  Forth  at  Queensferry  is  rather  more  than  a mile ; but,  as  the  viaduct 
is  to  be  continued  overland  on  the  n.  shore  for  several  hundred  yards,  the  whole 
length  of  the  bridge  will  be  about  one  mile  and  one  third.  This,  however,  gives 
no  fair  idea  of  the  breadth  of  span  to  which  the  physical  conditions  require 
the  suspension  principle  to  be  applied.  In  the  midst  of  the  firth,  but  rather  nearer 
to  the  northern  than  to  the  southern  shore,  rises  the  rocky  islet  of  Inchgarvie. 
On  either  side  of  this  island  the  bed  of  the  river  sinks  to  a depth  which  is  imprac- 
ticable for  engineering  purposes.  On  the  n.  side  the  bed  sinks  to  a depth  of  210  ft., 
on  the  s.  side  to  180  ft.,  below  the  water-mark;  and  it  is  there,  for  a breadth  of  1600 
ft.  on  either  side,  that  no  practicable  bottom  can  be  found  for  piers,  and  therefore  that 
the  suspension  principle  has  perforce  to  be  resorted  to.  Between  the  deep  furrow  on 
the  s.  side  of  Inchgarvie  and  the  southern  shore  there  is  a reach  of  comparatively 
shallow  water,  with  a maximum  depth  of  30  ft.,  but  within  which  foundations  may  be 
found  for  some  12  or  15  piers.  Viewed  in  profile  from  the  bosom  of  the  firth,  the 
bridge  will  thus  present  to  view  five  distinct  sections.  First,  there  is  a shallow- water 
section  on  the  s.  side,  covering  some  2000  ft.,  and  supported  on  16  piers;  then  there  is 
the  deep-water  section,  s.  of  Inchgarvie,  traversed  by  a suspension  bridge;  next  there 
is  the  island  of  Inchgarvie  itself,  over  which  the  viaduct  will  be  carried  on  two  or  three 
piers;  then  there  is  the  deep-water  section  n.  of  Inchgarvie,  spanned  by  a second  sus- 
pension bridge;  and,  lastly,  there  is  the  northern  shoreward  section,  which  carries  the 


u.  OF  ill;  lib 


Bridge. 

Bridgeport. 


52 


viaduct  on  10  or  11  piers  from  the  brink  of  the  tide  to  the  dead  level  of  the  Fife  shore. 
The  great  features  of  the  architectural  design,  as  seen  from  the  firth,  will  be  the  four 
pairs  of  lofty  towers  on  which  the  massive  steel  chains  which  are  to  support  the  two 
suspension  bridges  will  be  hung,  and  the  two  pairs  of  landward  buttresses  to  which 
the  suspending  chains  will  be  anchored.  Of  the  towers,  two  pairs  will  rise  from  the 
island  of  Inchgarvie,  and  will  reach  the  imposing  height  of  596  ft.  Two  pairs  on  the 
shore  of  n.  Queensferry,  and  other  two  on  the  brink  of  deep  water  on  the  southern  chan- 
nel, will  attain  to  a height  of  584  feet.  The  two  pairs  of  buttresses  on  the  n.  and  the  s. 
side  respectively  will  be,  of  course,  less  lofty ; but  they  will  be  bold  and  striking  masses 
of  masonry.  Those  parts  of  the  bridge,  n.  and  s.,  which  rest  on  piers,  with  a solid 
foundation,  will  consist  of  a single  permanent  way  25  ft.  broad,  and  carrying  a double 
set  of  rails.  But  the  intervening  portions  carried  by  the  suspension  bridges  will  con- 
sist of  two  distinct  and  parallel  branches,  each  15  ft.  broad,  each  carrying  a single  line 
of  rails,  and  100  ft.  apart.  These  branches  will  be  tightly  braced  together;  and  this 
arrangement  has  been  adopted  in  order  to  give  greater  breadth,  and  therefore  greater 
stability,  to  the  whole  structure.  Seen  from  above,  the  outline  of  the  design  has  the 
appearance  of  a shuttle  with  elongated  points.  The  divergence  of  the  branches  begins 
at  the  massive  piers,  two  on  each  side,  to  which  the  suspension  chains  will  be  anchored, 
and  the  maximum  of  divergence,  100  ft. , will  be  attained  before  the  lofty  towers  are 
reached.  While  the  bridge  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  extent  makes  necessarily 
a straight  course,  the  shoreward  part  at  either  end  forms  a gentle  curve.  From  each 
shore  to  the  beginning  of  the  suspension  bridge  the  line  rises  with  a gradient  of  1 in 
100,  In  the  shoreward  sections,  and  in  that  over  Inchgarvie,  the  permanent  way  rests 
on  the  upper  members  of  the  lattice-girders;  but  in  the  two  suspension  sections  it 
rests  on  the  lower  members.  By  this  contrivance  here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Tay  bridge, 
the  full  height  of  150  ft.  above  the  high-water  mark  is  confined  to  the  central  sections 
only.  It  will  be  evident  that  each  of  the  deep-water  channels  n.  and  s.  of  the  island  of 
Inchgarvie  will  be  spanned  by  a double  suspension  bridge.  Each  of  these  double 
bridges  will  consist  of  four  parallel  and  enormous  lattice-girders — two  for  each  branch. 
These  girders  will  be  1600  ft.  long.  Seen  in  profile,  their  upper  members  will  form  an 
arched  outline,  with  a maximum  height  of  50  ft.  and  a minimum  of  19  ft.  besides  the 
to  vers  On  these  towers,  of  course,  their  ends  will  rest;  but  they  will  derive  their 
main  support  from  four  immense  steel  chains,  one  for  each  girder,  which  will  be  slung 
over  the  towers  and  fastened  to  the  anchoring  piers  at  either  end.  The  girders  will 
be  attached  to  the  chains  by  stout  wrought-iron  rods  at  intervals  of  50  feet.  It  is  expected 
that  this  wonderful  bridge  will  be  completed  by  Jan.  1,  1885. 

BRIDGE,  Military,  is  a temporary  construction,  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  rivers 
by  troops,  cannon,  and  military  wagons.  The  most  efficient  are  described  under  Poit- 
TOON ; but  there  are  many  other  kinds.  A hridge  of  boats  is  formed  by  small-craft,  espe- 
cially cargo-boats,  collected  from  various  places  up  and  down  the  river;  trestles  are 
placed  in  them  to  bring  their  tops  to  one  common  level ; the  boats  are  anchored  across 
the  river,  and  baulks  of  timber,  resting  on  the  trestles,  form  a continuous  road  from 
boat  to  boat  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the  river;  the  boats  ought  to  be  of  such  size 
that,  when  fully  laden,  the  gunwales  or  upper  edges  shall  not  b^e  less  than  one  foot 
above  the  water.  Rope-bridges  are  sometimes  but  not  frequently  used  by  military  engi- 
neers.  A boat-and-rope  bridge  consists  of  cables  resting  on  boats,  and  supporting  a plat- 
form or  road  of  stout  timber.  A cask-bridge  consists  of  a series  of  timber-rafts  resting 
on  casks;  the  casks  are  grouped  together  in  quadrangular  masses;  at  certain  intervals, 
timbers  are  laid  upon  them  to  form  rafts,  and  several  such  rafts  form  a bridge ; it  is  an 
inferior  kind  of  pontoon-bridge.  A trestle-bndge  is  sometimes  made  for  crossing  a small 
stream  in  a hilly  country;  it  consists  of  trestles  hastily  made  up  in  any  rough  materials 
that  may  be  at  hand,  with  planking  or  fascines  to  form  a flooring,  cables  to  keep  the 
trestles  in  a straight  line,  and  heavy  stones  to  prevent  them  from  floating.  Raft-bridges, 
consisting  of  planks  lashed  together,  are  easily  made  of  any  rough  materials  that  maybe 
found  on  the  spot;  but  they  have  little  buoyancy,  and  are  not  very  manageable.  A 
swing-flying  bridge  consists  of  a bridge  of  boats,  of  which  one  end  is  moored  in  the  center 
of  the  river,  and  the  other  end  left  loose ; this  loose  end  is  brought  to  the  proper  side  of 
the  river,  the  boats  are  laden,  and  they  make  a semicircular  sweep  across  the  river  by 
means  of  rudders  and  oars,  until  the  loose  end  of  the  bridge  reaches  the  other  bank.  A 
trail-flying  bridge  is  a boat  or  raft,  or  a string  of  boats  or  rafts,  which  is  drawn  across  a 
river  by  ropes,  in  a line  marked  out  and  limited  by  other  ropes. 

BRIDGE,  Natural.  See  Natural  Bridge. 

BRIDGE-BUILDING  BROTHERHOODS  (Fr.  Freres  pontifes;  Lat.  Fratres  pontiflces) 
were  religious  societies  that  originated  in  the  s.  of  France  in  the  latter  half  of  the  12th 
century.  Their  purpose  was  to  establish  hospices  at  the  most  frequented  fords  of  large 
rivers,  to  keep  up  ferries,  and  to  build  bridges.  The  church  during  the  middle  ages 
regarded  the  making  of  streets  and  bridges  as  meritorious  religious  service.  Whether 
or  not  the  herdsman  Benezet,  subsequently  canonized,  was  the  founder  or  only  a mem- 
ber of  this  fraternity,  is  as  uncertain  as  the  tradition  which  attributes  to  him  the  com- 
pletion of  the  bridge  over  the  Rhone  at  Avignon  in  1180.  The  fraternity  was  sanctioned 
by  pope  Clemens  III.  in  1189;  its  internal  organization  was  similar  to  that  of  the  knightly 


53 


Bridge. 

Bridgeport. 


orders,  and  the  members  wore  as  their  badge  or  insignia  a pick-hammer  on  the  breast. 
In  France,  they  labored  very  actively,  but  were  gradually  absorbed  into  the  order  of  St, 
John.  Similar  associations  sprang  up  in  other  lands,  but  under  different  names. 

BBIDGE-HEAD,  or  TIite-du-Pont,  in  military  engineering,  is  a fortified  post  intended 
to  defend  the  passage  of  a river  over  a bridge.  It  is  a field-work,  open  at  the  gorge  or 
in  the  rear,  and  having  its  two  fianks  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  The  most  favorable 
position  is  at  a re-entering  sinuosity  of  the  river,  where  the  guns  can  work  better  with 
the  supporting  batteries  opposite.  Bridge-heads  are  usually  temporary  works,  hastily 
constructed.  Their  most  frequent  use  is  to  aid  a retiring  army  to  cross  the  river  in  good 
order,  and  to  check  an  enemy  pressing  upon  it.  Openings  are  left  to  allow  the  retiring 
army,  with  guns  and  carriages,  to  file  through  without  confusion ; and  parapets  are  so 
disposed  as  to  fiank  and  defend  these  openings. 

BBIDGEMAN,  Laura.  This  famous  blind  mute  was  b.  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  United 
States,  on  the  21st  Dec.,  1829.  She  was  a bright,  intelligent  child,  but  at  two  years  of 
age  was  seized  with  a violent  fever,  which  utterly  destroyed  both  sight  and  hearing. 
For  a time  this  so  shattered  her  system,  that  there  seemed  no  hope  of  recovery ; but  she 
rallied,  and  soon  learned  to  find  her  way  about  the  house  and  neighborhood,  and  even 
learned  to  sew  and  to  knit  a little.  A strong  passion  for  imitation  began  to  develop 
itself,  and  by  assiduously  cultivating  this  power,  she  was  at  last  enabled  to  emerge  out 
of  her  life  of  unbroken  darkness  and  silence,  and  take  her  place  among  the  educated 
people  of  the  day.  In  1 839,  Dr.  Howe  of  Boston  undertook  her  care  and  education  at 
the  deaf  and  dumb  school.  The  first  attempt  was  to  give  her  a knowledge  of  arbitrary 
signs,  by  which  she  could  interchange  thoughts  with  others.  Then  she  learned  to  read 
embossed  letters  by  the  touch;  next,  embossed  words  were  attached  to  different  articles, 
and  she  learned  to  associate  each  word  with  its  corresponding  object.  A pat  on  the 
head  told  her  when  she  was  right  in  her  spelling-lesson.  Thus  far,  however,  the  work 
w'as  only  an  exercise  of  imitation  and  memory,  roused  into  exertion  by  the  motive  of 
love  of  approbation,  but  seemingly  without  intellectual  perception  of  the  relation 
between  words  and  things.  It  was  like  teaching  a clever  dog  a variety  of  tricks.  But 
at  last  the  truth  fiashed  upon  her,  that  by  this  means  she  could  communicate  to  others 
a sign  of  what  was  passing  in  her  own  mind.  Her  whole  being  seemed  changed.  The 
next  step  was  to  procure  a set  of  metal  types,  with  the  letters  cast  at  the  ends,  and  a 
board  with  square  holes  for  their  insertion,  so  as  to  be  read  by  the  finger.  In  six 
months,  she  could  write  down  the  name  of  most  common  objects,  and  in  two  years  had 
made  great  bodily  and  mental  improvement.  She  grew  happier,  and  enjoyed  play  like 
other  children,  amusing  herself  with  imaginary  dialogues,  spelling  old  and  new  words, 
and  with  her  left  hand  slapping  the  fingers  of* her  right,  if  they  spelled  a word  wrong; 
or  giving  herself  a pat  of  approval,  as  the  teacher  did,  when  correct.  Her  touch  grew 
in  accuracy  as  its  power  increased;  she  learned  to  know  people  almost  instantly  by  the 
touch  alone.  In  a year  or  two  more,  she  was  able  to  receive  lessons  in  geography,  alge- 
bra, and  history.  She  received  and  answered  letters  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
was  always  employed,  and  therefore  always  happy.  Her  brain  seems  to  have  been 
unduly  excited  for  a blind  person;  she  not  only  held  imaginary  dialogues  with  herself, 
but  dreamed  incessantly  by  night;  and  during  these  dreams,  while  asleep,  talked  much 
on  her  fingers.  She  learned  to  write  a fair,  legible,  square  hand,  and  to  read  with  grea\ 
dexterity,  and  at  last,  even  to  think  deeply,  and  to  reason  with  good  sense  and  discrimi 
nation.  Keen,  sensitive,  and  lively  , in  various  occupation,  her  days  now  pass  rapidly 
and  pleasantly,  mainly  owing  to  the  unremitting  skill  and  kindness  of  Dr.  Howe.  She 
was  saved  by  him  from  a life  of  hopeless,  helpless  darkness;  educated  and  trained  to 
take  her  part  in  the  world ; and  now,  as  a teacher  of  the  blind  and  deaf  and  dumb,  is 
inferring  on  them  the  blessings  she  has  herself  received.  She  is  probably  among  the 
^llost  skillful  of  blind  teachers. 

BBIDGENOETH,  a t.  of  Salop  or  Shropshire,  on  both  sides  of  the  Severn,  20  m.  s.e.  of 
Shrewsbury.  It  consists  of  an  upper  and  lower  town,  connected  by  a bridge  over  the 
Severn.  The  larger  part  of  the  town  is  on  the  right  bank,  and  is  built  on  a sandstone 
rock  rising  60  ft.  above  the  river.  Pop.  ’71,  7317.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
The  navigation  of  the  Severn  formerly  employed  many  of  the  inhabitants,  but  the  traffic 
has  been  greatly  injured  by  the  introduction  of  railways.  The  town,  which  was  at  one 
time  called  Bruges  or  Brug,  is  said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.  In  the  beginning  of  the  12th 
c.,  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury  defended  the  town  unsuccessfully  against  Henry  I.  It  was 
besieged  in  the  same  century  by  Henry  II. ; and  during  the  civil  wars  it  resisted  the 
parliamentary  forces  for  three  weeks.  A great  portion  of  the  town  was  on  this  occasion 
destroyed  by  fire.  It  has  carpet  and  worsted  manufactories.  Bishop  Percy  was  born 
here. 

BRIDGE  OF  ALLAN.  See  Allan. 

BRIDGE  OF  SIGHS,  the  covered  passage  which  connects  the  doge’s  palace  in 
Venice  with  the  prison,  over  which  prisoners  of  state  were  taken  to  confinement  or  to 
execution. 

BRIDGEPORT,  a seaport  of  Connecticut,  U.  S.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pequannock, 
which  empties  itself  into  an  inlet  of  Long  Island  sound.  It  is  in  lat.  41°  11'  n.,  and 


Bridgeport, 
b r 1 d{fe  water. 


54 


long.  73°  12'  w.,  being  178  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Boston,  and  58  to’the  n.e.  of  Kew  York. 
Pop.  70,  19,835,  having  gained  6536  in  10  years.  B.  is  connected  by  railways  both 
with  the  interior  and  with  the  other  places  generally  on  the  seaboard.  Though  the 
harbor  does  not  admit  large  ships,  having  only  13  ft.  on  the  bar  at  high-water,  yet  B.  has 
a considerable  coasting-trade,  and  a number  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  whale-fishery.  Its 
manufactures  are  extensive,  particularly  of  carriages,  harness,  fire-arms,  and  sewing- 
machines. 

BRIDGEPORT  (ante),  a city  in  Fairfield  co..  Conn.,  on  Long  Island  sound,  and  on 
the  New  York  and  New  Haven  railroad,  at  its  junction  with  the  Housatonic  railroad,  56 
m.  n.e.  of  New  York.  The  harbor  at  the  entrance  of  Pequannock  creek  is  large  and  safe, 
and  is  the  center  of  a considerable  coastwise  trade.  The  most  elegant  portion  of  the  city 
is  Golden  hill,  an  elevation  of  about  100  ft.,  commanding  delightful  views  of  sound  and 
shore,  and  covered  with  fine  residences,  many  of  which  are  owned  and  occupied  by  New 
Yorkers.  All  of  the  city  is  modern  and  well  built,  the  streets  shaded  by  trees,  and  the 
residences  are  well  provided  with  water  and  gas.  The  earliest  settlement,  then  called 
Newfield,  was  in  1639;  the  city  charter  is  dated  1836.  In  1850,  the  population  was  6080; 
now  it  is  about  23,000.  There  are  many  superior  schools,  and  some  fine  churches.  The 
chief  business,  besides  the  water  trade,  is  in  manufacturing,  and  in  this  the  making  of 
sewing-machines  takes  the  lead,  there  being  three  large  establishments.  Here  is  also  the 
largest  manufactory  of  metallic  cartridges  in  the  country;  and  there  are  carriage  factories, 
iron  foundries,  harness,  and  other  business.  Pop.  ’80 — 29,148. 

BRIDGER’S  PASS,  a defile  in  the  Rocky  mountains,  in  s.  Wyoming,  through  which 
the  overland  stages  went  before  the  opening  of  the  Pacific  railroad.  It  is  several  miles 
long,  and  in  most  places  has  perpendicular  side  walls  from  1000  to  2500  ft.  high. 

BRIDGET,  Saint  (or,  more  properly,  or  a famous  Roman  Catholic  saint, 

was  b.  in  Sweden  about  the  year  1302.  Her  father  was  a prince  of  the  blood-royal  of 
Sweden.  When  only  sixteen,  she  married  Ulf  Gudmarson,  prince  of  Nericia,  a stripling 
of  eighteen,  by  whom  she  had  eight  children,  the  youngest  of  M^hom,  named  Catherine, 
born  in  1336,  died  in  1381,  became  par  excellence  the  ‘female  saint  of  Sweden.  Her  hus- 
band and  she  now  solemnly  vowed  to  spend  the  remainder  of  their  lives  in  a state  of 
continence,  and,  to  obtain  strength  to  carry  out  their  severe  resolution,  made  a pilgrim- 
age to  the  shrine  of  St.  Jago  de  Compostella  in  Spain.  On  their  return,  Ulf  died  in 
1344,  and  B.  founded  about  the  same  time  the  monastery  of  Wadstena,  in  East  Goth- 
land. Sixty  nuns  and  twenty-five  monks  were  its  first  inmates.  They  received  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine,  to  which  St.  B.  herself  added  a few  particulars.  They  constituted  a 
new  order,  sometimes  called  the  order  of  St.  B. , sometimes  the  order  of  St.  Salvator,  or 
the  Holy  Savior,  which  flourished  in  Sweden  until  the  reformation,  when  it  was  sup- 
pressed, but  it  still  possesses  some  establishments  in  Italy,  Portugal,  and  elsewhere. 
Subsequently,  St.  B.  went  to  Rome,  where  she  founded  a hospice  for  pilgrims  and  Swed- 
ish students,  which  was  reorganized  by  Leo  X.  After  having  made  a pilgrimage  to  Pal- 
estine, she  died  at  Rome  on  her  return,  23d  July,  1373.  Her  bones  were  carried  to- 
Wadstena,  and  she  herself  was  canonized  in  1391  by  pope  Boniface  IX.  Her  festival 
is  on  the  8th  of  October.  The  Memlationes  St.  BrigitUx,  written  by  her  confessors,  waa 
keenly  attacked  by  the  celebrated  Gerson,  but  obtained  the  approval  of  the  council  of 
Basel,  and  has  passed  through  many  editions.  Besides  the  Bevelaiiones,  there  have  been 
attributed  to  this  saint  a sermon  on  the  Virgin,  and  five  discourses  on  the  passion  of 
Jesus  Christ,  preceded  by  an  introduction  which  was  condemned  by  the  congregation 
of  tlie  Index. 

Not  to  be  confounded  with  this  Swedish  saint  is  another  St.  Bridget,  or  St.  Bride, 
as  she  is  more  commonly  called,  a native  of  Ireland,  who  flourished  in  the  end  of 
the  5th  and  beginning  of  the  6th  c.,  and  was  renowned  for  her  beauty.  To  escape 
the  temptations  to  which  this  dangerous  gift  exposed  her,  as  well  as  the  offers  of 
marriage  with  which  she  was  annoyed,  she  prayed  God  to  make  her  ugly.  Her 
prayer  was  granted;  and  she  retired  from  the  world,  founded  the  monastery  of  Kil- 
dare, and  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of  young  girls.  Her  d^  falls  on  the  1st 
of  February.  She  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  three  great  saints  of  Ireland,  the  others, 
being  St.  Patrick  and  St.  Columba.  She  was  held  in  great  reverence  in  Scotland, 
and  was  regarded  by  the  Douglases  as  their  tutelary  saint. 

BRIDGETON,  a port  of  entry  in  New  Jersey,  U.  S.,  about  40  m.  s.  of  Philadelphia. 
It  occupies  both  banks  of  the  Cohansey  creek,  about  20  m,  above  its  entrance  intO' 
Delaware  bay,  its  two  divisions  being  connected  by  a wooden  draw-bridge.  The  town 
contains  a public  library,  two  newspaper-offices,  an  iron  foundry,  a rolling-mill,  a nail- 
factory,  a woolen-factory,  and  a glass-work.  It  likewise  owns  upwards  of  15,CK)0  tons 
of  shipping.  Pop.  in  1870,  6820. 

BRIDGETON  {ante),  the  capital  of  Cumberland  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Cohansey  river, 
20  m.  from  Delaware  bay,  36  m.  s.  of  Philadelphia,  at  the  terminus  of  the  West  Jersey 
and  the  junction  of  the  New  Jersey  Southern  railroads;  pop.  ’80,  8729.  It  is  a port  of 
entry,  the  second  in  importance  in  the  state.  Its  chief  manufactures  are  glass,  water 
and  gas  pipes,  nails,  castings,  machinery,  lumber,  brick,  ship-building,  woolens,  and 
canned  fruits,  in  which  nearly  200  firms  are  engaged.  Among  its  educational  advan- 


55 


Bridgeport. 

Bridgewater. 


tages  are  the  South  Jersey  institute,  the  West  Jersey  academy,  and  several  superior  select 
schools.  There  are  a good  public  library,  more  than  a dozen  churches,  and  several  benev- 
olent societies,  one  of  which  is  for  the  care  of  destitute  children.  There  are  water 
and  gas  works,  and  three  bridges  over  the  river,  the  town  being  built  on  both  banks. 
The  climate  is  excellent,  and  the  surrounding  region  is  exceedingly  fertile  and  well 
oultivated. 

BEIDGETOWN,  the  capital  of  Barbadoes  (q.v.),  is  situated  on  the  w.  coast  of  the 
island  along  the  n.  side  of  Carlisle  bay,  which  forms  its  roadstead,  in  lat.  13°  4'  n., 
and  long.  59°  37' w.  Pop.  21,384.  It  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  c., 
taking  the  name  Indian  Bridge,  and  later  its  present  appellation,  from  a rude  aboriginal 
structure  which  spanned  a neighboring  creek.  The  present  city,  however,  is  only  100 
years  old,  the  former  having  been  almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  May,  1766.  In  1831,  a part 
of  B.  was  destroyed  by  a hurricane,  and  in  1845  it  again  suffered  severely  from  fire.  It 
is  the  residence  of  the  bishop  of  Barbadoes  and  of  the  governor-general  of  the  Windward 
islands.  Except  Broad  street,  the  thoroughfares  are  irregular,  and  the  shops  or  general 
stores,  having  no  windows  in  front,  look  heavy  and  unattractive.  There  is  a consider- 
able trade. 

BRIDGEWATER,  a township  in  Plymouth  co..  Mass.,  27  m.  n.e.  of  Boston,  on  the 
Fall  river  and  Bridgewater  Branch  railroads.  It  contains  the  state  normal  school,  the 
state  almshouse,  and  various  manufactories.  Pop.  ’80,  3, 620. 

BRIDGEWATER,  a t.  and  port  of  Somersetshire,  on  both  sides  of  the  Parret  (which 
is  here  spanned  by  an  iron  bridge),  6 m.  in  a direct  line,  and  12  by  the  river,  from  the 
Bristol  channel,  and  30  m.  s.w.  of  Bristol.  It  stands  on  the  border  of  a marshy  plain, 
which  lies  between  the  Mendip  and  Quantock  hills,  but  the  country  around  is  well 
wooded.  It  is  chiefly  built  of  brick.  St.  Mary’s  church  has  a remarkably  slender  and 
lofty  spire.  The  Parret  admits  vessels  of  200  tons  up  to  the  town ; it  rises  36  ft.  at 
spring-tides,  and  is  subject  to  a bore  or  perpendicular  advancing  wave,  6 or  8 ft.  high, 
often  causing  much  annoyance  to  shipping.  Pop.  in  ’71,  12,101.  B.  formerly  returned 
two  members  to  parliament,  but  was  disfranchised  in  1870.  Bath  or  scouring  bricks, 
peculiar  to  B.  are  made  here  of  a mixture  of  sand  and  clay  found  in  the  river.  Admiral 
Blake  was  a native  of  this  town,  which  suffered  severely  in  the  civil  wars,  when  it  was 
besieged  by  Fairfax,  and  ultimately  forced  to  surrender,  the  castle  being  dismantled  by 
the  conqueror.  The  unfortunate  duke  of  Monmouth  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  cor- 
poration of  B.,  before  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor,  which  occurred  in  1685,  5 m.  s.e.  of  B., 
and  in  which  he  was  defeated  by  the  royal  army.  In  1874,  154  vessels,  of  10,140  tons, 
belonged  to  the  port ; and  in  the  same  year  the  number  of  vessels  that  cleared  the  port 
was  4,686,  with  an  aggregate  burden  of  240,437  tons. 

BRIDGEWATER,  Francis  Ecerton,  Duke  of,  styled  the  “Father  of  British  Inland 
[Navigation,”  youngest  son  of  Scroop,  fourth  earl  and  first  duke  of  B. ; wash,  in  1736, 
and  succeeded  his  elder  brother,  second  duke,  in  1748.  In  1758-60,  he  obtained  acts 
of  parliament  for  making  a navigable  canal  from  Worsley  to  Salford,  Lancashire,  and 
carrying  it  over  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  Navigation  at  Barton  by  an  aqueduct  39  ft.  above 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  200  yds.  long,  thus  forming  a communication  between  his 
coal  mines  at  Worsley  and  Manchester,  on  one  level.  In  this  great  undertaking  he 
was  aided  by  the  skill  of  James  Brindley  (q.v.),  the  celebrated  engineer,  and  expended 
large  sums  of  money.  He  was  also  a liberal  promoter  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Navigation; 
and  the  impulse  he  thus  gave  to  the  internal  navigation  of  England,  led  to  the  extension 
of  the  canal  system  throughout  the  kingdom.  In  politics,  though  he  took  no  active 
part,  B.  was  a friend  of  the  Pitt  administration,  and  a contributor  to  the  loyalty  loan  of 
no  less  than  £100,000.  He  died  unmarried.  Mar.  8,  1803,  and  with  his  death  the  duke- 
dom became  extinct.  Before  he  began  to  realize  profits  from  his  great  work,  B.  lived 
in  privacy,  and  restricted  himself  to  the  simplest  fare;  and  after  his  death  his  great 
wealth  was  distributed  among  collateral  branches  of  his  family.  A monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  in  Manchester. 

BRIDGEWATER,  Francis  Henry  Egerton,  Earl  of,  son  of  John  Egerton,  bishop 
of  Durham,  grandnephew  of  the  first ,duke  of  B.,  succeeded  his  brother  as  eighth  earl, 
Oct.  21,  1823.  Educated  for  the  church,  he  had  previously  been  prebendary  of  Durham. 
He  died  unmarried,  in  Feb.,  1829,  and  the  title  became  extinct.  By  his  last  will,  dated 
Feb.  25,  1825,  he  left  £8,000,  invested  in  the  public  funds,  to  be  paid  to  the  author  of 
the  best  treatise  On  the  Power*,  Wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  Crea- 
tion, illustrating  such  work  by  such  arguments  as  the  variety  and  formation  of  God’s 
creatures  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  the  effect  of  digestion,  the 
construction  of  the  hand  of  man,  and  by  discoveries,  ancient  and  modern,  in  arts, 
sciences,  and  the  whole  extent  of  literature.  The  then  president  of  the  royal  society  of 
London,  Davies  Gilbert,  to  whom  the  selection  of  the  author  was  left,  with  the  advice 
of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  bishop  of  London,  and  a noble  friend  of  the 
deceased  earl,  judiciously  resolved  that,  instead  of  being  given  to  one  man  for  one  work, 
the  money  should  be  allotted  to  eight  different  persons  for  eight  separate  treatises, 
though  all  connected  with  the  same  primary  theme  (see  next  article).  B.  also  left 
upwards  of  £12,000  to  the  British  Museum,  the  interest  to  be  employed  in  the  purchase 
and  care  of  MSS.  for  the  public  use. 


Bridgewater, 

Brier. 


56 


BEIDGEWATER  TREATISES,  eight  celebrated  works  “On  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and 
Goodness  of  God,”  by  eight  of  the  most  eminent  authors  in  their  respective  departments, 
published  under  a bequest  of  the  last  earl  of  B.  (q.v.),  whereby  each  received  £1,000, 
with  the  copyright  of  his  own  treatise.  They  are:  1.  The  Adaptation  of  External 
Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man,  by  Thomas  Chalmers,  d.d. 
(Lond.  1833,  2 vols.  8vo).  2.  Chemistry,  Meteorology and  the  Eanction  of  Digestion,  con- 

sidered with  Reference  to  Natural  Theohgy,  by  William  Prout,  m.d.  (Lond.  1834,  8vo). 
3.  On  the  History,  Habits,  and  Instincts  of  Animals,  by  the  rev.  William  Kirby  (Lond. 
1835,  2 vols.  8vo).  4.  On  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  by  the  rev.  Dr.  Buckland  (Lond. 

1837,  2 vols.  8vo).  5.  Vie  Hand,  its  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments,  as  Evincing- 
Design,  by  sir  Charles  Bell  (Lond.  1837,  8vo).  6.  The  Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to- 

the  Physical  Condition  of  Man,  by  John  Kidd,  m.d.  (Lond.  1837,  8vo).  7.  Astronomy 

and  General  Physics,  considered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology,  by  the  rev.  William. 
Wliewell  (Lond.  1839,  8vo).  8.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology,  considered  with  Refer- 

ence to  Natural  Theology,  by  Peter  Mark  Rogert,  m.d.  (Lond.  1840,  2 vols.  8vo).  All 
these  works  have  since  been  republished  by  Bohn. 

BRIDLINGTON,  or  Burlington,  a sea-coast  t.  in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire 
(including  Bridlington  Quay,  a port  and  bathing-place  about  1 m.  to  t&  s.e.),  6 m.  w. 
of  Flamboroiigh  head,  and  40  m.  e.n.e.  of  York.  B.  is  situated  on  a gentle  slope  in  a. 
recess  of  a beautiful  bay.  The  country  is  hilly  to  the  n.,  but  subsides  to  the  s.  into  a. 
flat  alluvial  and  fertile  tract  called  Holderness.  It  has  the  aspect  of  an  old  town 
with  narrow  irregular  streets.  Pop.  in  ’71,  6203.  It  has  a considerable  trade  in 
corn,  and  also  some  soap-boiling  and  bone-grinding  works.  B.  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  site  of  a Roman  station.  The  Danes  had  strongholds  in  this  vicinity  for 
nearly  300  years,  and  many  engagements  between  them  and  the  Saxons  and  Normans, 
occurred  here.  Great  numbers  of  ancient  tumuli  or  barrows  still  exist.  An  Augus- 
tine priory  of  immense  wealth,  and  which  subsisted  for  400  years,  was  founded  here 
by  a grand-nephew  of  the  conqueror,  and  obtained  many  privileges  from  Henry  I.,  and 
also  from  king  John.  Some  parts  of  it  yet  remain.  In  1643,  Henrietta,  queen  of 
Charles  I.,  landed  here  with  arms  and  ammunition  from  Holland  bought  with  the 
crown-jewels.  Bridlington  Quay  has  a chalybeate  mineral  spring,  as  well  as  an 
intermitting  one  of  pure  water.  B.  is  noted  for  its  chalk-flint  fossils.  In  the  lacus- 
trine deposits  near  B.  were  found,  some  years  ago,  the  bones  of  a large  extinct  elk,, 
with  branching  horns,  measuring  11  ft.  from  tip  to  tip. 

BRIDPORT,  a t.  in  Dorsetshire,  in  a vale  at  the  confluence  of  the  Asker  and  the  Birt, 
or  Brit,  or  Bride,  16  m.  w.n.w.  of  Dorchester,  and  2 m.  from  the  English  channel.  It 
stands  on  an  eminence  surrounded  by  hills,  and  consists  chiefly  of  three  spacious 
and  airy  streets.  Pop.  ’71,  7670.  The  registered  electors  numbered  (1875)  1071,  includ- 
ing 15  freemen.  They  return  one  member  to  parliament.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  twine,  shoe-thread,  cordage,  flshing-nets,  and  sail-cloth;  and  ship-building  is  carried 
on  to  some  extent.  The  vicinity  is  celebrated  for  its  cheese  and  butter.  B.  was  a con- 
siderable town  before  the  Norman  conquest,  and  had  a mint  for  coining  silver.  In  1871J 
there  entered  into  this  port  69  vessels  whose  tonnage  was  reckoned  6386;  and  there 
cleared  it  36  vessels  of  collectively  3526  tons.  On  the  coast  near  are  sandy  cliffs,  200  ft. 
high,  abounding  in  fossils 

BRIE,  an  old  district  of  France  between  the  Seine  and  the  Marne,  Meaux  being  the 
chief  town.  B.  was  and  is  celebrated  for  its  cheese  and  grain.  In  old  times  a for- 
est covered  a great  portion  of  the  region.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Franks,  and  was  a 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Neustria.  In  the  9th  c.,  it  was  ruled  by  its  own  counts,  but  in 
1361  it  passed  to  the  crown.  The  district  is  now  comprised  in  the  departments  of  Aisne 
and  those  adjoining. 

BRIEF,  in  the  practice  of  the  English  bar,  is  the  name  given  to  the  written  instnm- 
tions  on  which  barristers  advocate  causes  in  courts  of  justice.  It  is  called  a B. 
because  it  is,  or  ought  to  be,  an  abbreviated  statement  of  the  pleadings,  proofs,  hnd  am- 
davits  at  law,  or  of  the  bill,  answer,  and  other  proceedings  in  equity,  with  a concise 
narrative  of  the  facts  and  merits  of  the  plaintiff’s ‘case,  or  the  defendant’s  defense.  But 
it  is  also  used  in  forensic  business  generally,  being  applied,  not  only  in  the  courts  of 
law  and  equity,  but  also  in  all  other  tribunals,  whether  inferior  or  superior,  original  or 
appellate.  In  Scotland,  the  corresponding  term  is  memorial.  The  skill  of  the  attorney 
or  solicitor  is  shown  in  the  preparation  of  this  important  document,  which  should  be 
characterized  by  arrangement  and  compression,  without  any  material  omission. 

BRIEF  {ante),  an  abridged  statement  of  a suitor’s  case.  It  should  contain  the  names,, 
residences,  and  occupations  of  the  parties;  the  character  in  which  they  sue  or  are  sued, 
and  why  they  prosecute  or  defend;  an  abridgment  of  the  pleadings;  a regular  chrono- 
logical statement  in  plain  language  of  the  facts;  a summaiw  of  the  points  at  issue  and  of 
the  proof  to  be  offered,  with  names  of  witnesses,  or  of  documents  in  case  of  written 
evidence,  etc.  The  form  and  nature  of  the  B.  is  necessarily  varied  according  to  the 
purpose  which  it  is  to  serve. 

BRIEF,  or  Breve,  PAPAL  (Lat,  brevis,  short),  a word  which,  in  the  corrupt  Latinity 
of  the  early  ages,  was  made  to  signify  a short  letter  written  to  one  or  more  persons 


57 


Bridgewater. 

Brier. 


<hence  the  German  brief,  a letter).  It  is  now  used  to  denote  certain  pontifical  -writings, 
which,  however,  do  not  receive  their  name  from  the  brevity  of  the  composition,  but 
from  the  smallness  of  the  caligraphy.  The  papal  B.  differs  from  the  papal  bull  (q.v.)  in 
several  points.  It  gives  decisions  on  matters  of  inferior  importance,  such  as  discipline, 
■dispensations,  release  from  vows,  indulgences,  etc.,  which  do  not  necessarily  require  the 
deliberations  of  a conclave  of  cardinals.  Still,  it  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  motus 
jn'oprii,  or  private  epistle  of  the  pope  as  an  individual,  as  its  contents  are  always  of  an  offi- 
cial character.  His  holiness  speaks,  as  it  were,  with  a kind  of  familiar  parental  of  author- 
ity, and  the  B.  is  consequently  superscribed  papa,  while  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed 
is  termed  dileete  fili  (beloved  son).  It  is  signed  not  by  the  pope,  but  by  the  segretario  de' 
hreri,  an  officer  of  the  papal  chancery,  with  red  wax,  and  only  with  the  pope’s  private 
•seal,  the  fisherman’s  ring;  hence  it  concludes  Datum  Bomm  sub  annulo  piscatoris  (given 
;at  Rome  under  the  ring  of  the  fisherman).  Like  the  bull,  it  is  written  on  parchment, 
with  this  difference,  that  the  bull  is  written  on  the  rough  side,  and  in  ancient  Gothic 
■characters,  while  the  brief  is  written  on  the  smooth  side,  and  in  modern  Roman  char- 
acters. 

BRIEG,  a t.  of  Silesia,  Prussia,  about  27  m.  s.e.  of  Breslau.  It  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Oder,  and  on  the  railway  between  Breslau  and  Vienna,  and  is  surrounded 
with  walls,  which  have  been  partly  converted  into  promenades.  The  streets  are  wide 
n,nd  regular,  and  commercially  B.  is  a thriving  town,  its  manufactures  including  linens, 
woollens,  cottons,  hosiery,  ribbons,  lace,  leather,  and  tobacco.  The  battle-field  of 
Mollwitz  (q.v.)  lies  a little  to  the  w.  of  Brieg.  Pop.  ’75,  16,348. 

BRIEL,  BRIEL'LE,  or  The  BRILL,  a fortified  seaport  t.,  on  the  n.  side  of  the  island 
■of  Yoorne,  s.  Holland.  It  is  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Maas,  about  14  m.  w.  of 
Rotterdam,  in  lat.  51°  54'  n.,  and  long.  4°  10'  east.  B.  possesses  a good  harbor,  and  is 
intersected  by  several  canals.  It  has  a pop.  of  (1876)  4205,  the  male  portion  of  which  are 
chiefly  engaged  as  pilots  and  fishermen.  B.  may  be  considered  as  the  nucleus  of  the 
Dutch  republic,  having  been  taken  from  the  Spaniards  b}^  William  de  la  Marck,  in  1572. 
'This  event  was  the  first  act  of  open  hostility  to  Philip  II.,  and  paved  the  way  to  the 
■complete  liberation  of 'the  country  from  a foreign  yoke.  In  1585,  B.  was  one  of  the 
towns  made  over  to  England  as  security  for  certain  advances  made  to  the  states  of  Hol- 
land; it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch  in  1616.  B.  was  the  first  town  of  Holland,  which, 
without  extraneous  aid,  expelled  the  French  in  1813.  The  celebrated  admirals  De  Witt 
.and  Van  Tromp  were  natives  of  this  place. 

BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  Bkienne-Napoleon,  a small  t.  in 
in  the  dep.  of  Aube,  France,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Aube,  and  about  14  m.  n.w. 
cf  Bar-sur-Aube.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Napoleon  I.  received  his  earliest 
military  education,  he  having  entered  the  school  here  in  1779,  when  he  was  10  years  old, 
and  remained  until  1784.  It  is  also  remarkable  on  account  of  the  battle  fought  here 
between  the  .French  and  the  allies  in  1814.  On  the  29th  of  Jan.,  Bonaparte,  who  had 
collected  his  forces  in  the  vicinity  of  B.,  with  a view  to  check  the  advance  of  the  allies 
•on  Paris,  attacked  Blucher,  who  was  stationed  in  the  town,  and  drove  him  out  with 
considerable  loss.  In  the  struggle,  the  town,  which  was  chiefly  composed  of  wood,  was 
almost  reduced  to  ashes.  On  the  30th,  the  contest  was  renewed,  and  Blucher  was  forced 
to  retreat  to  Trannes.  On  the  following  day,  Napoleon  deployed  his  forces  in  the  plain 
between  La  Rothi^re  and  Trannes,  and  on  Feb.  1,  the  corps  of  the  crown-prince  of 
Wtirter'berg  and  count  Giulay,  and  the  Russian  reserves  of  grenadiers,  having  joined 
Blucher,  prince  Schwarzenberg  gave  orders  to  renew  the  combat.  After  a sanguinary 
•struggle,  during  which  Napoleon,  feeling  the  importance  of  the  contest,  exerted  all  his 
influence  over  his  troops,  led  several  charges  in  person,  and  frequently  exposed  himself 
to  danger,  victory  at  length  declared  decisively  for  the  allies  at  every  point.  During 
the  night  of  Feb.  1,  and  the  morning  of  the  following  daj^  the  French  troops  retreated 
from  Brienne-le-Chateau.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was  about  equal,  consisting  of  nearly 
5000  killed  and  wounded.  The  allies  took  9Q00  prisoners,  and  70  pieces  of  artillery. 
This  victory  at  B.  opened  the  way  to  Paris,  and  led  to  the  fall  of  the  empire. 

BRIENZ,  a t.  of  the  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  of 
the  Bernese  Alps,  on  the  n.e.  shore  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  and  about  30  m.  e.s.e. 
■of  Bern.  Its  cheese  is  held  in  high  repute.  Pop.  ’70,  2605. — The  lake  of  B.,  which 
is  about  8 m.  long  and  2 in  breadth,  is  formed  by  the  river  Aar,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hasli 
valley,  and  by  the  same  river  it  discharges  its  surplus  waters  into  lake  'Thun.  The 
lake  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  1850  ft.  above  the  sea;  its  average  depth  is  about  500 
ft.,  but  in  some  places  it  is  said  to  have  a depth  of  more  than  2000  feet.  It  is  surrounded 
by  elevated  mountains,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Ro thorn,  from  which  splendid 
views  of  the  whole  range  of  the  Bernese  Alps  are  obtained.  A small  steamer  plies  daily 
on  the  lake  between  B.  and  Interlaken,  touching  at  the  celebrated  Giessbach  fall  every 
trip. 

BRIER  CREEK,  a stream  in  Warren  co.,  Ga.,  where,  in  the  revolution,  the  Ameri- 
cans under  gen.  Ashe  were  defeated  Feb.  27,  1779,  by  the  English  under  gen.  Prevost; 
American  loss  about  250;  English  loss,  16. 


Brierly. 

Brightening^. 


58 


BBI'EELY  HILL,  an  ecclesiastical  district  of  Staffordshire,  England,  2 m.  n.n.e.  front 
Stourbridge,  on  the  Oxford,  Worcester,  and  Wolverhampton  railway.  It  is  a place  of 
much  activity,  the  district  abounding  in  coal,  iron,  and  fire-clay ; and  there  are  here  numer 
ous  collieries,  large  iron-works,  glass-works,  brick-works,  and  potteries.  The  manufac' 
ture  of  steam-boilers  is  extensively  carried  on.  Pop.  71,  11,046. 

BRIES,  a t.  in  Hungary  on  the  Gran;  pop.  70,  11,776.  The  people  are  stock- breed' 
ers  and  farmers. 

BKIEUC,  St.,  a seaport  t.,  in  the  department  of  C6tes-du-Nord,  France,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Gouet,  about  2 m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  bay  of  St.  B.,  a part  of 
the  English  channel,  in  lat.  48°  31'  n.,  and  long.  2°  45'  west.  The  town  is  said  to  owe 
its  origin  to  an  Irishman,  St.  Brieuc,  who  built  a monastery  herein  the  5th  century.  St. 
B.  has  the  rums  of  an  old  tower  that  formerly  defended  the  entrance  to  the  river,  but 
was  partially  blown  up  by  order  of  Henri  IV.  in  1598,  and  a cathedral,  part  of  which 
dates  from  the  11th  century.  The  ramparts  were  destroyed  in  1788,  and  their  site  has 
been  converted  into  a pleasant  promenade,  terminating  in  a terrace  that  commands  a 
fine  view  of  the  channel.  St.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolen  stuffs,  linen,  cotton,  leather, 
paper,  etc. ; it  has  also  ship-building  yards,  and  a trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Pop 
76,  13,683. 

BRIGADE',  in  the  military  service,  is  a group  of  regiments  or  battalions  combined  into 
one  body.  When  a British  army  takes  the  field,  it  is  customary  for  three  battalions  to 
form  a hngade,  and  two  brigades  a division.  Thps,  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  each  of 
the  five  divisions  of  British  infantry  comprised  two  brigades;  and  of  these  ten  brigades, 
nine  consisted  of  three  battalions  each,  the  tenth  being  somewhat  stronger.  It  is  noth- 
ing more  than  a temporary  grouping,  which  can  be  broken  up  whenever  the  command- 
ing officer  thinks  fit.  The  household  troops,  comprising  the  horse  guards,  lifeguards, 
and  foot  guards,  are  sometimes  called  the  household  brigade. 

BRIGADE  MAJOR  is  a military  officer  who  exercises  duties,  in  a brigade,  analogous; 
to  those  of  the  adjutant  of  a regiment.  He  attends  to  matters  of  discipline,  and  to  the 
personal  movements  of  the  men.  When  regiments  or  battalions  are  brigaded,  a B. 
M.  is  appointed,  usually  from  among  the  captains.  He  conveys  orders,  keeps  the 
rollster  or  roster,  inspects  guards  and  pickets,  and  directs  exercises  and  evolutions ; but 
he  nevertheless  remains  on  the  books  of  a particular  regiment,  and  returns  to  his  regi- 
mental duties  when  the  B.  is  broken  up. 

BRIGADIER,  or  Brigadier-General,  is  an  officer  of  a regiment  (usually  a col. 
or  lieut.coL),  who,  for  a limited  time  and  for  a special  service,  is  placed  upon  brigade 
duties.  He  is  then  a general  or  commander  of  a brigade,  which  usually  contains  his 
own  regiment  as  one  of  the  number.  When  the  brigade  is  broken  up,  he  falls  back  to 
his  colonelcy,  unless  his  services  lead  to  his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  maj.gen. 

BRIGANDINE,  among  the  articles  of  armor  worn  during  the  middle  ages,  was  an 
assemblage  of  small  plates  of  iron,  sewed  upon  quilted  linen  or  leather,  and  covered  with 
a similar  substance  to  hide  the  glittering  of  the  metal.  It  formed  a sort  of  coat  or 
tunic.  The  B.  was  named  from  the  hrigans,  a kind  of  light-armed  irregular  corps, 
employed  something  like  the  Cossacks  and  Baslii-bazouks  of  recent  days,  and,  like  them, 
addicted  to  marauding  and  pilfering ; hence  the  word  brigand. 

BRIGAN'TES.  See  Britannia. 

BRIG-BRIG' ANTINE.  A brig  is  a square-rigged  vessel  with  two  masts.  A brigan- 
tine, or  hermaphrodite  brig,  is  a two-masted  vessel,  with  the  mainmast  of  a schooner  and 
tlie  foremast  of  a brig.  A brig’s  mainsail  is  the  lowest  squaresail  on  the  mainmast, 
whereas  the  mainsail  of  a brigantine  is  a fore-and-aft  sail  like  that  of  a schooner. 

Briggs,  Charles  Frederick,  1810-77;  b.  Mass.;  a journalist  and  author  known 
as  “Harry  Franco.”  He  started  the  Broadway  Journal,  in  New  York,  of  which  Edgar  A. 
Poe  became  an  associate  editor  the  year  following  its  establishment;  and  in  1853  he 
became  the  first  editor  of  Putnam's  Magazine,  which  he  conducted  for  several  years.  At 
a later  period  he  was  connected  with  the  New  York  Times.  Some  of  his  works  are  Tlte 
Adventures  of  Harry  i\anw,  The  Haunted  Merchant-,  ihe  Trippings  of  Tom  Pepper . 
His  latest  editorial  work  w\as  done  upon  the  Brooklyn  Union  and  The  Independent,  with 
the  latter  of  which  he  was  connected  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

BRIGGS,  George  Nixon,  ll.d.,  1796-1861;  b.  Mass.;  a lawyer  and  judge,  member 
of  congress,  and  for  two  terms  governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  was  for  some  time  pres- 
ident of  the  Baptist  missionary  union. 

BRIGGS,  Henry,  a distinguished  mathematician,  was  b.  in  1556,  at  "Warleywood, 
near  Halifax,  Yorkshire,  and  studied  at  St.  John’s  college,  Cambridge.  In  1596,  he  was 
appointed  first  reader  in  geometry  at  Gresham  house  (afterwards  college),  London,  and 
in  1619  first  Savilian  professor  of  geometry  in  Oxford.  This  office  he  retained  till  the 
time  of  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Oxford,  Jan.  26,  1631.  B.  made  an  important 
contribution  to  the  theory  of  logarithms,  of  which  he  constructed  invaluable  tables. 
Napier  the  inventor  had,  in  1614,  published  a table  of  the  so-called  natural  logarithms, 
when  B.  observed  that  anotlier  system,  in  which  tlie  logarithm  of  10  should  be  taken  as 
\inity,  would  afford  great  facilities  of  calculation.  Napier  admitted  the  improvement 


59 


Brlerly. 

Brightening. 


on  his  own  system,  and  intended  to  assist  in  carrying  the  plan  into  effect;  but  died  in 
1618,  when  the  whole  work  was  left  to  Briggs.  In  the  same  year  he  published  his  Cliiliai 
Prima  Logaritlimorum,  containing  the  first  thousand  natural  numbers  calculated  to  eight 
decimal  places,  and  in  1624  published  his  Arithmetica  Logarithmica,  the  fruit  of  many 
years  of  unwearied  application,  and  giving  the  logarithms  of  natural  numbers  from  1 to 
^0,000,  and  from  90,000  to  101,000,  with  15  places.  His  system  of  logarithms  is  that 
now  commonly  adopted.  Leaving  others  to  carry  out  his  calculations,  for  which  he  had 
provided  every  facility,  he  next  employed  himself  on  a table  of  logarithms  of  sines  and 
tangents,  carried  to  the  hundredth  part  of  a degree,  and  to  15  places,  which,  with  a table 
of  natural  sines,  tangents,  and  secants,  was  posthumously  published  at  Gouda,  in  Hoi  - 
land,  1633,  under  the  title  of  Trigonometria  Britannica. 

BRIGHAM,  Amariah,  1798-1849;  b.  Mass.;  a physician  who  devoted  great  atten- 
tion to  the  cause  and  cure  of  insanity.  He  was  superintendent  of  the  retreat  for 
the  insane  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  of  the  New  York  state  asylum.  While  at  the  latter 
institution  he  gave  lectures  and  established  the  Journal  of  Insanity.  Among  his 
works  are  Mental  Gultivation  and  Excitement;  The  Influence  of  Religion  upon  the  Health 
■and  Physical  Welfare  of  Mankind;  and  The  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Pathology  of  the 
Brain. 

BRIGHAMIA,  plants  of  the  lobelia  family  discovered  in  the  Sandwich  islands.  The 
B.  indgnis  bears  sweet-scented,  showy,  and  abundant  flowers  which  last  for  several 
months.  It  is  a favorite  in  English  conservatories.  The  juice  is  said  to  be  a specific 
for  some  cutaneous  diseases. 

BRIGHT,  Jesse  D.,  b.  New  York,  1812.  Early  in  life  he  settled  in  Indiana  as  a 
lawyer,  and  became  state  senator  and  lieutenant-governor.  In  1845,  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  senate,  where  he  served  18  years.  In  1862,  he  was  expelled  from  the 
senate  for  having  written  to  Jefferson  Davis  as  “ President  of  the  Confederate  States,” 
recommending  to  him  a man  who  desired  to  furnish  arms  for  the  rebels. 

BRIGHT,  John,  a popular  politician,  first  brought  into  notice  by  the  anti-corn-law 
agitation,  son  of  Jacob  Bright,  a Quaker  cotton  spinner  and  manufacturer  at  Rochdale, 
Lancashire,  was  b.  at  Greenbank,  near  that  town.  Nov.  16,  1811.  In  1835,  he  made  a 
foreign  tour,  which  included  a journey  to  Palestine,  and,  on  his  return,  delivered  before 
a literary  institution  at  Rochdale,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the  founders,  lectures  on  the 
subject  of  his  travels,  and  on  topics  connected  with  commerce  and  political  economy. 
When  the  anti-corn-law  league  was  formed  in  1839,  he  was  one  of  its  leading  members, 
and,  with  Mr.  Cobden,  engaged  in  an  extensive  free-trade  agitation  throughout  the 
kingdom.  In  the  spring  of  1843,  he  offered  himself  as  a condidate  for  the  representa- 
tion of  Durham,  and,  though  at  first  unsuccessful,  he  became,  in  July  of  the  same  year, 
M.P.  for  that  city.  At  all  times  an  animated  and  effective  speaker,  B.  was  incessant, 
both  at  public  meetings  and  in  parliament,  in  his  opposition  to  the  corn  laws,  until  they 
were  finally  repealed.  In  1845,  he  obtained  the  appointment  of  a select  committee  of  the 
bouse  of  commons  on  the  game  laws,  and  also  one  on  the  subject  of  cotton  cultivation 
in  India.  An  abridgment  of  the-evidence  taken  before  the  former, ’published  in  one 
volume,  contained  from  his  pen  an  Address  to  the  Tenant  Farmers  of  Great  Britain, 
strongly  condemning  the  existing  game  laws.  At  the  general  election  of  1847,  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  members  for  Mancnester.  He  co-operated  with  Mr.  Cobden  in  the 
movement  in  favor  of  financial  reform.  On  the  formation  of  the  first  Derby  ministry, 
Feb.  27,  1852,  B.  aided  in  the  temporary  reorganization  of  the  corn-law  league,  in  favor 
of  the  principles  of  free  trade;  and  at  the  general  election  which  followed,  was  re-elected 
for  Manchester.  A member  of  the  peace  society,  and  strenuously  opposed  to  the  war 
with  Russia  in  1854,  B.  was  one  of  the  meeting  of  the  society  of  Friends,  by  whom  a 
deputation  was  sent  to  the  emperor  Nicholas  to  urge  upon  him  the  maintenance  of  peace; 
and  in  1855  he  energetically  denounced  the  Crimean  war.  A severe  illness  compelled 
him  to  withdraw  for  a time  to  the  continent,  and  in  his  absence  he  was  rejected  by  Man- 
chester. Elected  in  1857  for  Birmingham,  he  seconded  the  motion  against  the  second 
reading  of  the  conspiracy  bill,  w^hich  led  to  the  overthrow  of  lord  Palmerston’s  govern- 
ment. His  name  then  became  chiefly  associated  with  the  movement  for  reforming  the 
electoral  representation,  which  resulted  in  the  act  of  1867.  In  1868,  he  accepted  otfice  as 
president  of  the  board  of  trade,  but  in  1870  was  again  obliged  to  retire,  in  consequence 
of  severe  illness.  His  health  having  been  partially  restored,  he  held  office  in  1873-74  as 
chancellor  of  the  duchv  of  Lancaster.  A collection  of  his  Speeches  was  published  in 
1868. 

BRIGHT,  Richard,  1789-1858;  an  English  physician  educated  at  Edinburgh;  prac- 
ticed with  great  success  in  London,  becoming  physician  to  Guy’s  hospital.  His  specialty 
was  morbid  anatomy  and  the  connection  between  morbid  symptoms  and  alterations  of 
structure  of  the  internal  organs.  He  discovered  that  an  albuminous  condition  of  the 
urine,  accompanied  with  dropsical  effusions,  was  dependent  on  a peculiar  degeneration 
of  the  kidneys,  whence  the  disease  in  which  these  conditions  occur  was  called  Bright’s 
disease.  His  publications  on  this  topic  were  made  in  1836-40. 

BRIGHTENING,  in  calico-printing,  is  the  operation  of  rendering  the  colors  of  printed 
fabrics  more  bright  or  brilliant,  by  boiling  them  in  solutions  of  sod^a  and  other  materials. 


Brighton. 

Brindisi. 


60 


BRIGHTON,  a former  t.  in  Middlesex  co.,  Mass.,  4 m.  w.  of  Boston  on  the  Albany 
and  Boston  railroad;  pop.  ’70,  4957.  It  is  famous  as  the  great  cattle-market  of  Boston 
and  the  east.  It  has  besides  some  manufacturing  establishments.  Since  1873  it  has. 
been  a part  of  Boston. 

BRIGHTON,  originally  Brighthelmstone,  a t.  and  a celebrated  watering-place  on  the 
sea-coast  of  Sussex,  50i  m.  s.  of  London.  It  is  built  on  a slope  ascending  eastward  to  a 
range  of  high  chalk-cliffs  (backed  by  the  South  Downs),  bounding  the  coast  as  far  as 
Beachy  Head;  to  the  west,  these  hills  recede  from  the  coast,  and  leave  a long  stretch  of 
sands.  Anciently,  Brighthelmstone  was  a mere  fishing-village  on  a level  und^erthe  cliff; 
and  more  than  once  it  was  burnt  and  plundered  by  French  marauders.  It  was  fortified 
by  Henry  VIII.,  and  more  strongly  by  Elizabeth;  but  the  sea  proved  more  dangerous 
than  the  French,  and  now  washes  over  the  site  of  the  village  of  those  days.  The  inroads, 
of  the  sea  in  1699,  1703,  and  1705,  undermined  many  cliffs  and  destroyed  many  houses. 
Its  further  inroads  are  prevented  by  a sea-wall  of  great  strength  (60  ft.  high,  23  ft.  thick: 
at  the  base,  and  2 m.  long),  extending  along  the  cliffs,  and  built  at  the  cost  of  £100,000. 
The  writings  of  Dr.  Russel,  a celebrated  physician  of  George  II. ’s  time,  first  drew  pub- 
lic attention  to  B.  as  an  eligible  watering-place,  and  the  discovery  of  a chalybeate  spring 
in  the  vicinity  increased  its  popularity.  The  visit  of  the  prince  of  Wales  in  1782,  and 
his  subsequent  yearly  residence  there,  finally  opened  the  eyes  of  the  fashionable  world 
to  its  immense  attractions,  and  B.  thenceforth  became  the  crowded  resort  of  a health- 
seeking population.  Its  progress  has  been  very  rapid,  and  the  town  is  still  steadily 
increasing.  B.  is  for  the  most  part  extremely  well  built,  as  becomes  a favored  retreat 
of  wealth  and  aristocracy.  It  mostly  consists  of  new  and  elegant  streets,  squares,  and 
terraces.  The  hotels  are  magnificent.  A range  of  splendid  houses  fronts  the  sea  for 
nearly  3 m.,  including  the  famous  sea-wall,  and  the  beach  is  easily  accessible  by  gaps  in 
the  chalk-cliffs.  Formerly,  trees  were  a great  rarity  in  B. ; but  within  the  last  tldrty 
years  they  have  been  planted  both  in  and  around  the  town,  and  are  now  to  be  seen  of 
considerable  size  in  the  North  Steyne  Inclosures,  the  Level,  and  the  Queen’s  park. 
Pop.  in  1801,  7339;  in  ’21,  24,429;  in  ’51,  65,569;  in  ’71,  90,011.  B.  returns  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament.  The  population  is  greatly  increased  during  the  fashionable  season 
by  the  influx  of  visitors.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1854.  Living  and  house-rent  are 
about  a third  higher  than  in  London.  Near  the  center  of  the  town  is  the  pavilion  or 
marine  palace,  a fantastic  oriental  or  Chinese  structure,  with  domes,  minarets,  and  pin- 
nacles, and  Moorish  stables,  begun  for  the  prince  of  Wales  in  1784,  and  finished  in  1827. 
It  is  now  the  property  of  the  corporation  of  B.,  and  with  its  fine  pleasure-grounds  of 
above  seven  acres,  it  is  devoted  to  the  recreation  of  the  inhabitants.  It  stands  in  th-^ 
Steyne,  an  open  space  between  the  e.  and  w.  parts  of  the  town.  The  marine  parade,  a 
fine  terrace,  extends  about  a m.  along  the  margin  of  the  cliff,  between  the  Steyne  and 
Kemp  town,  a handsome  district  on  the  east.  Westward,  there  is  a similar  parade  or 
promenade,  extending  a great  length  in  front  of  the  more  modern  part  of  the  town,  and 
here  there  is  daily  a large  and  fashionable  concourse.  There  are  two  piers — a chain  pie  * 
on  the  e.,  opposite  the  marine  parade,  and  a broad  wooden  pier  on  piles  on  the  w. ; both 
are  used  for  promenading.  A magnificent  aquarium;  715  ft.  in  length,  was  opened  in 
1872.  B.  has  no  maritime  trade.  It  is  reputedly  a town  for  recreation  and  sea-bathmg 
Its  only  defect  is  a want  of  trees  to  shade  the  promenades;  the  sea-breeze  being  adverse 
to  the  growth  of  trees.  B.  possesses  several  large  public  hotels,  and  is  more  particularly 
noted  for  its  excellent  private  hotels  or  boarding  houses,  locally  known  as  “mansions.” 
B.  is  connected  with  London,  and  also  with  the  towns  along  the  coast,  by  railways. 
From  its  salubrity,  the  town  abounds  in  boarding-schools. 

BRIGHT’S  DISEASE  (of  the  kidneys),  so  called  after  the  English  physician,  Dr. 
Bright,  who  first  investigated  its  character,  consists  of  a degeneration  of  the  tissues  of 
the  kidney  into  fat,  and  will  be  better  understood  after  the  anatomy  of  the  organ  has. 
been  studied.  Suffice  it  to  say  now,  that  this  degenerated  condition  impairs  the  excret- 
ing powers  of  the  organ,  so  that  the  urea  is  not  sufficiently  separated  from  the  blood. 
The  flow  of  the  latter,  when  charged  with  this  urea,  is  retarded  through  the  minute  ves  - 
sels,  congestion  ensues,  and  exudation  of  albumen  and  fibrin  is  the  result.  When  we 
apply  heat  to  the  urine  from  a kidney  so  affected,  it  becomes  opaque,  showing  that  it 
contained  albumen  (q.v.);  and  on  examining  a drop  of  it  under  the  microscope,  we 
observe  the  exuded  lymph  mixed  with  epithelium  in  the  form  of  casts  of  the  small  ducts 
of  the  diseased  organ.  The  patient  presents  a flabby,  bloodless  look,  is  drowsy,  and 
easily  fatigued.  The  disease  may  succeed  any  of  the  eruptive  fevers,  and  is  frequently 
associated  with  enlargement  of  the  heart. 

The  causes  of  this  terrible  malady  are  any  which  cause  congestion  of  the  kidneys- 
indulgence  in  strong  drinks,  long- continued  suppuration,  exposure  to  wet  and  cold,  the 
exanthematous  fevers,  and  pregnancy.  The  indications  for  treatment  are,  to  remove  any 
of  those  causes  wdiich  may  be  present,  rectify  the  other  secretions,  relieve  any  temporary 
congestion  of  the  kidneys,  at  the  same  time  endeavoring  to  increase  the  number  of  red 
blood  globules  by  the  administration  of  iron  and  vegetable  bitters.  And  in  the  advanced 
stages,  when  the  blood  is  poisoning  the  nervous  centers,  attempts  should  be  made  to 
restore  the  secretion  of  urine  by  administering  diuretics  (q.v.),  by  giving  hydrochloric 


61 


Srig^hton. 

Brindisi. 


ntid  vegetable  acids,  sponging  the  patient  with  vinegar,  and  relieving  the  congestion  of 
ihe  brain  by  purgatives  and  local  bleeding. 

BRIGITTINES,  or  Order  of  Our  Saviour,  founded  in  1344,  as  a branch  of  the  Augus^ 
tinians,  by  St.  Brigida  or  Brigitta,  of  Sweden,  There  were  both  monks  and  nuns  who 
inhabited  contiguous  buildings,  but  were  said  never  to  see  each  other.  Temporal  affairs, 
were  supervised  by  the  nuns;  spiritual  by  the  monks.  The  northern  kingdoms  of 
Europe  had  monasteries  of  this  order,  but  the  reformation  swept  them  away.  Henry  V. 
founded  one  house  near  London;  Henry  VIII.  suppressed  it;  Mary  re-established  it; 
and  Elizabeth  finally  suppressed  it.  There  are  now  no  monks  of  the  order.  A few  con- 
vents existed  in  1860  in  Bavaria,  Poland,  and  elsewhere. 

BEIQNOLES,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Yar,  France,  beautifully  situated  in  a fertile 
valley,  surrounded  by  forest-clad  hills,  and  watered  by  a stream  called  the  Calami,  about 
2'Z  m.  w.s.w.  of  Draguignan.  B.,  which  is  a very  salubrious  place,  has  manufactures  of 
broadcloth,  silk  twist,  soap,  leather,  pottery,  etc. ; and  a trade  in  wines,  brandy,  olives, 
and  prunes. » Pop.  ’76,  5164. 

BEIHTTE'GA,  a t.  of  Kew  Castile,  Spain,  20  m.  e.n.e.  of  Guadalajara,  is  situated  on  the 
Tajuna,  and  was  formerly  surrounded  by  walls,  of  which  traces  still  exist.  The  remains 
of  an  old  Moorish  fortress  now  serve  as  a cemetary.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolens, 
linen,  glass,  and  leather.  Pop.  4500.  Here,  in  1710,  during  the  war  of  the  succession, 
the  English  general  Stanhope,  owing  to  the  dilatoriness  of  his  allies  in  affording  him 
support,  was  defeated  by  the  Duke  de  Vendome,  and  compelled  to  surrender,  wdth  all 
Ills  force,  amounting  to  about  5500  men. 

BEIL,  the  name  of  two  Dutch  painters. — Matth.®us  B.,  b.  at  Antwerp,  1550,  went 
during  his  youth  to  Italy,  and,  under  the  patronage  of  pope  Gregory  XIII.,  painted 
several  frescos  in  the  Vatican.  He  was  also  distinguished  as  a historical  and  landscape 
painter.  He  died  in  1584.  His  more  celebrated  younger  brother,  Paul  B.,  b.  1554  or 
1556,  received  instruction  under  Matthaeus  in  Rome,  and  soon  excelled  his  master.  His 
pieces  were  at  first  conceived  in  the  fantastic  style  which  then  prevailed ; but  gradually 
his  style  increased  in  power  and  beauty,  until  it  exerted  a striking  influence  over  land- 
scape-painting.  The 'works  of  his  riper  age  exhibit  high  poetical  qualities,  and  a fine 
appreciation  of  the  effects  of  light  in  the  sky,  which  have  been  described  as  but  little 
inferior  to  those  of  his  great  successor,  Claude  Lorraine.  They  have  a character  of  sol- 
emn rest  and  calmness,  and  at  times  even  an  elegiac  tone  of  melancholy,  which  well 
accords  with  representations  of  the  glories  of  fallen  Rome.  A collection  of  excellent 
landscapes  by  B.  is  found  in  the  palace  Rospigliosi  in  Rome,  and  two  beautiful  land- 
scapes enrich  the  gallery  of  the  Pitti  palace,  Florence.  Besides  landscapes,  B.  painted 
scenes  from  Biblical  history;  among  themi  the  “ Tower  of  Babel,”  now  in  the  Berlin 
museum.  Other  pictures  by  B.  are  found  in  the  galleries  of  Munich,  Vienna,  and  the 
Louvre.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1626. 

BEILL,  Rliomhus  vulgaris,  a fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  turbot  (q.v.),  found  in 
considerable  abundance  on  some  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  and  common  in  the  markets, 
of  the  larger  towns.  It  resembles  the  turbot  more  than  any  other  British  species  of  this 
genus,  but  is  at  once  distinguished  by  its  inferior  breadth,  which  (excluding  the  fins)  is 
only  equal  to  half  its  entire  lengthy  by  the  want  of  tubercles  on  the  upper  wsurface ; by  a 
few  of  the  most  anterior  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  being  elongated  beyond  the  membrane; 
and  by  the  coloring,  which  is  reddish  sandy-brown  on  the  upper  side,  varied  with  darker 
brown  and  sprinkled  with  white  pearly  spots,  the  under  side  being  (as  in  the  turbot) 
white.  The  B.  is  taken  both  in  sandy  bays  and  in  deep  water.  Although  considered 
very  inferior  to  the  turbot,  it  is  yet  much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  seldom  or  never 
attains  so  great  a size  as  the  turbot,  rarely  exceeding  8 lbs.  in  weight. 

BRILL AT-SAVARIX,  Anthelme,  1755-1826;  a French  author,  deputy  in  the 
states-general  in  1789;  judge  of  the  court  of  cassation  in  1792;  the  next  year  mayor  of 
Bellay,  but  obliged  to  fly  from  the  revolution.  He  came  to  New  York,  where  he  lived  for 
three  years,  teaching  French  and  playing  in  the  orchestra  of  a theater.  He  returned  to 
France  in  1796,  and  under  the  consulate  again  became  a judge.  He  wrote  on  political 
economy,  and  on  the  archaeology  of  the  department  of  Ain,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
Physiology  of  Taste. 

BEILLIANT  is  a popular  name  given  to  the  diamond  when  cut  in  a particular  way 
See  Diamond. 

BEIMSTONE  (Saxon  hrenne-stone,  a stone  that  burns)  is  the  commercial  name  for 
sulphur  (q.v.),  in  sticks  or  rolls. 

BEIN'DISI  (the  ancient  Brundisiuni  or  Brundusium),  a seaport  t.  of  southern  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Lecce,  is  situated  on  a small  promontory  in  a bay  of  the  Adriatic  sea, 
about  45  m.  e.n.e.  of  Taranto.  B.  is  a city  of  very  great  antiquity.  It  was  taken  from, 
the  Sallentines  by  the  Romans  267  b.c.,  who  some  20  years  later  established  a colony 
here.  The  town,  partly  owing  to  the  fertility  of  the  country,  but  chiefly  on  account  of  its 
excellent  port — consisting  of  an  inner  and  outer  harbor,  the  former  perfectly  landlocked, 
and  capable  of  containing  the  largest  fleets  and  of  easy  defense  on  account  of  its  narrow’’ 
entrance,  and  the  latter  also  very  well  sheltered — rapidly  increased  in  w’ealth  and 


Krindley. 

Srisban*. 


62 


importance.  It  soon  oecame  the  principal  naval  station  of  the  Romans  in  the  Adriatic. 
In  230  B.C.,  B.  was  the  starting-place  of  the  Roman  troops  that  took  part  in  the  first 
Illyrian  war ; and  from  this  point  the  Romans  nearly  always  directed  subsequent  wars 
with  Macedonia,  Greece,  and  Asia.  And  when  the  Roman  power  had  been  firmly  estab- 
lished beyond  the  Adriatic,  B.  became  a city  second  to  none  in  south  Italy  in  com- 
mercial importance.  Horace,  who  accompanied  Antony  in  a hostile  movement  on 
B.  in  41  B.C.,  has  made  the  journey  the  subject  of  one  of  his  satires  {Sat.  i.  5).  Virgil 
died  here  in  19  b.c.,  on  his  return  from  Greece.  The  city  appears  to  have  retained  its 
importance  until  the  fall  of  the  empire,  but  it  suffered  greatly  in  the  wars  which  fol- 
lowed. When  the  Normans  became  possessed  of  it  in  the  11th  c.,  the  Crusaders  made  it 
their  chief  port  for  embarkation  to  the  Holy  Land;  but  with  the  decline  of  the  crusades, 
B.  sank  into  comparative  insignificance  as  a naval  station.  The  city  subsequently 
suffered  greatly  from  wars  and  earthquakes.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
where  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  was  married  to  Yolanda  in  1225;  and  the  castle,  com- 
menced by  Frederick  II.,  and  finished  by  Charles  V.  The  district  around  B.  is  still 
remarkable  for  its  fertility,  olive  oil  being  produced  in  large  quantities.  Some  years  ago, 
B.  was  constituted  an  entrepot  for  foreign  goods.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  over- 
land route  to  India,  B.  has  greatly  increased,  being  the  most  convenient  point  of 
departure  for  the  east  from  northern  and  central  Europe.  The  extensive  and  well- 
sheltered  harbor  has  undergone  great  improvement,  and  a substantial  bulwark  has  been 
built  across  the  n.  arm  to  prevent  it  from  being  filled  with  sand.  In  1874,  939  vessels,  of 
380,069  tons,  cleared  the  port.  Pop.  9105. 

BRINDLEY,  James,  an  eminent  English  mechanic  and  engineer,  b.  in  Thornsett,  near 
Chapelen-le-Firth,  Derbyshire,  in  1716.  Apprenticed  at  17  to  a millwright,  he  after- 
wards became  an  engineer,  and  in  1752  showed  great  ingenuity  in  contriving  a water- 
-engine  for  draining  a coal-mine.  A silk-mill  on  a new  plan,  and  several  others  of  his 
works,  recommended  him  to  the  duke  of  Bridgewater  (q.v.),  who  employed  him  to 
execute  the  canal  between  Worsley  and  Manchester.  Thenceforth  he  devoted  his  great 
skill  and  genius  to  the  construction  of  navigable  canals;  commenced  the  Grand  Trunk, 
and  completed  the  Birmingham,  Chesterfield,  and  others.  Once,  when  under  examina- 
tion before  a committee  of  the  house  of  commons,  being  jocularly  asked  for  w’hat  pur- 
])ose  he  supposed  rivers  to  have  been  created,  he  is  said  to  have  replied:  “ Undoubtedly 
to  feed  navigable  canals.”  He  died  in  1772. 

BRINE  is  the  term  applied  to  water  highly  impregnated  with  common  salt,  and  Brine 
Springs  are  those  natural  waters  containing  much  salt,  which  in  many  parts  of  the 
world  gush  out  from  fissures  in  the  ground.  See  Salt 

BRINE-SHRIMP,  Artemia  salina,  a small  crustacean,  of  the  order  hmncMopoda  (q.v.), 
which,  unlike  the  greater  number  of  animals  of  that  order,  is  an  inhabitant  not  of  fresh 
but  of  salt  water,  and  is  indeed  remarkable,  because  it  is  to  be  found  in  myriads  swim- 
ming about  in  the  brine  of  salt-pans  previous  to  boiling,  when,  having  been  concentrated 
by  exposure  to  sun  and  air  for  about  a fortnight,  it  destroys  the  life  of  almost  all  other 
marine  animals.  The  full-grown  B.  is  about  half  an  inch  lo^ng.  The  little  animal  is 
almost  transparent,  and  is  extremely  active  and  graceful  in  its  movements.  The  work- 
men at  salt-pans  so  confidently  ascribe  to  it  the  rapid  clearing  of  the  brine  in  which  it 
occurs,  that  when  it  does  not  appear  in  their  salterns,  they  transport  a f e w from  other 
salterns.  They  multiply  with  extraordinary  rapidity. 

BRINJAREE  DOG,  a rough-haired  or  long-haired  variety  of  greyhound  (q.v.),  used  in 
the  Deccan,  and  said  to  be  the  best  of  the  hunting-dogs  of  India.  It  is  said  to  be  superior 
in  size  and  strength  to  the  Persian  greyhound,  but  not  to  be  equal  to  the  British  grey- 
hound in  swiftness.  It  is  generally  of  a yellowish  or  tan  color. 

BRINVILLIERS,  Marie  Marguerite,  Marquise  de,  notorious  as  a poisoner  in  the 
time  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  the  daughter  of  Dreux  d’Aubray,  lieutenant  of  Paris,  and  re- 
ceived a careful  education.  In  1651,  she  was  married,  while  still  young,  to  the  marquis 
de  Brinvilliers.  This  nobleman  seems  to  have  been  a gay  and  careless  spendthrift,  who 
allowed  his  wife  to  do  very  much  as  she  pleased.  He  even  introduced  to  her  a young 
officer  named  Jean  Baptiste  de  Gaudin,  Seigneur  de  St.  Croix,  who  was  exceedingly 
handsome,  and  who  inspired  her  vith  a violent  passion.  Her  easy  husband,  however, 
was  wholly  indifferent  to  his  wife’s  conduct ; but  her  father,  who  seems  to  have  had  a 
stricter  sense  of  duty,  caused  St.  Croix  to  be  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile.  It 
was  here  the  latter  learned  the  art  of  preparing  poisons,  from  an  Italian,  and  on  his 
release  he  imparted  his  fatal  knowledge  to  his  mistress,  who,  during  his  incarceration, 
had  affected  the  greatest  piety,  spending  most  of  her  time  in  visiting  the  hospitals  and 
in  attending  the  sick.  The  marchioness  now  resolved  to  destroy  her  father.  _ St.  Croix 
eagerly  abetted  her,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a portion  of  the  paternal  inheritance;  but 
in  order  to  test  the  efficacy  of  the  poison,  she  tried  its  effects  upon  the  invalids  of  the 
hotel  Dieu.  Having  satisfied  herself,  she  commenced  operations  on  her  parent,  kissing 
and  poisoning  him  continually  for  eight  months,  until  her  diabolical  patience  was 
exhausted,  and  she  was  at  last  induced  to  administer  a very  violent  dose.  He  died,  and 
no  one  suspected  the  marchioness.  With  St.  Croix’s  assistance,  and  that  of  a domestic 
servant,  Jean  Amelin,  alias  Chaussee,  she  next  poisoned,  with  the  same  fearful  indiffer- 


68 


Brindley* 

Brisbane* 


ence  to  crime,  her  two  brothers  and  her  sisters;  her  object  being  to  find  means  of  sup- 
porting her  extravagant  style  of  living  with  her  paramour.  Several  times  she  attempted 
to  poison  the  marquis,  her  husband ; but  he  escaped,  and,  as  was  said,  by  means  of  anti- 
dotes given  by  St.  Croix,  who  dreaded  that  he  should  be  compelled  to  marry  the  widow. 
St.  Croix  died  suddenly  in  1672 — his  glass  mask  having  fallen  off  while  he  was  engaged 
in  preparing  a poison — leaving  documents  inculpating  the  marchioness.  She  was  also- 
accused  about  the  same  time  by  her  accomplice  Chaussee,  who  being  arrested,  confessed 
all,  and  was  condemned  to  be  broken  alive.  The  marchioness  escaped  to  England ; 
afterwards  she  traveled  into  Germany,  and  next  went  to  Liege,  where  she  took  refuge 
in  a convent.  From  this,  however,  she  was  craftily  decoyed  by  an  officer  of  justice  dis- 
guised as  an  abbe,  and  conveyed  to  Paris.  Among  her  papers  was  found  a general  con- 
fession of  her  crimes,  including  the  above-mentioned  murders,  and  many  others.  One 
strange  confession  stated  that,  out  of  pity  for  a virtuous  young  lady  who  had  been 
imprisoned  in  a convent,  the  marchioness  had  poisoned  a whole  family ! It  is  a singular 
fact,  that  this  infamous  woman  was  a bigot  in  her  religious  tenets,  and  was  quite  exem- 
plary in  her  attendance  at  church.  At  her  trial  in  Paris,  she  at  first  denied  all  chargea 
brought  against  her,  and  pretended  that  the  “ general  confession”  had  been  written  dur- 
ing the  insanity  caused  by  a fever;  but  after  being  put  to  the  torture,  she  made  a full 
confession,  and  was  beheaded,  July  16,  1676.  Her  career  had  excited  such  terror  in 
France,  that  Louis  XIV.  instituted  a distinct  tribunal,  the  chambre  ardente  (q.v.),  to 
investigate  cases  of  poisoning  by  the  “ succession  powder”  used  by  the  marchioness. 

BRION,  Gustave,  b.  1824;  a French  painter.  Among  his  chief  works  are  “The 
Potato  Harvest  during  the  Inundation,”  “ A Funeral  in  the  Vosges,”  “ A Marriage  in 
Alsace,”  and  “ The  Sixth  Day  of  Creation.”  The  latter  has  been  exhibited  in  New  York. 

BRION,  Luis,  1782-1821 ; an  admiral  in  the  Colombian  service,  who  served  in  the 
army  of  Holland,  studied  navigation  in  the  United  States,  and  in  1811  was  appointed 
captain  of  a frigate  in  the  service  of  Caraccas.  Subsequently  he  fitted  out  a fleet  by  bis- 
own  exertions  and  drove  the  Spaniards  from  the  island  of  Margarita.  He  was  also  dis- 
tinguished in  the  conquest  of  Guiana,  and  at  Cartagena  and  Santa  Marta. 

BRIOUDE,  a t.  of  'France,  in  the  department  of  Haute-Loire,  situated  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Allier,  about  29  m.  n.w.  of  Le  Puy.  It  occupies  the  site  of  Brivas,  a, 
town  of  the  ancient  Averni.  Its  principal  buildings  are  the  college  and  the  church  of 
St.  Julien,  founded  in  the  9th  c.,  on  the  site  of  a still  more  ancient  edifice  erected  on  the 
spot  where  the  saint  was  martyred.  B.  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen,  and  a 
trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  district.  Lafayette  was  born  here.  Pop.  ’76, 
4643. 

BRISBANE.  1.  B.,  an  inland  co.  of  Queensland,  about  120  m.  n.n.w.  of  Sydney. — 
2.  B.,  a seaport,  the  capital  of  Queensland,  about  640  m.  n.  of  Sydney.  It  stands  near 
the  mouth  of  a river  of  its  own  name,  which  falls  into  Moreton  bay.  Regular  steam 
communication  is  kept  up  with  Sydney  and  other  Australian  ports.  B.  possesses  some 
fine  buildings,  among  the  chief  of  which  are  the  houses  of  legislature,  which  cost 
£100,000,  the  post-office,  and  the  viceregal  lodge.  There  are  81  churches.  Pop.  ’76, 
26,911. — 3.  B.,  the  river  just  mentioned.  It  rises  in  the  main  ridge  which  divides  the 
rivers  of  the  interior  from  those  of  the  coast. — All  the  foregoing  are  named  after  the 
subject  of  the  succeeding  article. 

BRISBANE,  General  Sir  Thomas  Makdougal,  a distinguished  soldier  and  astronomer,, 
was  b.  at  Brisbane,  the  hereditary  seat  of  his  family,  near  Largs,  Ayrshire,  July  23,  1773. 
At  the  early  age  of  16  he  entered  the  army  as  an  ensign,  and  in  the  following  year,  when 
quartered  in  Ireland,  he  formed  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Arthur  Wellesley,  after- 
wards duke  of  Wellington.  With  a company  he  had  raised  in  Glasgow  in  1793,  B.  took 
part  in  all  the  engagements  of  the  campaign  in  Flanders;  and  in  the  West  Indies,  to- 
which  he  was  sent  in  1796,  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  under  sir  Ralph  Abercromby. 
He  afterwards  served  in  the  West  Indies  as  col.  of  the  69th;  and  in  1812  obtained 
command  of  a brigade  under  the  duke  of  Wellington  in  Spain.  For  his  conspicuous 
bravery  at  the  battle  of  the  Nive  he  received  the  thanks  of  parliament.  When  Napoleon 
abdicated,  B.  was  sent  in  command  of  a brigade  to  North  America,  from  whence  he  was 
recalled  in  1815,  but  too  late  to  admit  of  his  being  present  at  Waterloo.  In  1821,  B.  , on 
the  recommendation  of  his  friend  the  duke,  was  appointed  governor  of  New  South 
Wales,  a position  he  held  for  four  years,  during  which  time  he  introduced  many  wise- 
reforms,  especially  in  penal  treatment;  secured  at  his  own  expense  good  breeds  of  horses 
for  the  colony ; promoted  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane,  vine,  tobacco,  and  cotton ; 
and  left  at  the  close  of  his  administration — which  was  marked  by  perfect  tolerance  and 
protection  of  all  classes  of  Christians — 50,000  acres  of  cleared  land  where  he  had  found  only 
25,000.  ^ But  high  asB.  ranks  as  a soldier  and  administrator,  as  a man  of  science  he  holds 
a still  higher  place.  While  in  Australia,  he  catalogued  no  less  than  7385  stars,  for  which 
great  work — known  as  “ the  Brisbane  Catalogue  of  Stars” — he  received  the  Copleys 
medal  from  the  royal  society.  On  his  return  to  Scotland,  he  had  an  astronomical 
observatory  established  at  his  residence  at  Makerstoun,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to« 
scientific  pursuits.  He  entered  warmly  into  the  plans  of  the  British  association  for  ascer- 
taining the  laws  of  the  earth’s  magnetism,  and  in  1841  had  a splendid  magnetic  observatory 


'Brissot. 

Bristol. 


64 


erected  at  Makerstoun,  the  observations  made  there  filling  three  large  volumes,  published 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  of  which  he  was  president,  having 
been  elected  on  the  death  of  sir  Walter  Scott.  He  founded  two  gold  medals  for  scientific 
merit — one  in  the  award  of  the  royal  society,  the  other  in  that  of  the  society  of  arts. 
He  died  Jan.  27, 1860. 

BKISSOT,  Jean  Pierre,  one  of  the  first  movers  in  the  outbreak  of  the  French  revo- 
lution, and  afterwards  numbered  among  its  victims,  was  b.  at  Chartres  in  1754,  and 
■educated  for  the  bar.  After  completing  his  studies  at  Paris,  he  went  into  the  oflSce  of  a 
procurator,  but  quickly  abandoned  the  legal  profession  for  the  more  congenial  one  of 
authorship.  From  his  earliest  years  he  had  devoted  himself  with  passionate  eagerness 
to  literary  studies,  especially  history,  economy,  and  politics,  and,  among  the  other  lingual 
accomplishments,  acquired  a thorough  mastery  of  English.  His  first  work,  Theorie  des 
Lois  Criminelles  (1780),  gained  the  approbation  of  Voltaire  and  D’Alembert,  and  was 
followed  by  his  Bibliotheque  des  Lois  Criminelles,  which  established  his  reputation  as  a 
jurist.  Having  removed  to  London,  he  there  started  a learned  journal,  under  the  title 
Lyceum,  for  which,  however,  he  found  no  adequate  support.  He  therefore  returned  to 
Paris,  and  soon  afterwards  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile,  on  a charge  of  havir^  written 
ngainst  the  queen  a brochure,  which,  in  fact,  was  penned  by  the  marquis  de  Pelleport, 
After  four  months  in  the  Bastile,  he  was  liberated  through  the  intervention  of  Madame 
•de  Genlis  and  the  duke  of  Orleans.  B.  continued  to  write  tracts  on  finance,  etc.,  but  his 
love  of  freedom  and  vehement  hatred  of  despotism  again  involved  him  in  danger,  and, 
to  escape  from  a lettr e-de-cachet,  he  was  once  more  compelled  to  retire  to  England.  He 
afterwards  visited  North  America,  as  representative  of  the  Societe  des  Amis  des  JVoirs. 
On  his  return  to  France,  he  zealously  assisted  in  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  and  was 
in  consequence  elected  by  the  citizens  of  Paris  their  representative  in  the  constituent 
assembly,  where  he  exercised  a predominant  influence  over  all  the  early  movements  of 
the  revolution.  He  also  established  a journal,  called  Xd  Patriote  Frangais,  which  became 
the  recognized  organ  of  the  earliest  republicans ; and,  through  his  superior  knowledge  of 
politics  and  the  usages  of  constitutional  countries,  he  gathered  round  him  all  the  young 
men  of  talent  and  spirit  who  were  opposed  to  the  court-theory  of  absolute  sovereignty. 
It  thus  happened  that,  without  his  being  formally  considered  the  head  of  a party,  all 
the  movements  of  the  early  revolutionists  were  profoundly  influenced  by  him,  and  he 
incurred  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  court  reactionists,  who  affixed  the  nickname  of  Brissotins 
to  all  the  advocates  of  reform.  Afterwards,  the  Brissotins  formed  the  Girondist  party. 
In  the  convention,  B.  was  representative  of  the  department  Eure-et-Loir.  Here  his 
moderation  made  him  suspected  as  a friend  of  royalty,  as  he  opposed  the  “men  of  Sep- 
tember” and  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  the  king.  When  Louis  XVI.  heard  his  doom 
iironounced,  he  exclaimed:  “ I believed  that  Brissot  would  have  saved  me!”  But  B. 
was  weak  enough  to  imagine  that  the  best  way  to  save  the  king  would  be  to  vote  first 
for  his  death,  and  tlien  appeal  to  the  nation.  B.  and  his  party,  which  was  perhaps  the 
purest  in  principle  and  the  weakest  in  action,  ultimately  fell  before  the  fierce  accusations 
of  the  Mountain,  or  Jacobin  party,  which  believed,  or  at  least  pretended  to  believe,  that  the 
virtuous  B.  had  received  money  from  the  court  to  employ  against  the  revolution.  With 
20  other  Girondists,  B.  suffered  death  under  the  guillotine,  Oct.  30,  1793. 

BRISTED,  Charles  Astor,  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Bristed,  grandson  of  John  Jacob 
Astor,  b.  N.  Y.,  1820.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  and  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
Eng.,  graduating  in  1845.  For  several  years  he  was  a contributor  to  periodical  litera- 
ture over  the  signature  of  “ Carl  Benson.”  He  was  one  of  the  first  board  of  trustees  of 
the  Astor  library.  Among  his  collected  works  are : The  Upper  Ten  Thousand  of  New 
York;  Selections  from  Catullus;  Fire  Years  in  an  English  Unirersity;  The  Interference  The- 
ory of  the  Oorernment ; and  Letter  to  Horace  Mann,  in  which  he  replied  to  attacks  upon 
John  Jacob  Astor  and  Stephen  Girard. 

BRISTED,  John,  1778-1855;  b.  England;  clergyman  and  author,  who  practiced  law 
in  New  York,  and  married  John  Jacob  Astor’s  daughter.  In  1829,  he  became  rector  of 
an  Episcopal  church  in  Rhode  Island.  He  published  Edward  and  Anna,  a novel ; The 
Resources  of  the  United  States  ; Thoughts  on  Anglican  and  American  Churches,  etc. 

BRISTLES,  the  strong  hairs  growing  on  the  back  of  the  hog  and  wild-boar,  and  exten 
lively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes,  and  also  by  shoemakers  and  saddlers.  They 
form  an  important  article  of  British  import,  between  2 and  3 million  pounds  being  annu- 
ally imported,  chiefly  from  Russia  and  Germany ; but  they  are  also  obtained  from  France 
and  Belgium,  and'small  quantities  of  inferior  quality  have  recently  been  received  from 
C'hina.  From  Russia,  the  average  annual  value  of  B.  imported  into  Britain  is  £300,000, 
Liberia  alone  supplying  about  £150,000.  Russian  B.  vary  in  value  from  £6  to  £60  per 
cwt.  From  Germany,  about  £100,000  worth  per  annum  is  received,  varying  from  £6 
^’^er  cwt.  to  £35  per  cwt.  From  France  and  Belgium,  about  £20,000,  varying  in  value 
^rom  2s.  to  about  4s.  M.  per  pound.  The  quality  of  B.  depends  on  the  length,  stiffness, 
color,  and  straightness — white  being  the  most  valuable.  The  best  bristles  are  produced 
by  pigs  that  inhabit  cold  countries.  The  Russian  hog  is  a long,  spare  animal,  and  the 
\h inner  the  hog,  the  longer  and  stiff er  the  bristles.  When  the  Russian  hog  is  sent  to  the 
iouth  and  fattened,  the  B.  become  soft,  and  of  course  depreciated  in  value.  In  the  sum- 
mer, the  hogs  are  driven  in  herds  through  the  forests,  to  feed  on  soft  roots,  etc.,  when 


65 


Drissot. 

Bristol* 


they  shed  their  B.  by  rubbing  themselves  against  the  trees.  The  B.  are  then  collected, 
sewed  up  in  horse  or  ox  hides,  and  sent  to  fairs,  whence  they  find  their  way,  through 
agents,  to  all  countries. 

BRISTOL,  a co.  in  s.e.  Mass.,  bordering  on  Rhode  Island  and  the  ocean,  517  sq.m. ; 
pop.  ’75,  131,087;  in  ’80,  139,121.  It  is  drained  by  Pawtucket  and  Taunton  rivers,  and 
has  nearly  20  m.  of  sea-coast.  There  is  considerable  agriculture,  but  the  main  business 
is  manufacturing  of  cotton,  wool,  etc.  There  are  four  railroads  intersecting  the  various 
parts  of  the  county.  Co.  seat,  Taunton. 

BRISTOL,  a co.  in  e.  Rhode  Island,  bordering  on  Mass.  ;25  sq.  m.;  pop.  ’80,  11,394. 
It  has  an  uneven  surface,  with  some  fine  scenery,  and  fertile  soil.  Two  railroads  traverse 
its  territory.  Co.  seat,  Bristol. 

BRISTOL,  at.  in  Hartford  co..  Conn.,  18  m.  w.s.w.  of  Hartford,  on  the  Fishkill 
railroad ; has  great  clock  factories,  foundries,  machine-shops,  etc.  Pop.  ’80,  5347. 

BRISTOL,  a t.  in  Bucks  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  Delaware,  about  20  m,  above  Philadelphia, 
opposite  Burlington,  N.  J. ; pop.  ’70,  3269.  It  is  at  the  terminus  of  the  Delaware  branch 
of  the  Pennsylvania  canal,  and  has  railroad  connection  with  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia. 

BRISTOL,  a t.  in  Rhode  Island,  on  the  peninsula  dividing  Mt.  Hope  and  Narra- 
ganset  bays,  16  m.  s.e.  from  Providence;  pop.  ’70,  5302;  in  ’80,  6028.  The  town  is 
interesting  as  the  site  of  the  residence  of  king  Philip,  the  great  Narraganset  chief,  who 
was  slain  here  in  1676.  B.  is  a port  of  entry,  has  a large  manufacturing  interest,  and  is 
much  frequented  as  a place  of  summer  resort.  In  the  revolutionary  war  it  was  bom- 
barded by  the  English,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  village  was  burned. 

BEISTOL,  an  important  maritime  city  in  the  w.  of  England,  long.  2°  35'  28"  w.,  lat. 
51°  27'  6"  n.,  upon  the  rivers  Frome  and  Avon,  and  partly  in  the  counties  of  Gloucester 
and  Somerset,  joined  with  the  former  for  ecclesiastical  and  military  purposes,  but  other- 
wise a city  and  co.  in  itself.  The  ratable  value  in  1872  was  £851,048.  The  ancient 
portion  of  B.  consists  almost  entirely  of  shops,  warehouses,  oflSces,  manufactories,  and 
other  commercial  buildings.  The  streets  are,  with  few  exceptions,  narrow  and  irregu- 
lar; but  great  improvements  have  been  effected  in  them  recently  at  a cost  of  half  a 
million  sterling,  and  there  are  many  handsome  shops,  and  other  buildings  of  a superior 
character.  Among  the  latter  may  be  especially  mentioned  the  banking-house  of  the 
West  of  England  company,  the  assize  court  and  guild  hall,  bank  of  England,  general 
hospital,  Colston  hall,  and  Victoria  rooms.  A great  central  terminus  has  been  erected 
for  the  various  railways.  The  most  remarkable  modern  structure,  however,  is  the  sus- 
pension bridge  over  the  Avon,  at  Clifton,  which  is  702  ft.  in  span,  and  245  ft.  above  high- 
water.  Among  the  ancient  buildings  are  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Redcliffe,  the  cathe- 
dral, and  Temple  church,  remarkable  for  its  leaning  tower.  Some  remains  still  exist  of 
the  ancient  castle  and  walls,  traces  of  British  encampments  at  Clifton  and  Leigh,  and 
considerable  Druidic  vestiges  at  Stanton  Drew.  The  modern  portions  of  B.,  including 
Clifton,  Cotham,  Redland,  etc.,  consist  of  handsome  residences,  in  squares,  terraces, 
crescents,  and  detached  villas,  and  some  creditable  specimens  of  architecture  in  churches, 
chapels,  assembly  and  club  rooms.  The  population  of  B.  proper  was,  in  1871,  62,662, 
and  of  the  suburban  districts,  141,378 — total,  204,040,  steadily  increasing;  total  included 
in  the  municipal  boundary,  182,552.  The  floating  harbor  and  quays  extend  for  more 
than  a mile  through  the  city,  and  are  formed  by  embanking  and  locking  the  old  courses 
of  the  rivers,  which  now  flow  through  a new  channel  cut  at  a cost  of  about  £600,000. 
There  were  entered  inwards  with  cargoes  during  the  year  1876,  9041  vessels,  with  a ton- 
nage of  1,090,106,  engaged  in  the  foreign  and  coasting  trade.  The  clearances  outwards 
show  4496  vessels  and  628,170  tons.  The  customs  duties  on  imports  produced  in  the 
same  year  £685,538,  against  £1,030,132  in  1872.  The  total  value  of  the  imports  for  1876 
was  £7,279,147,  against  £7,057,036  in  1872.  The  chief  trade  is  with  Canada  and  the 
United  States,  West  Indies  and  South  America,  Portugal,  the  Mediterranean,  Russia, 
Mauritius,  Turkey,  France,  and  w.  coast  of  Africa.  The  principal  exports  are  iron,  tin- 
plate, copper  and  brass,  coal,  salt,  and  manufactured  goods,  to  the  annual  value  of  about 
£400,000.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  cotton  goods,  glass,  refined  sugar,  earthenware, 
lead,  chemicals,  leather,  and  floor-cloths.  The  ship-building  yards  have  the  reputation 
of  turning  out  excellent  sea-going  vessels.  The  Great  Western,  the  pioneer  of  steam- 
communication  across  the  Atlantic,  the  Great  Britain,  and  the  ill-fated  Bemerara,  were 
built  here.  The  railways  terminating  in  Bristol  are — the  Great  Western  from  the  e. ; 
the  Midland  from  the  n.,  with  a branch  to  Bath;  the  Bristol  and  Exeter  from  the  w. ; 
the  North  Somerset  from  the  s. ; the  Great  Western  line  communicating  with  South 
Wales,  and  short  branches  to  Avonmouth  and  Portishead.  B.  returns  two  members  to 
the  house  of  commons;  the  number  of  electors  was,  in  1875,  22,124.  The  municipal 
government  is  vested  in  a mayor,  16  aldermen,  and  48  town-councilors,  a lord -lieutenant, 
and  lord  high  steward.  The  police  arrangements  are  efficient,  and  the  city  has  a large 
jail  which  is  about  to  be  reconstructed  on  a new  site.  The  benevolent  institutions  of  B. 
are  numerous  and  well  supported.  The  most  important  are  the  infirmary,  the  general 
hospital,  the  blind  asylum,  orphan  asylum,  asylum  for  deaf  mutes,  alms-houses,  reforma- 
tories, etc.,  and  the  extraordinary  Ashley  Hill  asylum,  for  2050  orphans,  built  and  main- 
U.  K.  III.— 5 


I'ristol. 

liritanuia. 


66 


tained  without  any  provision  for  meeting  expenses,  except  the  unsolicited  contributiong 
that  happen  to  be  sent  to  it.  Among  charitable  institutions  must  also  be  reckoned  thw 
well-endowed  Colston,  city,  and  Red  Maids  schools,  and  other  free  schools.  For  the 
better  classes,  the  educational  establishments  are  Clifton  college  and  the  grammar  school, 
and  many  proprietary  and  private  schools;  there  are  also  a medical  school,  fine  arts 
academy,  and  trade  school.  Of  places  of  worship  in  B.,  57  belong  to  the  church  of 
England,  29  to  Wesleyan  communities,  24  to  Independents,  and  about  36  to  other  sects. 
The  first  records  of  the  history  of  B.  speak  of  it  under  the  ancient  British  name  of  Caer- 
oder;  it  then  became  a stronghold  of  the  Romans;  on  their  departure,  was  again  occu- 
pied by  the  Britons,  until,  in  584,  the  Saxons  drove  them  out,  and  giving  it  the  name  of 
Brightstowe  or  Bricstowe,  made  it  a thriving  place  of  trade — aboriginal  slaves  being  a 
principal  item  in  the  commerce.  It  was  sacked  by  the  Danes.  Henry  III.  gave  it  the 
rights  of  a corporate  town;  Edward  III.,  those  of  a city  and  county  in  itself.  In  1247,  the 
parishes  of  Redcliffe,  Temple,  and  St.  Thomas  were  added  to  Bristol.  During  the  civil 
wars,  it  was  alternately  taken  by  royalists  and  parliamentarians,  and  by  the  latter  the 
castle  and  fortifications  were  razed.  It’ afterwards  became  the  principal  port  for  trade 
with  the  West  Indies,  and  carried  on  a flourishing  business  in  negro  slaves.  In  1793, 
the  “bridge  riots”  occurred.  In  1804  the  docks  were  begun,  and  in  1809  they  were 
opened  to  shipping.  In  1831,  the  “reform  bill  riots”  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the 
bishop’s  palace,  custom-house,  excise-office,  jail,  toll-houses,  a number  of  private  resi- 
dences, and  several  lives.  The  bill  itself,  by  the  addition  of  Clifton,  etc.,  gave  the  city 
its  present  municipal  boundaries.  Among  the  names  of  note  identified  with  the  history 
of  B.  are  those  of  the  Fitzhardinge  family;  William  of  Worcester;  Canynge,  the  great 
merchant  and  restorer  of  Redcliffe  church;  Colston  and  Whitson,  the  merchants  and 
philanthropists;  Sebastian  Cabot,  the  navigator,  said  to  have  anticipated  the  discovery 
of  America  by  Columbus;  the  poets  Southey  and  Chatterton;  Lawrence  and  Baily,  art- 
ists; Sydney  Smith,  canon  of  Bristol  cathedral;  Robert  Hall,  Coleridge,  and  Hannah 
More;  the  Misses  Porter;  Dr.  Prichard,  Dr.  Carpenter,  and  Miss  Mary  Carpenter. 

BRISTOL  BAY,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  in  Russian  America,  lying  immediately 
to  the  n.  of  the  peninsula  of  Alaska.  B.  B.  receives  the  waters  of  two  considerable  lakes, 
which,  communicating  with  each  other,  offer  an  opening  into  the  interior. 

BRISTOL  BRICK,  or  Bath  Brick,  formerly  made  only  in  Bristol,  Eng.,  but  now 
made  in  New  Hampshire  and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is  composed  of  fine- 
grit  sand,  and  used  mainly  for  cleaning  and  polishing  steel  surfaces. 

BRISTOL  CHANNEL,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  in  the  s.w.  of  England,  between 
South  Wales  on  the  n.,  and  Devon  and  Somerset  shires  on  the  s.;  or  it  may  be 
regarded  as  an  extension  of  the  estuary  of  the  river  Severn.  It  is  about  80  m.  long  and 
5 to  48  m.  broad,  the  greatest  breadth  being  between  St.  Gowan’s  head  and  Hartland 
point,  its  most  western  and  external  points,  this  line  passing  through  Lundy  isle.  It  is 
the  largest  inlet  or  estuary  in  Britain,  having  a very  irregular  coast-line  of  220  m.,  and 
receiving  a drainage  of  11,000  sq.  miles.  The  chief  rivers  which  flow  into  it  are  the 
Towy,  Taff,  Usk,  Wye,  Severn,  Avon,  Axe,  Parrot,  Taw,  and  Torridge.  The  tides 
in  it  rise  to  an  extraordinary  height — at  Bristol,  35  ft.;  at  King’s  road,  40;  and  at 
Chepstow,  sometimes  70.  The  rapid  flow  of  the  tides  meeting  the  currents  of  the  rivers 
produces,  in  the  narrow  parts  of  the  channel,  and  in  the  mouths  of  one  or  two  of  the 
livers  which  enter  it,  the  phenomenon  of  the  lore,  the  tide  advancing  like  a wall  of 
water  sometimes  6 to  9 ft.  high.  The  chief  bays  and  harbors  are,  on  the  n.,  Caermarthen 
and  Swansea  bays,  Cardiff  roads,  the  mouths  of  the  Usk  and  Wye,  and  the  Severn 
estuary;  and  on  the  s..  Bideford  or  Barnstaple,  Morte,  Ilfracombe,  Combe  Martin,  Mine- 
head,  Pollock,  and  Bridgwater. 

BRISTOW,  Benjamin  H.,  b.  Ky.,  1833;  practiced  law  until  the  commencement  of 
the  civil  war,  when  he  volunteered  and  served  in  the  union  army,  rising  to  col.  On  the 
organization  of  the  department  of  justice  by  the  federal  government  he  was  appointed 
solicitor-general,  in  1873  attorney-general,  and  1874-6  secretary  of  treasury. 

BRISTOW  STATION,  a village  in  Virginia,  4 m.  s.w.s.  of  Manassas  Junction, 
where  two  engagements  took  place  during  the  rebellion — one  Aug.  27,  1862,  closed  by 
darkness,  and  indecisive;  and  one  Oct.  14,  1863,  when  the  Confederates,  who  made  the 
attack,  were  repulsed. 

BRIT,  Glupea  minima  (Peck),  a species  of  herring,  very  small,  found  in  great 
abundance  at  certain  seasons  off  the  New  England  coast,  where  it  serves  as  food  for 
bluefish.  It  is  seldom  more  than  3 in.  long,  and  is  of  no  importance  for  the  table. 

BRITAIN,  Great.  See  Great  Britain. 

BRITAIN,  New.  See  New  Britain. 

BRITANNIA  (perhaps  from  Celtic  hrith  or  hrit,  painted,  the  ancient  Britons  being  in 
the  habit  of  painting  their  bodies  blue  with  woad),  the  ancient  name  of  the  island  of 
Great  Britain  (see  Britannic^  Insulas).  The  Romans  under  Julius  Caesar  (who  wished 
to  chastise  the  Britons  for  aiding  the  Veneti,  a tribe  in  Gaul,  against  the  Roman  power) 
invaded  Britain  in  55  and  54  b.c,  but  they  did  not,  for  a hundred  years  afterwards,  pro- 
ceed with  vigor  to  subdue  the  country.  After  a desperate  resistance  by  the  native 


67 


Bristol. 

Britannia* 


British  princes,  especially  Caractacus  and  Boadicea,  the  s.  half  of  Britain  was  conquered 
by  Vespasian,  and  made  a Roman  province  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  about  ^ a.d. 
Agricola,  sent  by  Nero  in  79  a.d.,  consolidated  these  conquests,  and  extended  the  influ- 
ence of  Rome  to  the  firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  between  which,  in  84  a.d.,  he  erected  a 
chain  of  forts  to  repel  the  inroads  of  the  northern  Caledonians,  in  the  line  of  the  stone 
wall  of  Antoninus,  afterwards  erected,  in  140  a.d.,  by  Lollius  Urbicus.  Agricola  was 
the  first  Roman  to  sail  round  the  island,  and  the  first  Roman  general  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  Caledonians,  whom,  under  their  leader  Galgacus,  he  overthrew,  in  84  a.d.,  at 
a hill  called  the  Mons  Grampius,  the  situation  of  which  has  not  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined. The  Romans  made  many  ineffectual  attempts  to  subdue  the  Caledonian  bar- 
barians, and  penetrated,  for  this  purpose,  through  the  n.e.  part  of  Scotland  as  far  as  the 
Moray  firth,  as  is  attested  by  the  remains  of  Roman  camps  and  stations  still  existing 
along  their  line  of  march,  and  the  relics  of  Roman  art  found  in  connection  with  them. 
Not  only  did  the  Caledonians  on  their  own  soil  resist  the  Roman  sway,  but  by  constant 
inroads  into  the  Roman  territory  s.  of  the  wall  of  Antoninus,  they  so  harassed  the 
Romans  themselves,  that  the  latter  were  forced  to  abandon  their  conquests  for  80  m.  s. 
of  that  wall,  and  to  secure  permanently  their  remaining  conquests  in  South  Britain  by 
a line  of  defensive  works  between  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  and  the  Solway  firth,  called 
the  wall  of  Hadrian  (q.v.),  begun  by  Agricola,  in  80  a.d.,  strengthened  by  Hadrian  in 
121,  and  rebuilt  and  completed  by  Severus  in  210  a.d.  After  this  last  date  the  Romans 
did  not  attempt  to  regain  their  lost  provinces.  Subject  to  these  incursions  of  the  Cale- 
donians, the  opposition  of  the  native  British  princes,  and  the  invasion  of  tribes  from  the 
opposite  shores  of  the  continent,  the  Romans  held  sway  in  Britain  down  to  about  420 
A.D.,  soon  after  which  time  the  Saxons  invaded  s.  Britain,  and  ultimately  subdued  it. 
Britain,  s.  of  the  Solway  firth  and  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
formed  one  Roman  province  under  a consular  legatus  and  a procurator.  Ptolemy  men- 
tions 17  native  tribes  as  inhabiting  this  tract.  Toward  the  close  of  the  4th  c.  a.d., 
Roman  Britain  constituted  a diocese  in  the  prefecture  of  Gaul,  and  was  divided  into 
five  provinces,  of  which  the  boundaries,  though  uncertain,  are  supposed  to  have  been  as 
follows:  B.  Prima,  England  s.  of  the  Thames  and  the  Bristol  channel;  B.  Secunda, 
Wales;  Flavia  Caesariensis,  the  country  between  the  Thames,  Severn,  Mersey,  and  Hum- 
ber; Maxima  Caesariensis,  the  rest  of  England  to  the  Scottish  border;  and  Valentia — 
soon  abandoned  by  the  Romans — or  Scotland  s.  of  the  wall  of  Antoninus.  At  this  time, 
also,  the  inhabitants  of  Roman  Britain  included  Phenician,  Roman,  and  Germanic 
elements,  whicH  had  become  incorporated  with  the  native  Britons,  who  were  of  Celtic 
or  Gaelic  descent.  The  Romans  governed  Britain  by  a vicarius  or  vicegerent  resident 
at  Eboracum  (York),  under  whom  were  consulars,  presidents,  and  other  subordinate 
officers.  To  insure  the  obedience  of  the  natives,  at  least  three  Roman  legions — chiefly 
composed  of  Gauls,  Germans,  Iberians,  and  but  few  pure  Romans — were  stationed  in 
Britain;  viz.,  at  Eboracum,  Deva  (Chester),  and  Isca  Damnoniorum  (Exeter).  Under 
the  Romans,  many  towns  (colonise  and  municipia) — 56  are  enumerated  by  Ptolemy — 
arose  in  Britain,  and  diffused  Roman  law  and  civilization  over  the  country.  The  towns 
of  Eboracum  (York)  and  Verulamium  (near  St.  Albans)  had  the  privileges  of  Roman 
citizenship.  The  Romans  made  many  roads  or  streets  {strata),  of  which  there  are  still 
numerous  remains,  across  the  country,  all  centering  in  London.  They  also  developed  it 
into  a corn-growing  country.  Druidism  was  the  religion  of  the  Britons  at  their  conquest 
by  the  Romans,  but  the  latter  introduced  Christianity  and  Roman  literature  into  the 
country.  There  are  many  remains  still  extant  of  the  presence  of  the  Romans  in  Britain, 
such  as  camps,  roads,  ruins  of  houses,  baths,  flues,  altars,  mosaic  pavements,  painted 
walls,  metallic  implements  and  ornaments,  weapons,  tools,  utensils,  pottery,  coins, 
sculptures,  bronzes,  inscriptions,  etc.  These  remains  show  that  the  Romans  wished  to 
render  their  British  conquests  permanent,  and  that  they  had  greatly  improved  the  arts 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  as  is  evident  on  comparing  the  remains  with  the  far  ruder  native 
antiquities  of  the  British  pre-Roman  or  prehistoric  era,  such  as  tumuli,  barrows,  earth- 
works, so-called  Druidical  monoliths  and  circles,  cromlechs,  cairns,  pottery,  weapons, 
tools,  utensils,  ornaments,  etc.  Many  of  the  Roman  remains  in  Britain  also  show 
that  the  Romans  had  introduced  into  the  country  the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  Rome 
itself. 

Under  the  term  Britannia,  Great  Britain  has  been  personified  in  the  fine  arts  as 
a female  seated  on  a globe  or  on  an  insulated  rock,  and  leaning  with  one  arm  on  a 
shield,  the  other  hand  grasping  a spear  or  a trident  The  first  example  of  this  personifi- 
cation is  on  a Roman  coin  of  Antoninus  Pius  (died  161  a.d.).  The  figure  reappears  first 
on  the  copper  coinage  of  England  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  (1665);  the  celebrated 
beauty.  Miss  Stewart,  afterwards  duchess  of  Richmond,  is  said  to  have  served  as  model 
to  the  engraver,  Philip  Roetier.  The  Britannia  that  appears  on  the  reverse  of  British 
copper  coins  since  1825  was  the  design  of  Mr.  W.  Wyon.  See  Coinage. 

BRITANNIA  METAL,  is  an  alloy  very  largely  employed  in  the  construction  of  the 
cheaper  kinds  of  tea  and  coffee  pots,  tea-spoons,  etc.  The  proportions  of  the  metals 
used  in  its  manufacture  are  various,  but  the  average  composition  in  100  parts  is:  tin, 
85|:  antimony,  10^;  zinc,  3;  and  copper,  1.  B.  M.  is  harder  than  pewter  (q.v.),  hence 
vessels  or  spoons  made  of  it  are  not  so  liable  to  lose  their  shape,  or  to  be  indented  with 
a slight  blow.  A variety  of  B.  M.,  called  queen's  metal,  is  also  extensively  used  for 


Britannia. 

British. 


68 


similar  purposes,  and  it  ranks  intermediate  in  hardness  between  pewter  and  ordi- 
nary B.  M.  Queen’s  metal  is  composed  of — tin,  9;  antimony,  1;  bismuth,  1;  and 
lead,  1. 

BBITANNIA  METAL.  The  present  composition  of  britannia  metal  at  Birmingham 
is  usually  90  tin  + 8 antimony  -|-  2 copper,  without  any  zinc  or  bismuth ; although 
some  manufacturers  deviate  a little  from  this  formula,  by  adding  one  or  both  of  the 
metals  last  named.  The  manufacture  was  begun  at  Sheffield  by  Hancock  and  Jessop, 
in  1770;  it  reached  Birmingham  towards  the  close  of  the  century,  and  made  gradual  prog- 
ress. At  first,  the  articles  were  made  by  stamping  with  dies,  and  soldering  up  into 
form;  this  being  a slow  operation,  rendered  the  articles  expensive.  Afterwards,  the 
curious  process  of  metal  spinning  was  introduced;  and  this,  with  the  subsidiary  opera- 
tion of  swagging,  rendered  a great  reduction  in  price  possible.  In  the  spinning  proc- 
ess, a thin  sheet  or  piece  of  britannia  metal  is  placed  upon  a wooden  model  shaped 
like  the  article  to  be  made ; the  model  is  made  to  rotate  in  a lathe ; and  burnishers  and 
other  tools  are  employed  to  press  the  yielding  metal  into  all  the  curvatures  of  the  model. 
Ductility  is  an  essential  quality  to  the  attainment  of  this  end  with  the  metal;  how 
complete  it  is,  may  be  seen  in  such  articles  as  britannia  metal  teapots  and  dish-covers, 
the  principal  forms  of  which  are  not  given  by  hammering,  stamping,  or  casting,  but  by 
spinning,  Besides  spinning  and  swagging,  the  processes  include  stamping,  soldering, 
casting,  and  polishing.  When  electro-plating  was  introduced,  an  increased  use  of 
britannia  metal  arose,  as  it  forms  a good  ground  or  basis  for  the  deposited  silver. 
Britannia  metal  spoons  and  ladles,  made  by  casting,  stamping,  and  burnishing,  have 
been  nearly  driven  out  of  the  market  by  German  silver;  but  the  former  metal  is  more 
largely  used  than  ever  for  hot-water  jugs,  soup  tureens,  gravy-dishes,  vegetable  and  side 
dishes,  dram  bottles,  drinking-cups,  sandwich  cases,  wine-coolers,  soap-boxes,  liquor- 
frames,  cruets,  waiters,  trays,  etc. ; and  as  a basis  for  electro-plate.  Birmingham  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  manufacture. 

BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE,  a railway  bridge  over  the  Menai  strait,  remark- 
able alike  for  its  gigantic  dimensions,  and  as  being  the  first  construction  of  the  kind 
ever  undertaken.  With  a view  to  facilitate  communication  with  Ireland  ma  Holyhead, 
the  directors  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  railway  in  1845  sought  the  aid  of  Mr.  Robert 
Stephenson,  the  great  engineer,  to  bridge  the  strait  with  such  a structure  as  should 
admit  of  the  safe  passage  of  heavily  laden  trains  without  in  any  way  interfering  with 
the  navigation  of  the  channel.  About  a mile  above  the  suspension-bridge,  and  nearer 
Carnarvon,  a rock  in  the  middle  of  the  strait  rose  10  ft.  above  the  water  at  low  tide ; 
and  on  this  site,  provided  by  nature,  it  was  resolved  to  erect  a bridge  in  the  form  of  a 
rectangular  tube,  composed  of  wrought-iron  plates  riveted  together  in  a manner  to  com- 
bine the  greatest  strength  with  the  greatest  lightness.  See  Steenth  of  Materials  and 
Tubular  Bridges.  In  the  spring  of  1846,  the  undertaking  was  commenced ; by  the 
22d  of  June,  1849,  the  Britannia  tower  on  the  rock  in  the  center  of  the  strait  was  com- 
pleted (height,  191  ft.  6 in.  above  high-water  mark).  Other  two  towers,  some  18  ft. 
lower,  were  erected  on  each  side  of  the  Britannia  tower;  thns  dividing  the  space  into 
four  spans,  of  which  the  two  center  ones  are  460  ft.  each,  the  other  two  being  compara- 
tively narrow.  The  short  tubes  between  the  abutments  and  the  short  towers  were  con- 
structed, by  means  of  strong  scaffolding  and  stages,  in  the  places  they  were  to  occupy 
when  finished ; the  long  central  tubes  were  built  at  the  water-edge,  from  whence  they 
were  fioated  off  on  pontoons  to  the  base  of  the  towers,  which  had  grooves  or  recesses  made 
to  receive  them,  and  then  elevated  gradually  (supports  being  built  under  their  ends  as 
they  ascended)  by  powerful  hydraulic  presses  to  the  requisite  height,  102  ft.  above  high- 
water  mark.  On  the  13th  of  Oct.,  1849,  the  first  long  tube,  472  ft.  in  length  (12  ft. 
being  allowed  for  the  rest  at  both  ends),  and  about  1800  tons  in  weight,  was  safely  fixed 
at  its  proper  height  above  the  sea.  The  other  center  tube  was  got  up  by  Dec. ; and  on  the 
5th  of  Mar.,  1850,  a train  swept  through,  and  the  bridge  was  open  for  traffic.  In 
Aug.  the  parallel  line  of  tubes  was  completed,  and  the  up  and  down  trains  could  now 
pass  over  the  Menai  with  as  little  delay  and  danger  as  over  any  other  part  of  the  line. 
The  total  length  of  the  bridge  is  1841  ft.,  of  the  tubes,  1513  feet.  The  extreme  height 
©f  the  tube  at  the  Britannia  tower  is  30  ft.,  diminishing  to  22  ft.  9 in.  at  the  abutments, 
“the  difference  being  made  to  give  a true  parabolic  curve  to  the  top  while  the  bottom 
is  straight.”  Inside,  the  width  is  13  ft.  8 in.  throughout,  and  the  height  26  ft.  at  the 
middle,  and  18  ft.  9 in.  at  the  ends.  To  provide  for  the  expansion  and  contraction  of 
the  metal,  the  bed-plates  in  the  shore  towers  and  in  the  abutments,  on  which  the  tubes 
rest,  are  made  to  move  freely  on  cast-iron  rollers  and  balls.  ^ This  precaution,  for 
securing  free  movement  to  the  tubes,  was  not  unnecessary,  as  it  has  been  found  that 
between  the  expansion  of  summer  and  contraction  of  winter  there  is  a diffepnce  of  fully 
12  inches.  The  total  weight  of  iron  used  was  nearly  12,0(K)  tons,  of  which  the  tubp 
contain  9360  tons  of  malleable  iron,  1015  tons  of  cast  iron,  and  175  of  peimanent  rail- 
way. In  their  fabrication  186,000  different  pieces  of  iron,  fastened  together  by  more 
than  2,000,000  rivets,  were  used;  and  in  the  towers,  abutments,  etc.,  there  is  1,492,151 
cubic  feet  of  masonry.  The  total  cost  \vas  about  £602,000.  The  whole  structure  was 
completed  in  less  than  five  years.  See  Tubular  Bridge. 


69 


Britannia* 

British. 


BRITANNICJE  INSULJE,  a term  used  by  ancient  classic  writers  previous  to  Caesar 
for  the  British  isles,  including  Albion  (England  and  Scotland),  and  Hibernia  or  lerne 
(Ireland),  with  the  smaller  isles  around  them.  Aristotle,  in  the  beginning  of  the  3d  c. 
B.C.,  knew  only  of  Albion  and  lerne.  Caesar,  about  54b.c.,  was  the  first  to  apply  the 
name  Britannia  to  Albion.  Ptolemy,  in  the  2d  c.  a.d.,  is  the  first  to  apply  Little 
Britain  to  lerne  or  Ireland,  and  Great  Britain  to  Albion  or  England  and  Scotland. 
Herodotus,  in  the  5th  c.  b.c.,  is  the  first  writer  to  mention  Britain  with  any  sort  of 
definiteness;  previous  Greek  writers  speak  of  Britain  only  in  connection  with  the 
Phenician  tin  trade  carried  on  with  the  Cassiterides  or  Tin  isles  (the  Scilly  isles  and 
Cornwall),  which  they  often  confound  with  the  Azores.  The  Phenician  trade  with 
the  British  isles  began  about  1000  b.c.,  the  Phenicians  giving  the  native  Britons  salt, 
skins,  and  bronze  vessels  in  exchange  for  tin  and  lead.  Ptolemy  enumerates  52  different 
Celtic  or  Gaelic  tribes  as  inhabiting  Britain  in  his  time.  See  Celtic  Nations. 

BRITANNICUS,  son  of  the  emperor  Claudius  byMessalina,  b.  42  a.d.  He  was  the 
natural  successor  to  Claudius,  but  after  his  mother’s  execution  (when  B.  was  eight  years 
old),  Agrippina,  the  new  wife,  persuaded  Claudius  to  pass  by  B.  and  adopt  her  son  by 
previous  marriage  with  Lucinus  Domitius.  This  son  was  the  emperor  Nero;  and  soon 
after  his  accession,  Pallas,  one  of  Agrippina’s  lovers,  who  had  been  banished,  threatened 
a revolt,  and  roused  Nero’s  fear  that  B.  might  displace  him;  so  B.  was  poisoned  and 
died  on  his  fourteenth  birthday. 

BRITISH  AMERICA.  See  America,  British,  ante. 

BRITISH  ARMY.  In  Armies,  Modern,  a succinct  account  is  given  of  the  relative 
strength  and  organization  of  the  chief  European  armies,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  the 
British  empire,  reserved  for  consideration  in  the  present  article. 

Like  other  modern  armies,  the  British  army  originated  in  the  feudal  system  (q.v.). 
When  regal  power,  tempered  by  a parliament,  superseded  that  system,  the  people, 
according  to  their  rank  in  life,  were  expected  to  provide  themselves  with  certain  kinds 
of  weapons  and  defensive  armor.  The  justices  of  the  peace  were  empowered  to  see  to 
these  military  duties  of  the  people.  When  the  nation  was  either  actually  engaged  in 
war,  or  apprehensive  of  invasion,  the  sovereign  issued  commissions  to  experienced  ofii- 
•cers,  authorizing  them  to  draw  out  and  array  the  fittest  men  for  service  in  each  county, 
and  to  march  them  to  the  sea-coast,  or  to  any  part  of  the  country  known  to  be  in  most 
danger.  See  Arrayer.  It  was  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  that  lord-lieutenants  and 
deputy-lieutenants  of  counties  were  first  appointed  as  standing-officers  for  assembling 
and  mustering  the  military  force.  During  the  earlier  years  of  the  Tudors,  contracts 
were  made  by  the  king  with  “captains,”  who  undertook  to  provide,  clothe,  and  feed  so 
many  fighting-men,  for  a given  money-allowance ; but  the  power  intrusted  to  the  lord- 
lieutenants  gradually  changed  this  system,  in  relation  at  least  to  home-defense.  In  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  the  important  question  arose,  whether  the  king  of  England  did  or 
did  not  possess  the  right  to  maintain  a military  force  without  the  express  consent  of 
parliament?  and  this  question  was  all  the  more  bitterly  discussed  when  the  king  billeted 
his  soldiers  on  the  people.  After  the  troubles  of  the  civil  wars  and  the  commonwealth, 
Charles  II.  found  himself  compelled  to  agree,  on  his  restoration,  to  the  abandonment  of 
all  the  army  except  a kind  of  body-guard  or  household  brigade  of  5000  men,  sanctioned 
by  the  parliament.  In  the  13th  year  of  his  reign,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  a statute, 
declaratory  that  “the  sole  and  supreme  power,  government,  command,  and  disposition 
of  the  militia,  and  of  all  forces  by  sea  and  land,  and  of  all  forts  and  places  of  strength, 
is  the  undoubted  right  of  his  majesty;  and  both  or  either  of  the  houses  of  parliament 
cannot  nor  ought  to  pretend  to  the  same.”  Both  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  found,  how- 
ever, to  their  mortification,  that  this  statute  did  not  in  effect  give  them  so  much  real 
military  command  as  they  had  wished  and  intended — because  the  commons,  by  holding 
the  purse,  virtually  held  the  power. 

It  was  in  the  time  of  William  and  Mary  that  the  real  basis  for  the  modern  B.  A. 
was  laid.  ^ The  declaration  of  rights  (q.v.)  settled,  in  positive  terms,  “that  the  raising 
and  keeping  of  a standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  without  consent  of  parliament, 
is  contrary  to  law.”  The  first  mutiny  act  (q.v.)  was  passed  in  1689,  to  last  for  six 
months  only;  but  it  has  been  annually  renewed  ever  since,  except  in  three  particular 
years ; and  it  constitutes  the  warrant  on  which  the  whole  military  system  of  England  is 
exercised  by  the  sovereign,  with  the  consent  of  parliament.  Since  then,  with  only  three 
interruptions,  the  ministers  of  the  crown  have  annually  applied  to  parliament  for  per- 
mission to  raise  a military  force,  and  for  money  to  defray  the  expenses.  The  sovereign 
can  make  war,  and  can  bestow  military  employments  and  honors;  but  the  commons,  as 
the  representatives  of  the  tax-paying  nation,  provide  a check  on  the  grasping  by  cour- 
tiers of  military  privileges.  The  law  on  army  regulation  has  been  revised,  and  the  B.  A, 
made  the  subject  of  special  legislation  in  the  army  discipline  bill  passed  in  1879. 

The  ^eat  distinction  between  the  B.  A.  and  that  of  almost  every  other  state  in 
Europe,  is  that  the  service  is  voluntary.  The  subjects  of  the  crown  engage,  by  fre^ 
choice,  to  serve  in  the  army  for  a definite  number  of  years.  In  the  rare  cases  where 
forced  service  by  ballot  is  obtained,  it  is  in  the  militia,  not  the  regular  army.  See  Mili- 
tia. The  British  soldier  has  much  hard  colonial  life  to  bear,  and  many  long  voyages 
to  make ; he  is,  moreover,  almost  entirely  shut  out  from  the  chance  of  being  a commis- 


British. 


70 


sioned  officer.  As  a consequence,  the  ranks  are  mostly  filled  from  the  more  necessitous 
classes  of  the  community — by  those  who  from  want  of  steady  habits,  or  of  education, 
are  the  least  fitted  for  industrious  pursuits ; whereas  in  France  and  many  other  foreign 
countries,  the  profession  of  arms  is  regarded  as  an  honorable  one,  of  which  even  the 
private  soldier  feels  proud.  Mr.  De  Fonblanque,  comparing  the  peace  establishments  of 
the  chief  European  armies  in  1857,  found  that  of  England  to  be  the  smallest  in  ratio  to 
population,  but  the  most  costly  in  relation  to  its  strength.  The  English  ratio  was  1 in 
128;  the  French,  1 in  95;  the  Prussian,  1 in  80;  the  Russian,  1 in  72;  the  Austrian,  1 in 
68.  An  English  private  soldier  costs  the  country  £52  per  annum;  French,  £36;  Prussian, 
£31 ; Austrian,  £18  10s. ; Russian,  £13  5s.  The  English  cost  per  man  is  still  higher 
now  than  it  was  in  1857,  on  account  of  increased  attention  being  paid  to  the  well-being 
of  the  soldier. 

The  B.  A.,  in  all  its  completeness,  is  supposed  to  be  commanded  by  the  sovereign, 
assisted  by  the  secretary  of  state  for  war  in  some  matters,  and  by  the  oflicer  command- 
ing in  chief  in  others.  The  component  elements  are  the  household  troops;  the  infantry 
of  the  line;  the  cavalry  of  the  line;  the  ordnance  corps,  comprising  artillery  and  engi- 
neers; other  bodies  of  native  troops,  maintained  out  of  the  revenues  of  India;  the 
militia;  the  yeomanry  cavalry;  the  reserve;  the  volunteer  artillery  and  rifles;  and  some- 
times during  war,  foreign  legions.  The  “peace  establishment”  of  the  B.  A.  varies 
according  to  the  political  aspect  of  affairs  abroad,  and  to  the  strength  of  the  economiz- 
ing principle  at  home.  In  1814,  when  England  was  engaged  in  tremendous  contest? 
abroad,  the  regular  army  reached  200,000  men,  exclusive  of  fencibles,  foreign  legions, 
and  militia.  In  the  first  few  years  after  the  termination  of  the  great  war  against  Napo- 
leon, the  reductions  in  the  B.  A.  involved  the  compulsory  retirement  of  no  less  than 
10,000  military  officers,  who  thereupon  went  on  half-pay;  these,  by  filling  vacancies, 
transfers,  and  deaths,  have  nearly  disappeared.  The  elasticity  which  permits  the 
enlargement  or  contraction  of  the  army  arises  from  varying,  not  so  much  the  numbed 
of  regiments,  as  the  number  of  battalions  in  a regiment,  of  companies  in  a battalion,  or 
of  men  in  a company.  If  we  compare  the  strength  of  the  regular  army  at  various 
periods  between  1820  and  1876,  we  shall  find  that  the  actual  number  of  regiments  ha? 
varied  but  little,  the  difference  of  strength  being  made  up  in  the  three  modes  just  men 
tioned. 

The  strength  of  the  B.  A.  declined  from  1815  to  1835,  since  which  last-mentioned 
year  it  has  increased.  These  augmentations  have  been  occasioned  partly  by  the  con- 
tests in  China,  India,  Kaffraria,  Persia,  the  Crimea,  Afghanistan,  and  Zululand,  and 
partly  by  a sense  of  insecurity  amid  the  vast  armaments  of  the  continent.  In  compar- 
ing the  strength  of  the  forces  at  different  periods,  much  confusion  is  apt  to  arise  from 
different  modes  of  interpreting  the  words  “British  army.”  This  designation  may 
include  the  whole  of  the  royal  troops  in  India,  whether  supported  out  of  imperial  or  of 
Indian  revenues;  it  may  include  the  militia,  the  volunteers,  the  yeomanry  cavalry,  the 
foreign  legions — or  it  may  exclude  any  one  or  more  of  these.  The  ‘ ‘ British  army,  ” 
and  the  “ military  force  of  the  British  empire,”  are  often  treated  as  convertible  terms: 
to  the  production  of  much  confusion  where  actual  numbers  are  given.  In  the  follow- 
ing table,  relating  to  the  oflBcial  year  1879-80,  it  is  shown  of  what  component  elements 
the  B.  A.  now  consists.  The  militia  and  the  volunteer  corps  are  not  here  included. 

BRITISH  ARMY  VOTED  FOR  1879-80. 


Horse  artillery 

Cavalry,  including  household  cavalry 

Artillery 

Engineers 

Infantry,  including  foot  guards 

Service  corps 

Colonial  corps 

Army  hospital  corps 

Additional  force  in  consequence  of  reinforce- 
ments to  Natal 


Home  and 
colonies. 
3,131 
12,907 
19,225 
5,198 
76,366 
2,990 
2,485 
1,745 

3,900 


India. 

2,478  _ 
4,312  = 
9,667  = 
428  = 
45,768  = 


Total  Britisii 
army. 
5,609 
17,219 
28,892 
5,626 
122,134 
2,990 
2,485 
1,745 

8,900 


127,947  62,653  190,600 


Under  the  column  “India,”  are  included  only  those  troops  of  the  royal  army  which  are 
lent  to  India,  and  paid  for  out  of  Indian  revenues;  the  other  military  forces  in  that 
region  are  enumerated  under  East  India  Army.  Of  the  total  190,600  forming  her 
majesty’s  forces,  7980  are  officers;  16,550  non-commissioned  officers,  drummers,  and 
trumpeters;  and  166,070  rank  and  file.  There  are  voted  for  the  use  of  this  army,  11,325 
horses.  The  total  cost  cannot  well  be  estimated  per  head;  because,  besides  pay  and 
•ustenance  for  the  soldiers,  there  are  stores  and  wages  for  fortifications  and  military 
buildings,  military  weapons  and  combustibles,  and  the  various  kinds  of  half-pay  and 
pi^iisions.  The  total  expenditure  sanctioned  by  parliament  may,  however,  conveniently 
be  thrown  under  four  headings,  and  given  in  round  numbers  as  follows: 


71 


British. 


Pay  and  allowance  of  combatants £4,944,200 

Auxiliary  and  reserve  forces 1,258,500 

Stores  and  and  works  of  every  kind 6,817,200 

Pensions,  militia,  volunteers,  etc 2,625,800 


£15,645,700 

— being  the  charge  for  a peace  establishment,  in  which  to  admit  of  expansion  for  actual 
war,  the  upper  ranks  (which  cannot  be  summarily  created)  are  disproportionately  large. 
For  the  sum  taken  in  aid  of  the  army  estimates  to  meet  the  expenses  for  raising  and 
training  the  recruits,  and  for  the  non-effective  services  of  the  European  army  serving 
in  India,  a separate  estimate  was  presented  (1879-80),  amounting  to  £1,100,000. 

All  the  component  elements  of  the  army,  in  personnel  and  materiel,  and  the  organi 
zation  and  duties  of  the  troops,  will  be  found  noticed  under  their  proper  headings.  The 
total  military  strength  of  the  United  Kingdom — including  all  the  various  kinds  of  force, 
also  India  and  the  colonies — comprised  the  following  in  1879: 


Regulars  (including  India  and  the  colonies) 190,600 

Army  reserve,  1st  class 22,000 

“ “ 2d  “ 24,000 

Militia  (including  permanent  staff  and  militia  reserve) 137,556 

Yeomanry  cavalry 14,614 

Volunteers  (including  staff) 244,263 


633,033 

BRITISH  ASSOCIATION,  an  association  whose  object  is,  by  bringing  together  men 
eminent  in  all  the  several  departments  of  science,  to  assist  the  progress  of  discovery, 
and  to  extend  over  the  whole  country  the  latest  results  of  scientific  research.  A pre- 
vailing impression  that  England  had  fallen  behind  other  countries,  both  as  to  the  gen- 
eral estimation  in  which  scientific  men  were  held,  and  the  prosecution  of  science  itself, 
led  to  its  formation.  It  was  thought  that  an  imposing  union  of  men  of  science  with 
the  nobility,  gentry,  and  clergy  might  tend  to  revive  the  philosophic  spirit  of  the 
eountry.  Such  meetings  had  already  taken  place  in  Germany,  and  probably  suggested 
the  idea  of  this  institution.  Many  leading  men  of  the  age  took  part  in  its  formation, 
but  the  honor  of  being  its  founder  must  be  ascribed  to  sir  David  Brewster.  By  his 
-exertions  the  first  meeting  of  those  who  were  favorable  to  the  design  was  held  at  York 
in  the  year  1831.  The  archbishop  of  York,  the  mayor  and  council  of  the  city,  entered 
warmly  into  the  project.  At  this  meeting  the  constitution  of  the  society  was  deter- 
mined, the  several  sections  had  their  provinces  assigned  to  them,  and  subjects  were 
proposed  on  which  reports  were  to  be  drawn  up  and  read  at  the  ensuing  meeting.  This 
took  place  at  Oxford  in  1832.  The  university  had  cordially  welcomed  the  new  associa- 
tion, the  papers  which  were  read  gave  it  at  once  the  high  character  it  has  since  sus- 
tained, and  from  this  date  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  in  complete  and  successful  opera- 
tion. An  enumeration  of  the  several  sections  of  the  society,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
committee  and  president,  will  show  the  wide  range  of  topics  it  embraces:  Section  A., 
mathematical  and  physical  science;  B.,  chemistry;  C.,  geology;  D.,  zoology  and  bot- 
any, including  physiology;  E.,  geography  and  ethnology;  F.,  economic  science  and 
statistics;  G.,  mechanical  science. 

At  the  close  of  each  meeting,  it  is  determined  at  what  town  in  the  United  Kingdom 
the  next  shall  be  held,  and  a president  of  the  whole  association  is  appointed,  who  delivers 
an  inaugural  address,  in  which  he  is  expected  to  present  a general  survey  of  the  latest 
advances  of  science.  The  rules  and  by-laws  of  the  society  it  is  not  necessary  here  to 
particularize;  but  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  subscriptions  of  a continually  increas- 
ing membership  have  placed  at  its  disposal  a large  fund,  which  has  been  expended  in  the 
prosecution  of  science.  In  many  cases,  as  in  long  astronomical  calculations,  or  exten- 
sive meteorological  observations,  the  labor  of  subordinates  is  required,  and  a certain 
apparatus,  and  it  is  in  defraying  such  expenses  that  the  funds  of  the  B.  A,  are  very 
wisely  employed 

Besides  the  immediate  ends  sought  to  be  obtained  by  such  an  association,  its  utility 
will  be  evident  if  we  reflect  on  the  intimate  connection  that  exists  between  the  several 
branches  of  science,  and  the  impossibility  there  is  that  any  one  mind  can  be  thoroughly 
conversant  with  them  all.  He  who  now  hopes  to  make  discoveries  in  science  must  limit 
himself  to  a few  chosen  studies;  and  yet  such  is  the  interlacing  of  all  the  several  branches 
of  inquiry,  that  he  must  often  And  it  indispensable  to  know  the  last  results  of  each. 
The  botanist  or  the  physiologist  must  consult  the  accomplished  chemist;  the  chemist 
must  call  in  the  aid  of  those  who  have  speciflcally  studied  the  action  of  heat,  light,  and 
electricity ; the  geologist  needs  them  all,  and  is  in  turn  consulted  by  all.  Thus,  a certain 
brotherhood  of  science  is  formed,  in  which  each  has  his  specialty,  and  yet  each  leans 
upon  his  brother. 

In  ancient  times  it  was  otherwise.  The  facts  on  which  a philosopher  speculated 
were  those  which  lay  open  to  the  eyes  of  all.  A Thales  could  see  the  rain  fall  and  plants 
'grow,  and  forthwith  pronounced  that  the  vital  energy  of  all  things  was  to  be  found  in 


British. 


72 


water.  He  could  exercise  his  imagination  in  perfect  independence  of  the  labor  of  all 
other  men.  The  philosopher  of  modern  times  cannot  move  a step  without  a careful 
consideration  of  the  theories  of  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries;  he  has  to  take 
notice  of  the  innumerable  facts  brought  to  light  by  various  observers,  aided  by  those 
artificial  arrangements  which  convert  observation  into  experiment. 

Two  classes  of  men,  of  the  most  opposite  character,  are  greatly  aided  by  an  associa- 
tion such  as  this.  The  humble  and  plodding  workmen  are  taught  where  their  patient 
industry  will  most  avail;  they  are  cautioned  against  re-discoveries;  they  are  told  where 
their  love  of  collecting  or  experimentalizing  may  be  best  applied.  And  that  other  class 
of  men,  who  love  to  generalize,  who  ever  seek  to  embrace  all  the  multifarious  facts  of 
science  under  a few  great  laws — these  are  provided  with  the  very  last  intelligence  from 
every  department  of  inquiry,  and  may  forthwith  proceed  to  weave  it  into  their  own 
comprehensive  scheme.  Nor  are  we  to  overlook  the  benefit  which  the  whole  community 
derives  from  the  rapid  dissemination  of  the  latest  results  or  speculations  of  philosophy. 
Not  only  do  our  idle  and  fashionable,  as  well  as  our  manufacturing  towns  and  our 
universities,  welcome  the  meetings  of  the  B.  A. , but  from  this  Parliament  of  Science  the 
utterance  of  scientific  opinion  goes  forth  over  the  whole  kingdom  through  the  agency 
of  the  press.  Within  three  days  after  one  of  its  meetings,  there  is  not  a workshop  or  a 
tea-table  in  the  country  that  has  not  derived  from  it  a new  topic  of  conversation.  This 
kindling  of  an  interest  in  science,  through  the  whole  population,  we  regard  as  amongst 
the  greatest  advantages  of  the  British  association. 

BRITISH  BURMAH.  See  Burmah,  British,  ante. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA.  See  Columbia,  British,  ante. 

BRITISH  EMPIRE.  See  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

BRITISH  GUM,  Dextrine,  or  Lei'ocome,  is  a substance  extensively  employed  by 
calico-printers  and  others  for  the  thickening  of  colors,  instead  of  the  much  more 
expensive  gum  arable.  It  is  prepared  from  potato-starch  (q.v.)  or  sago-starch  bypassing 
the  grains  through  iron  cylinders  at  a temperature  about  500°  F.  It  differs  from  starch 
in  giving  no  blue  color  with  tincture  of  iodine,  and  in  being  readily  soluble  in  water, 
and  thus  yielding  a thick  liquid  resembling  in  consistence  mucilage  (strong  solution  of 
ordinary  gum).  B.  G.  is  the  material  which  is  produced  by  baking  in  the  crusts  of  loaf- 
bread  (q.v.),  and  which  communicates  to  them  their  very  agreeable  taste. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM.  The  British  Museum,  an  important  national  institution  in 
London,  originated  in  a bequest  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  who,  during  a long  lifetime, 
gathered  an  extensive  and,  at  the  time,  unequaled  collection  of  objects  of  natural 
history  and  works  of  art,  besides  a considerable  library  of  books  and  manuscripts. 
These,  in  terms  of  his  will,  were  offered,  in  1753,  to  the  government,  on  condition  that 
£20,000  should  be  paid  to  his  family,  the  first  cost  of  the  whole  having  amounted  to 
more  than  £50,000.  The  offer  was  accepted;  the  necessary  funds  were  raised  by  a 
lottery!  and  the  collection,  along  with  the  Harleian  and  Cottonian  libraries,  were 
arranged  in  Montague  house,  which  had  been  purchased  for  £10,250.  The  new  institu- 
tion, thenceforth  called  the  British  Museum,  was  opened  in  1759.  From  time  to  time, 
purchases  and  donations  succeeded  each  other  rapidly.  Montague  house  sufficed  for 
the  reception  of  all  these  acquisitions,  till  the  Egyptian  antiquities  arrived  in  1801. 
The  purchase  of  the  Townley  marbles,  in  1805,  necessitated  the  erection  of  a 
gallery  for  their  reception.  This,  however,  did  not  meet  the  increasing  demand 
for  space.  The  old  house  was  condemned,  and  plans  were  prepared  by  sir  R. 
Smirke  for  new  buildings;  but  none  were  undertaken  till  1823,  when  the  eastern 
wing  of  the  present  building  was  erected  for  the  reception  of  the  library  of  George 
III.,  which  had  been  presented  to  the  museum  by  George  IV.  The  subsequent 
progress  of  the  works  was  very  slow.  The  building  was  completed  in  1847. 
It  is  a hollow  square,  whose  sides  are  opposite  to  the  four  points  of  the  compass. 
Throughout  the  exterior  of  the  building,  the  Grecian  Ionic  is  the  order  of  architecture 
adopted.  The  principal  front  is  towards  the  s.,  facing  Great  Russel  street,  and  presents 
an  imposing  columnar  fa9ade,  370  ft.  in  length.  The  great  entrance-portico,  in  the  cen- 
ter, is  composed  of  a double  range  of  columns,  8 in  each  range.  The  columns  are  5 ft. 
in  diameter  at  their  base,  and  45  ft.  in  height.  The  tympanum  of  the  portico  is  orna- 
mented with  an  allegorical  sculpture  by  Westmacott,  typical  of  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion. On  either  side  of  the  museum,  there  is  a semi-detached  house,  containing  the 
residences  of  the  chief  ofiBcers  of  the  establishment.  These  give  an  additional  length  of 
200  ft. , making  the  whole  length  of  the  structure  570  feet.  The  interior  of  the  building 
is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  wffiich  it  is  devoted.  Some  of  the  galleries, 
from  their  size  and  dimensions,  have  a very  imposing  appearance,  as  the  king’s  library, 
the  bird  gallery,  etc.  The  grand  entrance-hall  is  a noble  and  lofty  apartment,  built  in 
the  massive  Doric  style:  it  contains  a statue  of  sir  Joseph  Banks  by  Chantrey,  and  an 
ideal  representation  of  Shakespeare  by  Roubilliac. 

Scarcely  had  Smirke’s  plans  been  carried  out,  when  demands  were  made  from  sev- 
eral of  the  departments  for  more  accommodation.  Additions  have  accordingly  been 
made,  rooms  having  been  provided  for  the  print  department,  and  several  new  galleries 
for  the  recent  acquisitions  of  antiquities ; but  the  most  important  addition  is  the  mag- 


73 


British. 


niflcent  reading-room  which  has  been  erected  in  the  internal  quadrangle.  In  no  depart- 
ment of  the  museum  was  additional  accommodation  more  needed  than  in  the  library. 
The  number  of  readers  had  increased  beyond  the  means  of  accommodation,  and  so  short 
of  space  were  they  for  books,  tliat  the  estimates  for  purchases  were  restricted  to  only 
the  half  of  the  sum  which  the  trustees  considered  desirable,  for  the  sole  reason  that  the 
library  would  be  inadequate  for  the  reception  of  extensive  additions.  After  consider- 
able delay,  and  the  consideration  and  rejection  of  several  plans,  nothing  was  done  till 
Mr.  Panizzi,  at  that  time  keeper  of  the  printed  book  department,  suggested  a plan 
which  promised  to  meet  the  important  requirements  of  speedy  erection  and  economy  in 
cost.  The  plan  was  at  length  adopted,  and  the  result  is  a building  than  which  none 
are  better,  few  perhaps  so  thoroughly  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  intended. 
Parliament  voted  the  first  grant  for  it  in  1854.  It  was  opened  in  1857.  The  total  cost 
was  about  £150,000,  which  includes  the  fittings  and  furniture,  and  the  necessary  shelves 
for  immediate  use.  The  building  was  erected  in  the  interior  quadrangle,  which  it  com- 
pletely occupies,  with  the  exception  of  an  interval  of  about  38  ft.  all  round,  necessary 
for  lighting  and  ventilating  the  surrounding  building.  The  reading-room  is  circular. 
It  is  constructed  principally  of  iron,  with  brick  arches  between  the  main  ribs.  The 
dome  is  106  ft.  in  height,  and  its  diameter  140  ft. , being  second  only  to  the  pantheon 
of  Rome,  and  that  but  by  2 feet.  The  use  of  iron  has  economized  the  space  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree,  for  while  the  piers  which  support  the  pantheon  fill  7477  ft.,  those  on 
whicl^  the  reading-room  rests  occupy  only  300  feet.  Equally  remarkable  has  been  the 
saving  of  space  in  the  fitting  up  of  the  library.  The  shelves  are  formed  of  galvanized 
iron  plates,  edged  with  wainscot,  and  covered  with  leather,  and  are  supported  on  malle- 
able iron  standards.  In  all  the  cases  except  against  the  external  walls,  the  bookcases 
are  double,  a lattice  of  ironwork  being  fixed  for  the  longitudinal  separation  of  the 
books.  Thus,  throughout  the  whole  interior  of  the  new  building,  walls  are  dispensed 
with,  the  divisions  being  in  all  cases  formed  of  the  double  ranges  of  books.  The  build- 
ing contains  3 m.  lineal  of  bookcases  8 ft.  high.  Assuming  them  all  to  be  spaced  for 
the  average  octavo  book  size,  the  entire  ranges  form  25  m.  of  book-shelves,  and  would 
accommodate  1,000,000  such  volumes.  In  addition  to  this,  the  dome-room,  which  is  the 
reading-room,  has  accommodation  for  60,000  volumes.  This  magnificent  room  contains 
ample  and  comfortable  accommodation  for  300  readers.  Each  person  has  a space  of 
4 ft.  3 in.  long.  He  is  screened  from  the  opposite  occupant  by  a longitudinal  division, 
which  is  fitted  with  a hinged  desk,  graduated  on  sloping  racks,  and  a folding-shelf  for 
spare  books.  In  a recess  between  the  two  are  placed  an  inkstand  and  penholders,  thus 
leaving  the  table  unincumbered.  By  an  ingenious  contrivance,  one  part  of  the  iron 
framework  is  made  to  distribute  fresh  air  in  the  summer  and  heated  air  in  the  winter. 
The  vitiated  air  is  conveyed  through  apertures  in  the  soffits  of  the  window,  into  one  of 
two  separate  spherical  and  concentric  chambers  which  extend  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  roof,  and  escapes  through  outlets  around  the  lantern.  The  other  chamber, 
between  the  external  covering  of  copper  and  the  brick  vaulting,  has  for  its  object  the 
equalization  of  temperature,  during  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  out  of  doors.  Every 
modern  improvement,  in  short,  has  been  applied,  when  it  could  be  serviceable,  for  the 
comfort  or  convenience  of  the  readers.  Much  praise  is  due  to  the  architect  and  builder, 
but  a larger  share  is  owing  to  the  late  sir  A.  Panizzi,  who  not  only  supplied  the  original 
design,  but  daily,  almost  hourly,  superintended  the.  progress  of  the  work,  continually 
suggesting  little  improvements,  and  in  the  end  producing  a room  which  is  admired  by 
all  especially  those  who  daily  use  it. 

This  building,  while  supplying  amply  the  demands  of  the  printed  book  department, 
did  nothing,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  other  departments.  Various  schemes 
have  been  suggested;  the  best,  and  perhaps  in  the  end  the  cheapest,  of  securing  the 
ground  immediately  around  the  museum,  has  been  given  up,  and  the  trustees  resolved 
to  erect  a building  to  be  devoted  entirely  to  natural  history — that  is  to  say,  to  the 
departments  of  botany,  zoology,  geology,  and  mineralogy — on  the  site  occupied  by  the 
International  exhibition  of  1862.  Parliament  voted  in  the  j-^ear  1873,  £80,000  for  this 
purpose,  and  a beginning  was  made  by  the  contractor.  The  whole  cost  of  the  new 
building  very  nearly  reached  the  sum  of  £400,000.  This  elegant  new  terra-cotta  build- 
ing, situated  in  the  Cromwell  road,  near  South  Kensington  museum,  was  designed  by 
Mr.  Alfred  Waterhouse. 

Contents. — At  first,  the  contents  of  the  mu  ® um  were  arranged  under  three  depart- 
ments—printed  books,  manuscripts,  and  objects  of  natural  history.  Under  the  last  head 
were  included  the  antiquities,  works  of  art,  etc.,  comprised  in  the  Sloane  collection, 
their  number  being  too  scanty  to  entitle  them  to  constitute  a separate  department.  The 
process  of  the  museum  has  caused  a more  precise  division  of  its  contents.  From  time 
to  time,  the  number  of  the  departments  has  been  increased,  so  that,  instead  of  three, 
there  are  now^  twelve — viz. : printed  books,  maps,  manuscripts,  prints  and  drawings, 
oriental  antiquities,  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  coins  and  medals,  and  British  and 
mediaeval  antiquities  and  ethnography,  zoology,  botany,  geology,  and  mineralogy.  In 
noticing  the  contents  of  the  museum,  we  shall  refer  to  them  in  this  order.  We  can  but 
allude  here  to  the  most  important  portions  of  the  collection,  and  must  refer  for  more 
particular  information  to  works  specially  devoted  to  this  subject;  such  as  the  various 
handbooks  and  catalogues  prepared  by  the  officers  of  the  museum. 


British. 


74 


Printed  Books. — This  is  the  largest  department  in  the  museum.  It  occupies  the  whole 
of  the  ground  floor  on  the  n.  and  e.  sides,  the  new  building  erected  in  the  quadrangle, 
and  a considerable  portion  of  the  basement  of  the  museum.  The  keeper  of  the  depart- 
ment has  the  help  of  3 assistant -keepers  and  43  assistants.  There  are  in  addition  54 
attendants. 

The  original  bequest  of  sir  Hans  Sloane  consisted  of  50,000  volumes.  When  these 
were  placed  in  Montague  house,  a small  collection  of  2000  volumes,  bequeathed  to  the 
nation  by  maj.  Edwards  in  1738,  was  added  to  them.  In  1757,  George  II.  presented 
the  library  of  printed  books  which  had  been  collected  by  the  kings  of  England  since 
Henry  VII.,  and  which  included  the  libraries  of  Cranmer  and  Casaubon.  He  also 
annexed  the  important  privilege,  which  the  royal  library  acquired  in  the  reign  of  queen 
Anne,  of  being  supplied  with  a copy  of  every  publication  entered  at  Stationers’  hall.  By 
this  means  the  library  has  been  supplied  with  the  current  British  literature  without 
expense  or  trouble,  and  the  trustees  have  been  able  to  devote  the  funds  of  the  museum 
to  the  purchase  of  the  earlier  literature  of  the  country  and  foreign  publications.  Among 
subsequent  additions  to  the  library  may  be  mentioned  the  voluminous  collection  of  pam- 
phlets, etc.,  relating  to  the  civil  wars  of  England  between  1640  and  1660,  presented  by 
George  III. ; the  musical  libraries  of  sir  J.  Hawkins  and  Dr.  C.  Burney;  Garrick’s  collec- 
tion of  old  English  plays;  Dr.  Bentley’s  collection  of  the  classics,  annotated  by  his  own 
hand;  the  law  library  of  F.  Hargrave;  sir  J.  Banks’s  valuable  and  extensive  collection  on 
natural  history ; and  a large  mass  of  tracts  and  pamphlets  relating  to  the  French  revolution, 
purchased  from  J.  Wilson  Croker,  and  of  very  great  value.  The  most  important  ad"&ition 
was  made  in  1823,  when  George  IV.  presented  the  splendid  library  that  had  been  col- 
lected by  his  father  during  his  long  reign,  at  an  expense  of  little  less  than  £200,000.  This 
library,  which,  from  the  terms  of  the  gift,  cannot  be  mixed  with  the  general  collection, 
occupies  a large  and  handsome  hall,  extending  along  the  whole  of  the  ground  floor  of 
the  eastern  side  of  the  museum.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  finest  and  most  complete  library 
ever  formed  by  a single  individual.  “ It  contains,”  says  sir  H.  Ellis,  “ selections  of  the 
rarest  kind,  more  especially  works  of  the  first  ages  of  printing;  it  is  rich  in  the  early 
editions  of  the  classics;  in  books  from  the  press  of  Caxton;  in  the  history  of  the  states 
of  Europe;  in  the  languages  of  the  respective  countries;  in  the  transactions  of  acade- 
mies; and  in  a grand  geographical  collection.”  The  magnificent  library  of  the  right 
hon.  Thomas  Grenville,  in  importance  second  only  to  the  king’s  library,  was  bequeathed 
to  the  museum  in  1846.  It  consists  of  20,240  volumes,  which  cost  upwards  of  £54,000. 
In  the  same  year  was  obtained  also  the  extensive  collection  of  Chinese  works,  amount- 
ing to  11,509  volumes,  which  belonged  to  Robert  Morrison.  By  purchases,  bequests, 
and  donations,  the  library  has  become  one  of  the  first  in  the  world,  containing  now  over 
1,300,000  printed  volumes.  See  Librakies.  But  even  this  figure,  large  though  it  is, 
does  not  represent  the  immense  collection  of  separate  and  distinct  articles  in  tracts,  pam- 
phlets, and  manuscripts.  The  British  museum  library  is  (with  the  exception,  perhaps, 
of  the  national  library  of  Paris)  the  largest  collection  of  printed  literature  in  the  world. 
Since  the  opening  of  the  new  reading-room,  and  the  consequent  acquisition  of  the  book 
accommodation,  the  want  of  which  long  hindered  the  proper  increase  of  the  library,  the 
rate  of  increase  has  been  enormous.  During  the  year  1872,  there  were  added  29,853 
volumes,  including  music  and  volumes  of  newspapers,  of  which  1354  were  presented, 
19,801  purchased,  8345  acquired  by  home  copyright,  and  353  by  international  copyright. 
The  number  of  parts  of  volumes  was  30,554.  In  addition,  the  library  had  accumulated 
numerous  broadsides,  and  miscellaneous  articles  variously  obtained.  The  numbers  of 
the  pieces  of  music  alone  added  were  4644  complete  works,  besides  1790  parts  and  num- 
bers of  works  in  progress.  The  total  number  of  articles  received  during  the  year 
amounted  to  66,278.  In  1874,  37,000  volumes  were  received. 

A catalogue  of  the  printed  books,  in  7 octavo  volumes,  was  published  in  1813-19. 
So  great  have  been  the  additions  to  the  collection  since  the  publication  of  that  catalogue, 
that  the  interleaved  copy  of  it,  in  which  the  new  entries  were  made,  had  expanded  in 
1846  into  82  folio  volumes.  This  is  now  superseded  by  one  general  MS.  catalogue,  con- 
tained in  upwards  of  1600  folio  volumes.  There  are  separate  catalogues  of  the  Gren- 
ville library,  in  6 volumes;  of  music,  in  126  volumes;  of  newspapers,  in  4 volumes;  of 
the  pamphlets  in  the  king’s  library,  in  9 volumes;  and  of  the  pamphlets  published  during 
the  civil  war  and  commonwealth,  called  the  “Thomason  collection,”  in  12  volumes,  all 
folio.  These  various  catalogues  are  placed  in  the  central  circular  stands  in  the  reading- 
room,  for  consultation  by  readers.  Here  also  are  copies  of  the  catalogue  of  the  books  of 
reference,  arranged  around  the  wall  of  the  room,  to  which  the  readers  have  free  access 
without  the  intervention  of  an  official.  These  books,  forming  a library  of  20,000  vol- 
umes, have  been  carefully  selected  to  represent  all  the  different  branches  of  knowledge. 
The  facility  of  consultation  has  been  increased  by  the  employment  of  different  colors  in 
the  binding,  corresponding  to  the  colors  of  a hand  catalogue  scattered  throughout  the 
room.  Thus  theological  works  are  bound  in  blue,  historical  in  red,  philosophical  in 
green,  and  so  on. 

The  right  of  access  to  the  library  is  easily  obtained.  Any  person  desiring  it,  is  “ to- 
apply  in  writing,  addressed  ‘To  the  principal  librarian  of  the  British  museum,’  and  not 
otherwise,  specifying  his  description  and  place  of  abode,  and  accompanying  his  letter- 
with  a written  recommendation,  satisfactory  to  an  officer  of  the  museum.”  Formerly, 


75 


Brittek. 


the  right  of  admission  was  granted  only  for  six  months  at  a time,  and  had  then  to  ba 
renewed.  Under  the  new  regulations,  the  ticket,  once  granted,  does  not  require  renewal; 
it  can,  of  course,  be  withdrawn,  and  is  not  granted  to  persons  under  21  years  of  age. 
When  the  reader  has  become  well  known  to  the  officials,  he  is  not  even  asked  to  show 
his  ticket. 

Maps. — The  maps,  charts,  plans,  and  topographical  drawings  were  separated  from 
the  library,  to  form  a distinct  department,  in  1867.  There  are  over  50,000  published 
and  20,000  manuscript  maps  in  the  museum.  Many  of  the  latter  have  thrown  much 
light  on  the  history  of  early  geographical  discovery. 

Manuscripts. — The  manuscripts  are  contained  in  several  rooms  in  the  s.e.  angle  of 
the  building.  The  work  of  the  department  is  carried  on  by  a keeper,  assistant-keeper, 
a keeper  of  oriental  manuscripts,  and  nine  assistants.  The  manuscripts  are  for  the  most 
part  bound  in  volumes,  and  placed  in  cases  around  the  rooms.  The  collection  consists 
of:  1.  The  Sloanean  manuscripts,  relating  chiefly  to  medical  and  natural  history  sub- 
lets. 2.  The  Cottonian  manuscripts,  rich  in  documents  referring  to  the  history  of 
Britain,  including  two  of  the  originals  of  Magna  GJiarta,  in  registers  of  English  mon- 
asteries, and  in  original  letters  of  royal  and  illustrious  personages.  This  collection 
contains  the  Durham  Book — a copy  of  the  Latin  Gospels,  with  an  interlineary  Saxon 
gloss,  finished  in  the  year  720.  3.  The  Harleian  manuscripts,  a collection  rich  in  illu- 

minated manuscripts,  in  ancient,  civil,  and  ecclesiastical  records,  in  manuscripts  of  the 
classics,  among  which  is  one  of  the  earliest  known  copies  of  the  Odyssey,  and  in  early 
English  poetry.  4.  The  manuscripts  of  the  ancient  royal  library.  These  were  collected 
by  our  kings,  from  Richard  II.  to  George  II. ; many  of  them  were  obtained  from  the 
monasteries,  on  their  destruction.  Amongst  the  most  valuable  treasures  here  are  the 
Codex  Alexandrinus,  a manuscript  of  the  Bible  written  in  uncial  Greek,  before  the  close 
of  the  5th  c.;  and  i\\Q  Basilicon  Doron  of  James  I.,  in  his  own  handwriting.  5.  The 
Lansdowne  manuscripts.  This  collection  comprises  the  Burghley  and  Caesar  papers, 
the  manuscripts  of  bishop  Kennett,  and  numerous  valuable  historical  documents  and 
state  papers.  6.  The  Hargrave  manuscripts,  almost  exclusively  connected  with  law. 
7.  The  Burney  manuscripts,  containing  a large  collection  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  clas- 
sics. Among  them-  is  a copy  of  the  Iliad,  answering  that  of  the  Odyssey  in  the  Harleian 
collection,  8.  The  Howard-Arundel  manuscripts,  obtained  from  the  royal  society. 
This  collection  is  singularly  rich  in  materials  for  the  history  of  our  own  country  and 
language.  9.  The  Oriental  manuscripts,  a collection  composed  of  several  purchases 
nnd  bequests.  It  includes  the  manuscripts  acquired  by  Mr.  Rich  while  consul  at  Bag- 
dad, and  consists  of  numerous  Syriac,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  and  other  oriental  codices.  A 
large  series  of  Ethiopic  manuscripts  was  obtained  at  Magdala,  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Abyssinian  war.  10.  Additional  manuscripts.  This  collection  consists  of  innumerable 
bequests,  donations,  and  purchases,  which  from  the  establishment  of  the  museum  have 
been  and  are  still  being  acquired.  Among  recent  additions  may  be  specified  a charter 
■of  William  the  Conqueror;  the  original  mortgage-deed  of  a house  in  Blackfriars,  dated 
11th  Mar.,  1612,  and  signed  by  William  Shakespeare;  the  holograph  manuscript  of 
Scott’s  Kenilworth,  and  of  many  of  Burns’s  poems,  including  the  Cotter’s  Saturday  Night, 
and  the  songs  published  in  Johnson’s  Scots  Musical  Museum;  an  extensive  series  of  papal 
bulls ; several  Books  of  Hours,  including  the  famous  Bedford  Missal;  and  a large  collec- 
tion of  original  letters  and  papers  relating  to  the  affairs  of  Scotland  during  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  Catalogues  of  the  complete  collections  have  at  different  times  been  pub- 
lished. The  additions  to  the  ever-increasing  oriental  and  additional  collections  are  at 
intervals  published  in  supplements  to  each  of  the  original  catalogues.  Copies  of  all 
these,  with  manuscript  lists  of  the  annual  additions,  are  placed  in  the  reading-room  for 
consultation. 

Supplementary  catalogues  were  printed  up  till  1853;  since  then  the  additions  have 
been  kept  up  in  manuscript  catalogues.  A general  class  catalogue,  embracing  all  the 
collections,  has  been  commenced,  and  the  printing  of  it  has  begun.  The  first  part  is  a cata- 
logue of  ancient  and  illuminated  manuscripts,  illustrated  with  photographic 
of  which  several  volumes  are  published. 

The  right  of  using  the  reading-room  includes  the  privilege  of  consulting  the  manu- 
scripts. During  1872^,  the  number  of  deliveries  of  manuscripts  to  readers  iu  the  read- 
ing-room amounted  to  21,709.  To  artists  and  others  in  the  rooms  of  the  department, 
1751  deliveries  were  made.  These  numbers  do  not  include  the  volumes  exhibited  to 
visitors  on  private  days. 

Prints  and  Drawings. — The  collections  of  this  department,  managed  by  a keeper  and 
two  assistants,  are  kept  in  rooms  in  the  n.w.  angle  of  the  building.  They  consist  of 
prints  and  drawings  bequeathed  to  the  museum,  in  1799,  by  the  Rev.  C.  M.  Cracherode; 
of  those  bequeathed  in  1824  by  Mr.  Payne  Knight;  and  of  numerous  smaller  bequests 
and  donations.  No  purchases  -were  made  for  this  department  until  about  1840,  when  a 
sum  was  first  included  in  the  estimates  for  this  purpose.  Since  that  time,  the  prints  and 
drawings  have  been  increasing  at  a rate  equal  to  any  of  the  other  departments  of  the 
museum.  The  collection  is  arranged  in  schools.  1.  The  Italian  school,  containing  orig- 
inal drawings  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Raphael,  Correggio,  Tintoretto,  Paul  Veronese, 
Michael  Angelo,  Guido  Reni,  Salvator  Rosa,  and  others.  2.  The  German  school,  con- 
taining drawings  by  Albert  Diirer,  Hans  Holbein,  Dietrich,  Hollar,  and  others;  and 


British. 


76 


engravings  by  Lucas  Cranach,  Martin  Schon,  Gauer,  and  others.  3.  The  Dutch  school, 
containing  several  superb  originals  of  Rubens,  an  extensive  and  nearly  complete  set  of 
the  works  of  Rembrandt,  with  many  drawings  by  A.  Cuyp,  Teniers,  Van  Dyck,  etc.; 
and  engravings  and  etchings  by  Berghem,  Lucas  van  Leyden,  Rembrandt,  Ostade,  etc. 
4.  The  French  school,  with  drawings  by  Watteau,  Claude  Lorraine,  etc.,  and  etchings 
and  engravings  by  Bourdon,  Boisseaux,  Le  Prince,  etc.  5.  The  Spanish  school,  repre- 
sented by  some  drawings  of  Murillo,  and  others  of  less  note.  And,  6.  The  English 
school,  containing  drawings  by  R.  Wilson,  Wilkie,  Stothard,  Callcott,  Gibson,  etc. ; a 
splendid  collection  of  Hogarth’s  prints,  and  specimens  of  the  works  of  Barlow,  Gay- 
wood,  Raimbach,  Finden,  Worlidge,  Geikie,  etc. 

This  department  contains  also_  an  extensive  and  very  valuable  collection  of  works  in 
niello ; a beautiful  silver  cup,  designed  and  carved  by  Benvenuto  Cellini,  and  a wonder- 
ful stone-carving  in  alto-relievo  by  Albert  Diirer,  representing  the  birth  of  St.  John 

Oriental  Antiquities. — Within  the  last  ten  years  the  objects  in  the  museum,  included 
under  the  name  antiquities,  have  been  divided  into  four  departments.  The  first  of  them 
includes  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  antiquities.  The  Egyptian  monuments  date  from 
a period  as  remote  as  2000  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  come  down  to  the  Moham- 
medan invasion  of  Egypt,  640  a.  d.  The  collection  has  been  obtained  chiefly  from  these 
sources : the  antiquities  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  army  at  the  capitulation 
of  Alexandria,  presented  by  George  III. ; presents  from  gen.  Vyse,  the  duke  of  North- 
umberland, the  marquis  of  Northampton,  sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  and  others;  and 
acquisitions  from  the  earl  of  Belmore,  Mr.  Salt,  and  M.  Anastastie.  The  sculptures  are 
formed  of  granite  and  basalt ; they  represent  human  and  allegorical  figures,  sometimea 
of  colossal  size.  There  are  several  beautifully  sculptured  sarcophagi.  Most  of  the 
monuments  are  inscribed  with  hieroglyphics  (q.v.).  The  key  to  this  dead  and  forgotten 
language  was  furnished  by  the  celebrated  Rosetta  Stone  (q.v.),  which  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  gallery.  The  smaller  Egyptian  remains  are  exhibited  in  a gallery  on  the 
upper  floor;  they  consist  of  objects  relating  to  religion,  as  representations  of  divinities 
and  sacred  animals,  in  wood,  metal,  stone,  and  porcelain;  of  objects  relating  to  civil  and 
domestic  life,  as  dress,  personal  ornaments,  household  furniture,  artistic  and  writing 
implements,  armor,  and  weapons  of  war,  etc. ; and  of  objects  relating  to  death  and 
burial,  as  mummies  and  coffins,  with  the  scarabaei,  amulets,  and  other  ornaments  found 
with  them.  A collection  of  papyri  is  exhibited  on  the  n.w.  staircase,  containing  extracts 
from  the  ritual  of  the  dead. 

The  Assyrian  antiquities  are  contained  in  a suite  of  rooms  recently  erected  on  the 
outside  of  the  Egyptian  gallery,  and  in  a spacious  room  on  the  basement.  The  collec- 
tion consists  of  sculptures  excavated  at  Nimrud,  Khorsabad,  and  Koyunjik  by  Layard, 
in  1847-50,  and  more  recently  by  Rassam  and  Loftus,  under  the  direction  of  sir  H.  C. 
Rawlinson.  The  Nimrud  sculptures  are  the  oldest,  belonging  to  a period  ranging  from 
930  B.c.  to  747  B.c.  Those  obtained  from  Khorsabad  seem  to  have  been  executed  under 
a monarch  who  reigned  about  747-721  b.c.,  while  the  collection  from  Koyunjik  belong 
to  the  time  of  Sardanapalus,  apparently  721  b.c.  and  625  b.c.  The  monuments  consist 
chiefly  of  slabs  of  gypsum,  alabaster,  and  limestone  sculptured  in  low  relief,  the  sub- 
jects being  the  exploits  of  the  king  whose  palace  walls  they  ornamented.  Many  of  the 
sculptures  are  covered  with  cuneiform  (q.v.)  writing,  which,  by  the  labors  of  Rawlin- 
son, Hincks,  and  Smith,  has  been  deciphered,  giving  us  a history  of  this  remarkable 
people,  and  corroborating  the  narrative  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  whenever  they  refer  to 
the  same  event.  See  Assyria.  Besides  the  series  of  sculptures,  the  Assyrian  collection 
includes  a variety  of  smaller  but  highly  curious  and  instructive  objects,  discovered  at 
Nimrud  and  Koyunjik. 

Oreek  and  Roman  Antiquities. — This  collection  occupies  four  apartments,  which  run 
parallel  to  the  Egyptian  gallery.  The  Lycian  gallery  contains  a series  of  architectural 
and  sculptural  remains  from  ancient  cities  in  Lycia,  obtained  by  sir  C.  Fellows  in  1842-46. 
In  the  next  gallery  are  the  remains  of  the  famous  mausoleum  (q.v.)  at  Halicarnassus, 
erected  in  honor  of  Mausolus  by  his  widow  Artemisia.  These  remains  were  discovered 
by  C.  T.  Newton,  esq.,  in  1857-59.  In  the  same  room  are  some  remains  of  the  temple  of 
Athene  Polias  at  Priene,  including  the  stone  on  which  its-  dedication  by  Alexander  the 
great  is  inscribed.  The  Elgin  gallery  contains  the  sculptures  from  Athens  and  Attica, 
the  greater  portion  of  which  were  obtained  by  the  earl  of  Elgin,  and  purchased  from 
him  by  parliament  in  1816  for  £35,000.  The  most  important  series  in  the  gallery  is  the 
decorations  of  the  parthenon  (q.v.),  which,  notwithstanding  their  dilapidated  condition, 
form  the  most  valuable  monument  of  Greek  art  which  has  descended  to  modern  times. 
The  gallery  contains  also  sculptures  and  casts  from  the  temple  of  Wingless  Victory,  the 
temple  of  Theseus,  and  the  erechtheum,  at  Athens.  In  an  extension  recently  made  to 
this  gallery,  are  a colossal  lion  from  Cnidus,  ana  a drum  of  a sculptured  column,  and 
other  remains,  from  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  The  Helenic  gallery  contains  a 
number  of  antiquities  brought  from  Greece  and  its  colonies  at  different  times.  The 
most  important  are  23  slabs  of  a frieze  sculptured  in  mezzo-rilievo,  which,  from  the 
locality  where  they  were  found,  are  called  the  “Phigalian  marbles.” 

The  gallery  on  the  s.  side  of  the  building  is  occupied  with  the  Roman  and  Graeco- 
Roman  sculptures.  The  bulk  of  the  collection  was  formed  by  Charles  Townley,  esq., 
and  purchased  in  1805  for  £20,000.  Subsequent  additions  have  been  made  by  the  bequest 


77 


British. 


of  the  collection  of  R P.  Knight,  esq.,  in  1824,  and  by  various  purchases  and  dona- 
tions. The  collection  contains  an  interesting  series  of  Roman  portrait  sculptures,  and  a 
very  extensive  mythological  series,  amongst  which  are  some  of  universal  fame — the 
Yenus,  Clytie,  the  Discobolus,  and  many  others.  A room  on  the  basement  is  appro- 
priated to  mosaics  and  miscellaneous  monuments,  such  as  representations  of  animals, 
architectural  and  decorative  fragments,  and  sacred  and  domestic  implements.  A fine 
collection  from  southern  Italy,  exhibiting  specimens  of  the  arts  of  the  Etruscans,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  was  bequeathed  to  the  museum  by  sir  William  Temple  in  1856.  , 

The  collections  of  smaller  remains  are  placed  in  a suite  of  rooms  on  the  upper  floor. 
They  consist  of — 1.  An  extensive  series  of  vases,  commonly  though  not  correctly  known 
as  Etruscan,  formed  from  the  collections  of  sir  W.  Hamilton  and  Mr,  Burgon,  from 
purchases  at  the  sales  of  the  prince  of  Canino,  M.  Durand,  and  others;  and  from  exca- 
vations in  Sicily,  Rhodes,  and  on  the  sites  of  Greek  colonies  in  Gyrene  and  elsewhere. 
2.  A miscellaneous  collection  of  terra-cottas,  mural  paintings,  and  other  objects.  3. 
Bronzes  of  Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  workmanship,  consisting  of  sculptures,  and 
various  domestic  and  other  articles,  as  candelabra,  lamps,  vases,  horse-trappings,  armor, 
etc.  4.  The  collection  of  engraved  gems  and  gold  ornaments  now,  since  the  addition  of 
the  Blacas  and  Castellani  collections,  perhaps  the  richest  in  the  world. 

Coins  and  Medals. — The  very  large  collection  of  these  objects  is  arranged  in  chrono- 
logical order  under  five  great  divisions,  viz.,  Greek,  Roman,  Mediaeval  and  Modern, 
English,  and  Oriental.  The  department  is  under  the  care  of  a keeper,  assistant-keeper, 
and  four  assistants. 

British  and  Medioeml  Antiquities  and  Ethnography. — The  British  collection  is  arranged 
in  chronological  order.  The  oldest  series  contains  the  antiquities  of  the  stone  and  bronze 
periods,  consisting  of  celts,  daggers,  swords,  shields,  and  early  pottery.  The  British- 
Roman  antiquities  comprise  specimens  of  earthenware,  lamps,  and  miscellaneous  articles. 
A small  collection  of  sepulchral  urns,  weapons,  and  personal  ornaments  represents  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period.  The  antiquities  found  in  London,  and  belonging  to  the  late  C.  R. 
Smith,  have  been  recently  added  to  this  collection.  The  ethnographical  collection  con- 
tains antiquities,  as  well  as  objects  of  modern  use,  belonging  to  all  nations  not  of  Euro- 
pean race. 

In  1855,  the  extensive  collections  of  antiquities  and  ethnography,  belonging  to  Henry 
Christy,  became  the  property  of  the  museum,  having  been  bequeathed  by  their  proprie- 
tor. From  the  want  of  space,  they  are  at  present  accommodated  in  a house  rented  for 
the  purpose  in  Victoria  street,  Westminster.  Felix  Slade  bequeathed  his  valuable  col- 
lection of  glass  to  the  museum,  and  it  is  now  arrayed  so  as  to  show  the  different  phases 
through  which  the  art  of  glass-blowing  has  passed,  as  well  as  the  history  of  glass  in  all 
its  branches. 

Natural  History. — In  1856  the  trustees  united  the  natural  history  departments  under 
urof.  Owen,  who  was  then  appointed  superintendent  of  natural  history.  The  new  build- 
ing recently  erected  at  Kensington  is  intended  to  accommodate  this  section  of  the  pres- 
*jjit  museum. 

Zoological  Department. — To  give  an  idea  of  the  contents  of  this  and  the  other  natural 
history  departments,  would  be  to  write  an  epitome  of  the  various  sciences  they  illus- 
trate. This  department  contains  a collection  of  animals  arranged  in  systematic  order 
in  the  galleries,  comprising  stuffed  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  and  fishes,  and  the  hard 
portions  of  radiate,  molluscan,  and  articulate  animals.  A room  is  specially  devoted  to 
the  fauna  of  Britain.  In  rooms  on  the  ground  and  basement  floors  are  arranged  the 
collections  of  insects,  of  osteology,  and  of  specimens  preserved  in  spirits.  An  idea  of 
the  extent  of  the  collection  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  142  separate  publications, 
illustrative  of  the  contents  of  the  department,  in  the  shape  of  catalogues,  lists,  etc.,  have 
been  issued  under  the  superintendence  of  the  present  indefatigable  keeper.  Dr.  Gray. 
During  the  year  1874,  there  were  added  to  this  collection,  7524  specimens  of  animals,  of 
which  2964  were  vertebrata,  2886  mollusca  and  radiata,  and  1674  annulosa.  In  1873,  the 
unique  and  extensive  collection  of  birds  formed  in  the  eastern  archipelago  by  Wallace, 
was  acquired  by  purchase. 

Botanical  Department. — The  herbarium  of  sir  H.  Sloane,  the  nucleus  of  this  collection, 
consisted  of  about  8000  species,  bound  in  262  volumes.  In  1820,  the  magnificent  herba- 
rium of  sir  Joseph  Banks  was  bequeathed  to  the  museum,  and  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  late  Robert  Brown,  was  transferred  to  two  rooms  prepared  for  it  in  the  s.e.  angle 
of  the  building.  The  collection  has  since  been  rapidly  increasing:  during  the  year  1872, 
12,030  species  of  plants  were  added;  and  in  the  year  1873,  the  late  William  Wilson’s 
herbarium  of  British  and  foreign  mosses  was  acquired  by  purchase.  The  collection  con- 
tains an  extraordinary  number  of  typical  specimens — the  identical  plants  from  which  the 
original  descriptions  were  taken  by  Linnaeus,  Aublet,  Jacquin,  Brown,  Bentham,  Ben- 
nett, and  others.  The  exhibition  rooms  contain  a series  of  specimens  illustrating  the 
most  striking  characteristics  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  arranged 
in  order;  and  a series  of  fossil  plants,  the  value  of  which  is  increased  by  the  transparent 
sections  showing  their  structure,  which  are  placed  beside  them. 

Geological  Department. — This  collection  occupies  the  wall-cases  of  the  principal  gal- 
lery on  the  n.  side  of  the  museum.  It  contains  an  extensive  series  of  the  fossil  remains 
of  plants  and  animals  from  the  various  fossilifcrous  strata;  it  is  especially  rich  in  the 


British. 

Brixen. 


78 


fossils  of  the  secondary  formations.  Amongst  its  more  valuable  contents  may  be  men- 
tioned the  collections  of  Dr.  Mantell,  the  tertiary  fossils  collected  by  Dr.  Falconer  in 
India,  and  the  remarkable  fossil  birds  from  New  Zealand. 

Mineralogical  Department. — The  minerals  are  contained  in  the  table-cases  in  the 
geological  gallery.  They  are  arranged  according  to  a chemical  classification.  Many 
valuable  and  unique  specimens  exist  in  the  collection,  which  is  rapidly  increasing.  In 
the  year  1872,  the  number  of  specimens  added  was  1499. 

The  expenses  of  the  museum  are  paid  by  grants  of  public  money.  According  to  the 
estimates,  £110,949  were  required  during  1879-80. 

Admission  to  the  museum  was  at  first  obtained  by  printed  tickets,  which  were  deliv- 
ered by  the  porter  to  persons  making  a written  application.  There  could  be  no  more 
than  45  visitors,  at  the  utmost,  per  day,  under  the  regulations  then  in  force.  Now,  all 
who  present  themselves  are  freely  admitted;  and  every  week-day  the  museum  is  visited 
by  large  numbers:  as  many  as  43,000  holiday-folk  have  passed  through  the  building  in 
one  day. 

BRITISH  NAVY.  Under  Navies,  Modern,  will  be  found  a brief  description  of  the 
chief  navies  belonging  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  to  the  United  States  of  America. 
The  British  navy  is  separately  treated  in  this  place. 

While  the  Romans  occupied  Britain,  they  were  obliged  to  maintain  a fleet  of  war- ves- 
sels on  the  coasts,  to  protect  it  from  the  ravages  of  the  Saxons,  who  were  the  pirates  and 
buccaneers  of  those  times.  When  the  Romans  had  departed,  and  the  Saxony  became 
dominant,  the  coasts  wese  infested  by  another  naval  power — the  Scandinavian  vikings. 
It  was  Alfred  the  great  who  first  established  what  may  be  called  a navy  in  this  island, 
consisting  of  efficient  vessels  well  manned,  for  protection,  and  not  aggression.  Ethelred 
made  the  building  of  a ship  a condition  for  holding  a certain  acreage  of  land.  William 
the  conqueror  strengthened  the  navy  by  the  institution  of  the  Cinque  ports  (q.v.). 
During  the  first  three  centuries  after  the  conquest,  we  read  of  British  fleets  of  240,400, 
and  even  730  sail — a proof  that  the  vessels  must  have  been  very  small  even  if  there  were 
no  exaggeration  of  numbers.  Until  1485,  the  fleets  were  collected  just  as  wanted;  but 
in  this  year,  Henry  VII.  conceived  the  idea  of  a permanent  navy,  to  be  ready  at  all 
times.  He  built  the  largest  ship  of  the  age,  the  Great  Harry.  Henry  VIII.  pursued  the 
course  established  by  his  father,  and  still  further  strengthened  the  navy  by  instituting  the 
admiralty,  the  navy-office,  the  Trinity  house,  and  the  dockyards  at  Wool  wich,  Portsmouth, 
and  Deptford.  The  Henri  Grace  de  Dieu.  the  largest  ship  built  by  him,  was  of  1000  tons 
burden;  but  most  of  the  vessels  were  high,  unwieldy,  and  narrow,  with  the  guns  nearly 
down  to  the  water’s  edge.  The  ships  of  the  navy  presented  an  aggregate  tonnage  of 

12.000  tons  at  the  period  of  Henry’s  death.  Elizabeth  made  a large  increase  in  the  navy; 
but  they  were  not  all  royal  ships  which  were  sent  to  struggle  against  the  Spanish  Armada. 
James  I.  made  many  improvements  in  ship-building,  by  encouraging  a distinguished 
naval  architect,  Phineas  Pett.  Charles  I.,  who  built  the  Sovereign  of  the  Seas,  of  100 
guns,  was  the  first  to  group  the  royal  ships  into  rates  and  classes.  Cromwell  brought 
up  the  navy  to  the  strength  of  154  sail,  including  a large  number  of  two-deckers.  Charles 
II.  allowed  it  to  fall  into  decay  for  a time;  but  his  brother,  the  duke  of  York,  who  after- 
wards became  James  II.,  not  only  restored  it,  but  brought  it  to  a higher  state  of  effi- 
ciency and  strength  than  ever.  When  William  of  Orange  became  king  of  England,  he 
found  a navy  carrying  7000  guns  and  42,000  seamen;  he  built  many  additional  ships, 
some  with  as  many  as  80  guns,  and  established  Plymouth  dockyard.  Queen  Anne  suc- 
ceeded to  the  possession  of  a fine  navy;  which  at  her  death  had  increased  to  198  ships, 
mounting  10,600  guns,  with  a tonnage  of  157,000  tons.  George  I.  attended  to  the  navy 
chiefly  in  repairing  the  ships  after  a period  of  war,  and  in  supplying  a new  armament. 
George  II.  greatly  added  to  the  number  of  ships,  established  a naval  uniform,  and 
increased  the  renown  of  the  British  navy  during  the  war  against  Spain. 

The  long  and  eventful  reign  of  George  III.  was  especial !v  distinguished  by  the 
achievements  of  the  navy.  When  he  came  to  the  crown  in  1760.  he  found  himself  in 
])ossession  of  127  ships  of  above  50  guns,  and  198  of  50  guns  and  under,  manned  by 

70.000  seamen.  These  numbers,  by  building  and  by  capture,  were  increased  to  174  and 
203  respectively,  by  the  end  of  the  American  war.  Throughout  the  European  struggle, 
from  1793  to  1815,  the  B.  N.  exhibited  a spectacle  for  vastness  and  achievements  which 
had  never  before  been  equaled  in  any  country.  In  the  first  nine  years  of  this  period, 
between  1793  and  1802,  England  lost  by  war  5 ships  of  the  line  and  46  smaller  vessels; 
but  she  captured  from  the  French,  Dutch,  Spaniards,  and  Danes,  in  various  battles,  74 
ships  of  the  line  and  519  smaller  vessels;  or  rather,  four  fifths  of  tliis  number  were  cap- 
tured, and  one  fifth  destroyed.  Besides  these,  more  than  800  privateers  were  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  English.  Of  the  total  number  of  captures,  144  ships  of  war  were  at 
once  converted  into  British  ships,  and  added  to  our  navy.  When  war  recommenced  in 
1803,  England  had  189  ships  of  the  line,  and  781  smaller  ships  of  war;  during  the  next 
seven  years,  the  seamen  varied  from  100,000  to  120,000,  and  in  1810  the  number  was  raised 
to  140,000.  At  all  times,  many  of  the  ships  of  the  royal  navy  are  unemployed  or  out  of 
commission ; but  it  frequently  happened  during  that  great  war,  that  England  had  450 
liners,  frigates,  and  sloops,  besides  smaller  armed  vessels,  employed  simultaneously.  The 
conquered  vessels  added  to  the  nav}"  between  1803  and  1815  were  upwards  of  100  in 
number, 


79 


British. 

Brixen. 


After  the  termination  of  the  great  European  struggle,  a large  number  of  ships  of  war 
were  put  “in  ordinary,”  or  out  of  commission,  and  their  officers  placed  on  half-pay.  In 
1820,  the  vessels  in  commission,  in  ordinary,  and  building,  comprised  127  ships  of  the 
line,  311  frigates  and  sloops,  and  27  smaller  vessels;  but  in  this  total  of  465,  there  were 
only  113  in  commission.  In  the  19  years  that  next  followed,  almost  wholly  years  of 
peace,  the  total  number  of  ships  of  the  line,  frigates,  and  sloops,  decreased ; the  gun- 
brigs,  schooners,  and  cutters  increased  in  number;  while  the  first  germs  of  a new  ele- 
ment, a steam  navy,  made  their  appearance. 

The  year  1839  must  be  viewed  as  a turning-point  in  the  history  of  the  British  navy. 
Twenty-four  years  of  peace  had  thrown  the  memory  of  warlike  achievements  into  the 
background ; and  the  house  of  commons  had  insisted  on  the  lessening  of  those  estimates 
which  provide  for  armies  and  navies.  It  was  now  found,  however,  that  both  Russia 
and  France  had  accumulated  formidable  navies.  From  that  year  to  the  present,  the 
B.  N.,  in  common  with  the  navies  of  other  powers,  has  been  undergoing  a series  of 
“reconstructions.”  First,  ships  of  larger  size,  and  carrying  heavier  guns,  were  built. 
These  ships  were  of  immense  power  in  the  days  of  wooden  broadsides,  but  are  now  use- 
less for  purposes  of  war.  The  next  stage,  from  about  1853  to  1859,  was  the  conversion 
of  our  force  from  a sailing  to  a steam  navy.  This  became  the  era  of  great  steam 
frigates  of  about  5000  tons,  and  of  heavy  armaments  in  a few  great  guns,  of  which  the 
Mersey,  36  guns,  may  be  taken  as  a leading  specimen.  With  the  introduction  of  rified 
guns,  of  force  hitherto  undreamt  of,  came  the  necessity  for  armor-plated  sides.  The 
fighting  part  of  the  navy  (i.e.,  the  line  of  battle)  changed  once  more  after  1860  to  low- 
sided vessels,  clad  in  thousands  of  tons  of  iron  plates.  The  Warrior  was  the  first  ship 
so  built  in  England,  and  she  was  followed  by  a whole  squadron  similarly  protected. 
Guns,  however,  went  on  increasing  in  offensive  power;  and  whereas  5-inch  plates  were 
at  first  thought  sufficient,  now  10-in.,  12-in.,  14-in.,  and  even  22-in.  plates  are  necessaiy 
to  exclude  shot.  Such  a vast  w'eight  of  armor  all  over  a ship  would  sink  any  vessel  of 
moderate  dimensions.  The  principle  of  turret-ships  is  therefore  becoming  predominant, 
in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  vessel,  clad  in  comparatively  light  armor,  is  under 
water,  or  only  just  visible  above  the  surface.  The  earliest  formidable  turret-ship  was 
the  ill-fated  Captain,  which,  in  1870,  capsized  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  and  entombed  600 
brave  seamen,  with  the  inventor,  capt.  Coles.  Ships  of  analogous  construction,  with 
lower  freeboard,  have  been  since  built;  and  now  the  Inflexible,  of  11,165  tons,  carrying 
4 guns  of  81  tons,  is  probably  the  most  powerful  war-ship  that  ever  floated. 

The  expenditure  on  the  B.  N.  greatly  increased  between  1839  and  1875,  on  account 
of  the  changes  just  adverted  to.  In  1839,  the  number  of  men  and  boys  voted  was  little 
over  25,000;  in  1878,  it  was  about  60,000.  Even  as  late  as  1852,  the  expenditure  was  only 
£6,500,000,  against  £10,589,984  in  1879-80. 

The  B.  N.  is  at  present  composed  of  61  ironclads,  about  300  steam- vessels,  and  170 
sailing-vessels.  In  the  beginning  of  1879,  there  were  in  commission  255  vessels.  The 
unarmored  ships  comprise  cruisers,  dispatch  vessels,  gun-boats,  several  large  old-fash- 
ioned two-deckers,  troop-ships  for  India,  tugs,  old  wooden  vessels  for  harbor  service. 

All  matters  about  ships,  seamen,  etc.,  will  be  found  under  their  proper  headings. 
See  Turret-ship;  also  Armor-plates  and  War-services. 

BRITON.  See  Britannia,  ante. 

BRITTANY.  See  Bretagne. 

BRITTON,  the  title  of  the  earliest  summary  of  the  laws  of  England  in  the  -French 
language,  purporting  to  have  been  written  by  the  command  of  Edward  I.  The  com- 
piler is  unknown. 

BRITTON,  John,  an  eminent  English  topographical  and  antiquarian  writer,  the  son 
of  a small  farmer  and  village  shopkeeper,  was  b.  July  7,  1771,  at  Kingston- St. -Michael, 
near  Chippenham,  Wiltshire,  and  losing  his  parents  young,  received  but  a scanty  edu- 
cation. Some  short  notices  which  he  had  contributed  to  the  Sporting  Magazine 
brought  him  into  acquaintance  with  its  publisher,  Mr.  Wheble,  who  employed  him 
to  compile  the  Beauties  of  Wiltshire,  which  he  did  in  conjunction  with  a young  literary 
friend  named  E W.  Bray  ley.  They  also  prepared  the  Beauties  of  Bedfordshire  in  the 
same  manner.  B.  afterwards  issued  a more  elaborate  work,  entitled  the  Architectural 
Antiquities  of  England.  One  of  the  most  important  of  his  subsequent  publications  was 
Ihe  Cathedral  Antiquities  of  England,  14  vols.  fob  and  4to,  1814-35,  with  upwards  of 
300  highly  finished  plates.  Altogether,  his  illustrated  works  of  architectural  and  topo- 
gi-aphical  description  and  antiquities  number  87,  besides  others  of  a similar  kind  which 
he  edited. 

BRIVE,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Correze,  pleasantly  situated  in  the  midst 
of  vineyards,  and  shut  in  by  a fine  circular  avenue  of  elms,  about  15  m.  s.w.  of  Tulle. 
It  has  manufactures  of  woolen,  cotton-yarn,  etc.  Pop.  ’72,  8016. 

BRIXEN,  a t.  of  Austrian  Tyrol,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Eisack  and  the  Rientz,  104 
m.  from  Vienna  by  rail.  It  is  a bishop’s  see,  and  has  a cathedral,  several  monasteries, 
a theological  seminary,  and  a gymnasium.  There  are  iron  and  steel  factories  in  the 
neighborhood.  Nine  miles  away  is  the  great  fort  of  Franzensfeste,  built  in  1838.  B.  is 
mentioned  in  901;  it  was  walled  in  in  1038;  was  burnt  in  1174,  1234,  and  1445;  in  1519, 


Brixham. 

Broccoli. 


it  was  stormed  by  the  French,  and  in  1525  suffered  from  the  rebellion  of  the  peasants. 
Pop.  ’69,  4349. 

BBIXHAH,  a market-t.  and  seaport  of  Devonshire,  England,  beautifully  situated  on 
the  s.  side  of  Torbay,  5 m.  s.  from  Torquay,  and  22  m.  directly  s.  from  Exeter,  The 
town  occupies  the  sides  of  two  hills,  and  is*  divided  into  two  parts,  called  upper  and 
lower  B.,  the  former  consisting  chiefly  of  a long  straggling  street.  Some  of  the  more 
recently  erected  parts  of  the  town  are  well  built,  and  contain  good  houses,  but  the  older 
parts  are  mean.  The  prosperity  of  B.  depends  chiefly  on  its  fisheries,  it  being  the  head- 
quarters of  the  great  Devonshire  fishery  of  Torbay,  in  which  many  vessels  are  employed, 
mostly  trawlers,  of  which  there  are  about  200.  These  are  decked  sloops  of  40  to  50 
tons  burden,  and  generally  managed  by  three  men  and  a boy.  Great  quantities  of  fresh 
fish  are  sent  to  London,  Bath,  and  Bristol.  Considerable  quantities  of  iron  ore  are 
raised  in  the  neighborhood  and  shipped  here.  B.  has  also  a number  of  vessels  engaged 
in  the  coasting  and  foreign  trade,  the  foreign  trade  being  chiefly  with  the  Mediterranean. 
The  admiralty  have  an  establishment  here  for  watering  the  navy.  Near  B.  is  a station 
of  the  South  Devon  branch  of  the  Great  Western  railway.  It  was  at  B.  that  the  prince 
of  Orange,  afterwards  William  III.,  landed,  Nov.  4,  1688.  Pop.  71,  4941. 

BKIZA.  See  Quaking  Grass. 

BEIZUBE,  Brize  or  Brise,  terms  used  in  heraldry  to  indicate  that  a charge  is  bruised 
or  broken.  See  Rompu. 

BBOACH,  or  Broche,  an  old  English  term  for  a spire  springing  directly  from  a 
tower  without  any  intermediate  parapet.  Such  spires  are  common  in  England,  and  in 
some  places  in  Scotland,  particularly  in  Fife. 

BROACH,  a t.  in  India.  See  Baroach,  ante. 

BBOAB  ABBOW,  a government  mark,  stamped,  cut,  or  otherwise  fixed  on  all  solid 
materials  used  in  her  majesty’s  ships  or  dock-yards,  and  on  government  stores  generally, 
in  order  to  prevent  embezzlement.  The  origin  of  the  mark  is  obscure.  Previous  to 
the  year  1698,  the  naval  authorities  prosecuted  a dealer  in  marine-stores,  for  having  in 
his  possession  certain  stores  bearing  the  B.  A.  of  his  majesty.  The  defendant  allowed 
the  evidence  against  him  to  go  on,  and  when  asked  what  he  had  to  say,  replied  that 
It  was  very  curious  that  the  king  and  he,  as  a dealer,  should  both  have  the  same 
private  mark  on  their  property!  The  receiver  of  stolen  goods  was  acquitted,  and  this 
led  to  the  passing  of  the  act  9 and  10  Will.  III.  c.  41  (1698),  which  enacts  that  per- 
sons in  possession  of  naval  stores,  or  goods  of  any  kind  marked  with  the  B.  A.,  or 
other  marks  therein  mentioned,  and  usually  employed  in  marking  naval  stores  for  the 
navy,  shall  forfeit  all  such  goods  and  $200,  and  also  pay  costs.  The  mark  is  for  iron, 
wood,  etc.,  what  the  color-thread  is  for  sailcloth  and  ropes,  which  enables  the  govern- 
ment to  identify  the  smallest  piece  of  such  articles. 

BBOAD-BILL.  See  Shoveler. 

BBOAD-BOTTOM  ADMINISTBATION,  a name  derisively  applied  to  the  ministry' 
formed  by  Henry  Pelham  in  1744,  because  it  professed  to  include  all  parties  of  weight 
and  influence  in  the  state  in  a grand  coalition,  and  comprised  no  less  than  nine  dukes — 
viz.,  Dorset,  Newcastle,  Montagu,  Bedford,  Grafton,  Richmond,  Argyle,  Devonshire, 
and  Bolton,  the  first  seven  of  whom  were  of  the  cabinet.  Besides  the  prime  minister, 
Pelham,  the  other  principal  members  of  the  cabinet  were  earls  Gower  and  Harrington, 
the  marquis  of  Tweeddale  and  lord  Hardwicke.  From  this  B.  B.  A.  the  particular 
adherents  of  Pulteney  (newly  created  earl  of  Bath)  and  lord  Cateret  were  carefully 
excluded.  The  ministry  was  dissolved  in  1754,  by  the  death  of  Pelham,  though 
several  of  its  original  members  had  seceded  long  before. 

BROADCAST,  a method  of  sowing  grain,  which  distributes  it  with  some  degree  of 
uniformity  over  the  surface.  When  the  sowing  is  done  by  hand,  the  seed  is  carried  in 
a bag  at  the  left  side,  and  is  scattered  with  the  right  hand  while  the  sower  walks  on  with 
measured  tread.  The  seed  is  afterwards  covered  with  a harrow,  or  by  dragging  brush 
over  it.  Machines  have  been  devised  for  sowing  grain  in  this  manner.  The  method  of 
sowing  by  the  drill  is  preferred  by  most  intelligent  farmers. 

BROAD  CHURCH,  the  name  given  to  a portion  of  the  church  of  England  which 
holds  a position  unidentified  with  either  the  High  or  the  Low  church  party.  The 
High  church  branch  holds  rigidly  to  apostolic  succession,  maintains  the  divine  right  of 
episcopacy,  and  in  general  the  sacramental  view  of  the  church  and  the  Christian  life;  of 
this  company  are  those  known  as  “ Ritualists,”  though  not  all  who  are  High  church 
would  accept  the  name  of  Ritualists,  (See  Ritualism.)  From  this  section  came  those 
known  a few  years  since  as  “Puseyites.”  The  Low  church  section  recognize  non-pre- 
latical  bodies  of  Christian  believers  as  in  some  sense  churches;  in  doctrine  they  are 
mainly  Calvinists;  they  are  often  called  Evangelicals.  The  Broad  church  section  are 
the  latest  of  the  three  divisions,  but  embrace  a large  number  of  churchmen  of  high  cul- 
tivation and  talent,  such  as  dean  Stanley,  canon  Kingsle}",  ISIaurice,  and  others  of  note. 
The  tendency  of  the  Broad  church  leaders  is  towards  a liberal  view  both  of  Christian 
doctrine  and  church  organization.  Yet  the  High  on  the  one  hand,  the  Low  on  the  other, 
and  the  Broad  between  the  two  subscribe  to  the  same  formularies,  which  they  interpret 


81 


Brixham. 

BroccolL 


in  differing  senses,  and  from  which  they  deduce  opposite  results.  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  these  names  are  used  only  colloquially  for  popular  convenience,  and  are  not 
accepted  in  either  England  or  America  as  legitimate  designations.  They  show  ten- 
dencies. 

BROADCLOTH.  See  Woolen  and  Worsted  Manufactures,  ante. 

BROADDUS,  Andrew,  d.d.,  1770-1848;  a Virginian;  a Baptist  preacher,  compiler  of 
the  Dover  Selection  and  Virginia  Collection  of  hymns,  and  a popular  pulpit  orator.  Some 
of  his  sermons  have  been  published. 

BROAD  MOUNT AIIST,  in  the  coal  region.  Carbon  and  Schuylkill  cos.,  Penn.  It  is 
about  2000  ft.  high  and  extends  for  50  m.  n.e.  and  s.w. 

BROAD  RIVER,  a stream  of  North  and  South  Carolina  rising  in  the  Blue  Ridge, 
and  joining  with  the  Saluda,  forming  the  Congaree.  The  city  of  Columbia  is  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  rivers.  The  country  around  B.  R.  is  exceedingly  fertile  and  pro- 
ductive. 

BROADSIDE,  in  naval  warfare,  is  the  simultaneous  discharge  of  all  the  guns  on  one 
side  of  a ship  of  war.  The  fighting  power  of  a ship  is  sometimes  estimated  by  the 
weight  of  her  broadside,  i.e.,  the  weight  of  all  the  shot  and  shell  that  can  be  fired  off  at 
once  from  one  side  or  half  of  the  ship.  Thus,  the  broadside  of  the  old-fashioned  Duke 
of  Wellington,  131-gun  war-steamer,  amounted  to  2400  lbs.  One  reason  why  a paddle- 
steamer  is  not  so  good  for  war  purposes  as  a screw-steamer,  is  because  the  paddle-boxes 
and  wheels  interfere  with  the  broadside.  With  the  introduction  of  iron-clad  turret-ships 
the  term  is  becoming  less  applicable. 

BROADSTAIRS,  a t.  in  England  1^  m.  s.  of  North  Foreland  and  3 m.  from  Mar- 
gate. It  has  a small  pier  built  early  in  the  16th  c.,  and  an  archway  leading  to  the  shore 
built  in  1540.  Near  the  pier  is  a chapel  to  the  Virgin,  in  honor  of  which  ships  were  once 
accustomed  to  furl  their  topsails  as  thev  passed.  B.  is  a place  of  summer  resort.  Pop. 
’71,  1926. 

BROADSWORD  is  a sword  with  a broad  blade,  for  cutting  only,  not  for  stabbing,  and 
therefore  not  sharp,  at  the  point,  like  a saber.  It  is  but  little  used  in  the  British  army. 

BROAD  TOP  MOUNTAIN,  in  Bedford  and  Huntingdon  cos.,  Penn.,  2500  ft.  above 
the  sea.  It  has  large  beds  of  bituminous  coal. 

BROADUS,  John  Albert,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  b.  Va.,  1827;  educated  in  the  university  of 
Virginia;  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Charlotteville,  and  in  1859  professor  of  New 
Testament  interpretation  and  homiletics  in  the  Southern  Baptist  theological  seminary  in 
Oreenville,  S.  C.  Dr.  B.  is  proficient  as  a Greek  scholar.  He  has  published,  among 
other  papers.  The  Preparation  and  Delivery  of  Sermons  and  Pecollections  of  Travels. 

BROCADE.  This  term  is  used  to  describe  a silken  fabric  on  which  a figure  of  any 
kind  is  formed  by  the  threads  of  the  warp  or  weft  being  raised  by  the  heddlea,  or,  more 
generally,  by  the  Jacquard-loom,  in  such  order  as  to  produce  the  pattern  required.  The 
word  has  much  the  same  application  to  silk  textures  that  damask  has  to  linen  textures 
or  to  worsted  textures  for  upholstery  uses.  See  Weaving  and  Jacquard-loom. 

BROCAGE.  See  Broker. 

BROCAGE  BONDS  to  procure  MARRIAGE,  or  Marriage  Brocage  Bonds,  as  they 
are  otherwise  called,  are  void  by  the  law  of  England,  being  against  the  policy  of  the 
law  and  the  freedom  of  marriage.  See  Hurlstone’s  Law  of  Bonds,  1835,  p.  15,  and 
authorities  there  referred  to.  The  Scotch  law  is  the  same. 

BROCCOLI,  a well-known  and  much  esteemed  garden  vegetable,  one  of  the  many 
varieties  which  cultivation  has  produced  of  the  hrassica  oleracea,  the  common  kale  or 
cabbage.  B.  is  said  to  have  been  originally  brought  to  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe 
from  the  isle  of  Cyprus  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  Its  name  is  probably  of 
Italian  origin.  It  differs  little  from  cauliflower  (q.v.),  of  which  it  may  be  considered  a 
mere  variety,  having  colored  instead  of  white  heads,  and  a deeper  tinge  of  color  in  the 
leaves,  being  also  more  hardy,  the  character  from  which  its  chief  importance  is  derived, 
as  it  can  be  readily  obtained  at  seasons  when  there  is  no  cauliflower  in  the  open  garden. 
It  is  perhaps  inferior  to  cauliflower,  however,  in  delicacy  of  flavor.  There  are  many 
subvarieties,  the  number  of  which  is,  of  course,  continually  increasing ; and  some  of  these 
are  preferred  for  early  spring  sowing,  with  a view  to  an  autumn  crop;  others  for  later 
sowing,  with  a view  to  a crop  in  the  following  spring.  The  subvarieties  differ  in  size, 
in  their  more  cut  or  entire  leaves,  in  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  color — generally  pur- 
ple— with  which  the  leaves  are  tinged,  in  the  more  or  less  compact  form  of  the  whole 
plant,  in  the  more  or  less  green,  yellow,  or  purple  color  of  the  head,  etc.  Some  of  the 
kinds  of  B.  preferred  for  late  sowing  and  spring  use  are  known  by  the  general  name  of 
cape  B.,  the  first  of  them  being  said — but  on  doubtful  authority — to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Britain  from  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  mode  of  cultivation  of  B.  pretty 
much  resembles  that  of  cauliflower,  except  as  to  the  times  of  sowing  and  transplanting, 
and  that  it  is  generally — even  in  Scotland — sown  in  the  open  ground,  and  not  in  a hot- 
bed. A similar  richness  of  soil  is  required.  Various  modes  of  protection  in  winter  are 
adopted.  In  mild  winters,  protection  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  needed,  but  precautions 
U.  K.  III. -6 


Brocclii. 

Broglie. 


82 


are  generally  employed  against  severe  weather.  It  is  found  very  advantageous  to  plant 
in  trenches  of  6 in,  deep,  and  to  earth  up  the  plants,  as  they  are  thus  not  only  in  some 
measure  preserved  from  frosts,  but  also  from  the  winds  of  winter,  which  are  apt  ta 
shake  and  loosen  plants,  so  as  to  cause  their  destruction.  It  is  a common  practice  ta 
take  up  some  of  the  most  advanced  plants  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  to  lay  them 
in  a sloping  position  with  their  heads  towards  the  north.  The  heads  produced  in  this 
way  are  not  in  general  so  large  as  they  might  be,  but  they  are  sometimes  procured  when 
otherwise  they  probably  would  not. 

BROCCHI,  Giovanni  Battista;  an  Italian  geologist,  177S-1826.  He  studied  at 
Pisa,  and  was  professor  of  botany  in  1802  at  Brescia,  but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 

feology.  In  1808,  he  was  made  inspector  of  mines  for  Italy.  In  1823,  he  went  to 
Igypt,  and  two  years  after  Mehemet  Ali  made  him  one  of  a commission  to  organize  for 
the  conquest  of  Sennaar.  B.  fell  a victim  to  the  climate  at  Khartoom.  Among  his 
works  are  Treatise  on  the  Iron  Mines  of  Mella;  Essay  on  the  Physical  Constitution  of  the 
Metalliferous  Mountains  of  the  Valley  of  Trompia;  Mineralogy  of  the  Valley  of  Fassa  and 
the  Tyrol;  Fossil  Geology  of  the  Apennines,  etc. 

BEOCHUKE,  a French  word  (from  brocher,  to  stitch),  equivalent  to  the  English  word 
pamphlet  (q.v.). 

BROCK,  Sir  Isaac,  an  English  gen.  killed  in  the  battle  of  Queenstown,  Canada,  Oct. 
13,  1812.  Not  long  before,  he  had  captured  gen.  Hull  (suspected  of  treason)  and  his 
forces.  There  is  a monument  to  his  memory  on  the  w.  bank  of  the  Niagara  river. 

BBOCEEN  {Mons  Bructerus,  Melihocus  of  the  ancient  Romans),  popularly  known  as  the 
Blocksberg,  is  the  highest  summit  of  the  Harz  mountains.  It  is  situated  in  the  province 
of  Saxony,  Prussia,  about  20  m.  w.s.w.  of  Halberstadt,  and  has  an  elevation  of  3740  ft. 
above  the  sea.  The  mountain  is  very  frequently  veiled  in  mist  and  cloud-strata,  and  is 
celebrated  for  the  phenomenon  known  as  the Brockengespenst  (“specter  of  the  Brocken”), 
which  is  nothing  more  than  the  shadow  of  men,  houses,  or  other  objects  thrown  upon 
the  misty  eastern  horizon  by  the  light  of  sunset.  (See  Gallery  of  Nature,  published  by 
W.  & R.  Chambers.)  In  clear  weather,  a fine  view  is  obtained  from  the  summit  of  the 
Brocken. 

BROCKETT,  Linus  Pierpont,  m.d.,  b.  Conn.,  1820;  graduated  from  Yale  medical 
college  in  1843.  After  a few  years  he  left  medical  practice  for  literature,  and  has  written 
for  the  New  American  Cyclopedia,  etc.  Among  his  separate  works  are  Our  Great  Cap- 
tains; Woman's  Work  in  the  Civil  War;  Woman,  her  Bights,  Wrongs,  Privileges,  and  Be- 
sponsibilities ; and  Epidemic  and  Contagious  Diseases,  their  History,  ^mptoms,  and  Treat- 
ment. 

BBOCEHAUS,  Friedrich  Arnold,  the  founder  of  the  well-known  firm  of  B.  in 
Leipsic,  and  publisher  of  the  Conversations-Lexicon,  was  b.  at  Dortmund,  May  4,  1772. 
In  1802,  circumstances  led  him  to  Holland,  where,  however,  his  business  schemes  did 
not  prosper.  He  returned  to  Germany  in  1810,  and  in  the  following  year  commenced 
business  in  Altenburg.  Before  this,  however  (in  1808),  B.  had  purchased  the  copyright 
of  the  Conversations-Lexicon,  which  had  been  commenced  in  1796,  and  he  completed  the 
first  edition,  with  the  addition  of  two  supplementary  volumes,  in  1809-10.  In  1812,  a 
second  improved  edition  of  the  work  was  commenced  under  the  supervision  of  B.  as 
editor.  The  peace  of  1815  enabled  B.  to  pursue  prosperously  his  peaceful  and  civilizing 
career.  In  1817,  his  business  had  so  increased,  that  he  found  it  necessary  to  leave  Alten- 
burg  for  Leipsic,  where,  in  the  following  year,  he  commenced  book-printing  in  addition 
to  book-publishing.  In  the  course  of  a few  years,  the  Lexicon  passed  through  six 
editions;  it  has  now  arrived  at  the  eleventh  edition.  Through  all  the  enterprises  of  B. 
as  a publisher,  a zealous  devotion  to  the  cause  of  liberty  and  general  enlightment  may 
be  traced.  He  died  Aug.  20, 1823.  B.  was  not  only  an  able  and  assiduous  man  of  business, 
but  distinguished  for  his  literary  culture,  his  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  his  numer- 
ous social  accomplishments.  He  was  also  eminently  patriotic,  and  furthered  many 
literary  undertakings,  simply  through  a pure  love  of  “ fatherland.” 

The  business  was  afterwards  carried  on  by  Heinrich  B.,  second  son  of  the  former 
(b.  1804,  d.  1874),  and  now  by  Heinrich’s  sons,  Rudolf  and  Edward.  Among  the  numer- 
ous publications  issued  by  the  house,  may  be  mentioned  the  later  editions  of  the  Con-- 
ver sations- Lexicon,  Vi \th  Atlas;  the  Universal  Encyclopcedia,  hyViVSch  o.nd.(jtr\iheT\  and 

the  German  Penny  Magazine,  founded  in  1833. 

Brockhaus,  Hermann,  third  son  of  F.  A.  Brockhaus,  was  b.  at  Amsterdam,  Jan. 
28,  1806;  studied  at  Leipsic,  Gottingen,  and  Bonn,  and  lived  successively  in  Copen- 
hagen, Paris,  London,  and  Oxford.  From  1848  till  his  death  in  1877,  he  held  at 
Leipsic  the  chair  of  ordinary  professor  of  the  Sanscrit  language  and  literature.  Among 
his  several  works  on  oriental  literature  may  be  mentioned  the  First  Five  Books  of  the 
Large  Collection  of  Fables,  Kathd  Barit  Sdgara,  in  Sanscrit  and  German  (1839);  an  edition 
of  the  drama  Prabodha  Candrodaya,  by  Krishna  Misra,  with  Hindu  scholia  (1845);  Nacli- 
schebi’s  Persian  version  of  the  Seven  Wise  Masters  (1845);  and  (in  1854)  the  Persian  text 
ot  the  Songs  of  Hafiz.  After  1856,  he  was  editor  of  the  Universal  Encyclopaedia.  B.’s 
method  of  printing  Sanscrit  in  Roman  types  is  now  generally  adopted  in  Germany. 


83 


Brocchi. 

Broglie. 


BROCKPOHT,  a village  in  Monroe  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Central  railroad  and  Erie 
canal,  18  m.  w.  of  Rochester;  noted  for  manufactures,  especially  of  pumps  and  agricul- 
tural machines.  There  is  a state  normal  school  here. 

BROCKTON,  a t.  in  Plymouth  co.,  Mass.,  on  the  Old  Colony  railroad,  20  m.  s.  of 
Boston;  pop.  ’80,  13,608.  The  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  is  the  chief  industry. 

BROCKVILLE,  a t.  of  Upper  Canada,  or  Ontario,  taking  its  name  from  gen.  Brock, 
who,  during  the  last  American  war,  died  in  the  arms  of  victory  on  Queenston  heights, 
between  the  town  and  falls  of  Niagara.  It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
proper,  about  40  m.  below  Kingston,  and  about  160  above  Montreal.  Originally,  its 
communications  downward  were  interrupted  by  powerful  and  rugged  rapids,  which, 
however,  are  now,  one  and  all,  either  avoided  by  canals  or  overcome  by  steam.  B.  is  a 
thriving  place,  with  (1871)  5102  inhabitants. 

BRODERICK,  David  Colbreth,  1818-59;  b.  Washington;  an  energetic  uneducated 
man,  who  became  a political  leader  in  New  York  city,  and  was  elected  to  congress.  In 
1849,  he  went  to  California,  and  in  1856  was  chosen  United  States  senator.  In  conse- 
quence of  some  plain  words,  B.  was  challenged  by  David  S.  Terry,  a judge  of  one  of 
the  state  courts,  and  fell  in  the  duel  which  followed. 

BRODERIP,  William  John,  1787-1859;  an  English  writer  on  natural  history.  He 
studied  law,  practiced,  edited  law  reports,  and  was  for  34  years  a metropolitan  police 
magistrate;  but  his  leisure  was  devoted  to  science,  and  he  was  a member  of  most  of  the 
important  societies,  contributed  to  their  Tmnsacti&nSy  and  promoted  especially  the  study 
of  zoology,  being  many  years  vice-president  of  the  zoological  society.  Much  of  his  scien- 
tific writings  appearea  in  Eraser's  Magazine. 

BRODHEAD,  John  Rometn,  ll.d.,  1814-73;  b.  Philadelphia;  a graduate  of  Rut- 
gers college,  and  a student  at  law,  but  after  brief  practice  he  turned  his  whole  attention 
to  American  history,  especially  that  concerning  the  early  settlement  of  New  York.  In 
pursuit  of  this  object,  while  connected  with  the  United  States  legation  in  Holland,  he 
thoroughly  searched  the  archives  at  the  Hague  and  elsewhere  in  that  country,  and  in 
England  and  France.  His  great  labor  was  rewarded  by  the  collection  of  more  than  5000 
documents,  more  or  less  important,  of  which  many  had  until  then  been  unknown  to  his- 
torians. These  papers  were  printed  by  the  state  of  New  York  in  several  large  folio 
volumes.  In  1846,  B.  was  secretary  of  legation  in  London,  where  he  wrote  the  greater 
part  of  his  History  of  the  State  of  Nero  York.,  the  last  volume  of  which  was  published  in 
1871.  From  1853  to  1857  he  was  naval  officer  of  the  port  of  New  York.  He  was  a lead 
ing  member  of  the  New  York  historical  and  other  learned  societies  in  this  country  and 
abroad. 

BRODIE,  Sir  Benjamin  Collins,  Bart. , a distinguished  surgeon,  third  son  of  the 
rev.  Peter  Bellinger  Brodie,  rector  of  Winterslow,  Wiltshire,  wash,  there  in  1783.  He 
studied  under  sir  Everard  Home  at  St.  George’s  hospital,  to  which  he  was,  in  1808, 
elected  assistant-surgeon,  and  afterwards  surgeon.  He  had  previously  lectured  both  on 
anatomy  and  on  surgery.  In  1810,  he  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  royal  society,  and 
in  1811  received  their  Copley  medal  for  his  physiological  papers  contributed  to  the 
Philosophical  Transactions.  In  1834,  he  was  created  a baronet,  and  he  held  the  appoint- 
ment of  sergeant-surgeon  to  queen  Victoria,  as  well  as  that  of  first  surgeon  in  ordinary 
to  the  prince  consort.  He  was  made  d.c.l.  of  Oxford  in  1850;  was  president  of  the  royal 
society;  a corresponding  member  of  the  institute  of  France,  and  a foreign  member  of 
other  learned  societies  and  academies  in  Europe  and  America.  Author  of  Lectures  on 
Local  Nervous  Affections  (1837,  8vo);  Hunterian  Oration,  1837;  Lectures  Illustrative  of  Sub- 
jects  in  Pathology  and  Surgery  (1840,  8vo);  Introductory  Hiscourse  on  the  Duties  and  Conduct 
of  Medical  Stu^nts  8vo);  Psychological  Lnquiries  as  to  Mental  Faculties  ed.. 

1856);  an  edition  of  his  works  with  Autobiography  appeared  in  1865.  He  also  con- 
tributed papers  to  several  scientific  journals.  He  died  in  1862, — B.’s  son,  sir  B.  C. 
Brodie,  p.r.s.,  was  in  1855  elected  Aldrichian  prof,  of  chemistry  at  Oxford,  a chair 
suppressed  in  1866. 

BRO  DY,  a t.  of  Galicia,  Austria,  s situated  on  a swampy  plain,  surrounded  by  forests, 
about  58  m.  e.n.e.  of  Lemberg.  B.,  which  was  made  a free  commercial  town  in  1779,  has 
a large  trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  country  with  Russia,  Poland,  and  Tur- 
key. Its  chief  manufactures  are  leather  and  linen;  jewelry,  manufactured  goods,  and 
colonial  produce  are  imported  by  way  of  Odessa,  The  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Jews,  who  form  so  large  a proportion  of  the  inhabitants,  that  B.  has  been 
called  “The  German  Jerusalem.”  Pop.  ’69,  18,890. 

BROG,  or  Brogue,  a rudely  formed  species  of  shoe,  formerly  in  use  by  the  aboriginal 
Irish  and  the  Scottish  Highlanders,  and  of  which  there  were  different  varieties.  See 
Shoes,  Shoe-trade,  The'name  has  been  applied  to  a modern  kind  of  shoes,  with  some 
fanciful  peculiarities. — The  term  brogue  is  also  used  to  signify  the  peculiar  pronun 
ciation  of  English  that  distinguishes  natives  of  Ireland. 

BROGLIE,  Achille  Leonce  Victor  Charles,  Due  de,  1785-1870;  a peer  of 
France.  The  family  was  Piedmontese,  but  won  distinction  in  the  armies  of  France. 
The  first  marshal  de  B.  served  under  Louis  XIV. ; his  son  reached  the  highest  grade  of 


84 


Broelie. 

Broken. 

tlie  French  peerage;  the  second  marshal  commanded  in  the  seven  years  war,  was  made 
a prince  of  the  empire,  and  by  Louis  XVI.  made  commander-in-chief.  He  refused  to 
serve  under  Napoleon,  and  died  in  voluntary  exile.  His  son  followed  Lafayette  to 
America,  but  soon  returned,  served  on  the  staff  in  the  republican  army  of  the  Rhine, 
was  denounced,  arrested,  and  guillotined,  June  27,  1794.  His  injunction  to  his  son  (the 
subject  of  this  sketch,  then  but  9 years  old)  was  to  remain  faithful  to  liberty  even  though 
she  were  ungrateful  and  unjust.  ‘ ‘ His  father  murdered,  his  mother  in  prison,  his  property 
confiscated  and  plundered,  the  young  de  Broglie  first  appears  in  life  in  wooden  shoes^ 
and  a red  cap  of  liberty,  begging  an  assignat  from  the  younger  Robespierre.”  Yet  he 
adhered  to  the  cause  for  which  his  father  died,  and  maintained  through  life  the  princi- 
ples of  1789,  seeming  to  have  forgotten  even  his  rank  until  reminded  of  it  by  a summons 
to  the  chamber  of  peers.  Early  in  life  he  was  one  of  Napoleon’s  council  of  state.  With 
high  rank,  independent  fortune,  unblemished  integrity,  unflinching  patriotism,  and  a 
sincere  and  consistent  attachment  to  liberal  opinions,  B.  entered  the  chamber  in  1815, 
just  before  he  was  30  years  old.  His  first  opportunity  was  on  the  trial  of  marshal  Ney, 
and  he  alone  had  the  courage  to  speak  and  vote  for  acquittal  on  the  ground  that  the 
marshal  was  not  guilty  of  premeditated  treason.  During  the  restoration  he  was  active 
in  the  defense  of  liberal  opinions  and  measures,  opposing  the  reactionary  policy  of  the 
court,  and  acting  with  the  doctrinaires,  of  whom  Guizot  was  the  ablest  representative. 
In  1816,  he  married  Mme.  de  Stael’s  daughter.  About  the  same  time  he  became  an 
ally  of  Clarkson  and  Wilberforce  in  the  cause  of  the  emancipation  of  negroes  from 
slavery.  In  Louis  Philippe’s  first  cabinet  he  reluctantly  took  the  bureau  of  public  wor- 
ship, and  in  1832,  upon  strong  urging,  became  Cassimir  Perier’s  successor  as  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  in  which  office  he  strengthened  the  bonds  between  France  and  Eng- 
land, negotiated  the  quadruple  alliance,  assisted  in  settling  the  Belgian  and  Greek  ques- 
tions, and  labored  with  success  to  preserve  the  peace  of  Europe.  In  1835,  he  was  the 
head  of  the  cabinet,  and,  riding  beside  the  king  when  Fieschi’s  attempt  at  regicide  was 
made,  B.  received  one  of  the  bullets  through  his  coat  collar.  He  retired  permanently 
from  public  life  in  1836.  Though  not  in  office,  B.  preserved  through  life  close  personal 
and  political  friendship  with  Guizot.  The  overthrow  of  the  constitutional  monarchy 
in  1848  was  a severe  blow  to  the  duke;  but  he  consented  to  sit  in  the  republican  assem- 
blies, and  labored  to  counteract  some  of  what  he  deemed  to  be  the  evils  of  universal 
suffrage  and  to  avert  the  coup  d'etat  which  he  saw  was  impending.  When  it  came  he 
was  conspicuous  as  one  of  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  imperial  regime,  though  he 
admitted  that  an  empire  was  “the  government  which  the  poorer  classes  of  France 
desired,  and  the  rich  deserved.”  His  last  20  years  were  devoted  to  philosophical  and 
literary  pursuits.  With  regard  to  the  future,  he  said:  “ I shall  die  a penitent  Christian 
and  an  impenitent  liberal.”  He  was  a member  of  the  academy  and  other  societies,  in 
whose  labor  he  took  assiduous  interest.  He  was  succeeded  by  Albert  de  B.,  his  eldest 
son,  also  of  literary  distinction,  who  has  had  a prominent  part  since  1871  in  the 
national  assembly,  and  was  for  some  time  the  head  of  marshal  MacMahon’s  cabinet. 

BROGLIE,  Albert,  Due  de,  son  of  Achille,  b.  1821 ; statesman  and  author,  elected 
a member  of  the  academy  in  186k  His  main  work.  The  Church  and  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  Fourth  Century  has  passed  through  several  editions.  He  has  also  published 
Leibnitz’s  System  of  '^ligion;  Questions  of  Religion  and  History,  etc.  M.  Thiers  made 
him  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  ambassador  to  Great  Britain. 

BROHAN,  Josephine  Felicite  Augustine,  b.  1824;  a French  actress,  excelling 
specially  in  the  higher  dramas,  such  as  those  of  Moliere,  Beaumarchais,  and  Victor  Hugo. 
She  has  also  produced  some  pieces  of  her  own.  On  the  death  of  Rachel  she  took  the 
great  tragedienne’s  chair  in  the  conservatory.  Her  two  sisters  are  well  known  on  the 
stage ; Suzanne,  and  Emilie  Madeleine. 

BROILING  is  a convenient  and  expeditious  mode  of  cooking  small  pieces  of  meat, 
by  laying  them  on  a gridiron  over  a bright  fire,  or  even  on  the  coals  themselves. 
This  is  perhaps  the  most  primitive  mode  of  preparing  meat  for  eating,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed from  the  great  ease  and  simplicity  with  which  the  operation  is  managed.  B.  is, 
in  fact,  a quicker  sort  of  roasting.  The  albumen  of  the  outside  being  sealed  up  at  once, 
the  meat  is  rendered  extremely  nutritious,  and  therefore  this  process  is  much  to  be  rec- 
ommended. But  to  broil  meat  so  as  to  preserve  its  odor,  juice,  and  fat,  requires 
care.  The  meat  should  be  prepared  for  the  gridiron  by  being  beaten  slightly  with  the 
rolling-pin,  trimmed  of  superfiuous  fat  and  skin,  and  cut  so  as  to  look  well  on  the  dish. 
The  fire  should  be  perfectly  clear,  and  of  a red-hot  surface  to  answer  to  the  size  of  the 
gridiron,  that  all  parts  of  the  meat  may  be  equally  cooked.  Just  before  setting  the  grid- 
iron over,  some  salt  should  be  sprinkled  on  the  fire  to  prevent  the  flare.  The  gridiron 
should  be  perfectly  clean  and  smooth,  being  always  rubbed  when  it  is  put  away;  and, 
before  using,  it  should  be  warmed,  greased  with  suet,  and  rubbed  again  with  paper. 
When  it  is  placed  on  the  fire,  the  back  should  be  higher  than  the  front.  The  meat 
should  never  be  touched  with  a fork,  but  turned  rapidly  with  the  broiling  tongs;  and 
when  sufficiently  done,  should  be  served  immediately  on  a very  hot  dish,  being  seasoned 
according  to  taste,  In  large  ranges  there  should  be  a broiling  stove,  and  an  apparatus 
for  B.  suited  to  it ; by  this  the  heat  of  the  fire  can  be  easily  regulated.  But  for  all  ordi- 
nary purposes,  a fire  of  charcoal,  or  of  common  coal,  and  a grooved  gridiron,  to  preserve 


i 


85 


Broglie. 

Broken* 


the  gravy,  is  all  that  is  necessary.  Sometimes  a gridiron  is  used  to  hang  before  the  fire, 
when  a dinner  is  being  dressed  and  the  top  of  the  fire  occupied;  this  is  convenient,  but 
it  is  an  inferior  way  of  cooking,  the  meat  being  roasted  rather  than  broiled.  There  is  a 
gridiron  sold  in  the  streets  which  is  very  well  adapted  to  small  low  fires,  as  it  is  easily 
put  in  between  the  bars. 

BROKE,  Sir  Philip  Bowes  Verb,  1776-1841;  an  English  admiral  of  the  war  of 
1812;  he  commanded  the  Shannon,  and  sent  a challenge  to  fight  to  the  American  capt. 
Lawrence,  just  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  Chesapeake.  Before  the  latter  arrived, 
Lawrence,  who  thought  the  mere  appearance  of  a British  vessel  to  be  a challenge,  wenj 
out  to  meet  him.  An  action  ensued,  June  1,  1813,  insight  of  the  land  off  Boston.  Law* 
rence  was  almost  immediately  mortally  wounded,  and  his  badly  supplied  and  badly 
manned  vessel  was  captured.  The  victory  raised  B.  to  knighthood. 

BROKEN  KNEES.  The  part  commonly  termed  the  knee  of  the  horse  is  the  carpus  or 
wrist  of  man,  and  from  the  peculiar  conformation  of  a quadruped,  is  much  expose^  and 
liable  to  serious  injury.  By  broken  knee  is  meant  the  abrasion  or  more  serious  injury  of 
the  joint  by  a fall;  and  even  when  the  wounds  are  healed,  the  scar  usually  remains  to 
indicate  that  the  horse  has  once  fallen,  and  is  “ broken-kneed.  ” An  animal  is  then 
regarded  as  unsafe,  and  seriously  deteriorated  in  value. 

Causes. — The  fall  is  necessarily  the  immediate  cause  of  the  broken-knee ; as  to  the  • 
cause  of  the  fall,  it  is  usually  to  be  looked  for  elsewhere  than  in  the  horse  himself.  As 
a rule,  the  safety  of  a horse’s  action  is  very  great,  particularly  about  the  age  of  from 
four  to  seven  or  eight  years.  Rarely  does  a horse  at  any  age  fall  on  his  knees,  unless  his 
feet  have  suffered  from  improper  shoeing;  the  animal  then  moves  cautiously,  and  is 
very  apt  to  “ stumble.”  Undoubtedly,  some  horses  of  defective  conformation  and  slug- 
gish disposition  are  more  likely  to  stumble  and  fall  than  a well  made,  high-actioned 
steed;  nevertheless,  the  most  perfect  animal  may  gradually  be  rendered  unsafe  by 
improper  shoeing.  See  Shoeing  of  Horses. 

Symptoms. — It  is  important,  so  soon  as  the  injury  is  done,  to  determine  the  extent  and 
depth  of  the  wound.  If  it  be  merely  a superficial  wound,  the  case  is  a simple  one;  and 
unless  the  skin  is  rnuch  bruised,  the  hair  will  grow,  and  the  animal  not  be  permanently 
blemished.  The  sheath,  however,  through  which  the  tendon  over  the  joint  passes,  may  be 
opened,  and  the  tendon  itself  injured.  The  wound  is  then  gaping,  heals  rather  slowly, 
and  sloughs  have  to  be  thrown  off.  Lastly,  the  joint  itself  may  be  opened,  and  this  is 
indicated  by  a free  discharge  of  the  joint-oil  or  synovia,  and  by  the  bones  being  seen  or 
felt  on  probing.  The  worst  [form  of  accident  is  that  when  the  bones  of  the  joint  are 
fractured.  The  system  suffers  when  the  wounds  are  serious,  and  severe  fever  sets  in. 

Treatment. — Whatever  may  be  the  form  of  injury,  the  first  injunction  is  to  wash  the 
wound  thoroughly  with  cold  water  applied  constantly  for  hours.  The  joint  will  swell, 
become  hot  and  painful,  and  in  some  cases  irritative  'fever  occurs.  Then  the  animal 
should  be  kept  on  low  diet,  and  be  purged  with  four,  five,  or  six  drachms  of  aloes, 
according  to  its  size,  etc.  Should  the  wound  be  deep,  much  dirt  remaining  in  the  tis- 
sues, a large  linseed-meal  poultice  should  be  applied  over  the  joint  for  a day  or  two, 
until  free  suppuration  sets  in.  If  this  is  retarded,  and  in  all  cases  when  the  poultice 
does  not  appear  necessary,  cold  fomentations  may  be  continued,  using  either  some  infill 
sion  of  chamomile,  or  one  part  of  tincture  of  arnica  to  twelve  of  water,  or  one  part  of 
Goulard’s  extract  to  a similar  quantity  of  water.  The  severe  symptoms  speedily  sub- 
side, unless  the  bones  are  fractured  or  the  joint  otherwise  seriously  injured.  Usually, 
the  wound  heals  rapidly,  the  joint-oil  ceases  to  fiow;  and  in  order  to  insure  a contrac- 
tion of  the  wound,  mild  astringent  or  caustic  applications  should  be  used,  such  as  tincture 
of  myrrh,  sulphate  of  zinc  lotion,  or  sulphate  of  copper  in  crystal  rubbed  over  it.  When 
the  wound  is  thoroughly  healed,  the  hair  may  not  grow  rapidly,  even  in  parts  where  it 
should  form;  in  this  case  its  production  may  be  accelerated  by  the  use  of  a very  mild 
cantharidine  ointment,  which  should  act  as  a mild  irritant,  but  not  as  a blister.  In  some 
cases  of  severe  broken  knee,  it  is  advisable  to  fix  the  limb  so  that  the  animal  may  not 
move  the  joint  much.  In  veterinary  jurisprudence,  a broken  knee  is  regarded  as  a blem- 
ish, not  as  an  unsoundness. 

BROKEN  WIND,  a disease  or  unsoundness  of  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  horse, 
which,  from  the  French  pousse,  was  termed,  by  some  of  the  old  English  writers  on  far- 
riery, pursiness.  The  Germans  term  it  ddmpjigkeit,  or  asthma,  though  in  many  of  their 
works  it  receives  also  the  name  of  herzschldgigkeit,  from  a belief  that  it  consists  in  palpi- 
tation of  the  heart.  The  nature  of  the  malady  is  not  well  understood,  though  it  appears 
in  the  form  of  difficulty  in  the  act  of  expiration,  the  horse  making  an  extraordinary  or 
spasmodic  effort  to  expel  from  the  lungs  the  air  which  has  readily  entered  them  in 
inspiration. 

Symptoms. — A broken-winded  horse  is  usually  an  animal  that  does  not  thrive,  is  lean, 
and  has  a dependent  belly,  the  muscles  of  which  are  unusally  active  as  expiratory  mus- 
cles. The  characteristic  symptoms  are  best  observed  when  the  horse  is  exercised,  the 
breathing  becoming  very  labored,  the  nostrils  dilated,  the  eyes  bloodshot,  and  even  blue, 
showing  imperfect  purification  of  blood  in  the  lungs.  On  watching  the  chest  and  fiank, 
the  ribs  are  observed  very  actively  moved,  and  after  collapsing,  when  the  air  is  expelled 
from  the  lungs,  are  further  depressed  by  a spasmodic  jerk  brought  about  by  the 


Broker. 

Bromeliaceae. 


86 


abdominal  muscles.  A broken-winded  horse  has  a bad  cough,  of  the  kind  referred  to  by 
veterinarians  as  characteristic  of  unsoundness,  and  termed  a fwllow  cough.  When  the 
animal  is  oppressed  by  fast  work,  or  dragging  a load  up  a hill,  the  pulse  is  excessively 
rapid,  and  the  heart  beats  energetically.  From  this  circumstance,  it  is  regarded  by  some 
as  a disease  of  the  heart.  Others  have  believed  the  diaphragm  affected,  but  in  reality  it 
is  the  lungs,  or  the  apparatus  for  expelling  the  air  from  these  organs,  that  is  at  fault. 
The  diaphragm  being  a muscle  of  inspiration,  it  is  probably  in  no  way  implicated.  No 
doubt,  when  the  heart  is  diseased,  the  function  of  breathing  is  sometimes  much  affected, 
but  these  are  not  the  symptoms  of  the  true  broken-wind,  any  more  tjian  when  the  lungs 
are  in  part  rendered  impervious  to  air,  and  the  act  of  inspiration  is  rendered  short.  This 
condition  constitutes  thick  wind,  and  is  often  one  of  the  remote  results  of  inflammatory 
disease  of  the  lungs. 

Causes. — Low-bred  horses  are  liable  to  B.  W.,  especially  if  improperly  fed  on  innu- 
tritions and  bulky  food,  and  at  the  same  time  kept  at  hard  and  fast  work.  Whatever 
maybe  the  way  in  which  the  condition  of  the  alimentary  canal  operates  in  producing 
B.  W.,  of  this  we  are  certain,  that  the  function  of  digestion  is  much  impaired.  Indeed, 
the  term  B.  W.  is  believed  to  have  had  reference  originally  to  the  constant  escape  of 
flatus.  B.  W.  is  far  more  rare  now-a-days  than  of  old,  and  it  is  at  present  most  com- 
mon in  those  countries  where  horses  are  worst  managed,  and  fed  almost  exclusively  on 
■coarse,  indigestible,  or  innutritions  kinds  of  hay  and  beans. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  B.  W.  is  very  unsatisfactory;  and  we  can  only  hope 
for  palliation  of  the  symptoms  by  keeping  the  alimentary  canal  in  proper  order,  adminis- 
tering occasional  purgatives,  and  feeding  on  a proper  quantity  of  the  best  oats,  which 
should  always  be  bruised;  also  allowing  the  horse  the  best  hay  in  spare  quantities — viz., 
from  10  to  12  lbs.  daily.  Some  veterinarians  have  vaunted  their  powers  of  curing  this 
disease,  and  recommended  large  doses  of  camphor,  digitalis,  and  opium;  but  these 
potent  narcotics  only  operate  for  a very  short  time,  and  as  their  effects  pass  oft',  the 
symptoms  return,  and  ohen  with  increased  severity.  We  may  say  that  B.  W.  is  incura- 
ble ; and  horses  very  frequently  drop  down  exhausted  when  at  hard  work,  and  die  either 
from  congestion  of  the  lungs,  hemorrhage,  or  simple  suffocation. 

B.  W.  is  so  bad  a form  of  unsoundness  that  horse-dealers  sometimes  attempt,  and 
even  successfully,  to  hide  the  defect  for  the  time  they  may  be  engaged  in  the  sale  of  a 
horse,  and  this  they  do  by  causing  the  animal  to  swallow  shot  or  grease.  A certain  por- 
tion of  lead  weighing  in  the  stomach  has  a wonderful  effect  in  diminishing  the  symp- 
toms, which  become  again  obvious  enough  for  a few  hours  after  the  ruse  has  been 
practiced  on  some  unwary  purchaser. 

BBOKEB  (so  called,  from  a Teut.  and  Slav,  root,  hrak  or  wrak,  signifying  refuse, 
blemish ; as  if  the  function  had  originally  been  to  select  good  articles  of  merchandise 
and  reject  blemished  ones:  the  German  term  is  makler,  from  makel,  blemish),  an  agent 
•employed  to  make  bargains  and  contracts  between  other  persons,  in  matters  of  trade, 
coramerce,  and  navigation,  for  a compensation  commonly  called  brokerage.  Where  he 
is  employed  to  buy  or  sell  goods,  he  is  not  intrusted  with  the  custody  or  possession  of 
them,  and  is  not  authorized  to  buy  or  sell  them  in  his  own  name.  In  this  respect,  he 
differs  from  a factor,  and  he  differs  from  an  auctioneer  in  two  particulars:  a B.  may 
buy  as  well  as  sell,  but  an  auctioneer  can  only  sell;  a B.  cannot  sell  personally  at  pub- 
lic auction,  for  that  is  the  appropriate  function  of  an  auctioneer,  but  he  may  sell  at  pri- 
vate sales,  which  an  auctioneer  (as  such)  does  not.  A B.  is  strictly  a middleman,  or 
intermediate  negotiator  between  the  parties,  and  for  some  purposes,  he  is  treated  as  the 
agent  of  both  parties,  but  primarily  he  is  deemed  merely  the  agent  of  the  party  by  whom 
he  is  originally  employed.  There  are  several  sorts  of  brokers,  such  as  stock-brokers, 
share-brokers,  ship-brokers  (q.v.  in  Supp.,  Vol.  X.),  Insurance -brokers,  and  bill- 
brokers  (q.v.).  Persons  who  appraise  goods,  sell  or  distrain  furniture  for  rent,  are 
also  called  brokers,  although  differing  entirely  in  their  occupations  from  the  preced- 
ing commercial  agents.  The  business  of  a pawnbroker  (q.v.)  is  also  of  a different 
nature. 

Brokers,  in  London,  must  be  admitted  by  the  lord  mayor  and  aldermen,  paying  £5 
on  admission,  and  a like  sum  annually,  under  a penalty  of  £100;  but  they  are  no  other- 
wise subject  to  the  control  of  the  court  of  aldermen.  A list  is  kept  by  the  city  of  bro- 
kers admitted,  and  of  those  who  have  been  convicted  of  fraud  or  disqualifled  (33  and  34 
Viet.  c.  60). 

By  the  larceny  consolidation  act,  24  and  25  Viet.  c.  96,  s.  76,  it  is  enacted  that  any 
person,  who,  being  a banker,  merchant,  B.,  attorney,  or  agent,  and  being  intrusted  for 
safe  custody  with  the  property  of  any  other  persons,  shall  in  any  manner  convert 
or  appropriate  it  to  his  own  use,  shall  be  guilty  of  a misdemeanor,  and  be  liable  to  be 
kept  in  penal  servitude  from  five  to  seven  years,  or  to  suffer  some  other  punishment,  by 
imprisonment  for  not  more  than  two  years,  with  hard  labor  or  confinement.  See  Factor. 

BROKER  {ante).  In  the  United  States,  brokers  are  classed  according  to  the  nature 
of  their  business.  In  general,  the  word  means  a dealer  in  money  or  stocks;  but  besides 
the  bill  and  note  broker  there  are  exchange,  insurance,  cotton  (and  other  merchandise), 
pawn,  real  estate,  and  ship  brokers.  The  B.  is  paid  by  a commission  on  his  sales,  or  by 
a special  agreement.  Usually  brokers  do  not  disclose  the  names  of  their  principals. 


87 


Broker. 

Bromeliacece. 


There  is  an  implied  warranty  in  dealing  with  a broker  that  the  thing  he  sells  is  all  that 
it  pretends  to  be,  and  if  a bill  sold  be  found  a forgery,  he  is  held  responsible. 

BBOKEBAGE  is  the  remuneration  or  compensation  allowed  to  a broker  (q.v.). 

BBOMBEBG,  a t.  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Posen,  69  m.  n.e.  from  the  city  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  Brahe,  about  6 m.  from  its  junction  with  the  Vistula.  B. 
has  manufactures  of  woolens,  linen,  chicory,  tobacco,  and  Prussian  blue;  a large  sugar- 
refinery,  distilleries,  breweries,  potteries,  and  corn-mills.  The  Brorriberg  canal,  by  unit- 
ing the  rivers  Netz  and  Brahe,  connects  the  Oder  and  Elbe  with  the  Vistula.  Pop.  75, 
31,308. 

BROME,  a co.  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  Vermont  border;  350 
sq.m. ; pop.  71,  13,757.  The  Green  mountains  occupy  a portion  of  the  county.  Capital, 
Knowlton. 

BBOME-GBASS,  Bromus;  Gr.  bromos,  a kind  of  oat;  a genus  of  grasses,  very  nearly 
allied  to  fescue  (q.v.),  with  flowers  in  lax  panicles,  glumes  many-flowered,  the  outer 
palea  bifid  at  the  extremity,  and  awned  beneath,  and  the  very  short  stigma  growing 
from  the  face  of  the  germen,  beneath  its  apex.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  some  of 
them  are  very  common  British  grasses — none  more  so  than  the  Soft  B.  {B.  mollis),  an 
annual  or  biennial,  which  has  very  soft  downy  leaves,  grows  well  on  poor  soils,  and  is 
readily  eaten  by  cattle,  but  is  not  much  esteemed  by  farmers,  either  for  the  quantity  or 
quality  of  fodder  which  it  yields.  Its  seeds  have  also  the  reputation  of  possessing  dele- 
terious or  poisonous  properties : and  those  of  two  other  species  of  this  genus,  B.  purgans 
and  B.  catharticus,  the  former  a native  of  North  America,  and  the  latter  of  Chili,  are  said 
to  be  emetic  and  purgative.  The  whole  subject  of  the  existence  of  poisonous  proper- 
ties in  the  seeds  of  any  of  these  grasses,  requires  further  investigation.  Soft  B. , although 
now  disliked  by  farmers,  was  formerly  sown  as  a fodder-grass,  and  its  large  seeds  were 
even  regarded  as  making  hay  more  nutritious ; so  that  there  are  some  who  view  its  pres- 
ent proscription  as  a thing  which  ought  to  be  reconsidered,  and  who  deem  it  not  improba- 
ble that  its  weighty  produce,  both  in  foliage  and  seeds,  and  its  adaptation  to  poor  soils, 
may  yet  recommend  it  to  the  favor  of  agriculturists.  Very  similar  to  it  are  Smooth  B. 
{B.  racemosus).  Field  B.  or  Meadow  B.  {B.  commutatus  or  B.  pratensis,  and  B.  arven- 
sis),  all  of  which  seem  very  much  to  resemble  it  in  their  properties. — The  Tall  B.  {B, 
giganteus,  also  known  as  festuca  gigantea  and  bucetum  giganteum),  a native  of  Britain, 
which  reaches  the  height  of  4 or  even  5 ft.,  affords  a great  bulk  of  foliage,  but  is  not 
much  relished  by  cattle.  Naturally  growing  in  shady  places,  it  succeeds  even  in  dense 
woods,  and  is  sometimes  sown  to  form  covert  for  game. — Rye  B.  {B.  secalinus)  is  gener- 
ally regarded  as  a troublesome  weed,  especially  in  fields  of  rye.  It  is  very  abundant  in 
some  parts  of  Europe.  In  a young  state  it  has  a great  resemblance  to  rye.  It  seeds, 
which  are  large,  retain  their  power  of  germination  for  years,  and  do  not  lose  it  by  pass- 
ing through  the  intestines  of  animal.  Deleterious  effects  have  been  erroneously  ascribed 
to  bread  made  from  rye,  along  with  which  these  seeds  have  been  ground ; but  poultry 
are  very  fond  of  them,  as  of  those  of  other  species  of  this  genus. 

BBOMELIA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of  monocotyledonous  plants,  allied  to  amaryllideoe 
and  iridecB,  stemless,  or  with  short  stems,  and  rigid,  channeled,  often  spiny  and  scaly 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  in  racemes  or  panicles;  the  calyx  3-parted  or  tubular,  persistent, 
more  or  less  cohering  with  the  ovary;  the  petals  three,  withering  or  deciduous,  equal  or 
unequal,  imbricated  in  bud.  The  stamens  are  six,  inserted  into  the  tube  of  the  calyx 
and  corolla,  the  anthers  opening  inwards.  The  ovary  is  3-celled,  the  style  single,  the 
fruit  capsular  or  succulent,  many-seeded ; the  seeds  with  a minute  embryo  lying  in  the 
base  of  mealy  albumen. — The  order  contains  about  170  known  species,  all  natives  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  America,  although  some  of  them  are  now  naturalized  both  in  Asia  and 
Africa.  The  best  known  plant  of  the  order,  and  the  only  one  much  valued  for  its  fruit,  is 
the  pineapple  (q.v.).  B.,  with  their  strong  spiny  leaves,  cover  the  ground  in  many  places, 
so  as  to  form  impenetrable  thickets.  Many  of  them  are  epiphytic,  or  grow  upon  trees, 
without  being  parasites,  particularly  the  species  of  tillandsia,  one  of  which  is  the  New 
Orleans  moss,  long  beard,  or  old  man’s  beard  of  the  West  Indies  and  of  the  southern 
parts  of  the  United  States,  hanging  from  the  trees  like  the  lichens  of  colder  climates. 
The  leaves  of  some  are  so  formed  and  placed  as  to  retain  near  their  base  a quantity  of 
water,  often  affording  a delicious  refreshment  to  the  traveler  in  a hot  climate.  The 
water  is,  perhaps,  of  use  to  the  plant  itself  in  droughts.  Not  a few  of  the  B.  are  capable 
of  vegetating  long  without  contact  with  earth,  and  of  sustaining  long  drought  without 
inconvenience,  for  which  reason,  and  because  of  their  beautiful  and  fragrant  flowers, 
some  of  them  are  very  frequently  suspended  from  balconies  in  South  America  as  air- 
plants.  But  the  plants  of  this  order  are  more  generally  valuable  for  their  fibers  than 
upon  any  other  account.  Tillandsia  usneoides,  the  New  Orleans  moss  already  mentioned, 
yields  a fiber,  easily  obtained,  and  in  great  abundance,  which  is  used  instead  of  hair  for 
stufling  mattresses.  The  fibers  of  the  leaves  of  the  pineapple,  and  of  some  other  species 
of  this  order,  have  been  made  into  fabrics  resembling  the  finest  white  muslin,  whilst  they 
are  found  also  to  possess  sufiicient  strength  for  cordage.  It  is  supposed  that  the  produce 
of  different  species  of  bromelia  is  often  included  along  with  that  of  the  American  aloe  or 
agave  (q.v.),  under  the  name  of  pita  fiber  or  pita  flax,  the  appearance  and  properties  of 


firomic. 

Bronchitis. 


88 


the  fibers  being  very  similar,  as  well  as  those  also  of  the  fibers  of  the  species  of  yucca. 
The  fiber  of  the  pineapple  is,  in  some  countries,  very  frequently  twisted  into  fishing- 
lines,  and  made  into  nets  and  into  ropes  intended  for  immersion  in  water,  being  very 
little  liable  to  injury  from  this  cause.  Abundant  as  the  plant  is  in  its  native  regions, 
and  now  so  perfectly  naturalized  as  to  form  thickets  in  many  parts  of  the  old  world, 
there  seems  no  limit  to  the  quantity  of  this  fiber  which  might  be  procured. — The  pine- 
apple cloth  of  the  Philippines  is  called  pina  muslin  and  'batiste  d’ ananas.  It  is  also  some- 
times erroneously  called  grass-cloth.  “ With  a magnifier,  the  fibers  may  be  seen  to  be 
very  numerous  and  fine,  but  not  twisted  at  all,  as  in  grass-cloth  or  the  finest  muslins  and 
cambrics.”  The  Philippine  pineapple  fiber  is  obtained  from  a species  called  by  the 
Spaniards  pigna  or  pina  (a  cone),  and  which  has  by  botanists  been  named  h'omelia  pigna, 
although  some  regard  it  as  a mere  variety  of  the  pineapple,  with  small  and  rather  dry 
fruit.  It  grows  in  great  abundance  in  the  Philippine  islands,  and  is  cultivated  by  the 
Chinese  near  Singapore,  and  the  fiber  exported  to  China.  This  fiber  is  prepared  also  in 
Malacca,  ‘Java,  Celebes,  etc.  When  bleached,  the  pineapple  fiber  can  be  spun  like  flax. 
A patent  for  this  has  been  taken  out  in  Britain  by  Mr.  Zincke. 

The  Wild  Ananas  {bromelia  pinguin)  of  the  West  Indies,  the  bromelia  karatas,  com- 
mon in  South  America,  the  B.  sagenaria,  common  in  some  parts  of  Brazil,  and  the  bill- 
bergia  variegata,  which  grows  in  wild  luxuriance  in  Mexico,  where  it  is  called  caroa,  often 
covering  miles  of  country — all  ;^ield  fibers  which  are  used  for  cloth,  cordage,  nets,  etc. 
The  fiber  of  bromelia  sagenaria  is  known  as  curratow  fiber.  Very  strong  ropes  are  made 
of  it. 

The  genus  bromelia  has  a 3-parted  calyx  shorter  than  the  corolla,  and  the  fruit  is  succu- 
lent. The  species  are  pretty  numerous,  the  leaves  of  all  of  them  are  more  or  less  char- 
acterized by  spiny  serratures.  The  fruit  of  B.  pinguin,  already  mentioned,  affords  a 
cooling  juice,  which  is  used  in  the  West  Indies  mixed  with  water,  to  make  a drink  for 
patients  in  fever  and  dysentery.  It  is  said  to  be  diuretic.  A vinous  liquor  is  sometimes 
made  from  it. 

BROMIC  ACID  is  the  only  known  compound  of  bromine  and  oxygen.  It  is  prepared 
by  acting  upon  bromine  (Br)  by  caustic  potash  (KO) , when  much  bromide  of  potassium 
(KBr)  is  formed,  accompanied  by  bromate  of  potash  (KOBrOs),  a compound  of  potash 
and  B.  acid.  It  likewise  combines  with  silver,  lead,  and  mercury,  yielding  salts,  all  of 
which  are  styled  bromates. 

BROMIDES,  the  salts  of  bromine  combined  with  various  radicals,  such  as  potassium, 
sodium,  iron,  mercury,  and  others.  Alkaline  B.  crystallize  in  cubes  or  right 
angled  prisms,  and  are  easily  soluble  in  water.  Bromide  of  potassium  is  a universal 
somnific,  and  is  taken  in  doses  of  20  to  60  grs.,  or  even  more.  B.  are  said  to  be  useful 
in  epilepsy. 

BROMINE  (Greek,  bromos,  disagreeable  smell:  symb.  Br;  equiv.  80;  spec.  grav.  2.96), 
one  of  the  chemical  elements,  occurs  in  combination  in  sea-water  to  the  extent  of  about 
1 grain  to  the  gallon.  It  is  found  more  abundantly  in  certain  saline  springs,  especially 
those  at  Kreuznach  and  Kissengen  in  Germany.  It  is  also  present  in  water  and  land 
plants  and  animals.  In  the  extraction  of  B.  from  concentrated  sea-water,  from  which 
common  salt  has  been  separated  in  quantity,  and  which  is  then  called  bittern,  or  from 
salt  springs,  the  liquor — which  contains  the  B.,  as  bromide  of  magnesium  (MgBr) — has  a 
stream  of  chlorine  gas  (Cl)  passed  through  it,  which  forms  chloride  of  magnesium 
(MgCl),  and  liberates  the  bromine.  The  liquid  thus  becomes  of  a more  or  less  yellow 
tint,  and  if  it  be  then  agitated  with  ether,  and  allowed  to  settle,  the  latter  floats  up  the 
bromine.  The  ethereal  solution  is  then  treated  with  potash,  which  principally  forms 
bromide  of  potassium  (KBr),  and  fixes  the  B.,  so  that  the  ether  may  be  distilled  off.  The 
residue  is  then  treated  with  oxide  of  manganese  and  sulphuric  acid  in  a retort  with  heat, 
which  results  in  the  liberation  and  distillation  of  pure  bromine.  It  exists  as  a deep  red 
liquid  of  density  2.966  (nearly  3),  which  readily  evolves  red  fumes  of  a very  irritating 
and  suffocating  nature.  It  is  very  poisonous,  actually  destroying  the  animal  tissues.  It 
is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  more  so  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  its  water  solution  pos- 
sesses great  bleaching  properties.  When  raised  to  the  temperature  of  145.4°  F.,  it  boils, 
and  reduced  to  95°  F.,  it  becomes  a red  crystalline  solid.  B.  combines  with  great 
rapidity  with  metals,  occasionally  with  ignition,  as  with  antimony,  and  forms  a class  of 
salts.  Treated  with  hydrosulphuric  acid,  B.  yields  hydrobromic  acid  (HBr).  which  is 
the  analogue  of  hydrochloric  acid,  as  B.  is  of  chlorine. 

BROMLEY,  a in  England,  10  m.  s.e.  of  London,  on  high  ground  n.  of  thcRavens- 
bourne  river.  Besides  modern  institutions  there  is  a college  founded  in  1666,  by  bishop 
Warner,  for  the  residence  and  support  of  widows  of  clergymen.  There  is  also  a 
palace  for  the  bishop  of  Rochester,  to  whom  the  manor  has  belonged  since  the  time  of 
Ethelbert;  and  in  the  garden  attached  is  St.  Blaize’s  well,  which  was  of  great  fame 
before  the  reformation.  Pop.  of  parish  in  ’71,  10,674. 

BROMOFORM,  the  ter-bromide  of  formyl,  analogous  to  ido-formand  chloroform;  a 
heavy,  volatile  liquid;  syn.  CHBra. 


89 


Bromic. 

Bronchitis. 


BBOMSEBRO,  a village  of  Sweden,  in  the  lan,  and  27  m.  s.  of  the  town,  of  Calmar. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  treaties  were  entered  into  between  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark in  1541,  1641,  and  1645. 

BBOMSGBOVE,  a market  t.  of  Worcestershire,  England,  near  the  small  river  Salwarp, 
12  m.  s.  s.w.  from  Birmingham,  It  is  li  m.  e.  from  a station  on  the  Birmingham  and 
Bristol  railway.  The  Birmingham  and  Worcester  canal  also  passes  near  it.  It  is  sit 
nated  in  a highly  cultivated  and  richly  wooded  valley.  The  principal  street  is  about  a 
mile  in  length.  There  is  a very  flourishing  grammar-school,  founded  by  Edward  VI.  in 
1553.  The  linen  manufacture  was  formerly  carried  on  at  B. ; button-making  and  nail- 
making are  at  present  the  principal  branches  of  industry.  B.  returned  two  members  to 
the  house  of  commons  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  but  was  afterwards  disfranchised  ou 
petition  of  the  inhabitants  themselves,  because  the  trade  of  the  town  had  declined. 
Pop.  71,  6967. 

BRONCHI  are  the  subdivisions  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe.  Opposite  the  third 
dorsal  vertebra,  the  latter  divides  into  two  branches  or  B.,  of  similar  structure  to  itself — 
namely,  round  and  cartilaginous  in  front ; and  flat,  with  muscular  and  fibrous  tissue, 
behind,  lined  with  mucous  membrane.  Of  these  B.,  one  goes  to  each  lung,  the  right 
being  little  more  than  an  inch;  the  left,  about  two  inches  in  length.  On  entering  the 
substance  of  a lung,  the  B.  divide  into  smaller  branches,  which  again  subdivide,  until 
they  are  no  larger  in  diameter  than  one-flftieth  to  one- thirtieth  of  an  inch,  which  give 
origin  to,  or  terminate  in,  small  polyhedral  cells,  which  seem  to  cluster  round  their 
extremities,  and  open  into  them.  These  are  the  air-cells;  they  consist  of  elastic  tissue, 
with  a lining  of  mucous  membrane,  and  beneath  the  latter,  a layer  of  minute  blood- 
vessels of  the  lung.  See  Respikation,  Organs  and  Process  op. 

BRONCHI'TIS,  or  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  is  a 
disease  of  very  common  occurrence  in  Great  Britain,  and  one  of  the  greatest  importance, 
for,  if  neglected,  it  not  only  destroys  life,  but  if  carelessly  treated,  may  lead  to  prema- 
ture and  miserable  old  age.  The  first  symptoms  are  generally  those  which  distinguish  a 
common  cold — viz.,  shivering,  headache,  and  sense  of  weariness,  with  occasional 
cough;  but  the  cough  continues,  and  recurs  in  paroxysms;  there  is  a feeling  of  oppres- 
sion on  the  chest,  and  the  person  wheezes  when  he  breathes.  He  also  breathes  more  rap- 
idly, six  or  ten  respirations  in  the  minute  more  than  he  did  when  in  health,  and  his  pulse 
is  quicker;  and  the  ear  applied  to  his  chest,  after  these  symptoms  have  continued  for 
two  or  three  days,  will  hear  a rattling,  as  if  air  was  bubbling  through  thickish  fluid, 
which  is  the  case ; he  is  breathing  through  an  extraordinar}^  amount  of  mucus  secreted 
by  the  inflamed  lining  membrane  of  the  tube.  During  his  paroxysms  of  cough,  this 
mucus  is  spit  up.  If  the  inflammation  extend  no  further,  it  is  termed  tubular  B.,  and  is 
seldom  a fatal  disease  in  the  first  attack;  but,  as  may  be  expected,  it  will  often  extend, 
or,  in  some  cases,  begin  in  the  small  tubes — resicular  B. — when  the  symptoms  just 
described  will  be  present,  but  in  a greater  degree,  the  breathing  being  so  embarrassed 
that  the  patient  can  no  longer  lie  down,  but  requires  to  sit  or  stand  up,  and  use  all  his 
muscles  of  respiration.  Though  he  coughs,  he  spits  very  little,  till  about  the  third  day, 
when  he  expectorates  large  quantities  of  yellow  fluid.  At  last,  prostration  becomes  so 
complete  that  he  ceases  to  spit,  and  dies  suffocated  by  the  accumulated  mucus,  from  the 
fifth  to  the  seventh  day.  In  less  severe  cases,  or  those  which  yield  to  treatment,  the 
delicate  tubes  may  be  permanently  injured  by  the  inflammation.  They  may  be  thick- 
ened, which  nan’ows  their  caliber;  this  will  prevent  the  proper  passage  of  the  air,  and 
gives  rise  to  wheezing  on  any  exertion,  and  cough,  especially  in  winter.  Moreover, 
after  repeated  attacks,  one  of  the  tubes  may  be  blocked  up  entirely,  so  that  the  portion 
of  lung  to  which  it  ought  to  conduct  air,  is  no  longer  filled,  and  consequently  collapses 
and  wastes.  This  compels  the  adjacent  tubes  and  air-cells  to  dilate  to  receive  more  air 
at  the  expense  of  their  elasticity  (emphysema,  q.v.);  the  air  cells  may  even  burst,  and  so 
by  degrees  the  apparatus  for  aerating  the  blood  becomes  less  and  less  perfect.  The 
treatment  of  B.  must  vary  with  the  patient’s  constitution ; but  in  most  cases,  counter- 
irritation, applied  through  the  medium  of  mustard  or  hot  turpentine  fomentations,  will 
be  found  very  useful.  These  remedies  act  more  rapidly  than  a blister,  and  may  be  fre- 
quently repeated.  It  should  be  remembered  that  patients  suffering  from  B.  are  very 
easily  depressed.  Such  medicines  as  ammonia  should  be  given,  to  promote  expectora- 
tion, combined  with  the  liquor  ammonise  acetatis,  to  produce  perspiration.  In  very 
acute  cases,  after  a brisk  purge,  salines,  with  ipecacuanha  or  squills,  may  be  given,  and 
an  emetic  will  remove  accumulations  of  mucus. 

In  the  B.  of  old  persons,  chloric  ether  will  be  found  very  useful,  and  may  be  combined 
with  sedatives,  as  henbane ; but  opium  must  be  given  with  great  caution,  or  not  at  all, 
as  it  tends  to  increase  the  congestion  of  the  inflamed  tubes.  The  paregoric  elixir  (com- 
pound tincture  of  camphor)  is  an  old  and  popular  remedy  in  B.,  but  enough  has  been 
said  to  impress  on  the  reader  the  danger  of  tampering  with  bronchitis.  In  every  case 
where  it  is  possible,  a skilled  medical  man  should  be  employed,  to  determine,  by  the 
stethoscope,  not  only  the  disease  but  its  exact  situation;  and  as  it  is  but  too  likely  to 
recur  at  some  future  period,  or  symptoms  caused  by  it  to  appear,  a skilled  opinion  has 
a permanent  value  to  the  patient.  See  Catarrh. 


Bromlsted. 

Bronze. 


90 


BBONDSTED,  Peter  Oluf,  a learned  antiquary,  born  near  Horsens  in  Jutland,  Nov. 
17,  1780.  On  completing  his  course  of  studies  at  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  he,  in 
1806,  went  to  Paris,  where  he  remained  two  years.  He  afterwards  visited  Italy  and 
Greece,  where  he  made  excavations  which  furnished  valuable  materials  for  the  study  of 
classical  antiquity.  He  died  rector  of  the  Copenhagen  university  in  1842.  B.’s  princi- 
pal work  is  Travels  and  Researches  in  Greece  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1826).  In  addition  to  several 
smaller  archaeological  papers,  amongst  which  was  one  in  English,  entitled  An  Account 
if  some  Greek  Vases  found  near  Vulci  (Lond.  1832),  and  another  on  the  bronzes  of  Siris, 
which  appeared  at  Copenhagen,  1837,  B.  also  wrote  some  valuable  contributions  to 
Danish  history  from  mediaeval  Norman  manuscripts  (2  vols.,  Copenh.  1817-18),  and 
Memoirs  of  Greece  during  the  Years  1827  and  1828  (Paris,  1835). 

BRONDSTED,  or  Bronsted,  Peter  Oluf,  1781-1842;  an  archaeologist,  b.  in  Jut- 
land. He  was  educated  in  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  and  with  his  friend  Koes 
joined  baron  Stackelberg’s  expedition  to  Greece,  where  they  made  important  antiquarian 
researches,  and  B.  as  a reward  for  his  share  was  made  professor  of  Greek  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Copenhagen.  This  professorship  he  exchanged  for  the  office  of  Danish  envoy  at 
Rome.  In  1832,  after  visiting  Prance,  England,  Sicily,  and  the  Ionian  islands,  he 
returned  to  Copenhagen  and  was  made  director  of  the  royal  museum  of  antiquities  and 
professor  of  archaeology  and  philology,  and  ten  years  later  was  appointed  rector  of  the 
university.  His  death  was  in  consequence  of  falling  from  his  horse.  His  principal 
work  was  Travels  and  Archaeological  Researches  in  Greece. 

BBONGNIABT,  Alexandre,  an  eminent  French  chemist  and  naturalist,  born  at  Paris 
in  1770,  is  said  to  have  delivered  a lecture  on  chemistry  before  he  was  15.  In  1790,  he 
visited  England  for  a scientific  examination  of  the  Der%shire  mines  and  pottery -works, 
and,  on  his  return  to  France,  published  a Memoire  sur  V Art  de  V Emailleur.  Appointed 
in  1800  director  of  the  porcelain  manufactory  at  Sevres,  he  held  that  office  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  and  revived  the  almost  lost  art  of  painting  on  glass.  In  his  Essai 
d'une  Classification  des  Reptiles,  1805,  he  established  the  four  divisions  of  reptiles,  and 
first  gave  them  the  names  of  saurians,  hatrachians,  chelonians,  and  ophidians.  His 
Traits  Elementaire  de  Miner alogie,  published  in  1807,  at  the  instance  of  the  imperial 
university,  became  a text-book  for  lecturers.  In  1814,  appeared  his  Memoire  sur  les  Corps 
Organises  Fossiles  nommes  Trilobites,  a name  which,  as  well  as  a basis  of  classification  for 
those  singular  Crustacea,  naturalists  owe  to  Brongniart.  In  1815,  he  was  elected  a member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences  of  the  French  institute ; he  was  also  a member  of  the  royal 
and  geological  societies  of  London,  and  of  other  learned  bodies.  In  1845,  appeared  his 
Traits  des  Arts  Ceramiques.  He  died  14th  Oct.,  1847. 

BBONGNIABT,  Adolphe  Theodore,  son  of  the  preceding,  author  of  several 
botanical  works  held  in  high  esteem,  was  born  in  1801 ; in  1833  became  professor  of 
botany  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris,  and  in  1834  member  of  the  academy  of 
sciences.  In  1852,  he  was  elected  a foreign  member  of  the  royal  society  of  London.  He 
died  in  1876. 

BBO'NI,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Pavia,  about  11  m.  s.e.  of  the 
town  of  Pavia,  in  a beautiful  situation  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines.  It  has  a singular 
old  church,  some  portions  of  which  date  from  the  10th  century.  In  its  vicinity  is  the 
castle  of  Broni,  celebrated  in  history  as  the  place  where  prince  Eugene  obtained  a victory 
over  the  French  in  1703.  Pop.  about  7000. 

BBONN,  Heinrich  Georg,  a German  naturalist,  was  born  at  Ziegelhausen,  Mar.  3, 
1800,  and  educated  at  Heidelberg  university,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  science  of 
forests  and  natural  history.  In  1828,  he  commenced  at  Heidelberg  a course  of  lectures 
on  the  physical  and  industrial  sciences,  and  in  1833  was  nominated  ordinary  professor 
of  the  same.  After  Leuckhardt’s  departure  from  Freiberg,  B.  was  appointed  to  the 
zoological  lectureship.  B.  wrote  several  important  scientific  treatises.  His  first  was 
A System  of  Antediluvian  Conchylia  (Heidelberg,  1824),  which  was  followed  by  A System 
of  Antediluvian  Zoophytes.  In  1824,  he  visited  the  southern  countries  of  Europe;  and  in 
1827,  made  a second  journey  to  Italy.  On  his  return,  he  published  the  results  of  his 
journey  (2  vols.,  Heidelberg,  1825-30).  In  1834  appeared  his  most  important  geological 
work — Lethoea  Geognostica;  in  1841-49,  his  History  of  Nature;  and  in  1850,  his  Universal 
Zoology,  which  was  the  first  attempt  to  develop  zoology  in  its  entirety  with  reference  to 
extinct  organisms.  B.  died  in  1862. 

BRONNER,  Johann  Philipp,  1792-1865;  a German  authority  on  wines,  their  nature 
and  production,  on  which  he  published  more  than  a dozen  treatises.  In  1831,  he 
established  a school  for  teaching  wine-culture ; and  in  later  years,  under  a commission 
from  Baden,  he  traveled  and  investigated  in  all  the  grape-growing  countries  of  the 
continent. 

BBONTE,  a t.  in  the  province  of  Catania,  Italy,  situated  at  the  western  base  of  Mt. 
Etna,  about  22  m.  n.n.w.  of  the  city  of  Catania.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolen  and 
paper,  and  the  district  produces  oil,  almonds,  wine,  etc.  But  the  town  is  celebrated 
•chiefly  for  its  connection  with  admiral  lord  Nelson,  who  w^as  created  duke  of  Bronte  by 
the  Neapolitan  government  in  1779,  with  an  annual  income  of  6000  onde  (about  £3750), 
Pop.  ’72,  14,589. 


91 


Brondsted^ 

Bronze. 


BBONTE,  Charlotte,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  modern  novelists,  was  born 
at  Thornton,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  21st  of  April,  1816.  Her  father, 
a clergyman  of  Irish  descent,  removed,  with  six  young  children  and  an  invalid  wife, 
from  Thornton  to  Haworth,  in  the  same  county,  in  1821.  Soon  after  their  arrival,  Mrs. 
Bronte  died,  so  that  Charlotte,  trying  hard  in  after-life,  could  but  dimly  recall  the 
remembrance  of  her  mother.  Her  father,  eccentric  and  solitary  in  his  habits,  and  full 
of  extravagant  theories  for  making  his  children  hardy  and  stoical,  was  ill  fitted  to 
replace  a mother’s  love.  When  Charlotte  was  eight  years  old,  she  v^as  sent  with  three 
of  her  sisters  to  Cowan’s  Bridge  school,  which,  whether  deservedly  or  not,  had  an 
unfortunate  notoriety  conferred  upon  it  25  years  later  in  the  pages  of  Jane  Eyre.  Her 
two  eldest  sisters  falling  dangerously  ill,  and  dying  a few  days  after  their  removal 
thence,  and  the  low  situation  evidently  disagreeing  with  Charlotte’s  health,  she  was  sent 
home  when  little  more  than  nine,  and  remained  there,  “ the  motherly  friend  and  guar- 
dian of  her  younger  sisters,”  till,  in  1831,  she  was  sent  to  Miss  Wooler’s  school  at  Roe 
Head,  where  her  remarkable  talents  were  duly  appreciated  by  her  kind  instructress,  and 
friendships  formed  with  some  of  her  fellow-pupils  that  lasted  throughout  life.  A few 
years  later,  she  returned  to  Miss  Wooler’s  school  as  teacher  there,  and  also  had  some 
sorrowful  experiences  as  governess  in  one  or  two  families.  It  was  with  a view  of  better 
qualifying  themselves  for  the  task  of  teaching  that  Charlotte  and  her  sister  Emily  went 
to  Brussels  in  1842,  and  took  up  their  abode  in  a pensionnat.  When  Charlotte  returned 
home  in  1844,  a new  shadow  darkened  the  gloomy  Yorkshire  parsonage.  Her  father’s 
sight  was  declining  fast,  and  her  only  brother  was  a source  of  continual  anxiety.  It  now 
seemed  plain  that  school-keeping  could  never  be  a resource,  and  the  sisters  turned 
their  thoughts  to  literature.  Their  volume  of  poems  was  published  in  1846 ; their  names 
being  veiled  under  those  of  Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell,  but  it  met  with  little  or  no 
attention.  Charlotte’s  next  venture  was  a prose  tale,  The  Professor,  and  while  it  was 
passing  slowly  and  heavily  from  publisher  to  publisher,  Jane  Eyre  was  making  progress. 
In  the  Aug.  of  1847,  it  was  submitted  to  Messrs.  Smith  & Elder,  and  published  by 
them  two  months  later.  It  took  the  public  by  storm.  It  was  felt  that  a fresh  hand,, 
making  new  harmonies,  was  thrown  over  the  old  instrument.  Henceforward,  Charlotte 
B.  had  a “ twofold- life,  as  author  and  woman.”  Over  the  latter  the  clouds  closed 
thicker  and  thicker.  Mr.  Bronte  had  indeed  recovered  his  sight;  but  the  sister 
Charlotte  so  intensely  loved,  and  whose  genius  she  ever  delighted  to  exalt  above  her 
own,  Emily — the  Ellis  Bell  of  Wuthering  Heights — died  in  1848.  Her  only  brother  also 
died  in  the  same  year;  and  Anne,  the  youngest  of  the  family,  following  in  1849,  Char- 
lotte was  left  alone  with  her  aged  father  in  that  dreary  deserted  home  among  the  graves. 
Nevertheless,  her  energy  never  flagged.  Shirley,  begun  soon  after  the  appearance  of 
Jane  Eyre,  vf2iS  published  in  the  autumn  of  1849;  and  Villette,  written  under  the  fre- 
quent pressure  of  bad  health  and  low  spirits,  came  out  in  1852.  In  the  spring  of  1854, 
Charlotte  B.  was  married  to  her  father’s  curate,  the  Rev.  A.  Nicholls,  who  had  long 
known  and  loved  her.  It  is  a relief  to  find  that  a little  bright  sunshine  was  permitted 
to  the  close  of  a hitherto  clouded  life.  It  was,  however,  but  brief;  for  serious  ill- 
ness set  in,  and  on  the  31st  of  Mar.,  1855,  she  died.  A fragment  of  an  unfinished 
novel  appeared  in  the  Cornhill  Magazine  for  April,  1860.  See  Mrs.  Gaskell’s  Life  of 
G.  B.  (1857). 

BBONZE  is  a reddish-yellow,  fine-grained  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  in  variable  propor- 
tions. It  was  early  known,  and  what  is  usually  spoken  of  as  brass  in  regard  to  the 
ancient  nations,  was  in  reality  bronze.  The  brass  or  B.  referred  to  in  the  Bible  wa& 
probably  composed  of  copper  and  tin,  though  some  translators  consider  it  likely  to  have 
been  copper  alone.  The  examination  of  the  most  ancient  coins  and  metallic  ornaments 
and  implements  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  acquaintance  of  the  ancients  with  B. ; so  much 
so,  that  in  the  antiquarian  history  of  European  nations,  there  is  a distinct  period  styled  the 
bronze  period  (see  next  art.).  At  the  present  time,  B.  is  largely  used  for  house  and  church 
bells,  Chinese  gongs,  ordnance  or  cannon  metal,  and  speculum  or  telescope  metal.  In 
the  preparation  of  the  various  kinds  of  B. , great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  tin  from 
being  burned  away  or  wasted.  To  obviate  this,  it  is  customary  to  use  much  old  B.,  as- 
worn-out  cannon,  etc.,  and  when  that  is  fused  in  the  furnace,  to  add  the  new  copper  and 
tin.  The  best  Cornish  and  Banca  tin  are  employed  for  the  better  kinds  of  castings, 
especially  where  strength  of  alloy  is  required.  For  inferior  work,  old  scrap  tin,  which 
often  contains  lead,  is  used;  and  where  strength  of  material  is  not  an  object,  a little  zinc 
and  lead  are  added.  In  either  case,  during  the  fusion  of  the  mixed  metals  in  the  furnace, 
at  a high  temperature,  as  little  air  as  possible  must  be  admitted  to  the  furnace,  other- 
wise the  metals  are  oxidized,  and  the  alloy  is  deteriorated.  B.,  when  well  made,  is, 
excepting  gold,  platinum,  and  some  of  the  rare  metals,  the  most  durable  metallic  mate- 
rial with  which  we  are  acquainted;  and  this,  coupled  with  its  extreme  hardness,  render- 
ing it  difiScult  for  time  and  ordinary  wear  and  tear  to  efface  inscriptions  or  medallions 
stamped  on  it,  has  led  the  mint  in  France,  some  years  ago,  to  issue  a bronze  coinage  in 
place  of  copper ; and  for  the  last  twelve  or  fifteen  years  bronze  coinage  has  taken  the 
place  of  a copper  coinage  in  Great  Britain. 

The  principal  varieties  of  B.  have  the  following  average  composition : 


Bronze. 

Bi'onzin^'. 


92 


Copper.  Tin.  j 

Brass  ordnance  or  bronze  cannon 9 1 

Bronze  for  toothed  wheels 10  1 

“ for  mathematical  instruments 12  1 

“ for  bearings  of  machinery 8 1 

Chinese  gongs  and  cymbals 5 l 

Musical  bells 6 1 

House  bells 4 i 

Large  bells 3 1 

Telescope  or  speculum  metal 2 1 

. r Mirrors 2 1 

Medium  bronze 8 1 

t Flexible  bronze  nails 20  1 


Recently,  B.  has  been  deposited  on  small  statues  and  other  articles,  in  greater  or  less 
thickness,  by  the  electrotype  process  (see  Galvanism),  forming  very  pleasing  ornaments 
at  a cheaper  rate  than  ordinary  B.  ornaments  can  be  purchased  for.  The  same  process 
has  been  suggested  for  coating  those  parts  of  machinery  which  are  liable  to  rust. 

BBONZE,  Age  op  (Dan.  Broncealderen),  a term  used  by  many  modern  archaeologists 
to  distinguish  the  second  of  the  three  successive  periods  into  which,  as  they  hold,  the 
primitive  or  pre-historic  antiquities  of  a country  may  be  divided.  They  take  for  granted 
that  among  a rude  or  savage  people,  stone,  being  more  easily  fashioned,  would  come  into 
use  before  any  kind  of  metal ; and  that  of  metals,  copper,  being  oftener  found  ready  for 
the  hammer,  would  come  into  use  before  iron,  which  has  generally  to  be  smelted  before 
it  can  be  wrought.  These  assumptions — which,  in  so  far,  are  only  in  accordance  with 
what  has  actually  been  observed  among  uncivilized  races — have  obtained  from  a very 
early  date.  Lucretius,  writing  in  the  century  before  the  Christian  era,  has  recorded  them 
with  his  usual  vigorous  precision : 

Anna  antiqua,  manus,  ungues,  dentesque  fuerunt, 

Et  lapides,  et  item  sylvarum  fragmini  rami: 

Posterius  ferri  vis  est  serisque  reperta; 

Et  prior  aeris  erat  quam  ferri  cognitus  usus. 

De  Rerum  Natura,  v.  1283. 

Man’s  earliest  arms  were  fingers,  teeth,  and  nails, 

And  stones,  and  fragments  from  the  branching  woods; 

Then  copper  next ; and  last,  as  later  traced, 

The  tyrant  iron,— ilfason  Good's  Translation. 

More  than  one  antiquary  of  the  last  century  appears  to  have  suggested  the  distribution 
of  archaeological  objects  into  eras  of  stone,  of  copper  or  bronze,  and  of  iron.  But  the 
proposed  classification  received  scarcely  any  attention  until  about  forty  years  ago,  when 
it  was  adopted  and  developed  by  Mr.  C.  J.  Thomsen,  superintendent  of  the  ethnograph- 
ical and  archaeological  museum  of  Copenhagen,  in  his  Ledetraad  tit  Nordisk  Oldkyndighed 
(Kjobenhavn,  1836),  and  by  Mr.  Nilsson,  professor  of  zoology  in  the  university  of  Lund, 
in  Sweden,  in  his  Skandinaviska  Nordens  JJrinvonare  (Lund,  1838-43).  According  to  the 
theory  of  these  writers — which  is  held  by  almost  all  archaeologists  in  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  by  many  in  northern  Germany  and  in  Switzerland,  and  by  a few  in  other 
parts  of  Europe — the  first  three  stages  in  the  progress  of  a nation  from  barbarism  to  civ- 
, ilization  are  as  clearly  identified  and  defined  by  their  relics  of  stone,  of  bronze,  and  of 
iron,  as  the  comparative  antiquity  of  geological  strata,  or  periods  of  the  world’s  creation, 
is  determined  by  the  fossils  which  they  are  found  to  contain. 

The  name  of  the  “age  of  stone”  is  given  to  the  period  when  weapons  and  implements 
were  made  of  stone,  amber,  wood,  bone,  horn,  or  some  such  easily  wrought  material,  and 
during  which  very  little  or  nothing  was  known  of  metals.  During  this  era,  the  people, 
few  in  number,  and  savage  in  their  habits,  clothed  themselves  chiefly  with  skins  of 
animals.  They  buried  their  dead  in  large  sepulchral  chambers,  covered  by  what  have 
been  called  cromlechs,  or  girdled  round  by  the  unhewn  stone  pillars  called  “Druidical 
circles.”  The  bodies  have  most  frequently  been  found  unburned,  and  often  with  rude 
urns  beside  them. 

During  the  “age  of  bronze,”  weapons  and  implements  were  made  of  copper  or  of 
bronze,  and  iron  and  silver  were  little  or  not  at  all  known.  The  dead  were  burned,  and 
their  ashes  kept  in  urns,  or  deposited  in  stone-chests,  which  were  covered  by  conical 
mounds  of  earth  or  heaps  of  loose  stones.  In  the  urns,  articles  of  gold  and  amber  are 
found,  but  never  of  silver.  Most  articles  of  metal  appear  to  have  been  cast;  where  marks 
of  the  hammer  appear,  it  is  contended  that  the  forging  or  beating  must  have  been  done 
by  a stone  hammer  upon  a stone  anvil. 

The  “ age  of  iron”  is  the  name  applied  to  the  third  and  last  of  the  three  supposed 
periods.  During  this  era,  it  is  conceived  that  iron  displaced  bronze  in  the  manufacture 
of  weapons  and  implements,  and  that  silver  and  glass  came  into  use.  The  dead  were 
still  occasionally  burned ; but  they  were  frequently  buried  without  burning,  often  seated 
on  chairs,  and,  at  times,  with  a horse  in  full  w'ar-harness  laid  beside  the  body  of  his 
master. 


93 


Bronze. 

Bronzing. 


The  Scandinavian  and  German  antiquaries  admit  that  their  three  periods  run,  more 
or  less,  one  into  another;  that  stone  weapons  continued  to  be  used  throughout  the  age  of 
B. ; that  B.  and  gold  were  not  unknown  in  the  age  of  stone ; and  that  weapons  of 
atone  and  B.  continued  to  be  used  in  the  age  of  iron.  This  admission  obviously  detracts 
very  much  from  the  practical  value  of  the  classification  for  chronological  or  other  scien- 
tific purposes.  But  the  late  Mr.  J.  M.  Kemble,  and  other  British  antiquaries,  have 
taken  objections  to  the  classification  altogether,  as  irreconcilable  with  generally  admitted 
facts,  when  carried  out  to  its  strict  and  necessary  consequences.  They  point  to  the 
€very-day  discovery  of  objects  of  stone,  B.,  and  iron,  in  the  same  ancient  urns,  graves, 
and  dwellings.  They  instance  the  case  of  the  Huns,  who  had  swords  of  iron,  while 
they  pointed  their  arrows  with  bones;  the  case  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  fought  with 
atone  mauls  at  Hastings ; and  the  case  of  the  Germans,  who  used  stone  hammers  in  the 
thirty  years'  war.  They  show  stone  weapons,  in  some  of  which  the  traces  of  metal  are 
still  fresh,  while  others  attest  for  themselves  that  they  could  not  have  been  cut  but  by  a 
thin  sharp  metal  point.*  They  prove  from  Greek  and  Roman  writers  that  the  nations 
of  the  n.  and  w.  of  Europe  used  iron  weapons  during  what  must  have  been  their  B.  age. 
And  they  repudiate  the  proposed  appropriation  of  different  modes  of  burial  to  the  different 
ages — a point  on  which  the  supporters  of  the  theory  appear  to  be  hopelessly  divided  among 
themselves — on  the  ground  that  graves  assigned  to  the  B.  period  have  been  found  to  con- 
tain more  iron  than  B. , and  that  other  supposed  characteristics  of  sepulchers  of  the  B. 
age  are  quite  as  common  in  sepulchers  of  the  iron  age.  But  although  the  threefold 
olassification  of  the  Scandinavian  and  German  archaeologists  cannot  be  relied  upon  for 
historical  uses,  it  may  be  accepted  as  a very  convenient  mode  of  arranging  archaeological 
objects.  It  has  been  adopted,  with  some  modifications,  in  the  gallery  of  British  antiqui- 
ties in  the  British  museum  at  London,  in  the  national  museum  of  the  antiquaries  of 
Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  in  the  museum  of  the  royal  Irish  academy  at  Dublin,  and  in 
other  collections,  where  the  articles  are  classed,  for  the  most  part,  according  to  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  made. 

BRONZE-WING,  Bronze-winged  Pigeon,  and  Bronze  Pigeon,  names  given  in  the 
Australian  colonies  to  certain  species  of  pigeon  (see  Pigeon  and  Columbid.e),  chiefly 
of  the  genus  peristera  of  Swainson,  on  account  of  the  lustrous  bronze  color  with  which 
their  wings  are  variously  marked.  They  are  otherwise  also  birds  of  beautiful  plumage. — 
The  Common  B.  or  bronze-winged  ground  dove  {columba  or  peristera  chalcoptera)  is  dis- 
tributed over  all  the  Australian  colonies.  It  is  often  seen  in  flocks,  feeds  on  the  ground, 
and  builds  its  nest  chiefly  on  low  branches  of  trees  growing  on  meadow-lands  or  near 
water.  It  is  a plump  bird,  often  weighing  fully  a pound,  and  is  acceptable  at  every 
table. — The  Brush  B.  or  little  bronze  pigeon  {G.  or  P.  elegans)  is  not  so  plentiful  nor 
so  widely  distributed,  chiefly  inhabiting  Tasmania  and  the  southern  parts  of  Australia. 
It  inhabits  low  swampy  grounds,  never  perches  on  trees,  resembles  a partridge  in  its 
habits,  and  makes  a loud  burring  noise  like  a partridge  when  it  takes  wing  on  being 
alarmed. — The  Harlequin  B.  {C.  or  P.  Mstrionica)  is  found  in  the  n.w.  parts  of  New 
South  Wales  in  great  flocks,  feeding  on  seeds. — Some  of  the  species  of  geophaps,  another 
of  the  genera  or  sub-genera  of  the  columbidce,  are  also  sometimes  called  bronze-wing. 
Their  partridge-like  appearance  and  habits  have  gained  for  them  the  name  of  partridge 
pigeon  (q.v). 

BRONZING  is  the  process  of  covering  plaster  or  clay  figures,  and  articles  in  ivory, 
metal,  and  wood,  so  as  to  communicate  to  them  the  appearance  of  ordinary  bronze. 
Several  of  the  materials  employed  are  of  little  value,  whilst  others  are  expensive. 
Thus,  gold  powder  is  used  for  the  finer  work,  and  is  prepared  by  grinding  gold-leaf 
with  honey  on  a stone  slab  till  a very  fine  state  of  division  is  attained,  then  washing 
-out  the  honey,  and  drying  the  gold  powder.  Inferior  gold-leaf,  or  that  which  con- 
tains much  silver  and  copper,  yields  the  German  gold  powder  employed  in  bronzing. 
Copper  powder  is  prepared  by  introducing  an  iron  bar  or  plate  into  a solution  of  copper, 
when  the  latter  metal  is  precipitated  as  a finely-divided  red  powder.  Mosaic  gold,  or 
musivum,  is  made  by  fusing  1 lb.  of  tin,  introducing  \ lb.  mercury,  allowing  the  alloy  or 
amalgam  to  cool,  then  pulverizing  and  grindingup  with  ^Ib.  sal-ammoniac,  and  7 ozs.  sub- 
limed sulphur.  Ultimately,  the  whole  is  subjected  to  the  process  of  sublimation,  when 
the  tin,  as  a brilliant  yellow  powder,  resembling  gold,  is  left  in  the  subliming  vessel. 
The  color  of  mosaic  gold  may  be  deepened  by  the  addition  of  red  oxide  of  lead,  and 
it  then  assumes  a copper  tint.  Gold  size  is  prepared  by  heating  1 lb.  of  linseed  oil, 
and  gradually  adding  4 ozs.  of  gum  animi  in  very  fine  powder.  When  boiled  sufficiently, 
it  assumes  the  consistence  of  tar,  and  may  then  be  strained  through  cloth.  When 
employed  in  bronzing,  some  vermilion  is  added,  to  make  it  opaque,  and  turpentine, 

* M.  Frederic  Troyon,  of  Lausanne,  one  of  the  Swiss  antiquaries  who  accept  the  three  periods 
of  their  Scandinavian  brethren,  instances  certain  stone  axes  (now  in  the  collection  of  baron  Ren- 
berg,  at  Prague),  which  were  found,  along  with  their  cores,  at  the  site  of  a primitive  manufac- 
tory of  these  weapons  in  Bohemia.  “These  cores,”  he  says,  “when  replaced  in  the  holes  from 
which  they  had  been  taken  (easily  verified  by  the  corresponding  veins  of  the  stone),  left  so  little 
play-room,  that  it  was  evident  they  could  only  have  been  detached  by  a metal  point,  and  not  by 
a hollow  cylinder,  which  could  not  have  given  to  the  hole  its  conical  form,  now  quite  apparent. 
Instead  of  the  soft  iron  which  is  employed  nowadays  in  such  operations,  the  ancients  used  copper 
or  bronze;  and,  of  course,  water  and  silicious  sand  were  likewise  employed  in  the  process.” 


Brooch. 

Brooklime. 


94 


to  make-it  thin  and  limpid  enough  to  be  easily  laid  on  the  plaster  cast  or  other 
article  with  a brush,  and  the  object  may  ultimately  be  rubbed  over  with  soft  chamois 
leather,  which  is  occasionally  dipped  into  the  gold  size.  The  other  B.  powders  are 
best  laid  on  with  a solution  of  gum-arabic  or  isinglass,  either  of  which  acts  as  a 
cement. 

Oun-barrels  are  bronzed  by  acting  upon  them  with  the  chloride  or  butter  of  antimony 
(bronzing  salt),  or  with  hydrochloric  or  nitric  aeids,  when  the  surface  of  the  iron  gets 
partially  eaten  into,  and  covered  with  a thin  film  of  oxide;  after  which  the  gun- 
barrel  is  thoroughly  cleaned,  oiled,  and  burnished.  A brownish  shade  is  thus  commu- 
nicated to  the  barrel,  which  protects  it  from  rust,  and  at  the  same  time  renders  it  less 
conspicuous  to  an  enemy  or  to  game.  In  the  bronzing  operation  known  as  the  Damas- 
cus, the  barrel  is  treated  with  dilute  nitric  acid  and  vinegar,  to  which  sulphate  of  copper 
has  been  added.  The  result  is,  that  metallic  copper  is  deposited  irregularly  over  the 
iron  surface ; and  when  the  latter  is  washed,  oiled,  and  well  rubbed  with  a hard  brush, 
a very  pretty  appearance  is  communicated  to  the  barrel.  Articles  in  wood  that  require 
to  be  bronzed,  are  first  coated  with  a mixture  of  size  and  lampblack,  and  dried,  and 
then  a bronze  powder,  consisting  of  very  finely-divided  patent  yellow,  raw  umber,  pipe- 
clay, lampblack,  and  Prussian  blue,  is  put  on  with  a brush.  After  being  dried  again,, 
the  article  is  burnished  with  cloth  or  leather,  covered  with  a layer  of  Castile  soap,  and,, 
lastly,  cleaned  up  with  a woolen  cloth.  Copper  vessels,  coins,  etc.,  are  bronzed  by 
heating  them  in  a copper  boiler  containing  vinegar,  with  2 parts  of  verdigris,  1 of  sal- 
ammoniac  dissolved  in  it,  when,  after  sufficient  boiling,  a pleasant  reddish-brown  hue 
is  imparted.  Bronze  and  copper  articles  may  have  an  antique  appearance  commu- 
nicated by  applying  a solution  of  sal-ammoniac  1 part,  cream  of  tartar  3,  common  salt  6, 
hot  water  12,  and  more  or  less  nitrate  of  copper,  when  an  ancient  greenish  hue  is 
obtained. 

BBOOCH  (from  a root  signifying  to  pierce ; comp.  Eng.  to  broach;  Fr.  brother,  to  spit, 
or  to  stitch;  Wei.  broc,  to  stab),  an  ornamental  pin  or  instrument  for  fastening  the  dress, 
consisting  for  the  most  part  either  of  a ring  or  disck  or  of  a semicircle,  there  being  a pin 
in  either  case  passing  across  it,  fastened  at  one  end  with  a joint,  and  at  the  other  with  a 
hook.  Brooches  were  much  used  in  antiquity,  and  varied  in  form  as  much  as  in  modern 
times.  They  were  worn  both  by  men  and  women,  and  with  a view  both  to  ornament 
and  use,  from  the  time  of  Homer  to  the  fall  of  the  western  empire.  Nay,  in  the  early 
portion  of  the  middle  ages,  and  even  amongst  semi-barbarous  tribes,  the  art  of  making- 
fibula,  seems  not  only  to  have  flourished,  but  to  have  attained  marvellous  perfection.. 
Many  of  those  found,  both  in  Ireland  and  in  Scotland,  are  wonderfully  beautiful  in  work- 
manship, and  still  more  so  in  design;  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  antiquity  has  left  us 
anything  in  the  way  of  personal  ornament  more  perfect  than  the  so-called  Hunterston 
B.  It  was  found  in  1830,  on  the  estate  of  Hunterston,  in  the  parish  of  w.  Kilbride, 
Ayrshire,  near  to  the  scene  of  a conflict  which  preceded  the  battle  of  Largs,  in  1262. 

It  is  of  silver,  richly  wrought  with  gold  filigree,  and  elaborately  chased  with  lacertine 
and  ribbon  patterns.  It  is  set  with  ornaments  of  amber;  diameter,  4^  inches.  On  the 
reverse  are  runes,  which  have  been  variously  read.  Dr.  Wilson  says,  “what  is  de- 
cipherable reads  in  good  Scottish  Celtic  into  what  he  explains  to  mean — Malbritha,  his^ 
friend,  in  recompense  to  Maolfridi.” — Prehistonc  Annals.  One  of  the  most  famous, 
articles  of  the  kind  existing  in  Scotland  is  the  Brooch  of  Lorn,  in  the  possession  of 
Macdougal  of  Dunolly,  near  Oban.  It  is  believed  to  be  identical  with  one  torn  from 
the  breast  of  Robert  Bruce  by  Alexander  of  Lorn,  the  ancestor  of  Macdougal,  in  a 
personal  contest  with  the  king.  This  interesting  article  is  of  silver,  about  4 in.  in 
diameter,  with  a circle  of  jeweled  obelisks. 

BROOKE,  a CO.  in  West  Virginia,  in  the  “Panhandle” — a narrow  strip  between  Ohio 
and  Pennsylvania;  75  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  6013.  Surface  hilly,  soil  fertile;  productions 
agricultural.  The  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis  railroad  passes  through  it.  Co. 
seat,  Wellsbury. 

BROOKE,  Fraitcis  J.,  1763-1827;  a Virginian,  an  officer  in  the  revolutionary  army, 
speaker  of  the  Virginia  senate,  and  presiding  judge  of  the  court  of  appeals. 

BROOKE,  Henry,  dramatist  and  novelist,  was  born  in  1708,  in  the  house  of  Rantavan, 
CO.  Cavan,  Ireland.  His  father  was  a wealthy  clergyman.  Young  B.  was  first  sent  to 
school  to  one  Felix  Somerford,  where  he  so  distinguished  himself  that  his  tutor,  in  the 
fullness  of  his  heart,  prophesied  that  he  would  play  a great  part  in  life.  His  talent  for 
rhyming  first  made  itself  evident  here,  and  it  received  further  development  while  he- 
resided  at  Dr.  Sheridan’s  school  in  Dublin.  In  1724,  he  went  to  study  law  in  London,, 
and  became  the  chosen  friend  of  Pope  and  Lyttleton.  From  the  heart  of  this  brilliant 
literary  society  he  was  recalled  to  Ireland  by  a dying  aunt,  who  left  him  guardian  of 
her  child,  a girl  of  twelve.  B.  put  the  child  to  a Dublin  boarding-school,  and  married 
her  secretly  two  years  thereafter.  Four  or  five  years  subsequently,  when  his  wife  had 
borne  him  three  children,  he  removed  to  London,  and  once  more  became  a bright  par- 
ticular star  in  the  galaxy  of  metropolitan  genius.  In  London,  he  published  a poem,, 
entitled  TJnirersal  Beauty,  which  Pope  admired,  and  of  which  he  perhaps  turned  a coup- 
let here  and  there.  Shortly  after,  B.  returned  to  Ireland;  but  in  1736,  he  was  again  in  i 


95 


Broocb. 

Brooklim«k 


London,  and  was  introuuced  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  who  cultivated  his  friendship,  and 
made  him  presents  of  books  and  china.  About  this  time,  he  published  his  play,  entitled 
Gustavus  Vasa,  full  of  the  noblest  sentiments,  and  the  most  inconceivable  characters. 
In  1740,  B.  was  taken  ill,  and  returned  to  his  native  country,  where  he  published  several 
books,  and  a tragedy.  The  Earl  of  Westmoreland,  which  was  performed  in  Dublin.  In 
his  later  years  he  removed  to  Dublin,  and  died  there  in  1783.  The  sonorous  eloquenc® 
of  his  plays  has  not  saved  them  from  obliviori|and  his  novel,  entitled  The  Fool  of  Quality, 
is  the  only  work  of  his  which  is  likely  to  meet  the  eyes  of  modern  readers.  It  was 
originally  published  in  five  volumes,  and  was  greatly  admired  by  John  Wesley.  A new 
edition  was  published  in  1859,  with  a preface  by  the  Rev.  C.  Kingsley. 

BROOKE,  Sir  James,  rajah  of  Sarawak,  and  governor  of  Labuan — a man  strongly 
imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  old  adventurers  of  the  Elizabethan  time — was  at  Coombe 
Grove,  near  Bath,  29th  April,  1803.  He  early  entered  the  East  India  army,  was  seri- 
ously wounded  in  the  Burmese  war,  and  returning  home  on  furlough,  spent  some  time 
in  travel  on  the  continent.  Shipwrecked  on  the  voyage  out  to  join  his  regiment,  he  was 
unable  to  reach  India  before  his  furlough  had  expired;  his  appointments  consequently 
lapsed,  and  he  quitted  the  service.  He  now  conceived  the  idea  of  putting  down  piracy 
in  the  Eastern  archipelago,  and  of  carrying  civilization  to  the  savages  inhabiting  these 
islands.  He  purchased  a yacht,  which  he  manned  with  about  20  sailors,  and  after  a 
three  years’  cruise  in  the  Mediterranean,  to  test  the  sea-worthiness  of  his  vessel  and  the 
seamanship  of  his  crew,  sailed  from  London  for  Sarawak,  a province  on  the  n.w.  coast 
of  Borneo,*  Oct. , 1838.  When  he  arrived  there,  Muda  Hassim,  the  uncle  of  the  sultan 
of  Borneo,  was  engaged  in  a war  with  some  rebel  tribes.  B.  lent  his  assistance,  and  in 
return  had  the  title  of  rajah  and  governor  of  Sarawak  conferred  upon  him,  the  native 
governor  being  forced  to  resign.  B.  immediately  set  about  reforming  the  government, 
instituted  free  trade,  and  framed  a new  code  of  laws.  The  murderous  custom  of  head- 
hunting, prevalent  among  the  Dyaks,  he  declared  to  be  a crime  punishable  with  death, 
and  vigorously  set  about  the  extirpation  of  piracy.  This  was  done  so  draconically  as  to 
occasion  great  dissatisfaction  in  this  country;  and  the  result  was,  that  parliament  abol- 
ished the  “ head-money”  that  had  been  previously  paid  for  the  slaughter  of  pirates. 
Gertain  charges,  however,  brought  against  B.  in  the  house  of  commons,  in  connection 
with  this  matter,  were  declared  by  a royal  commission  to  be  unsubstantiated.  The 
head-money  was  received,  not  by  B.  and  his  associates,  but  by  the  British  ships-of-war 
that  had  co-operated  with  him.  On  his  return  to  England,  B.  received  a warm  welcome, 
was  created  a knight  commander  of  the  Bath  in  the  year  following;  and  the  island  of 
Labuan,  near  Sarawak,  having  been  purchased  by  the  British  government,  he  was 
appointed  governor  and  commander-in-chief,  with  a salary  of  £2000  a year.  In  1857, 
B. , who  had  been  superseded  in  the  governorship  of  Labuan,  but  who  still  acted  as 
rajah  of  Sarawak  for  the  sultan  of  Borneo,  was  attacked  at  night  in  his  house  by  a large 
body  of  Chinese,  who  were  irritated  at  his  efforts  to  prevent  opium-smuggling,  and  only 
escaped  with  his  life  by  swimming  across  the  creek.  The  Chinese  committed  great 
havoc  on  his  property,  but  their  triumph  was  short-lived.  B.  collected  some  natives, 
attacked  the  Chinese,  defeated  them  in  several  successive  fights,  and  ultimately  forced 
them  into  the  jungle,  where  they  must  have  perished  of  starvation.  Upwards  of  2000 
Chinese  were  killed,  and  all  their  flourishing  settlements  destroyed.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land soon  after  this,  B.  lectured  in  several  of  the  chief  towns  on  the  advantages  likely 
to  result  to  this  country  from  a possession  of  Sarawak,  and  urged  the  desirableness  of  the 
British  government  taking  it  under  its  protection,  as  otherwise  it  was  likely  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch.  To  enforce  this  view,  an  influential  deputation  waited  upon 
the  earl  of  Derby  (then  head  of  the  government)  in  Nov.,  1858,  but  he  declined  to  enter- 
tain it.  He  returned  to  Borneo  in  1861,  but  visited  England  again  twice  before  his 
death,  on  the  second  occasion  having  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  independence  of 
Sarawak  recognized  by  the  English  government.  The  town  prospered  greatly  under 
his  regime;  he  found  it  a place  of  some  1000  inhabitants,  he  left  it  a town  of  25,000;  and 
the  exports  to  Singapore,  which,  in  1840,  amounted  to  £25,000,  were  in  1858,  £300,000. 
B.  died  in  1868;  a biography  appeared  in  1877. 

BROOKINGS,  a co.  in  s.e.  Dakota,  on  the  border  of  Minnesota  and  Big  Sioux  river, 
750  sq.m. : pop.  ’80,  4965,  of  whom  145  were  Indians,  There  are  several  large  streams 
and  many  lakes  in  the  territory. 

BROOKITE,  a mineral  of  pure  native  titanic  anhydride.  It  is  found  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland.  A kind  found  in  the  Ozark  mountains  is  known  as  arkansite. 

BEOOKLIME,  Veronica  Beccabunga,  a species  of  speedwell  (q.v.)  abundant  in  ditches, 
water-courses,  and  wet  places  near  springs  in  Britain,  common  also  in  most  parts  of  the 
continent  of  Europe.  It  is  a perennial  plant,  with  procumbent  stems,  rooting  at  the 
base;  leaves  on  short  stalks,  elliptical,  obtuse,  and  slightly  serrate,  both  stems  and  leaves 
smooth  and  very  succulent;  the  small  blue  flowers,  in  form  resembling  those  of  the  other 
Speedwells,  in  racemes,  the  stalks  of  which  arise  from  the  axils  of  the  opposite  leaves. 
The  leaves  and  young  shoots  have  a bland  or  slightly  bitter  taste,  and  are  a tolerable 
ingredient  in  spring  salads.  They  are  sometimes  sold  along  with  water-cresses.  See 
Cress,  Water. — In  Scotland,  the  plant  is  called  Water  Purpie. 


Brooklime. 

Brooklyn. 


96 


BROOKLIME,  a European  plant  growing  in  wet  places,  used  in  salads  in  England 
and  sometimes  sold  with  water-cresses.  There  is  a similar  plant  in  the  United  States 
bearing  the  same  name. 

BROOKLINE,  a village  and  township  in  Norfolk  co..  Mass.,  on  the  Charles  river, 
s.  w.  of  Boston,  and  on  the  Boston,  Hartford  and  Erie,  and  the  Boston  and  Albany  rail- 
roads. B.  is  a favorite  place  of  residence  ^r  persons  doing  business  in  Boston,  and  a 
part  of  the  town  was  annexed  to  that  city  in  1870.  There  is  a fine  town-house,  a good 
public  library,  and  some  notably  beautiful  churches.  Communication  with  Boston  is 
made  also  by  horse  railroads.  Pop.  ’80,  8053. 

BROOKLYN,  a city  at  the  w.  end  of  Long  Island,  in  the  United  States,  belonging  to 
New  York  state,  inlat.  40°  42'  n.,  73°  59'  west.  It  stands  at  the  s.w.  extremity  of  Long 
Island  sound,  which  is  here  appropriately  known  as  East  river,  partly  in  allusion  to 
the  narrowness  of  its  channel  and  the  rapidity  of  its  tide,  and  partly  in  contradistinction 
to  North  river  as  a second  name  of  the  Hudson.  Between  B.  and  New  York  there  are 
numerous  ferries  of  about  three-quarters  of  a m.  in  width,  on  which  ply  steam-boats 
every  few  minutes  by  day,  and  every  half-hour  by  night.  B.  is  connected  with  New 
York  by  a suspension  bridge  nearly  half  a m.  long  and  125  ft.  above  the  water.  In 
1850,  the  pop.  was  96,838;  in  1870,  396,099;  and  in  1875,  482,687.  B.  was  founded  by 
the  Dutch  in  1625,  and  in  1776  its  neighborhood  was  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the 
revolutionary  war.  Occupying  comparatively  elevated  ground,  B.  commands  a complete 
view  of  the  adjacent  waters  and  their  shores,  while,  notwithstanding  its  inequalities  of 
surface,  it  consists  chiefly  of  straight  streets,  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  It  is 
divided  into  wards,  and  governed  by  a mayor  and  a board  of  aldermen.  B.  has  a very 
large  number  of  churches  (whence  it  is  often  called  the  “city  of  churches”),  several 
flourishing  banks,  various  literary  institutions,  and  numerous  seminaries  of  education — 
an  ample  share,  in  short,  of  all  that  characterizes  a wealthy,  populous,  and  intelligent 
community.  It  has  an  immense  trade  in  grain,  the  warehouses  being  capable  of  holding 
about  12,000,000  bushels.  It  possesses  also  a national  navy-yard,  which  embraces  45 
acres  of  land,  and  magnificent  docks,  including  a wet-dock  for  the  largest  vessels,  the 
most  extensive  in  the  union. 

BROOKLYN  {ante),  the  capital  of  Kings  co.,  N.  Y.,  with  554,696  inhabitants;  com- 
prising, under  the  act  of  consolidation  which  went  into  effect  Jan.  1,  1855,  Brooklyn, 
Williamsburg,  Green  Point,  Wallabout,  Bedford,  New  Brooklyn,  Bushwick,  Gowanus, 
and  South  Brooklyn ; situated  in  the  northern  part  of  Long  island,  embracing  an  area 
of  16,000  acres,  or  25  sq.  miles.  The  city  is  8 m.  long,  with  a breadth  from  2 to  5 m., 
averaging  3i  m. ; it  has  a water-front  on  the  East  river  and  bay  of  New  York,  8^  m.  in 
length;  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Newtown  creek;  on  the  s.  by  the  towns  of  New  Lots, 
Flatbush,  and  New  Utrecht;  on  the  e.  by  the  Queens  co.  line;  and  on  the  w.  by  the  East 
river  and  bay  of  New  York.  The  s.  and  e.  borders  are  occupied  by  a broad  range  of 
low  hills  extending  into  Queens  county.  Along  the  shore  opposite  the  lower  point  of 
New  York,  is  an  irregular  bluff  known  as  the  “Brooklyn  Heights,”  on  which  are  many 
handsome  residences;  it  has  a very  picturesque  appearance,  especially  when  viewed  from 
New  York,  while  the  rays  of  the  setting  sun  fall  upon  the  houses.  A large  portion  of  the 
southern  part  of  the  city  is  low  and  level.  Its  water-front  is  entirely  occupied  by  wharves 
and  warehouses.  Williamsburg,  now  called  Brooklyn,  E.  D.  (eastern  district),  includes 
the  thickly-settled  portions  n.  of  the  Wallabout  bay,  contains  a large  number  of  manu- 
facturing establishments,  and  has  its  entire  water-front  devoted  to  commercial  purposes. 
Greenpoint  lies  between  Bushwick  and  Newtown  creeks,  and  occupies  the  extreme  north- 
western part  of  the  city;  it  contains  large  ship-yards  and  manufactories.  South  B., 
lying  s.  of  Atlantic  street,  has  an  extensive  water-front,  and  contains  large  wood,  coal, 
stone,  and  lumber-yards,  numerous  planing-mills,  distilleries,  breweries,  plaster  mills, 
foundries,  and  machine-shops.  B.  is  connected  with  New  York  by  13  steam  ferries, 
and  the  Annex  boats  leave  the  foot  of  Fulton  street  every  20  minutes  for  Jersey  City 
and  Hoboken.  With  the  remoter  part  of  Long  island  it  is  connected  by  the  Long  Island 
and  the  South  Side  railroads,  and  with  Coney  island,  a popular  seaside  resort,  at  the  s.  w. 
extremity,  by  a number  of  steam-car  lines  during  the  summer  season,  while  some  26 
lines  of  city  railroads,  using  horse-power,  radiate  from  the  ferries  to  the  bounds  of  the 
city  in  every  direction.  An  elevated  railroad,  on  the  plan  of  those  erected  recently  in 
New  York,  is  now  in  course  of  construction,  to  extend  from  Fulton  ferry  to  East  New 
York,  a post  village  of  New  Lots  township,  on  the  Long  Island  railroad;  a distance  of 
5i  miles.  The  East  river  bridge,  to  connect  B.  with  New  York,  is  described  under  the 
article  Bridges.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  bridge  is  $13,708,026,  and  the  expenditures 
up  to  31st  Dec.,  1879,  were  $11,216,431,  of  which  amount  the  city  of  New  York  con- 
tributed its  quota  of  $3,800,000.  B.  is  well  supplied  with  pure,  soft  water,  derived 
from  Hempstead  hook.  Valley,  and  Springfield  creeks;  is  thoroughly  lighted  by  gas 
companies ; has  a large  and  efficient  fire  department ; and  its  sanitary  and  police  matters 
are  cared  for  by  the  metropolitan  boards  of  health,  of  excise,  and  of  police,  respectively. 
The  total  number  of  deaths  registered  by  the  board  of  health  in  the  11  months  ending 
Nov.  30,  1879,  was  10,651,  representing  an  annual  death  rate  of  20.57  in  a thousand. 
During  the  same  year  there  were  registered  2898  marriages  and  9013  births;  there  were 
23,441  arrests;  the  number  of  buildings  completed  was  1128,  and  399  were  in  course  of 


97 


Brooklime. 

Brooklyn. 


erection.  The  assessed  valuation  of  taxable  property  for  1879  V aS  $232,925,699,  and 
the  annual  tax  levy,  $5,929,629,  making  the  average  rate  of  taxation  $2.55.  The  city 
debt  is  $37,565,369.89.  The  city  government  consists  of  a mayor,  controller,  auditor, 
treasurer,  corporation  counsel,  tax  collector,  registrar  of  arrears,  3 commissioners  of 
city  works,  3 commissioners  of  police  and  excise,  3 commissioners  of  fire  and  buildings, 
and  a board  of  health;  and  each  of  the  25  wards  is  represented  in  the  board  of  aldermen. 
The  report  of  the  board  of  education  shows  that  during  the  school  year  ending  Sept. 
30,  1879,  the  number  of  licensed  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools  was  56  males 
and  1346  females.  The  whole  number  of  children  of  school  age  who  attended  the  60 
public  free  schools  of  the  city  was  98,823. 

B.  has  a number  of  parks:  Washington  park  occupies  the  site  of  Fort  Greene,  of 
revolutionary  fame;  Carroll  park  is  very  tastefully  laid-  out;  but  its  chief  pleasime- 
ground,  and  one  of  the  most  superb  in  the  country,  is  Prospect  park,  the  construction 
of  which  was  begun  in  1866;  it  now  covers,  with  the  adjoining  parade-ground,  550  acres. 
The  site  is  one  full  of  natural  beauty;  magniticent  views,  fine  forest  trees,  a fertile  soil, 
and  numerous  lakes  lend  to  the  spot  all  the  charms  of  rural  scenery.  Upon  the  plaza 
at  the  main  entrance  is  a magnificent  fountain  and  a bronze  statute  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 
Twenty-five  acres  have  been  set  apart  for  zoological  gardens,  and  there  is  a fine  observa- 
tory on  Lookout  hill.  There  are  11  m.  of  walks,  and  10  m.  of  roads  for  driving  and 
riding  purposes.  The  cemeteries  of  B.  are  widely  known ; Greenwood,  Cypress  Hills, 
and  the  Cemetery  of  the  Evergreens,  are  the  principal,  while  there  are  several  of  smaller 
size  and  note.  In  Greenwood  are  interred  about  175,000  bodies,  and  there  are  over  2000 
monuments;  the  ground  inclosed  is  413  acres,  situated  on  Gowanus  heights,  in  the  s. 
part  of  the  city. 

The  U.  S.  government  bought  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  navy-yard,  for  $40,000, 
in  1801,  but  by  subsequent  purchases  has  become  the  owner  of  about  200  acres  in  the 
neighborhood.  The  navy-yard  occupies  nearly  50  acres,  inclosed  by  a high  brick  wall, 
and  is  situated  on  the  s.  shore  of  Wallabout  bay.  The  Directory  credits  B.  with  274 
churches,  which  would  seem  to  justify  the  appellation  of  “the  city  of  churches.”  Of 
this  number  there  are:  Baptist,  27;  Congregationalist,  23;  Presbyterian,  27;  Protestant 
Episcopal,  36;  Keformed  church,  15;  Lutheran,  14;  Methodist  Episcopal,  39,  besides  7 
churches  for  colored  members;  Koman  Catholic,  42,  and  the  Jews  have  6 synagogues. 
We  are  limited  to  a simple  reference  to  a few  of  the  more  prominent  churches.  “ St. 
Ann’s  on  the  Heights”  is  a fine  Episcopal  church ; the  general  style  of  its  architecture  is 
the  middle-pointed  gothic.  The  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  built  of  brown  stone,  in 
the  Gothic  style,  and  has  a spire  275  ft.  high ; it  is  one  of  the  handsomest  churches  in 
the  country.  St.  Paul’s  is  constructed  of  rough-hewn  blue  granite  and  sandstone,  in 
Gothic  style;  it  has  a front  of  75  ft.,  a depth  of  145  ft.,  and  is  67  ft.  high  in  the  nave. 
The  church  of  the  Pilgrims  is  built  of  gray  stone,  and  inserted  in  the  main  tower  is  a 
piece  of  the  Plymouth  rock;  its  pastor.  Dr.  R.  S.  Storrs,  is  a noted  pulpit  orator. 
Plymouth  church,  a plain  brick  building  on  Orange  street,  has  accommodations  for  seat- 
ing 2800  persons,  and  contains  what  was  until  recently  the  largest  church  organ  in 
America;  Henry  Ward  Beecher  has  been  its  pastor  for  the  last  33  years,  and  the  desire 
to  hear  him  preach  is  so  great  that  many  pew-holders  generously  give  up  their  seats  to 
strangers  for  the  evening  service.  The  amount  offered  for  pew-rents  during  the  year 
1880  was  over  $40,000.  A Roman  Catholic  cathedral  is  in  process  of  erection  on  Lafay- 
ette avenue,  between  Carlton  and  Vanderbilt  avenues;  it  will  be  a very  large  and  impos- 
ing structure.  The  “Tabernacle”  is  on  Schermerhorn  street;  the  exterior  is  of  brick, 
with  stone  trimmings,  and  the  interior  is  well  arranged  for  seating  a large  audience ; the 
plan  is  a large  semicircle,  the  organ  in  the  center  of  the  straight  side,  with  the  pulpit 
immediately  in  front,  giving  the  speaker  command  of  the  entire  buiMing;  a spacious 
gallery  runs  around  the  entire  auditorium.  A door  at  the  end  of  each  aisle  opens  into 
a wide  hall,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  the  church  can  be  emptied  in  a very  short  time;  its 
pastor  is  the  well-known  Rev.  T.  De  WittTalmage.  There  are  nearly  200  private  schools 
and  educational  institutions  in  B.  Among  these  are  several  whose  names  have  now  a 
national  reputation.  Such  are  the  Packer  collegiate  institute,  and  the  Brooklyn  heights 
seminary  for  young  ladies;  the  Adelphi  academy,  the  Collegiate  and  Polytechnic  insti- 
tute for  boys,  and  the  juvenile  high-school.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the  city 
ball,  the  Kings  co.  court-house,  costing,  with  the  adjacent  grounds,  $1,200,000;  the  Kings 
CO.  savings-bank,  the  church  charity  foundation,  the  new  B.  orphan  asylum,  the 
college  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  art  building,  the  academy  of  design,  and  the  Long 
Island  historical  society,  now  being  built  of  terra-cotta,  at  the  corner  of  Clinton  and 
Pierpont  streets.  The  academy  of  music,  on  Montague  street,  was  built  in  1860,  cost- 
ing $206,000;  it  contains  seats  for  2300  persons;  is  built  of  handsome  brick  with  Dor- 
chester stone  trimmings;  232  ft.  long,  92  ft.  wide,  and  56  ft.  high.  Opposite  is  the  B. 
library,  a handsome  model  of  what  the  home  of  a library  ought  to  be.  The  building 
was  completed  in  1867,  at  a cost  of  $227,000;  the  library  now  numbers  58,000  volumes, 
and  Mr.  S.  B.  Noyes,  the  librarian  of  the  institution,  has  the  credit  of  orgahizinga  cata- 
logue system  that  has  been  highly  praised  for  its  thorough  and  convenient  method  of 
reference.  The  Kings  co.  penitentiary  is  on  Nostrand  avenue ; its  expenses  for  1879 
were  $101,171.75;  its  earnings,  $92,917.04;  and  it  contained  2000  prisoners.  The  two 
principal  theaters  are  the  Park  theater,  on  Fulton  street,  opposite  the  city  hall  park,  and 
U.  K.  III.— 7 


Brooks. 

Broom. 


98 


the  Brooklyn  theater,  corner  of  Johnson  and  Washington  streets,  on  the  site  of  one  which 
was  destroyed  by  fire  Dec.  6,  1876,  causing  the  death  of  over  300  persons;  the  new  struc- 
ture has  proper  means  of  exit,  and  is  called  Haverly’s  Brooklyn  theater.  There  are  21 
hospitals,  dispensaries,  and  infirmaries,  besides  numerous  other  benevolent  institutions. 
Among  these  are  the  Long  Island  college  hospital,  St.  Mary’s  and  St.  Peter’s  hospital, 
the  female  orphan  asylum,  the  marine  hospital,  and  the  Graham  institution  for  the  relief 
of  aged  women. 

B.  is  the  headquarters  of  the  2d  division  of  the  national  guard  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  consisting  of  the  5th  and  the  11th  brigades;  this  force  consists  of  the  13th,  14th, 
23d,  32d,  and  47th  regiments  of  infantry,  3 troops  of  cavalry,  and  3 batteries  of 
artillery. 

The  streets,  with  the  exception  of  Fulton  street,  the  principal  thoroughfare,  are  gen- 
erally straight,  have  a width  of  from  60  to  100  ft.,  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles. 
Myrtle  and  Atlantic  avenues  are,  next  to  Fulton  st.,  the  most  active  business  thorough- 
fares, and  contain  many  stores  that  carry  on  a large  trade.  The  large  number  of  persons 
who  reside  in  B.  and  do  business  in  New  York  has  caused  the  city  to  be  termed  face- 
tiously a “ big  bedroom;”  in  fact,  although  its  own  industrial  and  commercial  activity  is 
very  great,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  city  is  devoted  to  private  dw^elling-houses.  Clin- 
ton avenue  is  beautifully  laid  out  with  handsome  residences  surrounded  by  ornamental 

f rounds,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  in  any  city  a street  more  attractive  of  its  kind. 

'rom  a point  between  the  Catherine  and  Fulton  ferry  slips  to  the  Gowanus  district 
extends  along  the  entire  river  front  an  almost  unbroken  line  of  storehouses.  The  Atlantic 
dock  warehouses  of  South  Brooklyn  opposite  Governor’s  island  cover  a space  of  20 
acres,  and  inclose  a basin  40  acres  in  area.  Here  most  of  the  grain  brought  from  the 
west  is  handled,  stored,  and  transhipped.  The  capacity  of  the  grain  warehouses  is 
estimated  at  12,000,000  bushels;  and  about  25,000  vessels,  exclusive  of  canal  boats  and 
lighters,  are  said  to  be  annually  unloaded.  The  principal  articles  are  molasses,  sugar, 
grain,  coffee,  oil,  hides,  and  wool.  The  annual  storage  of  merchandise  in  B.  is  valued 
at  $261,000,000.  Among  the  numerous  manufacturing  establishments  of  B.  are  the 
following:  Prentice’s  hat  factories;  the  Brooklyn  brass  and  copper  company ; the  New 
York  agricultural  works;  the  American  steel  company’s  works;  the  printing  house  and 
book  manufactory  of  D.  Appleton  & Co. ; the  great  sugar-refineries  of  the  eastern  district; 
Peter  Cooper’s  glue  factory ; Kalbfleisch’s  chemical  works,  etc. 

The  first  settlement  of  Brooklyn,  formerly  Breuckelen,  dates  from  1636,  when  a few 
Walloon  colonists  took  up  their  residence  on  the  spot  that  still  bears  the  name  of  Walla- 
bout.  English  and  Dutch  settlers  follow^ed;  and  in  1667,  a patent  or  charter  was  granted 
to  the  town  by  governor  Richard  Nicholls.  The  first  church  had  been  erected  the 
previous  year.  In  1698,  the  population  amounted  to  only  509  persons,  of  whom  65  were 
slaves.  In  1776,  the  site  of  the  present  towm  was  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  the 
Americans  and  the  British,  usually  know'n  as  the  battle  of  Long  island.  In  1816,  Brook- 
lyn was  incorporated  as  a village,  and  in  1834  it  became  a chartered  city.  Williams- 
burg attained  the  rank  of  a village  in  1827,  and  was  recognized  as  a city  in  1851.  The 
population  of  B.  was  in  1800,  3298;  in  1820,  7175;  in  1830,  15,292;  in  1840,  36,233;  andin 
1850,  96,850.  In  1860,  after  its  consolidation  with  Williamsburg,  the  population  had 
increased  to  266,661;  in  1870,  to  396,099;  in  1875,  to  482,493;  and  according  to  the  U.  S. 
census  of  1880,  B.  has  566,689  inhabitants. 

BROOKS,  a CO.  in  s.  Georgia  bordering  Florida;  550  sq.m.  ;pop.  ’80,  11,727 — 6057 
colored.  The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  railroad  intersects.  Productions,  cotton,  corn,  etc. 
Co.*  seat,  Quitman. 

BEOOKS,  Charles  Shirley,  novelist  and  journalist,  -was  the  son  of  Mr.  William 
Brooks,  an  architect,  and  was  b.  at  Brill,  in  Oxfordshire,  about  the  year  1820.  B was 
educated  chiefly  by  the  late  Rev.  T.  J.  Bennett,  canon  of  St.  Paul’s;  and  upon  leaving 
school,  was  articled  to  an  attorney.  Upon  serving  out  his  time,  he  passed  with  dis- 
tinction the  examination  in  the  law  society's  hall.  Literature,  however,  had  more 
charms  for  him  than  the  law,  and  he  had  not  long  been  settled  in  London^  before  he 
tried  the  experiment  of  living  by  it  as  a profession.  He  wrote  dramas — Our  ]Sew  Gorern 
ess;  Honors  and  Tricks;  The  Creole;  The  Daughter  of  the  Stars;  and  he  contributed  at 
the  same  time  to  some  of  the  leading  periodicals  and  journals.  An  introduction  to  the 
editor  of  the  Morning  Chronicle  procured  him  a steady  engagement  as  writer  of  the  parlia- 
mentary summary  for  that  journal.  He  was  also  sent  by  the  proprietors  of  the  Chron- 
icle on  a mission  into  Russia,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  to  report  on  the  condition  of  labor  and 
the  poor  in  those  countries;  and  the  results  of  his  observations  appeared  in  a series  of 
letters  in  that  journal.  B.  was  also  a contributor  to  Punch  from  the  commencement  of 
that  periodical.  The  “Essence  of  Parliament”  in  Punch  is  said  to  have  been  regularly 
contributed  by  him.  He  alse  wrote  for  it  “ Miss  Violet  and  her  Offers;”  “TheNeg- 
gletons,”  etc.  B.  also  contributed  political  and  other  articles  to  the  columns  of  the 
illustrated  London  Keics.  As  a novelist,  B.  is  a graceful  and  pleasing  waiter,  and  there- 
fore deservedly  popular.  He  is  author  of  Aspen  Court;  2 he  Gordian  Knot;  The  Sdrer 
(7c?*c? (originally  published  in  Once  a Week)-,  and  Sooner  or  Later.  B.  is  likewise  author  of 
The  RussiuJis  of  the  South.  He  acquired  a reputation  as  a lecturer.  On  the  death  of 


99 


Brooks. 

Broom. 


Mr.  Mark  Lemon,  in  1870,  B,  became  the  editor  of  Punch.  He  died  in  1874.  A volume 
of  his  Wit  and  Humor  appeared  in  1875. 

BROOKS,  Charles  Timothy,  b.  Mass.,  1813;  graduated  from  Harvard,  and  in  1837 
settled  in  Newport  as  a Unitarian  minister.  Most  of  liis  time  was  devoted  to  literature, 
especially  to  German  translations.  He  published  Schiller’s  William  Tell;  Homage  to  the 
Arts;  German  Lyrics;  Songs  of  the  Field  and  the  Flood;  a translation  of  Goethe’s  Faust; 
and  many  less  important  works;  besides  a volume  of  sermons,  various  poems,  and 
a prose  romance. 

BROOKS,  Erastus,  brother  of  James,  b.  Maine,  1815;  graduated  at  Brown  univer- 
sity, and  became  teacher  of  a grammar  school  and  editor  of  the  Haverhill  Gazette.  In 
1836,  he  was  a Washington  correspondent  for  several  papers,  and  soon  after  became 
associated  with  James  in  the  New  York  Express, ^ where  he  remained  as  assistant  and  as 
chief  editor  until  about  1877.  He  was  a leader  in  the  American  party,  and  their  can- 
didate for  governor  of  New  York  (but  not  elected)  in  1856.  He  was  in  the  state  senate 
of  1856,  where  his  advocacy  of  the  bill  to  divest  Roman  Catholic  bishops  of  their  title 
to  church  property  involved  him  in  a controversy  with  bishop  Hughes,  which  at  the 
time  attracted  much  attention.  Mr.  B.  has  been  for  several  terms  in  the  legislature. 

BROOKS,  James,  1810-73;  b.  Maine;  a journalist  and  politician.  He  graduated  at 
Waterville  college,  and  was  principal  of  a Latin  school  in  Portland;  became  a writer  of 
letters  to  various  newspapers,  and  originated  the  idea  of  regular  correspondence  from 
Washington.  As  a member  of  the  Maine  legislature  in  1835,  he  proposed  a survey  for 
a railroad  from  Portland  to  Quebec  or  Montreal.  In  that  year  he  made  a tour  of  Europe 
on  foot,  sending  his  observations  to  the  Portland  Advertiser.  In  1836,  he  established 
the  Neio  York  Impress,  published  both  morning  and  evening,  which  still  survives  as  a 
prominent  evening  newspaper.  In  1847,  he  was  a member  of  the  state  legislature,  and 
in  1848  was  elected  to  congress.  During  the  native-American  excitement,  1841-44,  his 
paper  was  strongly  in  favor  of  that  party.  In  1850,  he  favored  the  compromise  meas- 
ures of  Henry  Clay,  and  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he  left  the  party  with  which 
lie  had  been  so  long  identified,  and  was  immediately  returned  to  congress  by  the  demo- 
crats. In  1871,  after- a rapid  trip  abroad,  he  published  A Months'  Pun  Up  and 

Down  and  Around  the  World. 

BROOKS,  John,  m.  d.,  1752-1825;  an  American  patriot  who,  on  hearing  of  the  affair 
at  Lexington,  marched  to  the  place  from  Reading  with  a company  of  minute-men  just 
in  time  to  see  the  British  in  retreat.  He  served  in  the  war,  and  was  frequently  pro- 
moted. After  the  peace,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  medicine  at  Medford,  and  in  1816 
was  elected  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  re-elected  annually  until  1823,  when  he 
refused  to  be  longer  a candidate. 

BROOKS,  Maria  Gowen,  1795-1845;  b.  Mass.;  an  American  poetess,  by  Robert 
Southey  called  “Maria  del  Occidente.”  She  lost  her  father  when  young,  and  was  pro- 
tected and  educated  by  her  future  husband,  a Mr.  Brooks,  a merchant  of  Boston.  After 
his  death,  she  went  to  Cuba,  and  in  1830  visited  London  and  Paris.  Some  of  her  works 
2i.re  Judith,  Esther,  and  other  Poems;  Zophiel,  or  the  Bride  of ‘Seven;  Idomen,  or  the  Vale  of 
Yumuri;  and  Ode  to  the  Departed. 

BROOKS,  Peter  Chardon,  1767-1849;  a successful  business  man  of  Massachu- 
setts; in  boyhood  on  a farm;  engagedin  marine  insurance  in  Boston,  where  he  made  a 
fortune;  for  several  years  president  of  the  New  England  insurance  company.  After 
retiring  from  business,  he  was  active  and  liberal  in  benevolent  enterprises.  As  a mem- 
ber of  the  legislature  he  did  what  he  could  toward  the  suppression  of  lotteries. 

BROOKS,  Phillips,  b.  Mass.,  1835;  graduate  of  Harvard,  and  from  1859  to  1870 
rector  of  Episcopal  churches  in  Philadelphia;  in  the  latter  year  becoming  rector  of 
Trinity  church,  Boston.  He  is  celebrated  as  a pulpit  orator,  and  as  a vigorous  and  inde- 
pendent thinker.  His  freedom  from  the  ordinary  sectarian  trammels,  his  liberal  views 
of  doctrine,  with  his  profound  convictions  as  to  vital  Christian  truths,  and  his  deeply 
spiritual  }’^et  intensely  practical  preaching,  give  him  great  popular  power. 

BROOKS,  Preston  S.,  1819-57;  graduate  of  South  Carolina  college;  was  in  the 
state  legislature,  and  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico.  In  1853,  he  was  a member  of 
congrps,  and  was  re-chosen  in  1854.  May  22,  1856,  he  assaulted  senator  Sumner,  strik- 
ing him  oyer  the  head  with  a cane  while  in  his  chair  in  the  senate  chamber,  and  severely 
injuring  him.  The  house  of  representatives  did  not  expel  him,  though  a committee 
reported  in  favor  of  doing  so;  but  he  resigned,  only  to  be  immediately  re-elected  by  his 
constituents.  He  died  suddenly  of  inflammation  of  the  throat  before  the  close  of  the 
second  month  of  his  term. 

BROOM,  a name  given  to  a number  of  species  of  shrubs  of  the  closely  allied  genera 
eytisus,  genista,  and  spartium,  of  the  natural  order  leguminosoe,  sub-order  papilionaceoe — 
all  of  them  having  long  slender  branches,  along  which  are  produced  axillary  flowers. 
The  genera  differ  in  the  form  of  the  standard  (see  Papilionace^),  which  is  roundish 
in  spartium,  broadly  ovate  in  eytisus,  and  oblongo-ovate  in  genista,  whilst  spartium  has 
also  an  acuminate  keel,  and  that  of  eytisus  is  very  obtuse,  that  of  genista  being  oblong 
and  not  wholly  including  the  stamens  and  pistil.  The  legume  is  many-seeded  in  all,  the 


Broom-corn. 

Brotherhoods. 


IQO 


calyx  2-lipped,  and  the  filaments  united  in  a tube. — Common  B.,  cytisus  scoparius,  the 
trivial  name  being  from  the  Lat.  scopoe,  long  twigs,  or  a besom — which  has  by  different 
botanists  being  ranked  in  each  of  the  genera  just  named,  although  it  possesses  the  char- 
acters above  assigned  to  cytisus,  but  has  recently  been  made  the  type  of  a new  genus, 
under  the  name  of  saTotliamnus'  scoparius  or  communis — is  a well-known  native  of 
Britain  and  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  growing  in  dry  soils,  and  ornamenting  hedge- 
banks,  hills,  and  bushy  places,  in  May  and  June,  with  its  large  yellow  flowers,  which 
are  on  short  stalks,  drooping,  solitary,  but  produced  in  considerable  number  along  the 
straight  slender  branchlets.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  plant  is  graceful.  The  lower 
leaves  have  three  oblong  leaflets,  the  upper  ones,  or  bracts,  are  simple;  the  branches  are 
angular  and  of  a very  dark  green,  very  tough,  and  much  in  use  for  making  besoms. 
They  have  also  been  used  for  tanning  and  dyeing;  and  their  fiber  has  been  woven 
into  a coarse  strong  cloth,  and  even  made  into  paper.  The  whole  plant  is  very  bitter, 
with  a peculiar  nauseous  taste  and  smell  when  bruised.  The  young  tops  and  seeds  are 
used  in  medicine,  being  powerfully  diuretic,  and  very  beneficial  in  some  kinds  of  dropsy. 
They  are  also  mildly  laxative,  and  in  large  doses  emetic.  They  are  commonly  admin- 
istered in  the  form  of  a decoction.  B.  inhabits  colder  climates  than  furze,  reaching  to 
a greater  elevation  on  mountains,  and  being  found  beyond  the  northern  limit  of  furze. 
It  varies  in  size  from  a very  humble  shrub  to  one  of  20  or  even  30  ft.  in  height,  and  when 
it  reaches  this  size,  the  wood  is  of  great  value  for  the  finer  purposes  of  cabinet-makers 
and  turners. — Irish  B.,  cytisus  or  sarothamnus  patens,  not  unfrequent  as  an  ornamental 
plant  in  British  shrubberies,  is  not  at  all  a native  of  Ireland,  but  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 
— Portugal  B.,  or  White  B.,  cytisus  albus,  a native  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  is  very  often  planted  in  Britain  as  an  ornamental  shrub,  and  is  much 
admired  for  the  beauty  of  its  fascicled  white  flowers,  which  are  produced  upon  long 
filiform  branches.  Its  leaves  have  three  leaflets.  It  sometimes  attains  a height  of  15  or 
20  feet. — Spanish  B.,  spartium  junceum,  is  a native  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  generally  grow- 
ing in  dry  soils  and  rocky  situations,  and  attaining  a height  of  8 ft.  or  upwards.  Its 
branches  are  upright,  round,  and  rush-like,  a characteristic  of  this  genus.  They  are 
smooth,  and  bear  only  a few  small  simple  leaves,  which  soon  drop  off.  The  fiber  of  the 
branchlets  is  much  used  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  for  making  cloth, 
ropes,  etc.  In  the  s.  of  France,  the  plant  is  cultivated  on  dry  unproductive  soils.  The 
branchlets  are  made  into  bundles,  dried,  beaten,  steeped,  and  washed,  in  order  to  the 
separation  of  the  fiber.  It  possesses  medical  properties  similar  to  those  of  the  common 
B. — A white-flowered  species,  S.  monospermum,  occasionally  to  be  seen  in  British  shrub- 
beries, grows  abundantly  on  the  loose  sands  of  the  coasts  of  Spain,  and  produces  a simi- 
lar fiber.  It  is  mentioned  by  Barth  as  growing  in  great  abundance  in  Africa  to  the  s.  of 
the  great  desert.  Many  species  somewhat  resembling  these  are  occasionally  to  be  seen 
in  Britain  among  ornamental  plants,  some  of  them  often  in  greenhouses.  The  Canary 
isles  produce  some  remarkable  for  the  fragrance  of  their  flowers.  The  name  B.  is  not 
given  to  those  species  of  cytisus  (q.v.)  and  genista  (q.v.)  which  do  not  display  in  a marked 
degree  the  character  of  having  long  slender  twigs. — Butcher’s  B.  (q.v.)  is  a plant  of  an 
entirely  different  family. 

BROOM-CORN,  a grass  cultivated  in  North  America  for  the  manufacture  of  brooms 
and  whisks,  which  are  made  of  the  tops  of  the  culms  and  the  branches  of  the  panicle. 
It  is  regarded  as  a mere  variety  of  the  same  species  {sorghum  saccharatum),  of  which  the 
shaloo,  or  sugar-grass  (see  Sugar-cane  and  Durra),  is  another  variety.  It  has  been 
much  longer  cultivated  in  North  America,  however,  than  the  sugar-yielding  variety. 
Its  introduction  is  ascribed  to  Dr.  Franklin,  who,  seeing  an  imported  whisk  in  the  pos- 
session of  a lady  of  Philadelphia,  found  a single  seed  on  it,  and  planted  it.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  brought  from  the  East  Indies.  It  is  now  extensively  cultivated  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States,  and  especially  by  some  branches  of  the  religious  society  called  Shakers. 
The  manufacture  of  brooms  is  annually  becoming  of  greater  importance,  much  capital 
being  invested  in  it.  The  crop  of  broom-corn  has  a beautiful  appearance  when  near 
maturity.  It  often  attains  a height  of  12  to  15  feet.  The  stalks  are  long  and  hard,  and 
mostly  used  for  manure,  although  cattle  will  feed  on  them  before  they  are  touched  by 
frost,  and  cattle  are  very  fond  of  the  leaves.  The  seed  is  used  like  Indian  corn,  for  feed- 
ing poultry,  and  sometimes  for  feeding  cattle  and  horses.  The  usual  practice  in  harvest- 
ing broom-corn  is  to  bend  the  stalks  2|  to  3 ft.  from  the  ground,  and  leave  them  a few 
days  to  dry,  then  to  cut  them  over  6 to  8 in.  below  the  panicle,  laying  the  tops  in  heaps, 
to  be  conveyed  to  the  scraper,  which  is  often  wrought  by  horse-power,  and  which 
removes  the  seed  from  them.  Improved  machinery  has  recently  begun  to  be  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  brooms  and  whisks  from  broom-corn,  and  they  are  therefore  pro- 
duced with  much  greater  rapidity  than  before.  It  is  supposed  that,  in  1860,  about  10,000 
acres  of  broom-corn  were  cultivated  in  the  state  of  New  York,  9000  in  Illinois,  6000  in 
Ohio,  and  about  an  equal  amount  in  all  the  other  states  of  the  Union,  or  30,000  acres  in 
all;  the  value  of  the  produce  about  $1,590,000.  Great  numbers  of  brooms  and  whisks 
of  this  material  are  exported  to  Britain. 

BROOME,  a co.  in  s.  New  York,  on  the  Pennsylvania  border;  680  sq.m.;  pop.  ’75, 
42,149;  in  ’80,  49,481.  It  is  drained  by  the  Susquehanna,  Chenango,  Otselic,  and  other 
streams,  and  intersected  by  the  New  York  and  Erie,  i^lbany  and  Susquehanna,  S^'racuse 


101 


Broom-corn. 

Brotherhoods. 


and  Binghamton,  and  Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western  railroads,  and  the  Chenango 
canal.  Productions  agricultural,  including  an  immense  quantity  of  butter.  Co.  seat, 
Binghamton. 

BROOME,  William,  ll.d.,  1689-1745;  coadjutor  of  Pope  in  translating  the 
Odyssey.  For  writing  all  the  notes  and  translating  eight  books  of  the  Greek  text,  B. 
received  $2500;  but  Pope  loved  money,  and  when  the  small  price  became  notorious  it 
annoyed  the  poet  so  that  he  abused  B.  in  the  Dunciad  and  in  the  Bathos.  B.  published 
a Miscellany  of  Poems,  and  translated  some  of  Anacreon’s  odes.  He  was  a rector  in 
Suffold. 

BBOOMBAFE.  See  Orobanche^. 

BROOMS.  See  Brushes  and  Brooms. 

BBOBA  BEDS  are  a series  of  strata  occurring  at  Brora,  a village  in  Sutherlandshire, 
of  the  same  age  as  the  inferior  oolite  of  Yorkshire.  They  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
occurrence  in  them  of  a seam  of  coal  of  good  quality  3^  ft,  thick,  being  the  thickest 
stratum  of  true  coal  hitherto  discovered  in  any  secondary  strata  in  Britain. 

BBOSSES,  Charles  de,  a learned  French  historian,  was  b.  at  Dijon,  Feb.  8th,  1709. 
His  first  work  was  Lettres  sur  VEtat  de  la  Ville  d' Herculaneum,  the  result  of  a tour 
through  Italy  in  1739.  At  the  suggestion  of  his  friend  Buffon  the  naturalist,  he  wrote 
the  Histoire  des  Navigations  aux  Terres  Australes  (1756),  in  which  he  described  the 
supposed  great  southern  continent  under  the  several  names  of  Magellania,  Australia, 
and  Polynesia.  The  last  two  of  these  names,  now  commonly  used,  were  first  employed 
by  B.  His  next  work  was  Du  Quite  des  Dieux  Fetiches,  etc.  (1760).  It  was  followed  by 
a Traite  de  la  Formation  Mecanique  des  Langues  (1765),  which,  in  spite  of  many  errors, 
contains  not  a few  novel  and  ingenious  observations  and  conjectures.  During  the 
greater  part  of  his  life,  B.  was  occupied  in  endeavoring  to  supply  the  lacunes  in  the 
works  of  Sallust;  and  having  collected  about  700  fragments  by  this  historian,  he  pub- 
lished, with  such  interpolations  as  he  deemed  necessary,  the  Histoire  de  la  Itepublique 
Bomaine  dans  le  cours  da  Septieme  Biecle,  par  Salluste  (1777).  B.  died  as  president  of 
the  parliament  of  Burgundy,  May  7,  1777.  His  letters  from  Italy,  under  the  title  Italie 
il  y a cent  Ans,  wereudited  and  republished  by  his  son  Rene,  count  de  Brosses,  in  1834. 

BBOTH  is  an  infusion  or  decoction  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  in  water.  It 
is  customary  to  use  more  or  less  meat,  generally  ox-flesh,  with  bone,  and  certain  vege- 
tables, as  cabbage,  greens,  turnips,  carrots,  pease,  beans,  onions,  etc.  The  whole  are 
mixed  together  in  cold  water,  heat  slowly  applied,  and  the  materials  allowed  to  simmer 
for  some  hours.  The  meat  yields  up  certain  ingredients,  whilst  others  are  retained  in 
the  residual  flesh.  The  following  table  will  illustrate  this. 

Ox-flesh  heated  with  water 

Yields  to  the  Water. 

Albuminous  matter. 

Gelatine. 

Kreatine. 

Extractive  matters  or  osmazome 

Lactic  acid. 

Salts. 

Fat. 

Saccharine  matter. 

The  vegetables  yield  albuminous  constituents,  coloring  and  mucilaginous  matter,  and 
volatile  oils  and  salts. 

The  real  nutritive  material  present  in  B.  is  less  than  is  generally  thought,  though  it 
aids  in  satisfying  the  cravings  of  the  appetite.  To  invalids,  however,  the  form  of  B. 
known  as  beef-tea  (q.v.)  is  of  great  importance,  as  it  affords  the  weak  and  sickly  stomach 
a light  palatable  article  of  diet  at  a time  when  stronger  food  would  do  the  weakened 
system  much  harm.  See  Nutrition. 

BBOTHEBHOODS,  Religious.  These  were  societies  instituted  for  pious  and  benevo- 
lent purposes,  and  were  numerous  in  the  middle  ages.  Their  origin  is  probably  to  be 
traced  to  the  desire  which  then  prevailed  to  imitate  the  spiritual  orders.  They  were 
usually  founded  at  first  without  ecclesiastical  authorization,  on  account  of  which,  sev- 
eral of  the  confraternities  that  either  did  not  seek  or  did  not  obtain  the  recognition  of 
the  church,  assumed  the  character  of  sects,  and  were  suspected  of  heresy.  To  this  class, 
among  others,  belonged  the  Beghards  and  Beguines  (q.v.),  the  Brothers  and  Sisters  of 
the  Free  Spirit  (see  below),  the  Apostolic  Brethren  (q.v.),  the  Flagellants  (q.v),  who, 
tolerated  by  the  church  for  a while,  at  last  incurred  its  displeasure,  and  were  severely 
persecuted.  We  may  also  reckon  among  religious  B.  the  old  building  corporations,  from 
which  sprang  the  order  of  Freemasons,  the  religious  character  of  whose  secret  societies 
indicated,  in  the  opinion  of  the  church,  a peculiarly  dangerous  gnosis  and  symbolism. 
Others  coming  into  existence  under  ecclesiastical  oversight,  or  at  least  being  confirmed 
by  the  church,  had  no  arcana,  but  were  si  mply  dedicated  to  the  promotion  of  religion, 
either  by  the  imposition  of  new  penances  the  acceptance  of  new  and  severer  devotions, 
-or  the  assisting  of  strangers,  travelers  the  unprotected,  the  oppressed,  the  destitute,  and 


Leaves  in  the  Boiled  Meat. 
Fibrin. 

Coagulated  albumen. 
Gelatinous  tissue. 

Fat. 

Nervous  matter. 


Brother. 

Broug^liam. 


102 


the  sick.  Nor  can  we  refuse  our  admiration  and  approbation  to  such  self-denying  fra- 
ternities, when  we  remember  how  defective  were  the  early  communities  in  charitable- 
institutions.  They  were  most  numerous  in  Italy,  Rome  alone  boasting  more  than  a 
hundred. 

Brothers  and  Sisters  op  the  Free  Spirit,  a sect  which  sprang  up  in  the  Rhine- 
country  during  the  13th  c.,  and  afterwards  spread  into  France  and  Italy.  It  grounded 
its  peculiarities  on  the  biblical  doctrine  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  a spirit  of  “freedom.” 
Misunderstanding  the  true  nature  of  spiritual  freedom,  the  members  of  this  sect  con- 
ceived themselves  released  not  only  from  the  thraldom  of  the  church,  but  also  from  the 
obligations  of  morality.  They  set  aside  the  marriage-tie,  and  indulged  in  licentious- 
ness. A few  even  maintained  that  the  deeds  of  the  body  could  not  possibl}’’  aifect  the 
soul.  Intellectually,  they  are  said  to  have  been  given  to  Pantheism.  The  synods  of 
Cologne  in  1306,  and  of  Treves  in  1310,  decreed  their  suppression,  and  in  the  persecutions 
which  ensued,  they  appear  to  have  been  completely  dispersed. 

The  Brethren  op  Social  Lipe,  Brethren  op  the  Common  Lot,  or  Brethren 
OP  Good  Will  (also  called  Hieronymites  and  Gregoriaxs,  from  Hieronymus  and 
Gregory  the  great,  whom  they  claimed  as  patrons),  a fraternity  founded  about  1376  by 
Geert  Groote  (b.  at  Deventer,  1340,  d.  1384)  and  Florentius  Radewin  (b.  1350,  at  Leer- 
dam,  in  s.  Holland,  d.  1400).  This  society — which  professed  to  be  a copy  of  the  earliest 
Christian  communities,  and  was  in  several  respects  a forerunner  of  the  subsequently 
formed  societies  of  United  Brethren,  now  sometimes  styled  Moravians — was  composed  of 
persons  who  sought  after  pious  and  spiritual  exercises  without  any  conventional  distinc- 
tions of  order,  etc.  Community  of  goods,  ascetic  habits,  industry,  care  of  the  educa- 
tion of  young  persons,  and  the  use  of  the  vernacular  language  in  divine  service,  were- 
some  of  the  chief  points  insisted  on  by  the  brethren,  who  were  not  fettered  by  monastic 
or  any  other  vows.  Perfect  community  of  goods  was  a rule  of  their  societies.  Despite- 
t-he  persecutions  which  they  suffered  from  the  mendicant  friars,  they  were  recognized 
and  sanctioned  by  several  popes  and  by  the  council  of  Constance.  They  became  most 
numerous  in  the  Netherlands  and  n.  Germany,  but  also  spread  themselves  in  Italy, 
Sicily,  and  Portugal,  so  that,  in  1430,  they  reckoned  more  than  130  societies.  The  last 
was  founded  at  Cambray  in  1505.  Several  brotherhoods  of  Gregorians  assisted  in  the- 
reformation.  In  other  cases,  their  institutions  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits.  Though 
the  original  founders  of  these  societies  were  opposed  to  all  learning  and  science  which 
was  not  purely  moral  and  practical,  their  followers  rendered  most  important  services  tO' 
popular  education,  having  free  schools  in  connection  with  many  of  their  houses,  sup- 
porting students  at  other  schools,  and  distributing  useful  books.  Thej’’  have,  indeed, 
been  not  incorrectly  described  as  pioneers  of  the  reformation.  After  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing in  Italy,  the  Brethren  of  Social  Life  entered  into  the  spiritual  activity  of  the  time. 
The  most  important  and  distinguished  members  of  the  society  were  Gerhard  Zerbold  of 
Ziltpheh,  Thomas-AKempis,  and  the  learned  cardinal  Nicholas  Cusa. — Female  societies, 
of  a similar  character,  sprung  up  at  the  same  time  with  those  of  the  Brethren  of  Social 
Life.  At  the  head  of  each  was  a superior  or  directress,  who  was  styled  the  Martha. 

BROTHER  JONATHAN,  a synonym  for  the  people  of  the  United  States,  as  “ John 
Bull”  is  for  the  people  of  England.  When  Washington  took  command  of  the  revolu- 
tionary forces  in  New  England,  he  found  an  immediate  necessity  for  arms  and  other 
war  materials,  Jonathan  Trumbull  was  then  governor  of  Connecticut,  a man  of  excel- 
lent judgment,  and  a highly  esteemed  friend  of  Washington.  It  happened  that  at 
an  important  council  of  officers  where  the  wants  of  the  service  were  the  topic  under 
consideration,  Washington  remarked,  in  reference  to  some  knotty  question:  “We 
must  consult  Brother  Jonathan,”  meaning  governor  Trumbull.  The  expression  was 
repeated  on  occasions  of  difficulty,  and  before  the  war  closed  it  was  established  as  a con- 
venient name  for  the  whole  people. 

BHOTHERS,  a name  given  to  a group  of  six  or  eight  rocky  islets  immediately  outside 
the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  varying  in  height  from  250  to  350  feet.  They  lie  off  the 
African  coast  about  9 m.  s.  of  the  island  Perim,  now  occupied  by  England.  Of  the 
loftiest  point,  the  lat.  and  long,  respectively  are  12°  28'  n.,  and  43°  22'  e. — Brothers  is 
also  the  name  given  to  three  isolated  mountains  near  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales, 
between  Harrington  inlet  to  the  s.,  and  Port  Macquarie  to  the  n.,  or  between  lat.  32° 
and  31|°  south.  They  are  valuable  as  landmarks. 

BROTHERS,  Law  of  Descent  among.  In  the  law  of  England,  this  was  immediate, 
without  reference  to  the  parent  as  the  commune  uinculum;  but  by  the  3 and  4 Will.  IV. 
c.  106,  s.  5,  it  is  enacted  that  no  brother  or  sister  shall  be  considered  to  inherit  imme- 
diately from  his  or  her  brother  or  sister,  but  every  such  descent  shall  be  traced  through 
the  parent.  See  Inheritance. 

BROTHERS,  Lay,  an  inferior  class  of  monks,  not  in  holy  orders,  but  bound  by 
monastic  rules,  and  employed  as  servants  in  monasteries  (q.v.). 

BROTHERS,  Richard,  a fanatic,  whose  prophecies  and  writings  excited  an  unusual 
sensation  in  his  day,  was  at  one  time  a lieut.  in  the  British  navy,  which  he  quitted  in 
1789.  Refusing,  from  conscientious  scruples,  to  take  the  requisite  oath  to  enable  hina 
to  receive  his  half-pay,  he  was  reduced  to  great  distress,  and  ultimately  placed,  in  the- 


loa 


Brother. 

Brougham. 


workhouse.  Dating  his  first  call  from  1790,  he  announced  himself,  in  1793,  the  apostle 
of  a new  religion,  “ the  nephew  of.  the  Almighty,  and  prince  of  the  Hebrews,  appointed 
to  lead  them  to  the  land  of  Canaan.”  In  1794,  he  published  a book,  in  two  parts,  enti- 
tled A Revealed  Knowledge  of  the  Prophecies  and  Times,  etc. ; and,  in  1795,  an  Exposition 
of  the  Trinity.  He  was  the  author  of  several  other  publications,  marked  by  a strange 
mixture  of  reason  and  insanity.  In  consequence  of  prophesying  the  death  of  the  king, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  monarchy,  he  was  committed  to  Newgate,  but  soon  liberated. 
Some  of  his  political  predictions,  especially  in  reference  to  the  state  of  the  continent, 
were  either  altogether  or  partially  fulfilled;  and  many  persons  were  induced  to  sell  their 
Ifoods,  and  prepare  to  accompany  him  to  his  New  Jerusalem,  which  was  to  be  built  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  Jordan,  where  he  was  to  arrive  in  the  year  1795.  His  disciples 
were  not  confined  to  the  poor  and  ignorant,  but  even  men  of  ability  and  education  were 
deluded  into  believing  in  him,  two  of  the  most  eminent  being  Nathaniel  Brassey  Halhed, 
esq.,  M.P.,  the  orientalist,  and  Sharp,  the  celebrated  engraver.  As  a dangerous  lunatic, 
he  was  at  length,  by  order  of  government,  committed  to  Bedlam,  but  released  April  14, 
1806,  and  died  Jan.  25,  1824. 

BBOTHEBS  and  SISTEBS  op  CHABITY.  Under  these  names,  there  exist  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  two  widely  ramified  beneficent  societies,  for  the  nursing  of  the 
poor  and  sick  in  hospitals,  without  distinction  of  faith,  rank,  or  nation.  The  order  of 
the  brothers  of  charity,  or  Compassionate  Brothers,  was  established  in  1540,  at  Seville, 
in  Spain,  by  the  Portuguese  John  di  Dio  (died  1550),  who  had  served  in  Africa  under 
Charles  V.  The  funds  for  the  purpose  were  obtained  by  begging.  The  primitive 
object  of  the  society  was  the  care'of  the  sick,  and  the  reformation  of  women  of  immoral 
character:  it  was  composed  of  lay-members,  under  no  rule.  In  the  year  1572,  the  ordor 
received  the  papal  recognition,  and  was  subjected  to  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  All  the 
privileges  of  the  mendicant  orders  were  conceded  to  it  in  the  year  1624,  and  it  was  then 
divided  into  a Spanish  congregation,  with  a maj.gen.  in  Granada,  and  an  Italian  or 
extra-Spanish  congregation,  with  a maj.gen.  in  Rome.  To  the  latter  belong  also  the 
brothers  of  charity  in  Switzerland,  Germany  (where  Austria  is  their  chief  seat),  Poland, 
the  Netherlands,  France,  and  other  countries.  The  European  members  of  the  order 
clothe  themselves  in  black;  the  extra-European,  who  are  under  a separate  gen.  of  their 
order  in  America,  wear  brown.  Their  services  to  distressed  humanity  continue  to  be 
held  in  high  estimation*.  The  sisters  of  charity,  formerly  also,  on  account  of  their  dress, 
called  gray  sisters — independent  associations  of  unmarried  Christian  females,  for  the 
alleviation  of  human  suffering,  especially  for  the  tending  of  the  sick  and  the  poor — 
were  first  called  into  existence  in  France,  in  1634,  ’by  Vincent  de  Paul  (born  1576), 
greatly  assisted  by  the  noble-hearted  and  self-devoted  widow,  Le  Gras,  % birth  De 
Marilac.  The  society  was  recognized  in  1655  by  Clement  IX.,  and  in  1685  already  num- 
bered 224  convents.  The  French  revolution  sorely  interrupted  the  abundant  and  benev- 
olent labors  of  the  sisters  of  charity  by  the  suppression  and  proscription  of  their  con- 
vents in  France;  but  Napoleon  restored  the  order  in  1807  by  the  convocation  of  a general 
chapter  of  the  scattered  sisters,  under  the  presidency  of  the  empress  mother,  and  by  the 
grant  of  the  necessary  funds;  and  there  exist  at  present  more  than  300  associations  in 
France,  where,  in  the  villages,  elementary  education  is  in  great  part  conducted  by 
them.  They  attend  the  sick  in  all  the  great  hospitals.  There  exists  in  Germany  a 
Roman  Catholic  association  of  unmarried  females,  not  bound  by  conventual  rules,  and 
possessing  the  right  of  withdrawing  from  the  association  at  pleasure,  but  placed  under ' 
a strict  supervision,  and  occupied  in  the  same  duties  as  the  sisters  of  charity.  The  insti- 
tute of  deaconesses  (q.v.)  in  the  Protestant  churches  of  the  continent  of  Europe  is  of  a 
very  similar  character. 

BBOTTGHAM,  Henry,  Lord  Brougham  and  Vaux,  was  b.  in  Edinburgh,  19th  Sept., 
1778.  His  father,  Mr.  Henry  Brougham,  was  the  descendant  of  an  ancient  family  in 
Westmoreland,  and  his  mother,  Eleonora  Syme,  who  was  a woman  of  much  talent,  was 
a niece  of  Robertson  the  historian.  B.  received  his  education  at  the  high  school,  and 
afterwards  at  the  university,  of  Edinburgh.  He  gave  early  promise  of  future  ability, 
-some  mathematical  papers  written  by  him  at  the  age  of  eighteen  having  been  considered 
worthy  of  publication  in  the  transactions  of  the  royal  society.  He  spent  some  time  in 
traveling  on  the  continent,  and  in  1800  was  admitted  to  the  Scotch  bar.  In  company 
with  Jeffrey,  Horner,  and  Sydney  Smith,  B.’s  first  public  efforts  were  given  to  the 
service  of  the  Edinburgh  Review,  and  he  contributed  to  it  some  of  its  most  powerful 
articles.  His  liberal  political  views  excluded  him  from  the  hope  of  prornotion  in  Scot- 
land, and  a character  which  he  had  acquired  for  eccentricity  and  indiscretion,  excluded 
liim  from  all  legal  practice,  except  the  unrenumerative  practice  of  the  criminal  courts. 
After  seven  years  of  vain  attendance  in  the  courts  at  Edinburgh,  he  betook  himself  to 
a field  more  worthy  of  his  ambition,  and  in  1808  passed  at  the  English  bar. 

In  London,  B.  first  attracted  public  notice  by  the  admirable  appearance  he  made  at 
the  bar  of  the  house  of  commons,  when  he  was  employed  on  behalf  of  certain  Liverpool 
merchants  to  ask  the  repeal  of  the  orders  in  council.  Soon  after  this,  in  1810,  he  entered 
parliament,  and  within  a few  months  of  the  time  of  taking  his  seat,  brought  in  and  car- 
ried his  first  public  measure — an  act  making  participation  in  the  slave-trade  felony.  He 
was  welcomed  by  the  opposition  leaders,  to  whose  party  he  had  attached  himself,  as  a 


Krougliam. 

liroussa. 


104 


most  powerful  assistant  in  their  attacks  upon  the  government.  B.  succeeded  in  carry- 
ing the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  orders  in  council  shortly  before  the  general  election  of 
1812,  and  then  ventured  to  contest,  along  with  another  whig,  the  membership  for  Liver- 
pool against  Canning  and  another  tory.  He  was  defeated,  and  remained  without  a seat 
in  parliament  till  1816,  when  he  was  returned  for  Winchelsea,  and  again  became  an 
active  member  of  the  opposition.  By  this  time  he  had  also  established  some  reputation 
in  the  courts  of  law.  He  never,  indeed,  acquired  a very  large  practice,  but  he  repeatedly 
distinguished  himself  by  speeches  of  great  vigor  and  ability  in  the  defense  of  persons 
prosecuted  for  libel  by  the  crown.  His  most  famous  appearance  as  an  advocate,  how- 
ever, was  in  defense  of  queen  Caroline,  when,  along  with  Denman,  he  defended  the 
injured  queen  with  uuequaled  courage  and  disinterestedness,  at  the  cost,  as  both  well 
knew,  of  exclusion,  for  years  to  come,  from  all  professional  advancement.  But  his 
eloquence  and  boldness,  though  they  forfeited  for  him  the  favor  of  the  crown,  gained 
him  that  of  the  people,  and  for  the  ten  years  between  1820  and  1830,  B.  was  the  popular 
idol.  He  made  no  bad  use  of  his  power.  In  1822,  he  used  it,  though  in  vain,  in  sup- 
port of  a scheme  of  national  education;  and  to  his  activity  is  owing,  in  great  measure, 
the  establishment  of  the  London  university,  of  the  first  mechanics’  institute,  and  of  the 
society  for  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge.  In  1830,  B.  delivered  a most  po'werful 
speech  against  slavery,  and  in  consequence  of  it — as  he  himself  believed — was  invited 
to  stand,  and  returned,  as  member  for  the  great  popular  constituency  of  the  co.  of 
York.  The  aristocratically  disposed  whigs  would — ^liad  they  dared — have  excluded  B. 
from  the  reform  ministry;  but,  in  addition  to  having  enormous  popularity,  he  was  vir- 
tually their  leader  in  debate  in  the  commons,  and  was  thus,  in  spite  of  his  unmanage- 
ableness, indispensable.  After  various  intrigues,  B.  was  offered,  and  was  persuaded,, 
against  both  his  interests  and  his  inclinations,  to  accept  a peerage  and  the  chancellor- 
ship He  took  his  seat  in  the  lords  in  Nov.,  1830,  and  assisted  very  materially  in  carry- 
ing through  that  house  'the  great  measures  then  proposed  by  the  liberal  ministers.  He 
shared  in  the  general  unpopularity  which  afterwards  attached  to  them,  and  when  they 
were  dismissed  by  William  IV.  in  1834,  B.  left  office,  never  to  return  to  it.  After  that 
time,  he  held  in  the  upper  house  a position  as  nearly  analogous  as  may  be  to  that  for- 
merly held  by  him  in  the  commons,  criticising  freely  the  conduct  of  successive  admin- 
istrations, and  steadily  forwarding  every  measure  for  social  progress. 

It  will  be  as  a law-reformer  that  B.  will  be  best  remembered.  He  took  up  Romilly’s 
uncompleted  task  of  carrying  into  practice  the  ameliorations  suggested  by  Bentham. 
His  efforts  in  this  direction  began  as  earl}^  as  1816,  when  he  introduced  into  parliament 
a bill  to  remove  various  defects' in  the  law  of  libel.  In  1827,  in  a memorable  speech 
which  occupied  six  hours  in  delivery,  B.  enumerated  the  defects  in  nearly  every  branch 
of  English  law,  and  made  proposals  for  dealing  with  law^-reform  on  a proper  scale. 
These,  as  might  have  been  expected,  met  with  little  encouragement.  It  has  been  the 
fortune  of  many  of  his  measures  to  be  carried  afterwards,  in  a mutilated  form,  by 
other  hands.  After  he  left  office,  B.  also  succeeded  in  carrying  various  reforms  in  the 
law,  among  which  may  be  noted  some  very  extensive  changes  in  the  law  of  evidence. 
Among  the  measures  proposed  by  B.,  but  left  for  future  law-reformers  to  carry,  were 
bills  for  the  codification  of  the  criminal  law,  for  the  establishment  in  England  of  a sys- 
tem of  public  prosecutors,  and  for  the  giving  of  compensation  to  parties  acquitted. 
Lord  B.’s  acts  and  bills,  as  well  those  regarding  the  slave-trade,  education,  and  other 
public  questions,  as  those  touching  on  law-reform,  have  been  collected  and  published 
by  sir  J.  E.  Eardly  Wilmot  (Lond.,  Longman,  1857).  The  large  well-filled  volume 
which  they  Wm  is  the  most  fitting  monument  that  could  be  preserved  of  the  activity, 
perseverance,  and  public  spirit  of  the  man. 

As  an  orator,  more  especially  as  a debater  in  parliament,  B.  was,  among  the  men  of 
his  time,  inferior  only  to  Canning.  He  was  wont,  however,  to  indulge  in  his  speeches 
in  too  large  an  admixture  of  exciting  elements:  argument  was  mingled  with  fiery 
declamation;  ridicule,  sarcasm,  invective,  were  freely  used;  and  these  he  dealt  out 
with  a vehemence  and  energy  that  at  times  carried  hirn  far  bej’ond  bounds.  The  power 
of  ready,  rapid,  and  forcible  diction  was  eminently  his.  In  many  other  fields  besides 
oratory,  B.  has  won  a high  reputation.  He  cultivated  maUiematical  and  physical  science 
with  success,  and  ventured  upon  the  domain  of  metaphysics,  and  even  of  theology.  His 
miscellaneous  writings  are  of  great  extent,  and  upon  an  almost  incredible  variety  of  sub- 
jects. They  were,  how'ever,  intended  more  to  serve  purposes  of  the  moment,  than  as 
permanent  additions  to  our  literature;  and  though  they  display  great  pow’ers  of  rapid 
comprehension  and  nervous  clear  exposition,  it  cannot  be  said  that  we  are  indebted  to 
their  author  for  any  new  truths  in  politics  or  morals,  or  any  original  discoveries  in 
science.  The  honors  due  to  men  of  letters  B.  did  not  fail  to  acquire,^  having  successively 
been  made  lord  rector  of  Glasgow  university,  president,  of  university  college,  London, 
member  of  the  institute  of  France,  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  lastly, 
D.c.L.  of  Oxford. 

Lord  B.  took  a warm  interest  in  legal  and  social  reform.  While  not  engaged  in  par- 
liament, he  resided  chieflv  at  Cannes,  in  the  s.  of  France,  where  he  died  ]May  7th,  1868. 
His  lordship  married,  in  1819,  Mary  Anne  Eden,  the  granddaughter  of  a baronet  in  the 
CO.  of  Durham.  The  issue  of  this  marriage  was  two  daughters,  who  both  died  before 
reaching  womanhood.  The  patent  of  the  title  to  the  peerage  was  extended  to  make  it 


105 


Brougham. 

Broussa. 


descend  to  the  family  of  his  brother.  B,  left  a memoir  of  his  life  and  times,  which  was 
published  in  3 vols.  (1871). 

BROUGHAM,  John,  b.  Ireland,  1810,  d,  N.  Y.,  1880;  studied  surgery  for  a consid- 
erable time,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  school  on  account  of  adversity,  and  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  proposed  to  enter  the  East  India  service;  but  an  old  man  gave  him  a 
guinea,  and  urged  him  to  seek  some  titter  employment.  Happening  to  meet  an  old 
acquaintance,  he  got  an  engagement  in  the  prince  of  Wales  theater,  and  there  in  July, 
1830,  he  acted  six  parts  in  the  old  play  Tom  and  Jerry.  In  1830,  he  was  a member  of 
the  company  organized  by  Madame  Vestris.  About  this  time  he  wrote  his  first  play, 
a burlesque,  prepared  for  William  E.  Burton,  then  acting  in  London.  In  1840,  he  was 
a member  of  the  Lyceum,  for  which  theater  he  wrote  a number  of  plays.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1842,  and  appeared  in  the  old  Park  theater  in  New  York  city. 
Soon  after  he  joined  Burton’s  company  in  Chambers  street;  and  here  also  he  wrote  a num- 
ber of  plays,  among  which  were  Vanity  Fair,  All  is  Fair  in  Low,  Domhey  and  Son,  and 
the  Irish  Emigrant.  Afterwards  he  managed  Niblo’s  Garden,  and  in  Dec.,  1850,  he 
opened  Brougham’s  Lyceum  on  Broadway,  where  he  produced  David  Copperjield,  and  a 
new  version  of  the  Actress  of  Padua,  the  latter  written  for  Charlotte  Cushman.  He  then 
connected  himself  with  Wallack’s  company,  in  which  he  remained  until  1860;  then 
managed  the  Bowery  theater,  reviving  King  John  with  superb  scenery.  MeanwEile  he 
was  writing  plays,  among  which  were  the  Game  of  Love,  Bleak  House,  A Decided  Case, 
Game  of  Life,  Playing  with  Fire,  Pocahontas,  Love  and  Murder,  Romance  and  Reality, 
•etc.  After  several  seasons  at  Wallack’s,  he  rejoined  Burton  and  produced  his  burlesque 
of  Columbus,  and  other  plays.  In  1860,  he  went  to  England,  where  he  remained  five 
years,  and  there  too  he  was  writing  and  adapting  plays,  among  them  the  Duke's  Motto, 
for  Mr.  Fechter,  He  reappeared  in  New  York  in  Oct.,  1865,  and  not  long  after  again 
joined  Wallack’s  company,  with  which  he  remained  until  the  close  of  his  life.  Among 
his  later  plays  are  John  Garth,  and  The  Lily  of  France. 

BROUGHTON,  John  Cam  Hobho  USE,  Lord,  1786-1869;  an  English  statesman.  At 
his  death  the  peerage  became  extinct,  as  he  left  no  male  issue.  In  his  school  days  at  Cam- 
bridge he  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Byron,  and  the  two  made  a tour  of  southern  Europe  at 
a later  period.  He  was  a radical,  and,  in  1816,  wrote  a book  to  correct  certain  current 
misrepresentations  of  the  events  of  the  Hundred  Days  in  Paris.  The  work  gave  great 
offense  both  in  England  and  France.  The  translator  and  printer  in  Paris  were  sentenced 
to  fine  and  imprisonment  for  an  “atrocious  libel,”  and  in  London  he  was  confined  in 
Newgate  nearly  three  months.  As  a martyr  to  toryism,  he  tried  for  parliament  in 
the  borough  of  Westminster,  but  was  defeated,  though  chosen  by  a large  majority  only 
two  years  later.  For  12  years  he  was  an  ardent  and  courageous  advocate  of  liberal 
measures,  among  them  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  corporation  acts,  and  Roman  Catholic 
emancipation.  In  1831,  he  became  a baron,  and  in  the  same  year  was  secretary  of  war 
in  the  Grey  ministry.  Subsequently  he  was  chief  commissioner  of  woods  and  forests, 
and  president  of  the  board  of  control.  In  1851,  he  became  a peer,  and  ceased  to  partici- 
pate in  public  life.  Lord  B.  published  Imitations  and  Translations  from  the  Classics; 
Journey  through  Albania  with  Lord  Byron;  and  Historical  Illustrations  of  the  Fourth  Canto 
of  Cliilde  Harold. 

BROTJGHTY-FERRY,  a t.  of  Forfarshire,  on  the  firth  of  Tay,  4 m.  e.  of  Dundee. 
Pop.  ’71,5817.  It  is  connected  with  Ferry-Port-on-Craig,  in  Fifeshire,  by  a railway- 
ferry  over  the  firth,  here  a mile  broad,  which,  before  the  opening  of  the  Tay  bridge, 
formed  the  chief  connection  between  Edinburgh  and  Fife  with  Dundee.  It  has  cod  and 
other  white  fisheries.  Many  Dundee  merchants  occupy  fine  villas  at  Broughty-Ferry. 
On  the  shore  stands  an  ancient  castle,  lately  repaired  as  a defense  for  the  Tay. 

BROUS  SA,  or  Bour'sa,  the  ancient  Prusa,  wEere  the  kings  of  Bithynia  usually 
resided,  situated  in  lat.  27°  n.,  long.  40°  e.,  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Olympus,  in  Asia 
Minor.  Prusa  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  who  waged  war 
with  Croesus  or  Cyrus.  Seifeddulat,  of  the  race  of  Hamadan,  took  it  in  336  of  the 
Hegira,  but  it  was  retaken  by  the  Greek  emperor  in  947  a.d.  In  1356,  Orcan,  son  of 
Othman,  the  second  emperor  of  Turkey,  captured  it,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  his 
empire,  and  it  continued  so  until  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  Mohammed  II. 
in  1453. 

B.  is  most  pleasantly  situated,  facing  a beautiful  and  luxuriant  plain,  covered  for 
inany  miles  with  plantations  of  mulberr}''-trees.  The  city  and  suburbs  are  about  6 m.  in 
circumference.  The  town  is  divided  from  the  eastern  suburb  by  a deep  channel  or  vale, 
over  which  there  are  several  bridges,  one  of  them— with  shops  on  each  side— being  90 
paces  long  and  16  broad.  The  streets  are  remarkably  clean,  and  the  bazaars  very  good, 
being  supplied  with  European  goods  from  Constantinople.  The  pop.  of  B.  amounts 
to  73,000  souls,  of  whom  about  11,000  are  Armenians.  It  contains  a great  number 
of  mosques,  some  of  which  are  very  fine  buildings.  The  silks  of  B.  are  much, 
^teemed  in  the  European  markets,  and  great  quantities  are  exported  every  year  to 
France,  Constantinople,  and  Smyrna,  The  inhabitants  manufacture  a kind  of  silk,  like 
satin,  mostly  striped,  which  is  used  for  the  under-garment  of  the  oriental  dress;  also  a 
material  from  silk  and  fiax  used  chiefly  for  shirts;  and  a sort  of  gauze,  called  “ brum 
juke,”  which  is  much  worn  by  the  Turkish  ladies  for  under-garments.  A great  quam 


Brotissals. 

Brown. 


106 


tity  of  British  manufactured  goods,  such  as  Manchester  “twists,”  “gray  calicoes,’' 
“prints,”  “ zebras,”  etc,,  are  imported  into  B.,  the  goods  being  landed  at  Constantinople, 
and  thence  conveyed  overland  to  Broussa.  It  is  the  official  residence  of  a Turkish  pasha, 
and  the  seat  of  a Turkish  tribunal.  B.  is  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes.  In  ancient 
times,  it  was  famous  for  its  thermal  baths,  or  “royal  waters,”  as  they  were  called, 
which  still  exist. 

BROTJSSAIS,  FRAN901S  Joseph  Victor,  the  founder  of  the  school  of  medicine,  wash, 
at  St.  Malo,  Dec.  17,  1772,  and  in  early  life,,  after  studying  at  Dinon,  served  for  a time 
first  in  the  navy,  and  then  in  the  army.  In  1820,  he  was  appointed  first  profe^or  at 
the  military  hospital  of  Val-de-Grace.  In  1832,  he  became  professor  of  general  pathology 
and  therapeutics  in  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  was  made  a mem- 
ber of  the  institute.  He  died  at  his  country  residence  at  Vitry,  Nov.  17,  1838.  In  1841, 
a statue  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  the  court  of  Val-de-Grace.  B. ’s  peculiar  views 
are  ably  explained  in  his  chief  works — the  Histoire  des  Phlegmasies  ou  Inflammations 
Chroniques  (1808),  and  Examen  de  la  Doctrine  MMicale  generalement  adoptee  (1816),  which 
assert  the  following  principles ; that  life  is  sustained  only  by  excitation ; that  this  exci- 
tation may  be  either  too  strong  {surexcitation)  or  too  weak  {adynamie),  the  latter  case, 
however,  being  far  less  frequent  than  the  former.  These  abnormal  conditions  of  surex- 
citation and  adynamie  at  first  manifest  themselves  in  a specific  organ  of  the  body;  but 
afterwards,  by  sympathy,  are  extended  toother  organs;  that  is,  all  diseases  are  originally 
local,  and  become  general  only  by  sympathy  of  the  several  organs.  The  organs  most 
subject  to  disease  are  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  therefore  gastro-enteritis  (inflamma- 
tion of  the  stomach  and  the  intestines)  is  the  basis  of  pathology;  consequently,  B.  resorted 
to  local  phlebotomy — especially  the  application  of  numerous  leeches  to  the  region  of  the 
abdomen — as  a remedy  in  fevers  and  various  diseases.  His  theory  and  practice  gained 
many  adherents  in  France,  who  took  the  name  of  the  “ physiological  school.”  But  a 
more  exact  knowiedge  of  physiology  has  demonstrated  that  the  views  of  B.  were  one- 
sided and  exaggerated.  Yet  they  have  not  been  without  use  in  pathology,  as  they  have 
led  to  a more  careful  study  of  pathological  anatomy  and  physiological  sympathies,  and 
to  a more  exact  observation  of  the  so-called  specific  morbid  processes  of  which  the  exis- 
tence was  denied  by  B.  and  his  followers.  Montegre,  Notice  Ilistorique  sur  la  Vie,  les 
Travaux,  etles  Opinions  de  Broussais. — His  son,  Casimir  B.,  born  1803,  professor  at  Val- 
de-Grace  (1833),  was  a zealous  adherent  of  the  Broussais  system,  and  is  the  writer  of  a 
work,  Hygiene-Morale,  based  on  phrenology. 

BROUSSON,  Claude,  1647-98;  a French  Protestant,  an  advocate  and  legal  defender 
of  the  Huguenots.  His  house  w'as  the  rendezvous  of  certain  leaders  of  an  outbreak,  and 
he  was  compelled  to  fly  from  the  city  (Toulouse),  barely  escaping  into  Switzerland. 
He  ventured  into  France  twice  afterwards,  at  great  peril ; but  in  1698  he  was  caught, 
after  many  escapes,  and  sentenced  to  be  broken  on  the  wheel  on  the  charge  of  treason- 
able conspiracy  with  the  duke  of  Schomberg  to  invade  France.  He  was  executed  accord- 
ingly, Nov.  4,  1698.  He  left  a number  of  works  on  the  subjects  of  the  period. 

BROUSSONET,  Pierre  Marie  Auguste,  1761-1807;  a French  naturalist  educated 
in  medicine,  and  a professor  at  the  age  of  18.  *He  labored  zealously  to  establish  the  Lin- 
naean  system  of  botany  in  France,  and  visited  England,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the 
royal  society,  publishing  in  London  Ichthyologice  Decas  L In  Paris  he  was  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  society  of  agriculture,  and  a member  of  the  electoral  college  of  the  city. 
Subsequently  he  visited  Madrid  and  Lisbon,  and  went  as  physician  to  an  embassy 
which  the  United  States  sent  to  the  emperor  of  Morocco.  Still  later  he  was  French 
consul  at  Teneriffe ; in  1797  a member  of  the  institute,  and  in  charge  of  the  botanical 
garden  at  Montpellier.  He  died  of  apoplexy  soon  after  his  election  to  the  national  leg- 
islative body.  France  is  indebted  to  him  for  the  introduction  of  the  Merino  sheep  and 
the  Angora  goat. 

BROTJSSONE'TIA.  See  Mulberry. 

BROUWER,  Adrian,  1608-40;  a Dutch  painter.  He  was  apprenticed  to  Frank 
Hals,  who  treated  him  with  great  severity,  and  drove  him  to  dissipation  and  the  low 
life  so  well  depicted  in  his  works.  The  best  collection  of  his  pictures  is  in  the  Munich 
gallery. 

BROWN,  a CO.  in  Illinois,  on  the  Illinois  river;  320  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  13,044.  In  part 
prairie  and  in  part  wooded,  with  fertile  and  well-cultivated  soil.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western  railroad.  Agriculture  is  the  main  business.  Co.  seat. 
Mount  Sterling. 

BROWN,  a CO.  in  s.  Indiana;  320  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 10,264;  w^ell  wooded,  and  -with 
tolerably  productive  soil.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation.  Co.  seat,  Nashville. 

BROWN,  a CO.  in  n.e.  Kansas  on  the  Nebraska  border;  576  sq.m.;  pop.  ’78,  10,446; 
in  ’80,  12,819.  The  co.  is  crossed  by  the  St.  Joseph  and  Denver  City  railroad.  Produc- 
tions, grain,  hay,  butter,  and  cattle.  Co.  seat,  Hiawatha. 

BROWN,  a CO.  in  s.  Minnesota,  on  the  Big  and  Little  Cottonwood;  450  sq.m.;  pop. 
’80, 12,018.  Chief  business,  agriculture.  Co.  seat.  New  Ulm. 


107 


Broussais. 

Brown. 


BROWN,  a CO.  in  s.w.  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  river;  502  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  30,802;  in  ’80, 
82,726.  Hilly  near  the  river,  but  level  inland;  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  Produces 
grain,  butter,  sorghum  molasses,  and  some  wine.  Co  seat,  Georgetown. 

BROWN,  a CO.  in  w.  Texas,  on  Colorado  river;  1050  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  8415.  Hilly 
.and  prairie  surface,  with  rich  soil.  Chief  business,  stock  raising.  Co.  seat,  Brown- 
wood. 

BROWN,  a CO.  in  e.  Wisconsin  at  the  head  of  Green  bay;  525  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
84,090.  Uneven  surface;  productions  agricultural.  The  Wisconsin  division  of  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad  passes  through.  Co.  seat.  Green  Bay. 

BROWN,  Benjamin  Gratz,  b.  Ky,  1826;  graduate  of  Yale;  made  his  home  in 
St.  Louis,  and  in  1852  was  a member  of  the  legislature.  In  1854,  he  started  the 
Missouri  Democrat.  In  the  civil  war  he  fought  for  the  union,  commanding  a brigade. 
In  1863,  he  was  a United  States  senator  from  Missouri,  and  in  1872  was  the  democratic 
candidate  for  vice-president. 

BROWN,  Chad,  d.  1665;  he  left  Massachusetts  in  1636  because  of  differences  with 
the  leaders  of  the  colony,  and  settled  in  Rhode  Island,  where  he  became  an  elder  in 
a Baptist  church,  and  the  progenitor  of  many  prominent  citizens. 

BROWN,  Charles  Brockden,  a celebrated  American  novelist,  was  b.  at  Philadel- 
phia, Jan.  17,  1771.  His  early  education  was  carried  on  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Robert 
Proud,  author  of  the  History  of  Pennsylvania.  Afterwards  he  studied  for  the  law,  but 
the  license  which  he  had  already  given  to  his  imagination  induced  an  unconquerable 
aversion  to  legal  pursuits,  and  he  consequently  betook  himself  to  literature.  The  French 
revolution  exercised  on  him,  as  on  many  other  ardent  spirits,  a considerable  influence; 
several  of  his  writings  at  this  period  being  penetrated  with  the  new  thoughts  and  senti- 
ments which  sprung  out  of  that  great  convulsion.  In  1798,  he  published  Wieland,  the 
first  of  his  remarkable  Actions ; and  in  1799,  Ormond,  or  the  Secret  Witness.  His  next 
production  was  Arthur  Mervyn,  or  Memoirs  of  the  Year  1793 — the  fatal  year  of  yellow- 
fever  in  Philadelphia.  In  1801,  appeared  Edgar  Hiintly,  or  the  Adventures  of  a Sleep- 
Walker,  ‘ ‘ a romance  presenting  a greater  variety  of  wild  and  picturesque  adventure, 
with  more  copious  delineations  of  natural  scenery,  than  is  to  be  found  in  his  other 
works.” — Prescott.  This  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by  Clara  Howard,  and  in  1804 
by  Jane  Talbot,  flrst  printed  in  England.  He  died  of  consumption  in  1810. 

Besides  the  writings  which  have  been  enumerated,  B.  composed  a number  of  political 
pamphlets,  contributed  to  various  literary  magazines,  and  founded  three  or  four  period- 
icals himself.  The  author  who  exercised  the  greatest  influence  on  the  development  of 
his  genius  was  Godwin,  whom  he  occasionally  imitated,  while  Godwin  himself,  on  the 
other  hand,  acknowledged  his  obligations  to  B.,  and  warmly  admired  him.  The  most 
striking  quality  of  his  mind  is  its  ingenuity,  both  imaginative  and  psychological.  He 
invents  incidents  and  analyzes  feelings  with  remarkable  subtlety,  but  his  success  is 
somewhat  marred  by  his  extravagant  departure  from  the  realities  of  every-day  life. 

BROWN,  Francis,  d.d.,  1784-1820;  a native  of  New  Hampshire,  and  graduate  of 
Dartmouth  college,  of  which  he  became  president  in  1815.  Some  of  his  sermons  and 
pamphlets  have  b^een  published. 

BROWN,  Sir  George,  a distinguished  British  gen.,  b.  at  Linkwood,  near  Elgin,  Scot- 
land, in  Aug.,  1790;  entered  the  army  in  1806,  became  lieut.  in  1807,  and  was  present 
in  the  latter  year  at  the  capture  of  Copenhagen.  He  served  in  the  peninsular  war  At 
the  battle  of  Talavera  he  was  severely  wounded,  and  at  the  storming  of  Badajoz  was 
one  of  the  forlorn-hope.  He  was  appointed  maj.,  May  26,  and  lieut. col..  Sept.  29,  1814, 
in  which  year  he  embarked  in  maj  .gen.  Ross’s  expedition  against  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bladensburg.  From  Feb.  6,  1824,  to  1842, 
he  commanded  a battalion  of  the  rifle  brigade.  He  was  made  adj.gen.  of  the  forces, 
April,  1850,  and  lieut. gen.,  1851.  In  the  Crimean  war,  1854-55,  B.  commanded  the  light 
•division.  At  the  battle  of  Inkerman,  Nov.  5,  1854,  he  was  severely  wounded,  and 
obliged  to  retire  for  a short  time  to  Malta.  In  1855.  he  was  created  a knight  commander 
of  the  bath.  In  the  expedition  to  the  sea  of  Azof,  he  commanded  the  British  troops; 
. and  in  the  flrst  unsuccessful  attack  on  the  Redan  of  Sebastopol,  he  had  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  storming-party.  He  was  gazetted,  April  3,  1856,  “ gen.  in  the  army  for 
distinguished  service  in  the  field.”  He  was  a knight  of  Hanover,  received  the  Turkish 
order  of  the  Medjidie  of  first  class  in  1855;  and  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
1856.  In  1860,  he  became  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland,  and  in  1862  a privy-councilor. 
He  died  in  1865. 

BROWN,  George  L.,  b.  1814  in  Boston;  an  American  painter,  of  whose  produc- 
tions the  more  notable  are  “The  Crown  of  New  England”  (the  White  mountains),  and 
“ The  Harbor  of  New  York.” 

BROWN,  Goold,  1791-1857;  a grammarian;  b.  in  Rhode  Island;  for  20  years  a 
teacher  in  New  York,  and  author  of  several  elementary  and  progressive  works  on 
English  grammar,  the  most  iniportant  of  which  is  his  Grammar  of  English  Grammars. 

BROWN,  Henry  Kirke,  b.  Mass.,  1814;  an  American  sculptor, well  known  for  works 
in  bronze.  He  studied  portrait-painting  in  Boston,  and  after  spending  some  years  in  Italy, 


Brown. 


108 


settled  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He  made  the  first  bronze  cast  achieved  in  the  United  States. 
Some  of  his  figures  are  “Hope,”  “ The  Pleiades,”  “ The  Four  Seasons,”  and  statues  of 
De  Witt  Clinton,  Washington,  Nathanial  Greene,  Lincoln,  and  gen.  Scott. 

BROWN,  Hugh  Stowell,  b.  1823 ; an  English  clergymen  who  left  the  established 
church  and  joined  the  Baptists;  he  soon  became  a leader,  and  is  still  very  popular  with 
the  working  classes. 

BROWN,  Jacob,  1775-1828;  an  American  general  commanding  on  the  Canadian 
frontier  in  the  war  of  1812;  he  showed  skill  and  courage  in  the  defense  of  Sackett’s 
Harbor,  and  m the  battles  of  Chippewa  and  Niagara  Falls.  In  1821,  he  was  chief  in 
command  of  tne  United  States  army. 

BROWN,  John,  d.d.,  b.  1715-66;  an  English  divine  and  author;  educated  at 
Cambridge;  served  with  distinction  as  a volunteer  in  1745,  and  was  about  that  time 
appointed  chaplain.  He  is  best  known  by  his  writings,  such  as  Honor,  and  Essay  on 
^tire  (poems);  the  tragedy  of  Barbarossa,  produced  by  Garrick,  followed  by  “AtTid- 
stone,  a satire  on  the  manners  and  principles  of  the  time ; a Dissertation  on  the  Rise, 
Union,  and  Power,  etc. , of  Poetry  and  Music.  He  was  affected  with  deep  melancholy 
at  times,  and  in  the  last  of  these  afflictions  committed  suicide. 

BROWN,  John,  of  Haddington,  once  the  most  popular,  and  still  among  the  most, 
revered,  theological  writers  in  Scotland,  was  b.  in  1722,  at  Carpow,  near  Abernethy,  in 
Perthshire.  Deprived  of  both  his  parents  when  only  11  years  of  age,  he  became  assist- 
ant to  a venerable  and  pious  shepherd,  named  John  Ogilvie,  who  tended  his  flock  among: 
the  neighboring  hills,  and  nursed  the  religious  ardor  of  the  boy’s  heart.  B.,  however, 
aspired  to  be  wise  as  well  as  good.  His  thirst  for  learning  was  insatiable,  and  the  most 
romantic  yet  well-accredited  stories  illustrative  of  this  are  related  by  his  biographers. 
While  still  a friendless  “ herd  laddie,”  he  had  made  great  progress  in  a self-acquired 
knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin.  The  extent  of  his  acquisitions,  even  at  this  early  time, 
may  be  estimated  from  the  fact,  that  the  country  people  round  about  believed  he  was  in 
league  with  the  devil,  and  that  he  had  pledged  his  soul  for  unhallowed  lore.  At  a later 
period  of  his  life,  “ he  knew  nine  or  ten  languages,  classical,  oriental,  and  modern,  and 
had  amassed  vast  stores  of  Puritan,  Scottish,  and  Dutch  divinity.  ” After  a brief  career  as. 
a peddler — an  employment  which  English  readers  will  understand  from  Wordsworth’s 
Excursion  was  neither  mean  nor  degrading — B.  became  a volunteer  in  a regiment  of 
militia  raised  in  Fifeshire  during  the  rebellion  of  1745,  and  in  1747,  schoolmaster  in  the- 
neighborhood  of  Kinross.  During  the  vacations  of  his  school,  he  studied  philosophy  and 
divinity  under  the  inspection  of  the  Associate  Synod,  and  the  superintendence  of  the 
rev.  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  James  Fisher.  In  1750,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Seces- 
sion church  at  Haddington.  Perhaps  a more  faithful,  industrious,  and  holy  minister 
never  labored  in  Scotland.  David  Hume  was  once  revailed  upon  to  go  and  hear  him,  and 
the  criticism  of  the  great  skeptic  was:  “ That  old  man  preaches  as  if  Christ  were  at  his 
elbow.”  Although  self-educated,  he  had  little  of  the  narrowness  which  culture  so* 
obtained  generally  brings  along  with  it;  he  corresponded  on  friendly  terms  with  Episco- 
palians, and  often  expressed  a warm  affection  for  all  true  Christians.  Although  himself 
a sound  Presbyterian,  and  a tolerably  strict  Calvinist,  ‘ ‘ the  love  of  the  Lord  ” was  his. 
real  and  ultimate  test  of  a man’s  orthodoxy.  In  1758,  B.  first  appeared  as  an  author.  His 
work  was  entitled  A Help  for  the  Ignorant,  etc.  In  1765,  he  published  his  famous  Chris- 
tian Jouural,  in  which  the  common  events  of  life  are  richly  but  quaintly,  and  perhaps 
somewhat  artificially,  spiritualized.  In  1768,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity 
under  the  Associate  Synod,  and  in  the  same  year  issued  his  valuable  Dictionary  of  the 
Holy  Bible.  In  1771,  appeared  History  of  the  Church  from  the  Birth  of  the  Saviour — a 
work  good  enough  for  cottage-reading,  but  possessing  no  merit  otherwise;  and  in  1778, 
1 he  Self-interpreting  Bi  ble.  This  last  is  B.  ’s  magnum  opus,  and  has  been  amazingly  popu- 
lar in  Scotland ; even  high  dignitaries  of  the  English  church  have  praised  and  recom- 
mended it.  Besides  these  works,  B.  published  a great  variety  of  sermons,  tracts,  etc., 
which  had  an  extensive  popularity.  He  died  on  19th  June,  ^87 

BRtoWN,  John,  m.d.,  founder  of  the  Brunonian  system  of  medicine,  the  son  of  a 
day-laborer,  and  himself  first  intended  for  a weaver,  b.  in  1735,  in  Bunkle  parish,  Ber- 
wickshire, was  educated  at  the  grammar-school  of  Dunse,  in  which  he  was  subsequently 
an  usher.  After  studying  medicine  at  the  Edinburgh  university,  he  became  tutor  to  the 
children  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Cullen,  and  assistant  in  his  university  lectures.  Con- 
ceiving himself  slighted  by  Cullen,  he  commenced  giving  lectures  himself  upon  a new 
system  of  medicine,  according  to  which  all  diseases  are  divided  into  the  sthenic,  or  those- 
depending  on  an  excess  of  excitement,  and  the  asthenic,  those  resulting  from  a deficiency 
of  it;  the  former  to  be  removed  by  debilitating  fnedicines,  as  opium,  and  the  latter  by 
stimulants,  such  as  wine  and  brandy.  His  system  gave  rise  to  much  opposition,  but 
his  partisans  were  numerous ; for  a time  his  opinions  had  some  influence.  In  1779,  B. 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  and  in  1780  published  his 
Elementa  Medicinice.  He  was  also  author  of  Observations  on  the  Old  System  of  Physic. 
In  1786,  being  overwhelmed  with  debt,  he  removed  to  London,  where  he  died  of 
apoplexy  in  1788/  His  works,  with  a memoir  by  his  son.  Dr.  William  Cullen  Brown,, 
appeared  in  1804  (3  vols.  8vo). 


109 


Brown. 


BROWN,  John,  1736-1803;  merchant  of  Providence,  R.  I.;  the  leader  of  the  men 
who  destroyed  the  Oaspee,  an  English  sloop-of-war,  June  17,  1772.  He  was  arrested  and 
put  in  irons,  but  escaped.  He  was  a member  of  congress  from  Rhode  Island,  and  a 
patron  of  Brown  university. 

BROWN,  John,  1744-80;  graduate  of  Yale,  and  king’s  attorney  in  New  York.  In 
1775,  he  was  an  emissary  in  Canada  to  provoke  the  people  against  the  English  govern- 
ment. He  was  with  Allen  at  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga,  and  at  Quebec  when  Wolfe 
was  killed.  *He  was  killed  by  Indians  while  on  the  way  to  help  Schuyler  in  the  Mohawk 
valley  campaign. 

BROWN,  John,  1757-1837;  b.  Va.;  soldier  in  the  revolutionary  arm^^  He  was  a 
student  at  Princeton  and  at  William  and  Mary  college;  and  after  residing  in  Kentucky 
for  a few  years,  returned  to  Virginia,  and  represented  that  state  in  congress,  1787-93. 
From  1793  to  1805,  he  was  United  States  senator  from  Virginia. 

BROWN,  John,  d.d.,  grandson  of  John  Brown,  of  Haddington,  was  b.  12th  July,  1784, 
near  Whitburn,  Linlithgowshire.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  university,  and  afterwrds  at 
the  theological  hall  of  the  secession  church  in  Selkirk.  In  1806,  he  was  ordained  to  the 
pastorate  of  a church  in  Biggar,  a small  town  in  Lanarkshire,  where  he  labored  for  15 
years,  employing  his  leisure  hours  in  those  studies  which  subsequently  enabled  him  to 
take  a h^h  rank  as  a biblical  expositor.  In  1822,  he  was  transferred  to  Rose  street 
church,  Edinburgh,  and  in  1829  to  Broughton  place  church  in  the  same  city.  In  1834, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  pastoral  and  exegetical  theology  in  connection  with  the 
associate  synod.  He  died  13th  Oct.,  1858.  As  a preacher.  Dr.  B.  was  among  the  first  of 
his  time.  For  clearness  of  scriptural  exposition,  chaste  and  powerful  language,  and 
majestic  ardor  and  earnestness  of  manner,  he  had  no  equal  in  his  denomination,  and  no 
superior  in  Scotland.  The  attractiveness  of  his  delivery  was  heightened  by  a counte- 
nance singularly  noble,  tender,  and  sweet.  Among  his  works  are  The  Law  of  Christ 
respecting  Giml  Obedience;  The  Resurrection  of  Life;  and  his  important  and  scholarly 
Expository  Discourses  on  the  Epistles  of  Peter,  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  See  Dr.  Cairns’s  Memoir  (1860). — John  Brown,  m.d.,  ll.d.,  son 
of  the  above,  b.  1810,  has  attained  a distinguished  place  among  the  medical  practitioners 
of  Edinburgh.  He  has  also  abundantly  inherited  the  paternal  genius,  though  in  him  it 
has  taken  a literary  rather  than  a theological  direction.  In  1858,  he  published  Horce 
Subsecivm,  a volume  of  essays,  most  of  which  had  previously  appeared  in  periodicals. 
One  of  these,  Rab  and  his  Friends,  has  been  since  published  separately,  and  has  obtained 
a remarkable  popularity.  It  excels  in  quaint  fancy,  rich  delicate  pathos,  and  abrupt  but 
felicitous  diction.  A civil  list  pension  of  £100  was  allotted  to  Dr.  B.  in  1876. 

BROWN,  Captain  John,  the  leader  of  the  Harper’s  Ferry  (U.  S.)  insurrection  (1859), 
designed  to  incite  the  slaves  of  the  southern  states  of  America  to  rebellion,  was  descended 
from  a Puritan  carpenter,  one  of  the  Mayflower  emigrants,  and  was  b.  at  Torrington, 
Conn. , in  the  year  1800.  He  intended  to  enter  the  ministry,  but  had  to  abandon  his  studies 
on  account  of  weak  sight,  and  subsequently  became  a wool-dealer.  In  1854,  having 
imbibed  an  intense  hatred  of  slavery,  he  went  to  Kansas,  in  order  to  vote,  and,  if  need 
were,  fight,  against  the  establishment  of  slavery  in  that  territory.  In  many  of  the  con- 
flicts which  ensued  between  the  pro-slavery  party  from  Missouri  and  the  free  settlers,  B. 
played  a prominent  part,  and  in  one  of  these  he  had  a son  killed,  a circumstance  which 
deepened  his  hostility  against  the  southern  party.  After  the  agitation  in  Kansas  was 
settled  by  a general  vote,  B.  traveled  through  the  northern  and  eastern  states,  declaiming 
against  slavery,  and  endeavoring  to  organize  an  armed  attack  upon  it.  In  Oct.,  1859,  at 
the  head  of  17  white  men  and  5 blacks,  he  commenced  active  hostilities  by  a descent 
upon  Harper’s  Ferry,  a town  of  some  5000  inhabitants,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Potomac 
and  Shenandoah,  and  possessed  of  an  arsenal  containing  from  100,000  to  200,000  stand 
of  arms._  The  arsenal  was  easily  captured,  and  40  or  50  of  the  principal  inhabitants  were 
made  prisoners ; but  instead  of  retreating  at  once  to  the  mountains  with  arms  and  hostages, 
as  his  original  design  had  been — meaning  to  exchange  the  hostages  for  slaves — B.  lingered 
on  in  the  town  until  the  evening,  by  which  time  1500  militiamen  had  arrived.  Next  day, 
an  attack  was  made  on  his  position,  which,  after  some  loss  of  life,  was  carried.  B.  was 
captured,  and  shortly  after  was  tried  for  treason,  and  executed.  He  is  described  as  a 
singularly  brave  and  honest  man. 

BROWN,  John,  b.  Conn.,  May  9,  1800;  d.  Dec.  2,  1859;  an  American  abolitionist, 
celebrated  as  the  originator  of  the  insurrection  at  Harper’s  ferry.  He  was  intended  for 
the  ministry,  but  was  compelled  to  give  up  study  on  account  of  inflammation  in  his 
eyes.  With  his  family  he  removed  to  Ohio,  where  he  worked  as  a tanner,  and  engaged 
in  the  wool  trade,  in  which  he  failed.  He  then  went  to  Essex  co.,  N.  Y.,  and  began  as 
a farmer,  but  in  1854  followed  his  four  sons,  who  had  settled  in  Kansas,  and  were  sub- 
jected to  much  persecution  on  account  of  their  opposition  to  slavery.  When  the  free- 
state  men  organized  to  repel  the  Missourians  who  were  besieging  Lawrence,  Brown  and 
his  sons  were  among  the  foremost  on  the  free-state  side;  and  a little  later  they  made  a 
remarkable  defense  against  vastly  superior  numbers  near  Ossawattomie.  After  many 
rough  adventures  in  the  Kansas  troubles,  B.  formed  the  project  of  an  insurrection  in 
the  south  among  the  slaves  as  the  surest  means  of  securing  their  liberation.  He  drilled 


Brown. 


110 


a small  force  in  Iowa  in  the  winter  of  1857,  and  the  next  spring,  in  Canada,  drew  up  a 
new  provisional  constitution  for  the  states,  under  which  he  was  selected  as  commander- 
in-chief,  one  of  his  sons,  and  Richard  Realf  and  John  Kagi,  being  civil  officers.  The 
next  important  event  was  the  rescue  by  B.  of  certain  slaves  in  Missouri  who  had  been 
sold  and  were  to  be  taken  to  Texas,  one  of  the  owners  of  the  property  being  slain  in  the 
conflict.  Again  he  went  to  Canada,  returning  to  the  United  States  in  the  summer. 
His  attempt  to  capture  the  arsenal  at  Harper’s  ferry  was  made  on  Sunday  night,  Oct. 
16th,  1859.  The  arsenal  was  easily  seized,  several  citizens  were  taken  ipto  custody, 
conspicuous  houses  were  searched  for  arms,  and  few  of  the  citizens  knew  what  was 
going  on  unt|l  mid-forenoon,  when  they  began  to  rally;  some  scattered  firing  followed, 
one  colored  man  was  killed  (by  Brown’s  men),  the  mayor  was  slightly  hurt,  and  so 
was  one  of  Brown’s  sons.  There  was  no  sign  of  a rising  of  negroes,  and  before  noon 
Brown  and  his  men  were  in  the  arsenal,  virtually  prisoners.  A feeling  of  rage  pre- 
vailed so  strongly,  that  a man  who  came  from  the  arsenal  with  a flag  of  truce  was 
instantly  killed,  and  one  prisoner  was  put  to  death.  At  night  Brown  had  three 
unwounded  whites  and  a few  useless  negroes  for  his  army;  one  of  his  sons  lay  dead,  and 
another  was  badly  wounded.  In  the  morning  a force  of  United  States  marines 
arrived,  and  Brown,  fighting  desperately  to  the  last,  was  taken  prisoner,  being 
wounded  once  with  a sword,  and  twice  with  the  bayonet.  All  of  the  invaders  were 
indicted  for  conspiring  to  incite  insurrection,  and  for  murder  and  treason.  After  a trial 
of  three  days,  in  which  Brown  was  unable,  on  account  of  his  wounds,  to  stand  up; 
he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  death  on  the  scaffold  within  48  hours.  He  died 
calmly  on  the  2d  of  Dec.,  1859.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  his  execution  hastened 
the  downfall  of  slavery  in  the  United  States.  B.  was  a man  of  stern  and  uncom- 
promising moral  principle;  and  though  open  to  the  charge  of  fanaticism,  and  regarded 
as  justly  and  necessarily  condemned  to  death  under  the  law,  he  seems  to  be  increas- 
ingly viewed  as  a martyr  and  a hero,  offering  himself  in  a blind  and  unconscious  sacri- 
fice as  an  obstacle  in  the  path  of  a gigantic  social  and  political  wrong. 

BROWN,  John  Newton,  d.d.,  1803-68;  b.  Conn.;  a Baptist  clergyman  who  pub- 
lished an  Ericyclopoedia  of  Beligio  as  Knowledge,  2(,nd.  Memorials  of  Baptist  Martyrs. 

BROWN,  Nicholas,  1769-1841 ; b.  R.  I. ; the  chief  patron  of  Browm  university, 
which  in  1804  changed  its  name  in  his  honor  from  Rhode  Island  college.  In  early 
life  he  vv^as  a member  of  the  house  of  Brown  & Ives,  successful  merchants.  The 
gifts  of  Brown  to  the  university  reached  more  than  $100,000.  He  also  gave  $30,000 
to  establish  an  insane  asylum  in  Providence,  besides  large  sums  to  the  athenaeum, 
and  to  churches,  etc. 

BROWN,  Robert,  an  English  clergyman,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Brownists,  b.  in 
1549,  the  son  of  Anthony  Brown,  esq.,  of  Folthorp,  Rutlandshire,  was  educated  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  at  first  a preacher  at  Bennet  church,  then  a schoolmaster  in 
Southwark,  and  a lecturer  at  Islington.  In  1580,  he  began  to  attack  the  order  and 
discipline  of  the  established  church,  and  soon  after  formed  a distinct  church  on 
democratic  principles  at  Norwich.  Committed  by  Dr.  Freake,  bishop  of  that  see, 
to  the  custody  of  the  sheriff,  he  was  released  from  prison  through  the  influence  of  the 
lord-treasurer,  Cecil,  to  whom  he  was  nearly  related.  Having,  in  1582,  published  a con- 
troversial work,  entitled  The  Life  and  Manners  of  True  Christians,  with,  prefixed,  A 
Treatise  of  Reformation  without  Tanying  for  Any,  he  w^as  again  arrested,  but,  through 
the  lord-treasurer’s  intercession,  again  liberated.  He  afterwards  formed  several  con- 
gregational churches;  but,  with  many  of  his  followers,  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
Holland.  In  1589,  he  returned  to  England,  reconciled  himself  to  the  established 
church,  and  became  rector  of  a church  near  Oundle,  Northamptonshire.  Of  a very 
violent  temper,  he  was,  when  80  years  old,  sent  to  Northampton  jail,  for  an  assault  on  a 
constable,  and  died  in  prison  in  1630.  The  Brownists  continued,  notwithstanding  the 
defection  of  their  leader,  to  subsist  as  a separate  sect  for  some  time  both  in  Hol- 
land (among  the  English  there)  and  in  England.  In  the  former  country,  they  were 
at  last  absorbed  in,  or  reconciled  to,  the  Presbyterian  church  in  1701,  in  the  latter, 
they  may  be  said  to  have  given  birth  to  the  Independents  (q.v.),  who  rose  into  great 
importance  in  the  17th  century.  ' 

BROWN,  Robert,  an  eminent  botanist,  the  son  of  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  was  b. 
at  Montrose,  Scotland,  Dec.  21,  1773,  and  educated  at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen. 
Having  studied  medicine  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  he  became,  in  1795,  ensign 
and  assistant-surgeon  in  a Scottish  fencible  regiment,  with  which  he  went  to  Ireland. 
Devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  botany,  he  resigned  his  commissions  in  1800,  and  the 
following  year  was,  on  the  recommendation  of  sir  Joseph  Banks,  engaged  as  naturalist 
in  the  expedition  sent  out  under  capt.  Flinders  for  the  survey  of  the  Australian  coasts. 
On  his  return,  in  1805,  he  brought  home  nearly  4000  species  of  Australian  plants,  a large 
proportion  of  which  were  new  to  science.  Soon  after,  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the 
Linnaean  society.  To  the  Transactions  of  the  Edinburgh  Wernerian  society  and  those 
of  the  Linnaean  society,  he  contributed  memoirs  on  Asclepiadem  and  Proteacew,  and  pub- 
lished Prodroinus  Plorw  Novae  Hollandm  et  Insulae  Van  Diemen's,  vol.  i.  1810;  a supple- 
ment to  tills  work  appeared  in  1830,  relating  to  the  Proteacece  only.  He  also  wrote  the 
General  Remarks,  Geographical  and  Systematical,  on  the  Botany  of  Terra  Australis, 


Ill 


Brown. 


attached  to  the  narrative  of  capt.  Flinders’  expedition,  1814.  His  adoption  of  the 
natural  system  of  Jussieu,  the  French  botanist,  led  to  its  general  substitution  in  place  of 
the  Linnsean  method.  B.  ’s  numerous  memoirs  in  transactions  of  societies,  and  other 
contributions  to  botanical  science,  secured  for  universal  approval  the  title  conferred  on 
him  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt  of  Bottanicorum  facile  Frinceps.  In  1810,  B.  received 
the  charge  of  the  library  and  splendid  collections  of  sir  Joseph  Banks,  which,  in  1827, 
were  transferred  to  the  British  museum,  when  he  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  botanical 
department  in  that  establishment.  In  1811,  he  was  elected  F.n.s. ; in  1832,  d.c.l.  of 
Oxford;  and  in  1833  was  elected  one  of  the  18  foreign  associates  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  of  the  institute  of  France.  In  1839,  the  royal  society  awarded  him  their  Copley 
medal  for  his  Discoveries  during  a Series  of  Years  on  the  Subject  of  Vegetahle^mpregnation. 
He  was  president  of  the  Linnsean  society  from  1849  to  1853.  He  died  in  London, 
June  10,  1858.  A collected  edition  of  B.’s  works,  in  5 vols.  8vo,  has  been  published  in 
Germany. 

BROWN,  Samuel,  m.d.,  son  of  Samuel  Brown  (the  founder  of  itinerating  libraries, 
and  grandson  of  the  rev.  John  Brown  of  Haddington),  was  b.  on  the  23d  Feb.,  1817, 
and  entered  the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1832.  He  took  his  degree  as  m.d.  in 
1839,  and  immediately  surrendered  himself  to  the  magical  fascination  of  chemistry. 
One  idea  possessed  him  to  the  close  of  his  life — the  possit‘41ity  of  reconstructing  the 
whole  science  of  atomics.  He  never,  in  spite  of  crushing  failures  in  experiment, 
abandoned  his  early  conviction  that  chemical  elements,  usually  considered  simple,  might 
be  transmuted  into  each  other.  In  1843,  he  delivered  in  Edinburgh  four  critical  lectures 
on  the  atomic  theory.  During  the  same  year,  he  became  a candidate  for  the  chair  of 
chemistry  in  the  university  of  that  city ; but  having  periled  his  claims  on  the  experi- 
mental success  of  his  fatal  theory,  and  being  again  doomed  to  disappointment,  he  with- 
drew his  application,  and  devoted  himself  with  a kind  of  mournful  austerity,  and  with 
more  than  the  earnestness  of  a mediaeval  alchemist,  to  the  solitary  work  of  his  laboratory. 
In  1850  appeared  his  Tragedy  of  Galileo,  a volume  which  indicates,  but  does  not  embody, 
the  finely  imaginative  and  philosophical  genius  of  its  author.  B.  died  of  consumption 
20th  Sept.,  1856.  His  fugitive  essays  were  collected  and  published  after  his  death; 
and,  though  for  the  most  part  too  comprehensive  in  their  intent,  they  enable  the  public 
to  understand  why  he  was  held  in  admiration  by  men  like  Hamilton,  Ferrier,  De  Quincey, 
Wilson,  Carlyle,  Hare,  Jeffrey,  and  Chalmers. 

BROWN,  Samuel  Gilman,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  b.  Maine,  1813;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
college  and  Andover  theological  seminary;  traveled  in  Europe;  was  professor  in  Dart- 
mouth of  oratory  and  intellectual  philosophy;  elected  president  of  Hamilton  college  in 
1867,  and  resigned  the  position  in  1880.  He  has  published  a Life  of  Bufus  Choate;  Biog- 
raphy of  Self-Taught  Men;  etc. 

BROWN,  Samuel  R.,  d.d.,  1810-80;  b.  Conn.  His  mother  was  the  author  of  the 
familiar  hymn,  I love  to  stead  a while  away.  The  family  removed  in  early  childhood  to 
Monson,  Mass.  Dr.  B.,  as  an  American  missionary,  founded  the  first  Protestant  Chris- 
tian school  in  China,  at  which  Yung  Wing,  now  a member  of  the  embassy  from  China 
to  the  United  States,  and  chief  of  the  educational  commission  which  has  120  Chinese 
youths  in  New  England  schools  and  colleges,  was  educated.  Graduated  from  Yale  in 
1832,  Dr.  Brown  sailed  for  China,  1838,  and  was  manager  of  the  Morrison  Chinese 
school  for  boys,  at  Canton,  1838-47.  He  was  in  the  United  States,  1847-59;  and  in 
1859,  was  stationed  at  Yokohama,  Japan,  as  one  of  the  first  missionaries.  He  is  transla- 
tor of  the  Bible  into  Japanese,  and  of  several  Japanese  books;  author  of  Colloquial  Jap- 
anese, a grammar;  Prendergasfs  Mastery  System,  adapted  to  the  study  of  English  or  Jap- 
anese; and  of  many  articles  on  Chinese  and  Japanese  subjects.  He  returned  to  this 
country  in  feeble  health,  in  1879,  and  died  in  Monson,  Mass. 

BROWN,  Thomas,  1663-1704;  recognized  by  Addison  as  “of  facetious  memory.” 
He  was  a farmer’s  son,  and  entered  at  Oxford,  but  was  obliged,  for  his  wild  conduct,  to 
leave  college.  In  London,  after  trying  teaching,  he  wrote  poems,  letters,  etc. , for  his 
bread.  His  works  are  witty,  but  coarse,  and  often  indelicate.  He  would  lose  his  friend 
sooner  than  his  joke. 

BROWN,  Thomas,  a Scottish  metaphysician,  son  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  Brown,  was 
b.  in  1778,  at  the  manse  of  Kirkmabreck,  Kirkcudbrightshire.  After  being  some 
time  at  school  in  England,  he  went  to  Edinburgh  in  1792,  and  for  several  years  attended 
the  lectures  of  Playfair,  Black,  Robison,  and  Dugald  Stewart.  He  began  the  study  of 
law,  but  shortly  abandoned  it  for  medicine;  and  having  taken  his  diploma  of  m.d.,  in 
1803,  he  became  (1806)  the  partner  of  Dr.  Gregory  in  his  large  practice.  But  his  strong 
bent  was  for  literature  and  philosophical  speculation.  At  the  age  of  18.  he  had  published' 
a refutation  of  Darwin’s  Zoonomia;  was  a member  of  an  academy  of  physics,  or  society 
for  “the  investigation  of  the  laws  of  nature,”  formed  in  1797,  and  embracing  the  names 
of  Erskine,  Brougham,  Leyden,  Jeffrey,  Smith,  and  others;  and  contributed  at  the  out- 
set to  the  Edinburgh  Review.  In  1804,  appeared  his  essay  on  Cause  and  Effect,  in  which 
he  holds  that  there  is  nothing  in  a cause  but  the  fact  of  immediate  and  invariable  ante- 
cedence to  the  change  called  its  effect.  Dugald  Stewart,  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
in  the  university,  being  obliged,  from  bad  health,  to  retire  in  1810,  got  Dr.  B.  appointed 


Brown. 

Brownell. 


Il2 


assistant  and  successor,  which  office  he  continued  to  discharge  till  his  death,  in  1820. 
He  was  popular  as  a professor;  and  his  Lectures,  published  after  his  death,  have  gone 
through  a great  many  editions,  though  of  late  they  have  somewhat  fallen  out  of  notice. 
He  also  wrote  a good  deal  of  poetry,  which  is  now  forgotten.  Dr.  B.  attempted  to  over- 
turn the  psycholo^cal  system  of  his  predecessors,  Reid  and  Stewart,  and  to  substitute 
a new  and  simplified  scheme  of  mental  phenomena.  The  greater  part  of  this  new  phi- 
losophy was  the  production  of  his  first  session  as  professor,  the  writing  of  each  lecture 
being  begun  on  the  evening  previous  to  its  delivery.  A philosophic  system  thus  impro- 
vised could  not  but  be  crude  and  inconsistent,  however  acute  and  imaginative  its  author 
might  be.  B.’s  chief  contribution  to  psychology  is  the  establishment  of  a sixth  or  mus- 
eular  sense. 

BROWN,  Ulysses  Maximilian;  1705-57;  after  studying  at  Limerick,  Rome,  and 
Prague,  he  entered  the  Austrian  army,  serving  with  distinction  in  Corsica  and  Italy,  and 
rising  rapidly  in  rank.  In  1739,  he  was  field-marshal  lieut.,  and  one  of  the  aulic 
council.  He  was  field-marshal  in  the  seven  years’  war,  repulsed  the  Prussians  at  Lowo- 
sitz,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  great  battle  of  Prague. 

BSOWN,  William,  founder  of  the  free  public  library  at  Liverpool,  b.  at  Ballymena, 
Ireland,  in  1784;  was  edi/^i^ted  at  Catterick,  near  Richmond,  Yorkshire;  and  in  his  16th 
year  accompanied  his  parents  to  the  United  States.  Employed  in  the  counting-house 
of  his  father,  who  was  engaged  in  the  linen  trade  in  Baltimore,  in  a few  years  he  was 
admitted  a partner.  Returning  to  England  in  1809,  he  established  a branch  of  the 
business  at  Liverpool,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  one  of  the  largest  mercantile  firms  in 
the  world.  Embarking  in  the  American  trade,  he  became  an  extensive  importer  of 
cotton,  and  by  his  rare  energy,  quick  business  habits,  and  sterling  integrity,  soon  became 
distinguished  for  the  magnitude  of  his  dealings.  A liberal  reformer,  he  took  a promi- 
nent part  in  local  and  public  affairs,  and  unceasingly  promoted  the  education  of  the 
people.  In  1844,  he  contested  s.  Lancashire  upon  the  anti-corn-law  league  interest  with- 
out success,  but  was  returned  to  parliament  for  that  division  of  the  country  in  1846,  and 
was  subsequently  three  times  re-elected.  A series  of  letters  in  defense  of  free-trade, 
which,  in  1850,  he  contributed  to  the  Pennsylvanian  (Boston  newspaper),  attracted  much 
attention.  He  was  also  an  able  advocate  for  the  adoption  of  a decimal  coinage.  In 
1857,  he  munificently  subscribed  £30,000  for  the  establishment  of  a free  public  library 
at  Liverpool,  and  the  noble  building  erected  for  the  purpose  owes  its  existence  entirely 
to  his  generosity.  He  died  in  1864. 

BROWN,  William  Lawrence,  1755-1830;  minister  of  the  English  church  at 
Utrecht,  and  successor  of  his  father  and  uncle.  He  was  also  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy and  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  university,  to  which  was  added  a professorship 
of  the  law  of  nature.  After  the  French  revolution  he  escaped  to  England,  and  at  a 
later  period  became  principal  of  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen.  In  1800,  he  was  chaplain 
•to  the  king,  and  in  1804  dean  of  the  chapel  royal.  His  best  known  works  are  Essay  on 
the  Natural  Equality  of  Man;  On  the  Existence  of  the  Supreme  Creator;  and  on  the  existing 
religions  with  regard  to  their  moral  tendency. 

BBOWN  COAL,  a mineral  substance  of  vegetable  origin,  like  common  coal,  but  differ- 
ing from  it  in  its  more  distinctly  fibrous  or  'woody  formation,  which  is  sometimes  so 
perfect  that  the  original  structure  of  the  wood  can  be  discerned  by  the  microscope, 
whilst  its  external  form  is  also  not  unfrequently  preserved.  In  this  state,  it  is  often 
called  wood  coal;  and  it  sometimes  occurs  so  little  mineralized,  that  it  may  be  used  for 
the  purposes  of  wood,  as  at  Vitry,  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine,  where  the  wood-work  of  a 
tiouse  has  been  made  of  it.  From  this  to  the  most  perfectly  mineralized  state,  it  occurs 
an  all  different  stages.  It  is  often  brown  or  brownish- black,  more  rarely  gray.  It  burns 
without  swelling  or  running,  with  a weaker  flame  than  coal ; emits  in  burning  a smell 
like  that  of  peat,  and  leaves  an  ash  more  resembling  that  of  wood  than  of  coal.  Where- 
cver  it  occurs  in  sufficient  abundance,  it  is  used  for  fuel,  although  very  inferior  to  com- 
mon coal.  Bovey  coal,  so  called  from  Bovey  Tracey,  in  Devonshire,  where  extensive 
beds  of  it  occur,  and  where  it  has  long  been  wrought,  is  B.  C.,  and  often  exhibits  the 
•woody  structure  very  beautifully.  B.  C.  occurs  in  a number  of  other  places  in  Britain, 
and  more  abundantly  near  Paris,  and  in  Liguria  and  Hanover,  where  it  forms  thick 
beds  in  allu-vial  deposits. — The  smturhrand  (q.v.)  of  Iceland  is  regarded  as  a variety  of 
it.  Jet  (q.v.)  is  also  sometimes  regarded  as  a variety  of  brown  coal.  Although  bearing 
the  name  coal,  B.  C.  is  rather  a kind  of  lignite  (q.v.)  than  of  coal. 

BBOWNB,  Charles  Farrar,  an  American  humorist,  better  known  as  “ Artemts 
Ward,”  was  b.  in  Waterford,  Me.,  in  1836,  and  graduated  from  the  free  village  school 
into  a printing-office — the  American  boy’s  college.  As  a printer’s  boy,  he  worked  in  all 
the  principal  towns  in  New  England,  until  settled  at  Boston,  where  he  began  to  write 
comic  stories  and  essays.  A roving  disposition  carried  him  to  the  west,  and  he  was 
engaged  as  local  editor  in  Toledo,  and  later  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  his  letters  from 
“ Aiiemus  Ward,  showman,”  a pretended  exhibitor  of  wax  figures  and  wild  beasts,  first 
attracted  general  attention.  In  1860,  he  became  a contributor  to  Vanity  Fair,  a New 
York  comic  weekly  paper;  and  being  invited  to  lecture,  soon  became  very  popular  and 
attractive.  As  a lecturer,  in  1863,  he  visited  California,  making  the  overland  trip,  visit- 


113 


Brown. 

Brownell. 


ing  Salt  Lake  City,  the  Mormon  capital,  and  drawing  crowds  in  every  town  he  visited. 
In  1864,  he  opened  his  illustrated  lectures  on  California  and  Utah  in  New  York,  with 
immense  success;  and  in  1866,  was  induced  to  visit  England,  where  he  became  a con- 
tributor to  Punch,  and  gave  his  lecture  on  the  Mormons  in  the  metropolis,  at  the  Egyp- 
tian hall,  Piccadilly.  But  while  convulsing  crowded  audiences  with  laughter,  he  was 
wasting  with  pulmonary  disease.  Early  in  1867,  he  went  to  Guernsey  for  a milder  air, 
but  with  no  benefit;  and  was  about  to  embark  for  America,  when  he  died  at  South- 
ampton, Mar.  6,  1867.  He  was  tall,  slender,  with  striking  features,  and*a  most  amiable 
character,  which  attracted  and  attached  to  him  many  friends.  By  his  will,  after  pro- 
viding for  his  mother,  leaving  legacies  to  his  friends,  and  his  library  to  the  best  boy  in 
the  school  of  his  native  village,  he  left  the  bulk  of  his  property  in  trust  to  Horace 
Greeley  to  provide  an  asylum  for  printers.  His  collected  writings,  which  have  had  a 
wide  circulation  in  America  and  England,  are  Artemus  Ward  His  Book;  Artemus  Ward 
•OfTnong  the  Mormons;  Artemus  Ward  among  the  Fenians;  and  a posthumous  collection 
iind  biography  entitled  Artemus  Ward  in  England. 

BROWNE,  Edward  Harold,  d.d.,  an  English  bishop,  b.  1811;  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  holding  various  professorships  until  in  1864  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Ely.  He  has  published  An  Exposition  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles;  Aids  to  Faith,  etc. 

BROWNE,  Isaac  Hawkins,  an  English  poet,  1705-60;  educated  at  Cambridge;  then 
engaging  in  the  law.  He  was  twice  chosen  to  parliament;  but  his  reputation  rests  exclu- 
sively upon  his  poems,  such  as  Design  and  Beauty,  and  The  Pipe  of  Tobacco,  in  which  he 
imitates  Cibber,  Pope,  Young,  Swift,  and  others,  all  of  whom  were  living  when  it  was 
published.  Be  Animce  Immortalitate,  a close  imitation  of  Lucretius,  was  his  most  impor- 
tant work. 

BROWNE,  John  Ross,  b.  1817;  an  emigrant  from  Ireland  to  the  United  States  when 
a child.  He  learned  shorthand  writing,  and  became  a reporter  in  the  United  States  sen- 
ate. Having  a desire  to  travel,  he  went  first  on  a whale-ship,  and  on  his  return  published 
•a  book  of  observations  in  Zanzibar.  He  next  went  on  government  business  to  California 
in  1849.  Two  years  later  he  went  as  correspondent  of  a new^spaper  to  Europe,  traveling 
through  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Palestine,  and  giving  an  account  in  Tusef  After  further 
service  in  the  north-western  territories  and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  he  went  to  Algeria,  Ice- 
land, Poland,  and  Russia,  and  published  The  Land  of  Thoi',  and  An  American  Family 
in  Germany.  In  1869,  he  published  an  elaborate  report  on  the  Resources  of  the  Pacific 
Slope.  He  was  minister  to  China  for  a short  time,  appointed  in  1868,  but  recalled  two 
years  later.  He  died  in  1875. 

BROWNE,  Sir  Thomas,  antiquary  and  physician,  was  b.  in  London,  1605.  His  father, 
a merchant,  left  him  an  ample  fortune,  and  he  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford. 
He  began  the  study  of  medicine,  then  traveled  over  France  and  Italy,  and  after  taking 
the  degree  of  m.d.  at  Leyden,  returned  and  settled  (1636)  at  Norwich,  where  he  contin- 
ued to  practice  as  a physician.  He  was  knighted  in  1671  by  Charles  II.,  and  died  1682. 
His  chief  works  are ; Beligio  Medici  (1642) ; Inquiries  into  Vulgar  and  Common  Errors  (1646) ; 
and  a Discourse  on  Sepulchral  Urns  (1648).  He  wrote  also  The  Garden  of  Cyrus,  or  the 
Quincunxial  Lozenge;  besides  a variety  of  tracts,  published  after  his  death.  His  writings 
are  highly  prized  by  many  for  their  genial  fancy,  pleasing  quaintness  of  style,  and  varied 
erudition. 

BROWNE,  William,  an  English  poet,  b.  1590,  of  whose  life  little  is  known,  save 
that  he  was  in  Exeter  college,  Oxford,  and  was  a tutor  to  an  earl  of  Caernarvon.  He 
was  of  the  school  of  Spenser,  and  author  of  Britannia's  Pastorals,  and  The  Shepherd's 
Pipe. 

BROWNE,  William  George,  1768-1813;  an  English  traveler,  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
wisited  Egypt  and  Sinai  in  1793,  and  tried  to  go  through  Abyssinia.  In  1800,  and  later,  he 
traveled  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Sicily.  In  1812,  he  proposed  to  visit  Samareand, 
and  survey  unexplored  Central  Asia.  After  leaving  Teheran  in  1813  he  was  no  more 
heard  from,  save  that  the  party  were  attacked  by  banditti  and  plundered  and  Browne 
was  murdered.  Thevenot,  the  French  traveler,  found  and  buried  what  he  supposed 
were  his  bones. 

BROWNELL,  Henry  Howard,  1820-72;  b.  Rhode  Island;  educated  at  Trinity 
college,  Hartford,  and  intended  for  the  bar,  but  devoted  himself  to  teaching  and  author- 
ship. In  1847,  he  issued  a volume  of  poems,  after  which  came  Ihe  People's  Handbook  of 
Ancient  and  Modern  History;  The  Discoverers,  Pioneers,  and  Settlers  of  North  and  South 
America,  etc.  Near  the  close  of  the  civil  war  he  was  acting  ensign  on  admiral  Farragut’s 
staff,  and  after  the  war  accompanied  the  admiral  to  Europe.  In  1866  he  issued  in  a 
volume  War  Lyrics  and  other  Poems. 

BROWNELL.  Thomas  Church,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  1779-1865;  b.  Mass. ; graduated  at  Union 
college  in  1804,  where  he  was  tutor  and  professor  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy.  In  1810, 
he  traveled  in  England  and  Ireland ; and  in  1816  was  ordained  a minister  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church.  In  1818  he  w^as  assistant  minister  of  Trinity  church  in  New  York 
city,  and  in  1819  made  bishop  of  Connecticut.  It  was  under  his  care  that  Washington 
(now  Trinity)  college  was  founded,  he  being  the  first  president.  He  was  the  author 
of  The  Family  Prayer  Book,  and  author  and  compiler  of  Religion  of  the  Heart  and  Life. 
U.  K.  III.— 8 


Brownian. 

Brownson. 


114 


BROWNIAN  MOVEMENTS.  The  motion  of  non-living  particles  as  seen  through  the 
microscope,  often  mistaken  for  motions  of  living  matter.  The  cause  of  the  movements 
has  not  been  satisfactorily  shown,  but  it  has  been  surmised  that  heat  is  the  motive 
power. 

BROW'NIE,  a domestic  spirit  of  the  fairy  order  in  the  old  popular  superstitions  of 
Scotland.  The  common  tradition  respecting  the  B.  is,  that  he  was  a good-humored 
drudging  goblin,  who  attached  himself  to  farmhouses  and  other  dwellings  in  the 
country,  and  occupied  himself  during  night,  when  the  family  were  in  bed,  in  performing 
any  humble  kind  of  work  that  required  to  be  attended  to,  such  as  churning,  thrashing 
corn,  etc. — a spirit  not  seen  or  spoken  to,  and  only  known  by  the  obliging  performance 
of  his  voluntarily  undertaken  labors — a most  valuable  adjunct  to  the  domestic  establish- 
ment, and  unfortunately  no  longer  obtainable  by  good  housewives.  In  Cornwall,  a 
goblin  known  as  Broimy  is  evoked  to  assist  at  the  swarming  of  bees  (Borlace’s  Antiquities 
of  GornwalJ).  The  resemblance  of  the  Scotch  B.  to  the  Bohin  Ooodfellow  .)  of  the 
English,  and  the  Kobold  of  the  Germans,  is  also  so  conspicuous  that  we  must  necessarily 
refer  the  different  fragmentary  legends  on  the  subject  to  one  of  the  old  superstitions 
generally  prevalent  in  Europe. 

BROWNING,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  England’s  greatest  poetess,  was  b.  in  London 
about  the  year  1809.  Her  maiden  name  was  Barrett.  The  culture  which  she  received 
in  her  youth  was  of  a kind  far  transcending  the  ordinary  education  even  of  “ ladies 
intellectual.”  Classics,  philosophy,  and  science  were  studied  with  enthusiasm  and  suc- 
cess. At  a comparatively  early  period,  she  became  a contributor  to  periodicals,  and  a 
series  of  articles  on  the  Greek  Christian  poets  indicated  that  she  possessed  both  recondite 
learning  and  keen  poetic  insight.  Her  first  important  essay  in  authorship  was  a trans- 
lation of  the  Prometheus  of  Eschylus  in  1833.  In  1838,  appeared  the  Seraphim,  and 
Other  Poems,  the  external  peculiarity  of  which  was  its  endeavor  to  embody  the  ideas  and 
sentiments  of  a Cliristian  mystery  in  the  artistic  form  of  a Greek  tragedy.  Delicate 
health,  arising  from  a rupture  of  a blood-vessel  in  the  lungs,  and  the  death  % drowning 
of  a favorite  brother  in  the  following  year,  compelled  her  to  live  in  seclusion  for  a long 
time.  At  length  her  health  was  restored,  and  in  1846  she  married  Robert  Browning 
(q.v.),  himself  a great  poet.  After  their  marriage,  they  resided  chiefly  in  Italy,  in  whose 
welfare  they  were  passionately  interested.  In  1850,  Mrs.  B.  published  her  collected 
works,  together  with  several  new  poems,  among  which  was  Lady  Geraldine’s  Courtship. 
In  1851,  appeared  the  Casa  Guidi  Windows,  a poem  whose  theme  was  the  struggle  made 
by  the  Tuscans  for  freedom  in  1849.  Aurora  Leigh,  her  longest  production,  was  pub- 
lished in  1856.  Poems  before  Congress  appeared  in  1860.  Her  poetry  is  distinguished  by 
its  depth  of  feeling,  by  its  true  pathos,  by  its  noble  and  generous  sentiments.  Appar- 
ently she  poured  forth  her  verse  with  dangerous  facility;  and  there  are  few  of  her  poems- 
which  would  not  be  improved  by  the  simple  process  of  curtailment.  But  there  is  not  a. 
thought  or  a sentiment  of  the  many  she  has  so  beautifully  expressed  which  any  one 
would  wish  expunged.  No  writer  ever  exerted  a better,  gentler,  happier  influence. 
She  died  in  1861. 

BROWNING,  Robert,  a distinguished  contemporary  poet,  b.  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London  in  the  year  1812,  and  educated  at  the  London  university.  The  drama  of  Para- 
celsus, which  first  brought  him  into  notice,  was  published  in  1836.  In  the  following  year 
appeared  his  tragedy  of  Strafford,  which  was  brought  out  upon  the  stage,  but  proved 
unsuccessful,  though  Macready  himself  personated  the  hero.  Sordello  and  The  Blot  in 
the  Scutcheon  also  failed,  through  lack  of  vivid  and  impressive  incident.  Pippa  Passes 
secured  a greater  measure  of  popular  approbation.  In  1855,  B.  published  Men  and 
Women,  one  of  his  greatest  works,  containing  poems  which  for  depth  and  subtlety  of 
conception,  profound  analysis  of  the  human  mind  in  its  most  delicate  and  impassioned 
conditions,  and  abstract  speculative  insight,  are  unsurpassed  in  the  English  language. 
If,  as  some  think,  in  vigor  and  brilliancy  of  thought  he  is  above  Tennyson,  he  is  as  far 
beneath  him  in  melody  of  versification  and  artistic  beauty  of  style.  Often  he  shows  a 
morbid  love  of  obscurity,  but  he  frequently  exhibits  a Shakespearian  clearness  of  idea 
and  emphasis  of  expression.  Some  of  his  Dramatic  Lyrics  are  faultless.  Among  his 
other  poems  are  The  Ring  and  the  Book;  Balaustion’s  Ad'centurelfWlV}',  Prince  Hohemtiel- 
Schwangau  (1871);  Red  Cotton  Night-cap  Country  (1873);  Aristophanes’  Apology  (1875); 
The  Inn  Album  (1875);  Pacchiarotto,  with  other  Poems  (1876);  La  Saisiaz:  The  Tkeo  Poets 
of  Croisic  (1878). 

BROWNISTS,  a sect  of  English  puritans  of  the  16th  c.,  who  took  their  doctrines  and 
name  from  Robert  Brown.  In  1592,  sir  Walter  Raleigh  estimated  their  numbers  at 
20,000.  Harsh  measures  suppressed  them  in  England,  or  drove  them  out;  but  the  exiles 
found  refuge  in  Holland,  where  their  church  included  a number  of  eminent  men.  Ere 
long  they  divided  into  Brownists  and  Separatists,  and  soon  the  Brownists  gave  place  to 
the  Independents,  or  Congregationalists.  The  Brownists  objected  not  to  the  doctrine, 
but  to  the  form  of  government  of  the  English  church,  and  to  that  of  the  Presbyterians 
as  well.  They  would  join  no  other  reformed  church  on  account  of  the  toleration  of 
unregenerate  persons  as  members,  with  whom  they  held  it  impiety  to  be  in  Christian 
fellowship.  They  condemned  the  wedding  service  in  church,  holding  marriage  to  be  a 
civil  contract;  refused  the  baptism  of  the  children  of  those  not  church-membirs,  or  of 


115 


Brownian- 

Brownson. 


those  who  did  not  take  sufficient  care  of  their  children  already  baptized,  and  rejected  all 
forms  of  prayer,  holding  even  that  the  Lord’s  prayer  was  presented  as  a model  for  imi- 
tation, not  for  repetition.  Their  form  of  church  government  was  democratic,  all  power 
residing  in  the  brotherhood.  The  churches  were  severally  independent;  the  minister  of 
one  could  not  officiate  in  another.  Lay  brothers  could  prophesy  or  exhort,  and  it  was 
usual  after  a sermon  to  question  and  discuss  the  topics  broached.  Every  Brownist 
church  was  a perfect  body  corporate,  possessing  full  power  over  its  own  members  and 
acts,  and  accountable  to  no  otlier  jurisdiction  whatever.  The  principles  of  this  sect 
were  those  of  a rude  and  extreme  independency — the  natural  reaction  from  the  ecclesi- 
astical abuses  of  those  times.  Their  leader,  late  in  life,  returned  to  the  established 
church,  becoming  again  a clergyman  in  it.  His  followers  divided  among  themselves  on 
some  minor  points  of  principle  or  of  method,  and  the  sect  as  a body  came  to  nought. 
Yet  those  who  favor  “voluntaryism”  in  the  church  as  against  national  establisment,  and 
the  sovereignty  of  the  local  congregation  as  against  the  consolidation  of  all  the  churches 
•of  some  vast  region,  claim  that  the  Brownist  movement  w’as  the  rough  prophecy  and 
heralding  of  a cardinal  principle  of  polity  then  about  to  be  restored  to  the  church  after 
ages  of  neglect. 

BROWNLOW,  William  Gannaway,  1805-77;  b.  Ya.  He  was  bred  to  the  car- 
penter’s trade,  but  in  1826  became  a Methodist  minister,  and  was  for  10  years  an  itiner- 
ant. He  took  part  in  politics,  advocating  the  election  of  Adams  in  1828.  In  1837,  he 
was  editor  of  the  Knoxville  Whig,  and  his  bold  and  quaint  utterances  soon  gave  him  a 
wdde  reputation.  In  1856,  he  defended  the  Methodist  church  in  a work  called  The  Iron 
Wheel  Examined  and  its  Spokes  Extracted.  Two  years  later,  with  Rev.  A.  Pryne  of  New 
York,  he  discussed  the  question,  “Ought  American  Slavery  to  be  Perpetuated?” 
Brownlow  defended  slavery.  In  the  secession  he  clung  to  the  union  as  the  best  means 
of  upholding  the  institutions  of  the  south.  For  this  he  was  arrested  by  the  confederate 
government  and  sent  out  of  their  lines.  He  returned  to  Tennessee  in  1864,  and  the  next 
year  was  elected  governor,  and  in  1869  was  sent  to  the  United  States  senate.  He  was 
ardent,  fearless,  and  resolute,  caring  little  for  refinement  in  speech  or  action. 

BROWN  PIGMENTS,  a term  in  art  applied  to  those  substances  in  which  the  three  pri- 
mary colors  unite  in  unequal  proportions,  red  being  in  excess.  B.  P.  are  chiefly  mineral, 
and  are  used  sometimes  in  a raw  but  usually  in  a burned  state.  The  most  important 
are  bister,  asphaltum,  umber,  terra  di  sienna.  Mars  brown,  Cassel  earth,  and  brown 
madder. 

BROWNS  on  porcelain  are  generally  imparted  by  a mixture  containing  more  or  less 
sulphate  of  iron,  and  which,  when  heated,  leaves  the  red  oxide  of  iron  (rust)  on  the 
porcelain,  forming  a more  or  less  deep-tinted  ochre.  See  Pottery. 

BROWNS  on  cloth  are  communicated  by  arnotto  (q.v.)  and  copperas,  assisted  by 
fustic,  sumach,  peachwood,  logwood,  and  alum.  See  Dyeing. 

BROWN-SEQUARD,  Charles  Edward.  A French-ximerican  physiologist  b.  in 
Mauritius,  1818.  His  father,  Edward  Brown,  was  a native  of  Philadelphia;  his  mother 
was  French,  of  the  name  of  Sequard.  He  took  the  degree  of  m.d.  at  Paris,  1840,  and 
afterwards  spent  much  of  his  time  in  America,  investigating  and  lecturing.  His 
researches  have  been  extensive,  furnishing  many  of  the  most  important  facts  in  physiol- 
•ogy,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  nervous  system.  It  was  formerly  supposed  thafLonget 
had  shown  that  the  posterior  columns  of  the  spinal  cord  conducted  sensation  to  the  brain, 
while  the  anterior  columns  transmitted  motor  impulses  to  the  muscles.  Belingeri,  how- 
ever, in  1823,  claimed  to  have  demonstrated  that  sensation  was  conveyed  to  the  brain  by 
the  gray  substance  of  the  cord  only.  These  observations  have  been  confirmed  by  Brown- 
Seqnard,  who  was  also  the  first  to  demonstrate  that  the  decussation  of  the  sensory  con- 
ductors is  in  the  cord  itself ; and  he  lias  the  reputation  of  having  created  the  physiology 
of  the  sensory  tract  of  the  spinal  cord.  His  experiments  upon  the  transfusion  of  blood 
are  also  of  great  interest.  Detached  muscular  parts  of  animals,  after  losing  their  irrita- 
bility, were  revived  for  a considerable  time  by  injecting  fresh,  oxygenated  blood  into 
them.  A remarkable  experiment  was  the  transfusion,  into  the  carotid  artery  of  a dog- 
just  dead  from  peritonitis,  of  blood  from  a living  dog.  The  dead  dog  was  sufficienlly 
restored  to  be  able  to  stand  upon  his  feet  and  wag  his  tail,  and  make  other  motions.  He 
died  a second  time,  twelve  and  a half  hours  after.  Insufflation  was  also  employed.  In 
1864  Dr.  Brown-Sequard  was  appointed  professor  of  physiology  and  pathology  of  the 
nervous  sj’-stem,  in  Harvard  university.  Returning  to  France  in  1869,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  experimental  and  comparative  physiology  at  Paris.  He  was  founder  and 
editor  of  the  Journal  de  la  Physiologie  de  V Homme  et  des  Ammaux  from  1858  to  1863.  He 
established  Archives  de  la  Physiologie  Normale  et  Pathologique  in  1869.  In  1873  he 
practiced  medicine  in  New  York,  and  with  Dr.  E.  C.  Seguin  published  the  Archives  of 
Scientific  and  Practical  Medicine.  He  also  published  Lectures  on  the  Diagnosis  and  Treat- 
ment of  the  Principal  forrm  of  Paralysis  of  the  Lower  Extremities,  8vo,  London,  1861. 

BROWNSON,  Orestes  Augustus,  ll.d.,  1803-77;  b.  Vermont;  a theologian  and 
author.  He  was  at  first  a Presbyterian,  but  soon  became  a Universalist  preacher,  and 
was  an  indefatigable  writer  in  support  of  whatever  he  for  the  time  adopted.  In  1828, 
he  went  into  politics  and  tried  to  establish  a workingmen’s  party  in  New  York,  moved 
thereto  by  the  ideas  of  Robert  Owen.  In  1832,  he  was  enthusiastic  over  Dr.  Channing, 
and  became  a Unitarian  preacher;  in  1836,  he  organized  in  Boston  “The  Society  of 


Brown. 

Bruce. 


116 


Christian  Progress,”  as  a church  of  which  he  was  pastor.  About  this  time  he  pub- 
lished New  Views  of  Christianity,  Society,  and  the  Church,  which  was  a moderate  attack 
on  Protestantism.  In  1838,  he  started  the  Boston  Quarterly  Review,  which  had  existence 
for  about  five  years,  and  was  then  merged  in  the  New  York  Democratic  Review.  In 
1840,  he  published  Charles  Elwood,  or  the  Infidel  Converted,  a treatise  in  the  form  of  a. 
story,  in  favor  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  towards  which  the  author  was  drifting, 
and  which  he  joined  in  1844.  His  literary  labor  was  enormous,  nearly  all  the  original 
matter  in  his  various  reviews  and  magazines  being  from  his  own  pen.  Though  so 
changeable  in  his  early  years,  he  seems  to  have  found  a final  conviction  in  his  late  life ; 
and  he  certainly  gave  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  a sincere  and  powerful  advocacy. 

BROWN  SPAR,  a name  often  given  by  mineralogists  to  certain  varieties  of  dolomite 
(q.v.),  or  magnesia  limestone,  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence,  distinguished  by  a brownish 
or  reddish  color,  and  a pearly  luster,  upon  account  of  which  they  are  also  sometimes 
called  pearl  spar. 

BROWNSVILLE,  a t.  in  Fayette  co.,  Penn.,  30  m.  s.  of  Pittsburgh;  pop.  ’70, 1749. 
The  village  is  on  the  Monongahela  river,  over  which  there  is  a large  and  expensive 
bridge.  The  river  is  navigable  to  this  point. 

BROWNSVILLE,  a village  in  Haywood  co.,  Tenn.,  on  the  Louisville  and  Memphis^ 
railroad,  57  m.  n.e.  of  Memphis;  pop.  ’70,  2454—1016  colored.  There  is  a college  for 
women  under  Baptist  direction.  The  village  is  in  a rich  planting  district,  and  has  a 
good  trade. 

BROWNSVILLE,  a city  in  Cameron  co.,  Texas,  on  the  Rio  Grande  opposite  Mata- 
nxoras  (Mexico),  35  m.  from  the  gulf;  pop.  ’70,  4905.  It  is  a port  of  entry,  and  has  a- 
considerable  commerce.  Fort  Brown,  near  the  city,  is  occupied  by  a United  States 
garrison. 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  was  organized  in  1764,  at  Warren, 
in  the  same  state,  and  removed  in  1770  to  its  present  location.  It  was  known  at  first 
as  Rhode  Island  college,  but  in  1804  the  name  was  changed  in  honor  of  Nicholas  Brown, 
one  of  its  most  munificent  benefactors.  It  has  been  from  the  beginning  under  Bap- 
tist direction  and  patronage,  but  it  is  not  sectarian  in  its  teaching.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment of  $775,000,  and  an  annual  income  of  $65,000.  Its  property  is  valued  at  over 
$1,250,000.  The  college  buildings,  five  in  number,  stand  upon  elevated  ground,  and 
are  inclosed  in  a campus  of  16  acres,  beautifully  graded  and  adorned  with  trees,  chiefly 
elms.  The  library,  a choice  and  admirable  'selection,  contains  52,000  volumes  and 
16,000  pamphlets;  and  a permanent  fund  of  $27,000  insure^  its  constant  increase.  The 
museum  of  natural  history  contains  a valuable  collection  of  specimens.  There  are 
(1880)  14  professors,  3 other  teachers,  and  260  students.  The  alumni  number  2845. 
Mr.  James  Manning  was  the  first  president.  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxcy  the  second,  and  Rev. 
Asa  Messer  the  third.  The  latter  was  succeeded  in  1827  by  Rev.  Francis  Wayland, 

D. D.,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  American  divines  and  educators,  under  whose  direc- 
tion the  institution  greatly  prospered.  His  successors  have  been  Barnas  Sears,  d.d., 
LL.D.,  1855-67;  Alexis  Caswell,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  1867-72;  and  the  present  incumbent, 

E.  G.  Robinson,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  appointed  in  1872.  A fund  of  $50,000,  created  by  the 
state,  sustains  30  scholarships.  More  than  50  other  scholarships,  each  yielding  about 
$60  per  annum,  have  been  established ; and  there  is  an  arrangement  whereby  $25  is 
annually  deducted  from  the  tuition  of  a number  of  indigent  students,  not  exceeding 
two  fifths  of  the  whole  body. 

BRSHESI'NY,  an  insignificant  t.  of  Poland,  in  the  government  of  Piotrkov,  62  m. 
s.w.  of  Warsaw,  near  the  railway  that  connects  Warsaw  with  Vienna  and  other  places. 
Pop.  ’67,  6040. 

BRUCE,  a CO.  in  n.w.  Ontario,  Canada,  on  lake  Huron;  1600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71, 
68,815.  There  is  a coast  line  of  130  m.  in  the  n.w.  part  of  the  county,  forming  a long 
peninsula  between  the  lake  and  Georgian  bay.  Vast  beds  of  salt  underlie  the  coast 
along  the  lake.  In  the  s.  part  the  soil  is  level  and  fertile.  Capital,  Walkerton,  on  Sau- 
geen  river. 

BRUCE,  the  surname  of  a family  illustrious  in  Scottish  history,  descended  from  Rob- 
ert de  Bruis,  a Norman  knight,  who  accompanied  William  the  conqueror  to  England  in 
1066,  and  died  soon  after.  His  younger  son,  Adam,  who  acquired  large  possessions  in 
Yorkshire,  left  a son,  Robert  de  Brus  of  Cleveland,  a companion  in  arms  of  prince  David 
of  Scotland,  afterwards  David  I.,  from  whom  he  received  a grant  of  the  lordship  of 
Annandale,  held  by  the  tenure  of  military  service.  At  the  commencement  of  the  war  iq 
England  between  Stephen  and  Matilda,  niece  of  the  king  of  Scots,  Robert  de  B.  adhered 
to  the  former,  and  renounced  his  allegiance  to  David,  resigning  his  lands  in  Annandale 
to  his  son  Robert.  In  1138,  he  was  sent  by  the  barons  of  the  north  of  England  to  negO' 
tiaie  with  David,  who  had  advanced  in  support  of  his  niece’s  claims  as  far  as  Northaller. 
ton,  Yorkshire.  In  the  battle  of  the  Standard  which  followed,  he  took  prisoner  his  soil 
Robert,  then  14  years  of  age,  who,  as  lord  of  Annandale,  fought  on  the  Scottish  side. 
He  died  in  1141.  His  English  estates  were  inherited  by  his  eldest  son,  Adam,  whose 
male  line  terminated  in  Peter  de  B.  of  Skelton,  constable  of  Scarborough  castle  in  1271. 
Robert  de  B.,  2d  lord  of  Annandale,  had  two  sons:  Robert — who  married  a natural 


117 


Brown.. 

Bruce. 


daughter  of  William  the  lion,  and  died,  without  issue,  before  1191 — and  William, 
whose  son,  Robert,  4th  lord  of  Annandale,  married  Isobel,  2d  daughter  of  David,  earl  of 
Huntingdon  and  Chester,  brother  of  William  the  lion,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  royal  house  of  Bruce.  He  died  in  1245. 

BRUCE,  David,  son  of  king  Robert  Bruce,  succeeded  his  father,  in  1329,  as  David  II., 
when  only  5 years  old.  In  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Northampton,  he  had  married,  when 
4 years  old,  Joanna,  daughter  of  Edward  II.  of  England,  and  on  14th  Nov.,  1331,  he 
w'as  crowned  with  her  at  Scone.  In  1333,  the  success  of  Edward  Baliol  and  the  English 
party  obliged  David’s  guardians  to  send  him  and  his  consort  to  France;  but  on  the  dis- 
persion of  Baliol’s  adherents,  David  returned  to  Scotland  in  1341.  He  made  three  unsuc- 
cessful inroads  into  England,  and  on  a fourth  invasion,  in  1346,  was  taken  prisoner  at 
the  battle  of  Neville’s  Cross,  near  Durham,  and  conveyed  to  the  tower  of  London. 
Thence  he  was  removed  to  Odiham,  in  Hampshire,  and  not  released  till  1357,  when  his 
ransom  was  fixed  at  100,000  marks.  His  queen  dying  in  1362,  he  married  Margaret 
Logie,  a Scottish  gentlewoman  of  singular  beauty,  whom  he  divorced  in  1370.  He  had 
no  issue;  and  in  his  latter  years,  he  was  engaged  in  several  intrigues  with  England,  with 
the  view  of  excluding  his  nephew,  Robert,  the  steward  of  Scotland,  the  next  heir,  from 
the  throne.  He  died  at  Edinburgh  castle,  Feb.  22,  1371. 

BRUCE,  Edward,  king  of  Ireland,  brother  to  the  above,  a chivalrous  but  rash  and 
impetuous  prince,  was  actively  engaged  in  the  .struggle  for  Scotland’s  independence ; and 
in  1308,  after  defeating  the  English  twice,  made  himself  master  of  Galloway.  In  1315,. 
the  chieftains  of  Ulster  tendered  to  him  the  crown  of  Ireland,  on  condition  of  his  assist- 
ing them  to  expel  the  English  from  the  island.  With  a small  army  of  6000  men,  he 
embarked  at  Ayr,  and  reached  Carrickfergus,  May  25th  of  that  year,  accompanied  by 
sir  Thomas  Randolph,  earl  of  Moray,  sir  John  of  Soulis,  sir  John  the  Stewart,  sir  Fer- 
gus of  Ardrossan,  and  other  Scottish  knights  of  renown.  His  rapid  victories  soon  made 
him  master  of  the  province  of  Ulster,  and  he  was  crowned  king  of  Ireland,  May  2,  1316,. 
but  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Dundalk,  Oct.  5,  1317. 

BRUCE,  George,  1781-1866;  b.  Scotland,  came  to  Philadelphia  in  1795  as  a printer, 
;ind  in  1803  became  publisher  of  the  New  York  Advertiser.  In  1812,  he  and  his  brother 
introduced  the  art  of  stereotyping,  and  followed  that  and  type-founding  thereafter.  One 
of  the  nephews  was  the  inventor  of  a machine  for  casting  types. 

BRUCE,  James,  a celebrated  traveler,  born  at  Kinnaird  house,  Stirlingshire,  Dec.  14, 
1730,  was  the  eldest  son  of  David  Bruce,  esq.,  of  Kinnaird,  and  Marion  Graham  of  Airth. 
Educated  at  Harrow,  he  was  sent,  in  the  winter  of  1747,  to  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
with  the  intention  of  studying  law ; but  changing  his  views,  he  went  to  London,  and 
having,  in  Feb.,  1754,  married  the  daughter  of  a wine-merchant’s  widow,  became  a part- 
ner in  the  business.  His  wife  dying  within  a year,  he  made  a tour  on  the  continent,  and 
on  his  father’s  death  in  1758,  he  succeeded  to  the  estate  of  Kinnaird.  In  1761,  he  retired 
from  the  wine-trade,  and  in  1763  was  appointed  consul-general  at  Algiers.  He  remained 
there  about  two  years,  studying  the  oriental  languages,  and  acquiring  the  rudiments  of 
surgery.  He  then  went  to  Aleppo,  where  he  took  further  instructions  in  the  medical  art, 
being  resolved  to  travel  in  the  character  of  a physician.  In  June,  1768,  he  proceeded  to 
Alexandria  and  from  Cairo  set  out  on  his  famous  journey  to  Abyssinia,  which  forms  an 
epoch  in  the  annals  of  discovery.  Sailing  up  the  Nile  to  Syene,  he  crossed  the  desert  ta 
Cosseir,  and  arrived  at  Jeddah  in  April.  1769.  After  various  detentions  he  reached  Gon- 
dar,  the  capital  of  Abyssinia,  in  Feb.,  1770;  and  on  Nov.  14  of  that  year,  succeeded  in 
reaching  the  sources  of  the  Abawi,  then  considered  the  main  stream  of  the  Nile.  This 
accomplishment  of  the  chief  object  of  his  journey  filled  him  with  the  greatest  exultation. 
He  remained  about  two  years  in  Abyssinia,  and  returning  by  way  of  Sennaar  and  the 
desert  of  Assouan,  after  great  hardship  reached  Alexandria,  whence  he  embarked.  Mar., 
1773,  for  Marseilles.  In  France  he  spent  a considerable  time,  visiting  the  celebrated 
count  de  Buffon,  and  other  distinguished  men,  and  in  1774,  he  returned  to  Scotland. 
In  1776,  he  married  Mary,  daughter  of  Thomas  Dundas,  esq.,  of  Fingask,  by  whom  he 
had  two  sons  and  one  daughter.  His  long-expected  Travels  to  Discover  the  Sources  of  the 
Nile,  in  the  Tears  1768-73,  were  published  in  1790,  in  5 large  4to  vols.  with  plates  and 
charts.  The  work  contained  such  curious  accounts  of  the  manners  and  habits  of  the 
people  of  Abyssinia,  that  it  startled  the  belief  of  many,  and  some  of  them  were  set  down 
as  fabrications.  Among  other  doubters  were  De  Tott  in  France,  and  Dr.  Johnson  in 
England.  Modern  travelers,  including  Salt,  Pearce,  Burckhardt,  Belzoni,  and  others, 
have,  however,  fully  confirmed  his  statements.  B.  died  April  27,  1794,  at  Kinnaird,  of 
a fall  down  stairs. 

BRUCE,  Michael,  a minor  Scottish  poet,  the  son  of  a weaver,  b.  at  Kinnesswood, 
Kinross-shire,  Scotland,  Mar.  27,  1746,  was,  in  his  younger  years,  employed  as  a herd- 
boy.  In  1762,  he  was  sent  to  Edinburgh  University  to  study  for  the  ministry,  and  when 
not  at  college,  was  engaged  as  a village  schoolmaster.  He  had  all  his  life  to  struggle- 
with  poverty,  and  his  frame  being  weak,  melancholy  took  possession  of  his  mind,  and 
his  constitution  began  visibly  to  decline.  He  died  of  consumption,  July  6,  1767,  aged 
21.  His  poems,  few  in  number,  and  of  a tender  and  pathetic  description,  were  pub- 
lished by  the  rev.  John  Logan,  his  fellow-student  and  associate  at  college,  at  Edinburgh 
in  1770.  His  last  composition  was  a touching  elegy  on  his  own  approaching  death. 


15ruce. 

Brucker. 


118 


BRUCE,  Robert,  the  most  heroic  of  the  Scottish  kings,  was  b.  Mar.  21,  1274.  In 
his  youth  he  favored  the  English  interests,  in  the  expectation,  doubtless,  of  his 
father  being  preferred  to  the  Scottish  throne.  In  1296,  as  earl  of  Garrick,  he 
swore  fealty  to  Edward  I.  at  Berwick,  and  the  following  year  he  renewed  his 
oath  of  homage  at  Carlisle.  Shortly  after,  he  abandoned  the  cause  of  Edward,  and, 
with  his  Garrick  vassals,  joined  the  Scottish  leaders  in  arms  for  the  independence  of 
their  country.  On  the  defeat  of  the  Scots,  a few  months  afterwards,  at  Irvine,  B,  made 
his  peace  with  the  English  monarch.  After  Wallace’s  defeat  at  Falkirk,  B.  burned  the 
castle  of  Ayr  to  the  ground,  to  prevent  its  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  and  re- 
tired into  the  recesses  of  Garrick.  In  1299,  the  year  after  Wallace  had  resigned  the 
regency,  B.,  then  in  his  25th  year,  was  admitted  one  of  the  four  regents,  who  ruled  the 
kingdom  in  the  name  of  Baliol.  In  the  three  campaigns  which  subsequently  took  place, 
previous  to  the  final  subjugation  of  Scotland,  B.  continued  faithful  to  Edward,  and  in 
1305  was  consulted  in  the  settlement  of  the  government.  With  John  Comyn,  called  the 
Red  Comyn,  the  nephew  of  Baliol,  he  appears  to  have  entered  into  some  agreement  as 
to  their  rival  claims  to  the  throne.  In  an  interview  between  them,  in  the  church  of  the 
Minorite  Friars,  Dumfries,  Feb.  4,  1305-06,  a quarrel  took  place,  and  B.,  in  a paroxysm 
of  passion,  stabbed  Comyn  with  his  dagger.  Rushing  out  to  his  attendants,  he  ex- 
claimed: “I  doubt  I have  slain  the  Red  Comyn.”  “ You  doubt!”  cried  one  of  them; 
“I  mak  sikker!”  (i.e.,  sure),  and,  running  into  the  church  with  some  others,  slew  Comyn 
and  his  brother,  who  attempted  to  defend  him.  B.  hastened  to  Lochmaben  castle,  as- 
sembled his  vassals,  and  asserted  his  right  to  the  throne.  Two  months  after  (Mar.  27), 
he  was  crowned  king  at  Scone.  An  English  army,  under  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  nomi- 
nated by  Edward  governor  of  Scotland,  took  possession  of  Perth,  and  on  the  night  of 
the  18th  June,  attacked  B.  in  the  wood  of  Methven,  compelling  him  to  retreat  into  the 
wilds  of  Athole.  At  Dairy,  near  the  head  of  Loch  Tay,  B.  was  attacked  by  Alexander, 
lord  of  Lorn,  chief  of  the  Macdougals,  husband  of  the  aunt  of  the  Red  Comyn,  and 
compelled  to  retire.  Sending  his  queen  and  her  ladies  to  Kildrummie  castle,  Aberdeen- 
shire, under  the  charge  of  Nigel  Bruce  and  the  earl  of  Athole,  he,  with  200  followers, 
crossed  Loch  Lomond,  and  had  recourse  for  subsistence  to  the  chase.  B.  next  took 
refuge  in  the  little  island  of  Rathlin,  on  the  n.  coast  of  Ireland,  where  he  remained  all 
winter,  and  was  supposed  to  be  dbad.  In  his  absence,  the  English  took  the  castle  of 
Kildrummie,  hanged  Nigel  Bruce  and  other  chiefs  who  had  defended  it,  and  tore  the 
queen  and  princess  Marjory  from  the  sanctuary  of  St.  Duthac,  Ross-shire.  All  B.’s  estates 
w'ere  confiscated,  and  himself  and  adherents  excommunicated  by  the  pope’s  legate  at 
Carlisle.  In  the  spring  of  1307,  with  about  300  men,  B.  landed  in  Garrick,  and  at  mid- 
night surprised  the  English  garrison  in  his  own  castle  of  Turnberry;  but  before  a supe- 
rior force  he  retired  into  the  mountainous  districts  of  Ayrshire.  At  Loudon  hill.  May 
10,  1307,  he  defeated  the  English  under  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  and,  three  days  after, 
overthrew  another  party  under  the  earl  of  Gloucester.  In  less  than  two  years  he  wrested 
from  the  English  nearly  the  whole  of  Scotland.  His  authority  being  now  established, 
in  1309  B.  advanced  to  Durham,  laying  waste  the  country.  The  same  year,  Edward  II. 
of  England  invaded  Scotland,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat  from  Edinburgh  to  Ber- 
wick-upon-Tweed. In  the  harvest  of  1312,  the  Scots  again  invaded  England,  but  un- 
successfully. B.  now  reduced  the  Isle  of  Man  also.  On  his  return,  in  the  autumn  of 
1313,  he  found  his  brother,  Edward  Bruce,  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Stirling  castle,  held 
by  sir  Philip  Mowbray  for  the  English.  A treaty  was  entered  into,  by  which  Mowbray 
bound  himself  to  surrender  it,  if  not  relieved  before  24th  June  following.  This  led  to 
the  memorable  battle  of  Bannockburn,  24th  June,  1314,  at  wdiich  B.  commanded  in  per- 
son. The  English,  under  Edward  II.,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  about  100,000  men,  w^ere 
totally  routed,  leaving  30,000  dead  upon  the  field;  while  the  Scots,  numbering  only  30,- 
000,  and  15,000  camp-followers,  lost  about  5000.  In  1317,  B.  passed  over  to  Ireland,  to 
assist  his  brother,  Edward,  elected  king  of  that  country,  and  defeated  the  Anglo-Irish 
under  the  baron  of  Clare;  and  in  the  spring  of  1318  the  Scots  army  invaded  England  by 
Northumberland.  Another  invasion  of  Scotland  by  the  English  king,  w^ho  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  was  followed  by  B.  again  marching  into  England.  After  besieging 
Norham  castle,  he  defeated  Edward  once  more  at  Biland  abbey,  Yorkshire.  A truce 
was,  in  consequence,  ratified  between  the  two  kingdoms  at  Berwick,  June  7,  1323,  to 
last  for  13  years.  On  the  accession  of  Edward  III.,  in  1327,  hostilities  recommenced; 
and  the  Scots  being  again  victorious,  a final  treaty  was  ratified  in  a parliament  at  North- 
ampton, Mar.  4,  1328,  recognizing  the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  B.’s  right  to  the 
throne.  His  warfare  was  now  accomplished,  and,  suffering  under  the  disease  of  leprosy, 
he  spent  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  at  Cardross  castle,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
firth  of  Clyde.  He  died  June  7,  1329,  in  his  55th  year,  and  the  23d  of  his  reign.  His 
heart,  extracted  and  embalmed,  was  delivered  to  sir  James  Douglas,  to  be  carried  to 
Palestine  and  buried  in  Jerusalem.  Douglas  was  killed  fighting  against  the  Moors  in 
Spain,  and  the  sacred  relic  of  B.,  with  the  body  of  its  devoted  champion,  was  brought 
to  Scotland,  and  buried  in  the  monastery  of  Melrose.  B.’s  body  was  interred  in  the 
abbey  church  of  Dunfermline;  and,  in  clearing  the  foundations  for  a third  church  on 
the  same  spot  in  1818,  his  bones  were  discovered.  He  was  twice  married : (1)  to  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Donald,  tenth  Earl  of  Mar — issue,  a daughter,  Marjory,  wife  of  Walter  the 
high  steward,  whose  son  ascended  the  throne  as  Robert  II. ; and  (2)  to  Elizabeth,  daugh- 


119 


Bruce. 

Brucker. 


ter  of  Aymer  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Ulster — issue,  one  son,  who  succeeded  him  as  David  II. , 
and  two  daughters. 

BRUCE,  Robert  de,  fifth  lord  of  Annandale,  son  of  the  fourth  lord  above  men 
tinned,  and  the  competitor  with  John  Baliol  for  the  crown  of  Scotland,  was  b.  in  1210. 
On  the  death  of  his  mother,  the  princess  Isobel,  in  1252,  he  did  homage  to  Henry  III. 
for  her  lands  in  England,  and  in  1255  was  made  sheriff  of  Cumberland,  and  constable  of 
the  castle  of  Carlisle.  About  the  same  time  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  fifteen  regents 
of  Scotland,  in  the  minority  of  Alexander  III.  In  1264,  he  led,  with  Comyn  and  Baliol, 
the  Scottish  auxiliaries  to  the  assistance  of  the  English  monarch  at  the  battle  of  Lewes, 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  released  after  the  battle  of  Evesham,  the  following 
year.  On  the  Scottish  throne  becoming  vacant  at  the  death'  in  1290,  of  Margaret,  the 
“maiden  of  Norway,”  granddaughter  of  Alexander  III.,  Baliol  and  Bruce  claimed  the 
succession,  the  former  as  great-grandson  of  David,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  by  his  eldest 
daughter,  Margaret;  the  latter  as  grandson,  by  his  second  daughter,  Isobel.  Edward  I. 
of  England,  to  whom  the  dispute  was  referred,  decided  in  favor  of  Baliol,  19th  Nov., 
1292.  To  avoid  swearing  fealty  to  his  successful  rival,  B.  resigned  Annandale  ^to  his 
eldest  son,  Robert  de  B.,  earl  of  Carrick.  He  died  at  his  castle  of  Lochmabeo,* Dum- 
friesshire, in  1295,  leaving  three  sons  and  a daughter. 

BRUCE,  Robert  de,  earl  of  Carrick,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  accompanied  king 
Edward  I.  of  England  to  Palestine,  in  1269,  and  was  ever  after  greatly  esteemed  by  that 
monarch.  On  his  return  to  Scotland,  he  married  in  1271,  Martha  Margaret,  countess  of 
Carrick,  and  in  her  right  became  earl  of  Carrick.  Following  the  example  of  his  father, 
to  avoid  doing  homage  to  Baliol,  he  resigned  the  lordship  of  Annandale  to  his  eldest 
son,  Robert,  the  future  king  of  Scotland,  then  a minor.  Retiring  to  England,  he  was, 
on  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1295,  appointed  constable  of  the  castle  of  Carlisle ; and  in 
the  following  year,  when  Baliol  renounced  the  authority  of  Edward,  and,  assisted  by  the 
Comyns,  had  recourse  to  arms,  B.  fought  on  the  side  of  the  English.  After  the  battle 
of  Dunbar,  in  which  the  Scots  were  defeated  and  Baliol  compelled  to  relinquish  the 
sovereignty,  he  made  application  to  Edward  for  the  vacant  crown,  but  was  refused  it. 
He  died  in  1304. 

BRU'CEA,  a genus  of  shrubs  somewhat  doubtfully  referred  to  one  or  other  of  the 
allied  natural  orders  rutacm  (q.v.),  simaruhaeeceiq^.v.),  ?mdiXantJioxylace(E{q.\.). — B.  anti- 
dysenterica,  or  ferruginea,  is  an  Abyssinian  species,  the  leaves  of  which  are  said  to  be 
tonic,  astringent,  and  useful  in  dysentery.  Those  of  B.  Sumatrana,  a native  of  the 
Indian  archipelago,  China,  etc.,  possess  the  same  medicinal  properties.  They  are 
intensely  bitter. — The  Abyssinian  species  acquired  a factitious  importance  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  c. , from  a mistaken  belief  that  it  produced  the  dangerous  false  Angos- 
tura bark  (see  Angostura  Bark),  and  in  this  belief  the  name  brucine  (q.v.)  was 
given  to  an  alkaloid  really  produced  by  the  nux  vomica  (q.v.)  and  other  species  of 
sti'ychnos  (q.v.). 

BRUGHSAL,  a t.  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  situated  on  the  Salzbach,  and  on 
the  railway  between  Heidelberg  and  Carlsruhe,  12  m.  n.e.  of  the  latter  place.  B.,  which 
1 a place  of  considerable  antiquity,  has  three  suburbs.  The  old  castle  of  the  prince - 
bishops  of  Speier,  who  took  up  their  residence  here  early  in  the  11th  c.,  is  still  stand- 
ing, and  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  are  some  ancient  tombs.  B.  has  two  prisons 
organized  on  a modified  form  of  the  Pennsylvanian  system.  Pop.  75,  10,810,  who  were 
chiefiy  engaged  in  the  wine  trade. 

BRU'CINE  is  one  of  the  alkaloids  (q.v  ) present  in  strycUnos  nux  vomica  along  with 
strychnine,  etc.  It  is  not  so  abundant  as  the  strychnine,  nor  is  it  so  poisonous.  It  is 
mainly  characterized  by  giving  a blood-red  color  with  concentrated  commercial  nitric 
acid,  and,  indeed,  the  red  color  always  yielded  by  nux  vomica,  and  occasionally  by 
strychnine  when  treated  with  nitric  acid,  is  due  to  the  presence  of  brucine. 

BRUCITE,  a native  magnesic  hydrate,  found  in  serpentine  in  New  Jersey,  and  in 
the  chrome  mines  in  Texas.  Syn.  'MgHsOa. 

BRUCKENAU,  a village  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Sinn,  36  m.  n.e.  of  Wurzburg.  It  is 
famous  in  connection  with  the  baths  of  B.,  which  are  picturesquely  situated  in  a beauti- 
ful part  of  the  valley  of  the  Sinn,  about  2 m.  w.  from  the  village.  The  grounds  arc 
tastefully  laid  out  in  gardens,  and  charming  walks  traverse  the  surrounding  woods. 
The  place  is  a favorite  summer-resort  of  the  Bavarian  court.  B.  has  paper-mills.  Pop. 
71, 1669. 

BRUCKER,  Johann  Jakob,  a German  theologian  and  historian,  1696-1770.  He 
was  educated  at  Jena,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  a.m.  in  1718,  and  the  next  year  pub- 
lished Tentamen  Introductionis  in  Historiam  de  Ideis.  In  1723  came  De  Vita  et  Scriptis 
Cl.  Etringeri,  and  in  1731  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  Berlin  academy  of  sciences. 
Thence  he  went  to  Augsburg  as  pastor  of  the  church  of  St.  Ulric,  where  he  published 
dissertations  on  the  history  of  philosophy,  and  still  later  a history  of  philosophy  in  dia- 
logue form.  In  1741  came  the  first  volume  of  his  great  work  on  the  critical  history  of 
philosophy,  completed  in  1744,  a work  that  had  an  immense  success.  He  wrote  many 
other  works  on  philosophical  suWects,  and  superintended  and  corrected  an  edition  of 
Luther’s  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  but  did  not  live  to  complete  it. 


liruges. 

iiruise. 


120 


BRUGES  (Ger.  Brugge),  a city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the  province  of  West  Flanders, 
is  situated  in  a fertile  plain  about  8 m.  from  the  sea,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
three  canals  from  Ghent,  L’Ecluse,  and  Ostend,  the  latter  admitting  the  largest  sea-going 
ships.  Lat.  51°  12'  n.,  long,  3°  14'  e.  B.  derives  its  name  from  its  many  bridges,  all 
opening  in  the  middle  to  admit  of  the  passage  of  vessels.  The  ramparts  surrounding 
the  city  are  an  agreeable  promenade.  The  streets  have  a venerable  and  picturesque 
appearance,  but  they  are  greatly  deserted,  the  population  of  the  city  being  now  scarcely 
a quarter  of  what  it  was  during  the  middle  ages.  Among  the  most  interesting  buildings 
are  the  town-hall,  with  a lofty  tower  and  a celebrated  set  of  48  bells;  a Gothic  senate- 
house,  built  about  the  close  of  the  14th  c. ; a court  of  justice,  containing  a famous  carved 
chimney-piece  of  the  date  1559;  the  church  of  Notre  Dame,  with  its  spire  450  ft.  high, 
its  many  valuable  paintings,  and  a statue  of  the  Virgin  (said  to  be  by  Michael  Angelo), 
for  which  Horace  Walpole  offered  30,000  florins,  and  its  splendid  monuments  of  Charles 
the  Bold  and  his  daughter  Mary,  wife  of  the  emperor  Maximilian;  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Sauveur,  not  remarkable  for  its  exterior,  but  containing  paintings  by  eminent  masters; 
St.  John’s  hospital,  with  celebrated  pictures  by  Memling,  etc.  The  academy  of  painting 
contains  several  fine  pictures  by  J.  van  Eyck.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolen,  linen, 
cotton,  lace,  leather,  cordage,  and  tobacco;  and  distilleries,  sugar  and  salt  refineries, 
and  ship-building  yards.  Railways  connect  B,  with  Ostend,  Ghent,  and  other  cities  of 
Belgium  and  the  continent.  Pop.  ’76,  45,097,  of  whom  nearly  a third  are  paupers.  B. 
is  a very  ancient  city.  Here,  it  is  said,  St.  Chrysolus  preached  the  gospel  as  early  as 
the  3d  century.  In  the  7th  c.,  B.  was  the  capital  of  the  surrounding  district  called 
Flanders,  and  before  the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Normans,  its  commercial  impor- 
tance was  established.  In  the  beginning  of  the  13th  c.,  it  was  the  central  mart  of  the 
Hanseatic  league;  and  in  the  following  century  it  maybe  said  to  have  become  the 
metropolis  of  the  world’s  commerce.  Commercial  agents  from  17  different  kingdoms 
resided  here,  and  no  less  than  20  ministers  from  foreign  courts  had  mansions  within  its 
walls.  Its  population  at  this  time  amounted  to  upwards  of  200,000.  In  1488,  the  citizens 
rose  in  insurrection  against  the  archduke  Maximilian,  and  with  the  harsh  measures  of 
repression  which  ensued,  commenced  the  commercial  decline  of  Bruges.  Manj’’  of  the 
traders  and  manufacturers,  driven  forth  from  their  own  country,  settled  in  England, 
and  from  this  time  may  be  dated  the  beginning  of  English  manufacturing  superiority. 
In  the  16th  c.,  however,  the  tapestry  of  B.  was  still  celebrated  throughout  Europe,  and 
the  famous  Gobelin  tapestry  of  Paris  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  a manufacturer  of 
Bruges.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1794,  and  soon  after  incorporated  with 
the  French  empire;  but  in  1815  it  became  a part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  United  Nether- 
lands, and  in  1830  of  the  Belgian  monarchy. 

BRUGG,  or  Bruck,  a village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Aar,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Reuss,  about  9 m.  n.e.  of  Aarau.  It  is  inter- 
esting as  occupying  a part  of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Vindonissa,  the  strongest  fortress,  as 
well  as  the  most  important  settlement  of  the  Romans  in  Helvetia ; and  also  as  the  cradle 
of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  to  whom,  in  early  times,  it  belonged.  The  remains  of  the 
castle  of  Hapsburg,  founded  by  count  Radbod  of  Altenburg  in  1020,  are  still  to  be  seen 
on  a wooded  height,  about  2 m.  from  the  village.  Nearer,  is  the  abbey  of  Konigsfelden, 
founded  in  1310  by  the  wife  and  daughter  of  the  emperor  Albert,  who,  two  years  before, 
was  murdered  on  the  spot  by  his  nephew  and  others,  for  which  a terrible  revenge  was 
taken  on  the  relatives  of  the  murderers.  In  the  vaults  beneath  the  abbey  are  interred 
many  of  the  members  of  the  Austrian  royal  family.  High  conical-roofed  towers  guard 
the  exit  and  entrance  to  B.,  which  has  a pop.  of  (1870)  1338.  Zimmerman  was  a native 
of  this  place, 

BRUGMAN8,  Sebaldus  Justinus,  1763-1819;  a Dutch  naturalist  and  physician, 
professor  of  philosophy  and  physical  sciences  at  Franeker,  Holland,  where  he  founded 
a museum  of  comparative  anatomy.  He  organized  and  became  chief  director  of  the 
sanitary  institutions  of  Holland,  He  improved  the  condition  of  military  hospitals,  and 
by  his  effort  the  20,000  soldiers  wounded  at  Waterloo  were  properly  cared  for.  In  1815, 
he  was  at  the  head  of  the  sanitary  service  of  the  army  and  navy.  Many  of  his  papers 
on  medical  science  and  natural  history  have  been  published. 

BRUGSCH,  Heinrich  Karl,  ph,  d.,  b.  1827;  a German  Egyptologist,  and  director 
of  the  Egyptian  museum  in  Berlin,  He  made  two  visits  to  Egypt  for  archaeological 
purposes,  and  was  a member  of  the  Prussian  embassy  to  Persia"  in  1860.  In  1864,  he 
founded  at  Leipsic  a periodical  devoted  to  Egyptian  archaeology.  At  Gottingen  he  was 
professor  in  1868-70,  when  he  became  director  of  an  Egyptological  school  at  Cairo.  He 
has  published  several  important  works  on  Egyptian  subjects,  one  especially  interesting, 
on  the  Biblical  story  of  the  crossing  of  the  Red  sea,  advancing  a theory  quite  different 
from  that  long  accepted  as  to  the  place  of  that  event.  He  assigns  the  crossing  by  the 
Israelites  and  the  ingulfing  of  the  Egyptians  to  the  vast  morass  near  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  occasionally  inundated  b)’’  its  waves  driven  by  a strong  wind.  His 
evidences  of  this  show  ingenuity  and  learning,  but  have  not  commanded  the  general 
assent  of  scholars. 

BRUHL,  a t.  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  about  9 m,  s.s.w.  of  Cologne,  on  the  railway  to 
Bonn.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  and  has  a splendid  clutteau,  erected  in  the  early 


121 


Bruges. 

Bruise. 


part  of  tlie  18tli  c.  by  the  elector  Clement  Augustus  of  Bavaria.  There  is  also  an  an- 
cient Franciscan  convent,  now  converted  into  a seminary  for  Roman  Catholic  school- 
masters. After  his  banishment  from  France  in  1651,  cardinal  Mazarin  took  up  his 
residence  in  Briihl.  Pop.  ’75,  3499. 

BRUHL,  Heinrich,  Count  von  Bruhl,  prime-minister  of  Augustus  III.,  king  of 
Poland,  and  elector  of  Saxony,  deserves  a place  in  history  as  a signal  example  of  an 
unworthy  minister  and  venal  statesman.  He  was  born  in  1700,  at  Weissenfels,  and  in 
early  life  entered,  as  a page,  into  the  service  of  the  duchess  of  Sachsen- Weissenfels. 
His  winning  address  and  tact  gained  for  him  rapid  promotion  through  several  offices  of 
state,  until,  in  1747,  he  became  prime-minister  to  that  idle  and  unpatriotic  ruler, 
Augustus  III.  Never  was  a ruler  more  slavishly  obeyed  by  a statesman.  B.  would 
follow  the  prince,  as  he  strolled  about  smoking,  without  speaking  a word  for  a whole 
day;  or,  when  his  majesty  lazily  inquired:  “Briihl,  have  you  any  money  for  me?” 

“Yes,  sire,”  would  be  the  constant  reply;  but  in  order  to  be  able  to  give  this  answer  a» 
frequently  as  it  was  demanded,  B.  drained  the  coffers  of  the  state,  and  burdened  the 
country  with  debt.  He,  however,  contrived  to  enrich  himself,  and  to  accumulate 
honors  and  titles.  By  Elizabeth  of  Russia,  he  was  invested  with  the  order  of  St. 
Andrew,  and  by  Charles  VI.  of  Austria,  he  was  made  a count  of  the  empire.  He  kept 
200  servants,  paid  his  bodj^-guard  better  than  Augustus  did  his,  furnished  the  costliest 
table,  possessed  the  finest  wardrobe,  and,  in  short,  maintained  the  mos"".  splendid  estab- 
lishment in  the  kingdom.  “ Of  all  statesmen,”  said  Frederick  II.,  “ Briihl  has  collected 
the  greatest  quantity  of  fine  clothes,  watches,  lace,  boots,  shoes,  and  slippers  !”  The 
effect  of  B.’s  reckless  robbery  of  the  national  finances  to  gratify  the  dissolute  Augustus- 
and  himself,  made  itself  felt  at  the  outbreak  of  the  seven  years’  war,  when  the  country 
could  only  furnish  17,000  men  to  oppose  Frederick  of  Prussia,  who  surprised  and  cap- 
tured the  whole  Saxon  army  in  its  camp  at  Pirna.  Augustus  and  B.  fled  to  Warsaw. 
When  peace  was  concluded,  they  returned  to  Dresden,  where  Augustus  died  on  the  5th 
Oct.,  1763,  and  was  followed  by  his  worthless  parasite,  28th  October.  B.’s  palace  is 
still  one  of  the  principal  buildings  in  Dresden,  and  his  library  of  62,000  vols.  forms  a 
chief  part  of  the  royal  library,  Dresden. 

BRUISE,  or  Contusion,  signifies  an  injury  inflicted  by  a blow  or  sudden  pressure, 
in  which  the  skin  is  not  wounded,  and  no  bone  is  broken  or  dislocated.  Both  terms, 
and  especially  the  latter,  are  employed  in  surgery  to  include  all  such  injuries  in  their 
widest  range,  from  a black  eye  to  a thoroughly  crushed  mass  of  muscle.  In  the  slighter 
forms  of  this  injury,  as  in  ordinary  simpde  bruises,  there  is  no  tearing,  but  only  a con- 
cussion of  the  textures,  the  utmost  damage  done  being  the  rupture  of  a few  small  blood- 
vessels, which  occasions  the  discoloration  that  is  always  observed  in  these  cases.  In 
more  severe  contusions,  the  subjacent  structures — muscles,  connective  tissue,  vessels, 
etc. — are  more  or  less  ruptured,  and  in  extreme  cases,  are  thoroughly  crushed,  and 
usually  become  gangrenous.  The  quantity  of  blood  that  is  extravasated  mainly  depends 
upon  the  size  and  number  of  the  ruptured  blood-vessels,  but  partly  also  on  the  nature  of 
the  textures  of  the  injured  part.  Thus,  a lax  tissue,  as  that  of  the  eyelids,  favors  the 
escape  of  blood  into  the  surrounding  parts.  Moreover,  the  constitution  of  the  patient 
has  some  influence,  and  many  persons,  especially  (according  to  Mr.  Paget,  in  his  article 
on  ‘ ‘ Contusions  ” in  Holmes’s  System  of  Surgery,  vol.  i.)  pallid,  fatty,  soft-skinned 
women,  though  suffering  from  no  apparent  disease,  are  subject  to  extravasations,  and 
consequently  to  discolorations,  very  disproportionate  to  the  injuries  that  cause  them. 

The  most  characteristic  signs  of  a recent  contusion  are  more  or  less  shock  (q.v.),  pain, 
swelling,  and  discoloration  of  the  surface  from  effused  blood  (commonly  known  as 
ecchymosis,  q.v.).  There  is  nothing  special  in  the  character  of  the  shock,  but  it  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  it  is  most  severely  felt  in  injuries  of  special  parts — as  the  testes, 
the  breasts,  and  the  larger  joints,  which  are  often  followed  by  remarkable  general 
depression,  faintness,  loss  of  muscular  power,  and  nausea.  The  immediate  pain  fol- 
Vowing  the  blow  is  succeeded  by  a feeling  of  numbness,  which,  after  a varying  time, 
unless  the  part  is  killed,  gives  place  to  a heavy,  aching  pain.  Although  some  depression 
may  usually  be  observed  immediate!}’’  after  the  infliction  of  the  blow,  swelling  of  the 
parts  rapidly  follows,  as  may  be  well  seen  in  the  case  of  a child  receiving  a blow  on  the 
head,  or  of  the  wale  that  rises  after  the  lash  of  a whip.  In  lax  parts,  such  as  the  eyelids, 
the  swelling  is  often  considerable,  and  may  remain  for  a week  or  more ; but  in  other 
parts,  it  usually  subsides  in  two  or  three  days.  The  discoloration  of  the  skin  consequent 
on  blows  is  of  a more  or  less  purple  tint,  varying  from  black  to  crimson  or  pink.  ‘ ‘ Black- 
ness,” says  Mr.  Paget  (6>j9.  a7.),  “ usually  indicating  intense  injury,  is  probably  due  to 
the  extravasation  of  a large  portion  of  entire  blood ; crimson  or  pink  tints,  to  the  preva- 
lence of  a blood-stained  fluid ; blue,  to  the  degrees  in  which  blackness  is  veiled  by  the 
cuticle  and  skin,  as  the  color  of  blood  in  veins  is;  and  perhaps  some  of  the  shades  of 
pink  to  the  partial  aeration  of  the  blood  by  the  penetration  of  air  through  the  epidermis. 
After  a variable  time,  proportionate  to  the  severity  of  the  injury,  these  colors  fade  out,, 
passing  most  commonly  through  gradually  lightening  shades  of  brownish  olive,  green,, 
and  yellow.”  The  causes  of  these  changes  of  color  are  not  clearly  known;  as,  however, 
the  changes  are  not  observed  in  bruises  of  parts  removed  from  air  and  light,  they  are- 
probably  due  to  oxidation  and  actinic  agency.  When  a severe  B.  tends  to  a natural 


Brumaire. 

Brunei. 


122 


•cure,  and  there  is  no  inflammation  or  sloughing,  the  effused  blood  is  generally  absorbed, 
the  liquid  portion  rapidly  disappearing,  while  the  blood-cells  are  more  slowly  removed. 
In  some  cases,  it  is  probable  that  the  effused  blood  becomes  organized  into  vascular 
connective  tissue,  which  takes  part  in  the  repair  of  the  injured  tissue.  We  need  not  fol- 
low the  course  of  a B.  in  which  active  inflammation  with  suppuration  ensues,  or  in  which 
sloughing  takes  place,  as  these  complications  must  be  treated  according  to  the  ordinary 
rules  of  those  affections.  There  are,  however,  one  or  two  ill  consequences  following 
partial  recovery,  which  require  notice.  Thus,  in  some  organs,  as  the  breast,  abscess 
may  ensue  long  after  a blow ; or  a sensitive  indurated  lump  may  remain ; or  (more  com- 
monly) there  may  be  long-continued  pain,  without  change  of  texture;  or,  lastly,  cancer 
may  ensue.  Blows  on  superficial  bones,  as  those  of  the  skull,  are  not  unfrequently  fol- 
lowed by  very  painful  thickening  of  the  periosteum;  and  a muscle  violently  struck  may 
be  paralyzed,  and  rapidly  waste  away;  and  constitutional  diseases,  such  as  gout  and 
rheumatism,  are  w’dl  known  to  localize  themselves  with  special  severity  in  parts  that 
Jhave  once  been  seriously  bruised. 

With  regard  to  treatment,  simple  and  not  very  severe  bruises  require  little  treatment 
but  the  rest  necessary  for  the  avoidance  of  pain;  but  the  removal  of  the  swelling  and 
discoloration  may  be  hastened  by  the  application  of  various  local  stimulants,  which  seem 
to  act  by  accelerating  the  circulation  through  the  bruised  part,  and  promoting  the 
•absorption  of  the  effused  fluid.  Friar’s  balsam,  compound  soap  liniment,  or  poultices 
made  with  the  roots  of  black  bryony  beaten  to  a pulp,  are  popular  remedies  of  this  class. 
Mr.  Paget  regards  the  tincture  of  arnica  as  the  best  application.  Where  the  skin  is  thick, 
it  may  be  gently  rubbed  over  the  bruised  part  in  an  undiluted  state ; where  the  skin  is 
thinner,  it  should  be  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water;  or,  which  is  probably  better, 
it  may  be  constantly  applied  as  a lotion  if  diluted  with  five  or  six  parts  of  water.  Pugil- 
ists, who  are  probably  better  acquainted  with  ordinary  bruises  than  any  other  class  of 
men,  are  in  the  habit  of  removing  the  swelling  of  the  eyelids  that  often  naturally  occurs 
during  a prize-fight,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  close  the  eyes,  by  at  once  puncturing  the 
•eyelids  at  several  points  with  a lancet;  and  their  favorite  remedy  for  a black-eye  or  other 
B.  on  the  face  is  a fresh  beef-steak  applied  locally,  as  a poultice.  Bruises  of  a more 
■severe  nature,  as  when  there  is  much  breaking  or  crushing  of  the  tissues,  must,  of  course, 
at  once  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a surgeon. — For  further  details  on  this  subject,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  Paget’s  excellent  article,  from  which  we  have  freely  quoted. 

BS.TJMAIEE  (Lat.  hruma,  winter),  a division  of  the  year  in  the  republican  calendar  ot 
France.  It  includes  the  time  from  Oct.  22  to  Nov.  20.  The  celebrated  18th  B.,  which 
witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  directory  and  the  establishment  of  the  sway  of  Napo- 
leon, corresponds  with  Nov.  9,  1799,  of  the  Gregorian  calendar. 

BRUMATH,  or  Brumpt,  a t.  of  Lower  Alsace,  on  the  Zorn;  pop.  ’71,  5619.  It  haa 
R castle  and  mineral  wells,  and  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Brucomagus. 

BRUMIDI,  Constantine,  1805-80;  a native  of  Rome,  Italy,  son  of  a Greek  father 
and  an  Italian  mother,  widely  known  as  a fresco  painter.  He  was  educated  in  the  col- 
lege of  fine  arts  at  Rome,  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852.  His  first  work,  “ The 
Crucifixion,”  was  in  St.  Stephen’s  church  in  New  York.  Thence  he  went  to  Philadel- 
phia and  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  at  both  places  employing  himself  in  church  decoration. 
In  1854  he  arrived  in  Washington,  and  was  at  once  employed  on  the  bare  walls  and 
‘Ceilings  of  the  national  capital,  the  rotunda  of  which  contains  many  fine  pieces  from 
his  hand,  combining  mythology,  allegory,  and  history.  There  are  cartoons  of  his  yet  to 
be  put  in  place,  but  by  other  hands,  including  “ Oglethorpe  and  the  Indians,”  “The 
Battle  of  Lexington,”  “ Surrender  of  Cornwallis,”  “ Decatur  at  Tripoli, ” “The  Death 
of  Tecumseh,”  “Entrance  of  General  Scott  into  Mexico,”  and  “The  Discovery  of 
Gold.” 

BRUMMEL,  George  Bryan,  1778-1840  (better  known  as  “Beau”  Brummel);  a 
man  of  wealth  and  fashion,  who  became  an  intimate  companion  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
and  was  looked  upon  by  the  society  of  his  day  as  the  “glass  of  fashion  and  the  mold 
of  form.”  He  was  the  arbiter  in  all  matters  of  fashion,  and  considered  the  very  top  of 
perfection  in  taste,  especially  in  dress.  As  long  as  his  fortune  lasted  or  the  prince  of 
Wales  would  contribute,  he  kept  up  an  elegant  bachelor  establishment  in  London;  but 
finally  he  lost  the  favor  of  his  royal  friend,  became  poor,  gambled  recklessly,  fled  from 
his  creditors,  and  died  in  France  in  a hospital  for  mendicants. 

BRUNCK,  Ricuard  Francois  Philippe,  one  of  the  most  ingenious  critics  and 
philologists  of  modern  times,  was  born  at  Strasburg,  Dec.  30,  1729.  He  was  educated 
under  the  Jesuits  in  Paris;  but  abandoned  his  studies,  and  for  some  time  was  engaged 
as  a military  commissary  during  the  seven  years’  war.  A professor  in  Giessen,  with 
whom  B.  happened  to  lodge  while  the  army  was  in  winter  quarters,  revived  in  him  the 
love  of  classical  studies.  Returning  to  fetrasburg,  he  devoted  all  his  spare  time  to 
Gveek,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  as  an  able  but  adventurous  critic  and  emenda- 
tor.  His  belief  that  all  inaccuracies  in  ancient  Greek  writings  were^  introduced  by 
•copyists,  often  led  B.  astray;  but,  since  the  revival  of  learning,  few  critics  have  done 
more  for  the  progress  of  Greek  literature.  His  first  work.  Analecta,  Veterum  PoUarum 
'Grmcorum  (1772-76),  was  followed  by  several  editions  of  Anacreon  (1778-86),  and 


123 


Rrumaire. 

Brunei. 


editions  of  Apollonius  Rliodius  (1780)  and  Aristophanes  (1781-83),  Poetce  Gnomici  (1784), 
Virgil  (1785),  and  Sophocles  (1786-89).  The  last  of  these  established  a new  era  in  the 
criticism  of  the  tragic  writers.  The  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  interrupted 
B.’s  studies.  He  ardently  attached  himself  to  the  popular  side.  During  the  reign  of 
terror,  he  was  imprisoned,  but  was  liberated  after  the  downfall  of  Robespierre.  His 
means,  however,  had  been  so  much  reduced  that  he  was  compelled  to  sell  his  valuable 
library.  From  this  time,  1801,  he  turned  his  attention  from  Greek  to  Latin  literature, 
and  published,  editions  of  Plautus  and  Terence.  He  died  June  12,  1803. 

BRUNDUSIUM.  See  Brindisi,  ante. 

BRUNE,  Guillaume  Marie  Anne,  a French  marshal  of  the  first  empire,  was  b. 
at  Brives-la-Gaillarde,  13th  Mar.,  1763.  His  education  brought  him  at  an  early  period 
into  connection  with  the  men  of  the  revolution.  Along  wih  Danton,  he  helped  to  estab- 
lish the  Cordeliers’  club.  After  the  conquest  of  Belgium,  he  was  sent  as  civil  commis- 
sary to  that  country,  but  his  warlike  aspirations  soon  induced  him  to  enter  the  military 
service.  In  1797,  he  became  brigadier  under  Napoleon  in  the  army  of  Italy,  and  distin- 
guished himself  at  Areola  and  Rivoli,  where  he  was  made  gen.  of  division  and  leader  of 
the  advance-guard.  Sent  by  the  directory  to  Switzerland  in  1798,  he  executed  his  orders 
with  brilliant  success.  In  1799,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Hol- 
land, where  he  achieved  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  best  generals  of  his  age.  He 
vanquished  the  Anglo-Russians  at  Bergen  on  the  19th  of  Sept.,  1799,  and  on  the  19th  of 
Oct.,  forced  the  duke  of  York,  commander-iu-chief  of  the  combined  armies,  to  capitu- 
late at  Alkmaar,  under  humiliating  circumstances.  In  1803,  he  was  named  ambassador 
to  the  Ottoman  porte,  and  was  received  by  Selim  III.  with  great  distinction.  In  1804, 
he  obtained  the  dignity  of  marshal,  and  in  1805  returned  to  France.  Two  years  after- 
wards, B.  became  governor-general  of  the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  was  charged  with  the 
conquest  of  Pomerania;  but  circumstances  having  occurred  which  unnecessarily  excited 
the  distrust  of  Napoleon,  he  was  recalled,  and  his  future  services  dispensed  with.  After 
the  fall  of  the  emperor,  he  declared  for  the  Bourbons,  but  his  offers  were  rejected,  and 
in  consequence  he  joined  Napoleon  after  his  return  from  Elba.  He  was  now  made  a 
peer,  but  the  battle  of  Waterloo  completely  destroyed  his  prospects.  He  again  made 
his  submission,  but  was  barbarously  assassinated  at  Avignon,  2d  Aug.,  1815,  by  the 
populace,  who  were  infuriated  against  him  on  account  of  certain  crimes  laid  to  his- 
charge,  of  which,  however,  he  seems  to  have  been  entirely  guiltless. 

BRUNEHAUT,  or  Brunehilde,  534t-613;  daughter  of  Athanagild,  king  of  the  Vis- 
igoths and  wife  of  Sigebert,  king  of  Austrasia.  Her  sister  Galsunda,  the  wife  of  Chil- 
peric,  king  of  Neustria  and  the  brother  of  Sigebert,  had  been  abandoned  and  murdered 
by  Chilperic  at  the  demand  of  his  mistress,  Fredegonda,  who  became  queen.  Brune- 
haut  induced  her  husband  (Sigebert)  to  invade  Neustria,  where,  while  besieging  Tour- 
nay,  he  was  slain  by  emissaries  of  Fredegonda,  and  Brunehaut  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Chiiperic.  At  Rouen  she  persuaded  one  of  Chilperic’s  sons  to  marry  her,  and,  with  the 
help  of  the  bishop  of  the  place,  she  escaped  to  Austrasia,  which  was  then  ruled  by  Chil- 
debert;  but  she  recovered  her  authority.  After  the  death  of  Childebert  she  provoked 
war  between  her  grandsons,  heirs  to  the  throne,  in  which  one  was  killed,  and  she  was. 
about  to  take  the  throne  when  a son  of  Fredegonda,  Clothaire  II.,  interposed  and  cap- 
tured her  easily,  as  her  army  refused  to  fight.  She  was  for  three  days  exposed  to  tor- 
ture and  insult,  and  then  tied  to  the  tail  of  a wild  horse  and  dragged  to  death,  after 
which  the  body  was  burned  and  the  ashes  scattered  to  the  air. 

BRUNE  ISLAND  lies  off  the  s.  part  of  the  e.  coast  of  Tasmania,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  D’Entrecasteaux  bay.  It  has  a length  of  32  m.,  with  a breadth  varying  from 
1 to  6 m. ; and  its  e.  or  outside  coast  is  indented  by  a bay,  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
Adventure,  one  of  Cook’s  two  vessels  during  his  second  voyage. 

BRUNEL,  IsAMBARD  Kingdom,  an  eminent  engineer,  son  of  the  following  article,  b.  at 
Portsmouth,  England,  in  1806,  was  educated  at  the  college  of  Henri  Quatre,  Caen,  in 
France.  He  commenced  practical  engineering  in  1826,  under  his  father  at  the  Thames 
tunnel,  and  in  the  progress  of  that  great  work  was  often  exposed  to  danger  from  tho 
water  breaking  in  and  flooding  the  excavations,  having  more  than  once  to  save  his  life 
by  swimming.  He  assisted  in  his  father’s  experiments  for  making  carbonic  acid  gas  a 
motive  power,  and  was  designer  and  civil  engineer  of  the  Great  Western,  the  first  steam- 
ship built  to  cross  the  Atlantic ; and  of  the  Great  Britain,  the  first  ocean  screw-steamer. 
The  Great  Eastern,  the  largest  vessel  ever  built  in  the  world,  was  erected  under  his  sole 
direction.  In  1833,  B.  was  appointed  chief-engineer  to  the  Great  Western  railway,  and 
designed  and  constructed  the  whole  of  the  tunnels,  bridges,  viaducts,  and  arches  on  this 
line,  and  extension  branches.  Among  other  docks  at  English  seaports,  in  the  improve- 
ment and  construction  of  which  he  was  engaged,  may  be  mentioned  the  Bute  docks  at 
Cardiff,  and  the  old  North  dock  at  Sunderland.  In  1842,  he  w’as  employed  by  govern- 
ment to  construct  the  Hungerford  suspension-bridge  across  the  Thames  at  Charing  Cross, 
London.  In  1850-53,  he  constructed  the  works  of  the  Tuscan  portion  of  the  Sardinian 
railway.  Made  a fellow  of  the  royal  society  in  1830,  he  was  chosen  on  the  council  in 
1844,  He  was  also  vice-president  of  the  institution  of  civil  engineers,  and  of  the  society 
of  arts;  a fellow  of  the  astronomical,  geological,  and  geographical  societies,  and  cheva- 
lier of  the  legion  of  honor.  He  died  suddenly,  Sept.,  1859, 


Brunei. 

Bruno. 


124 


BEUNEL,  Sir  Mark  Isambard,  the  celebrated  engineer  of  the  Thames  tunnel,  son  of 
^in  agriculturist,  was  born  at  Hacqueville,  near  Rouen,  in  France,  April  25,  1769.  He 
early  showed  an  inclination  for  mechanics,  and  at  school  preferred  the  study  of  the  exact 
sciences  to  the  classics.  In  1786,  he  became  a sailor  in  the  French  navy.  In  the  revolu- 
tionary period  of  1793,  having  compromised  himself  by  his  political  opinions,  he  escaped 
from  Paris  to  the  United  States.  His  career  as  an  engineer  began  in  1794,  when  he  was 
appointed  to  survey  for  the  canal  which  now  connects  lake  Champlain  with  the  river 
Hudson  at  Albany.  He  afterwards  acted  as  an  architect  in  New  York.  On  his  return 
to  Europe  in  1799,  he  married  the  daughter  of  William  Kingdom,  esq.,  Plymouth,  and 
settled  in  England.  A plan  submitted  by  him  to  government  for  making  block-pulleys 
for  ships  by  machinery  was  adopted,  and  he  was  for  many  years  employed  in  carrying  it 
into  execution  in  Portsmouth  dockyard.  He  was  also  successful  in  the  construction  of 
other  public  works — in  Woolwich  arsenal  and  Chatham  dockyard,  etc.  His  most  remark- 
able undertaking  was  the  Thames  tunnel,  formed  beneath  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  which, 
commenced  in  Mar.,  1825,  was  opened  to  the  public  in  Mar.,  1843.  Assisted  by  his  son, 
the  subject  of  the  previous  article,  he  for  ten  years  pursued  a course  of  experiments  for 
•employing  carbonic  acid  gas  as  a motive-power,  but  the  cost  of  the  machinery  prevented 
its  introduction  as  a substitute  for  steam.  Among  the  less  important  of  B.’s  inventions, 
were  machines  for  making  wooden  boxes;  for  ruling  paper;  for  shuffling  a pack  of  cards 
without  using  the  hands;  for  the  manufacture  of  nails;  and  for  making  seamless  shoes 
for  the  army — the  latter,  tried  for  two  years,  was  abandoned  from  economical  motives. 
Elected  a fellow  of  the  royal  society  in  1814,  he  was  appointed  vice-president  in  1832. 
He  was  knighted  in  1841;  and  died,  Dec.,  1849,  in  his  81st  year. 

BEUNELLESCHI,  Filippo,  one  of  the  greatest  Italian  architects,  was  b.  at  Florence, 
in  1377.  He  first  learned  the  art  of  a goldsmith;  next,  that  of  a sculptor;  and  finally, 
devoted  himself  to  architecture.  He  also  studied  zealously  both  mechanical  and  mathe- 
matical science,  and  is  reckoned  the  first  who  established,  on  a sound  basis,  the  theory 
of  perspective.  When  still  a young  man,  B.  went  to  Rome,  where  he  acquired  a pro- 
found knowledge  of  ancient  architecture,  the  result  of  which  was  that  two  ideas  com- 
pletely possessed  his  mind : the  one  was  to  revive  the  ancient  style  of  architecture ; the 
other  was,  to  make  himself  master  of  the  mechanical  knowledge  of  the  ancient  architects. 
In  1407,  he  returned  to  Florence.  In  1420,  it  was  proposed  to  complete  the  structure  of 
the  cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  founded  in  1296,  and  now  only  wanting  a dome. 
A great  assembly  of  architects  from  all  quarters  was  convened  to  determine  how  it 
might  be  practicable  to  cover  the  vast  octangular  area.  While  the  debate  was  going  on, 
B.  was  earnestly  elaborating  his  own  designs;  but  when  he  first  came  forward  and  pro- 
posed his  plan,  it  was  so  ill  received,  on  account  of  its  supposed  absurdity,  that  B.  was 
“lifted  off  his  legs,  and  carried  out  of  the  room.”  He,  however,  obstinately  persisted 
in  explaining  his  scheme,  and  at  last  succeeded  in  convincing  every  one  of  its  feasibility. 
The  work  was  intrusted  to  him,  and  finished,  with  the  exception  of  the  lantern,  with 
which  he  intended  to  crown  the  whole,  but  was  prevented  by  his  death  in  1444.  B.’s 
dome,  measured  diametrically,  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  served  as  a model  to 
Michael  Angelo  for  that  of  St.  Peter’s.  Besides  this  chef-d'mmre,  B.  executed  several 
other  great  works,  such  as  the  churches  of  San  Spirito  and  San  Lorenzo,  as  well  as  the 
designs  for  the  Pitti  palace,  which  originated  the  beautiful  style  of  Tuscan  palace-architec- 
ture in  the  15th  century. 

BEUNI,  Leonardo,  a native  of  Arezzo,  and  hence  styled  AretiTw,  was  b.  in  1369. 
He  merits  notice  as  one  of  the  most  learned  men  who  flourished  during  the  epoch  of  the 
revival  of  Greek  learning  in  Italy.  He  first  studied  law  at  Florence  and  Ravenna,  but 
afterwards  turned  his  attention  to  classical  literature.  He  then  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  filled  several  offlees  at  the  papal  court.  In  1414,  he  attended  John  XXII.  to  the 
council  of  Constance.  On  the  deposition  of  that  pope,  he  returned  to  Florence,  where 
he  was  of  service  to  the  republic  in  several  important  matters.  His  Historia  Florentina 
procured  for  him  the  rights  of  citizenship,  and,  at  a later  period,  through  the  favor  of 
of  the  Medicean  family,  he  was  appointed  state-secretary.  He  died  9th  Mar.,  1444. 
Florence  and  Arezzo  vied  with  each  other  in  the  splendor  with  which  they  celebrated 
his  obsequies. 

B.  aided  in  advancing  the  study  of  Greek  literature  mainly  by  his  literal  translations 
into  Latin  of  Aristotle,  Demosthenes,  Plutarch,  and  others.  Of  his  original  works,  which 
are  very  numerous,  many  have  never  been  printed,  and  most  are  nearly  forgotten.  We 
may  mention  Gommentarius  Rerum  suo  Tempore  Oestarum(y en.  1476);  De  Origine  Urbis 
Mantuce;  De  Romm  OHgine;  Epistolm  Familiares;  and  Vite  di  Dante  e del  Petrarca. 

BEUNN,  a fortified  city  of  the  Austrian  empire,  capital  of  the  government  of  Moravia, 
is  beautifully  situated,  partlj^  on  the  slope  of  a hill,  and  partly  in  a pleasant  valley,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Schwarzawa  and  the  Zwittawa,  in  lat.  49°  12'  n.,  and  long.  16°  37'  east. 
Behind  the  city,  on  an  eminence,  is  situated  the  castle  of  Spielberg,  formerly  the  citadel, 
but  now  used  as  a state-prison,  and  noteworthy  as  the  place  in  which  Silvio  Pellico  was 
confined  from  1822-30.  Among  the  most  interesting  buildings  of  B.  are  the  cathedral 
of  St.  Peter;  St.  James’s  church,  a Gothic  edifice,  with  a tower  276  ft.  in  height,  and  a 
valuable  collection  of  ancient  printed  books;  the  church  of  the  Minorites;  and  the 
Augustine  convent.  There  are  also  several  fine  palatial  residences  belonging  to  the  old 


125 


Rininel. 

Bruno. 


nobility.  B.  is  one  of  the  most  important  manufacturing  towns  in  the  Austrian  domin- 
ions. Its  woolens  are  specially  celebrated,  and  it  has  also  manufactures  of  cotton,  silk, 
ribbons,  yarns,  glass,  leather,  soap,  tobacco,  and  dye-stuffs.  Pop.  Dec.  31,  ’69,  73,771. 
Napoleon  made  B.  his  headquarters  before  the  battle  of  Austerlitz. 

BRTJN'NEN,  a village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Schwyz,  of  which  it  forms  the 
port,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Muotta,  in  the  lake  of  Lucerne.  It  is  beautifully  situated 
at  the  south-eastern  bend  of  the  lake,  and  is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  place  where,  in 
Dec.,  1315,  the  deputies  of  the  forest  cantons,  who,  eight  years  before,  had  formed  a 
plan  for  the  liberation  of  their  country  from  the  Austrian  yoke,  laid  the  basis  of  the 
Helvetic  republic. 

BRUNNER,  Sebastian,  b.  1814;  chaplain  of  the  university  of  Vienna,  where  he 
studied  theology.  In  1848,  ho  established  the  Vienna  Church  Gazette.  Soon  after  he  pub- 
lished, under  the  name  Nebeljungen-Lied,  2i?,'3i\.uQ  upon  Hegel’s  doctrines.  His  entire 
works  have  been  collected  in  20  vols.  Among  them  is  a sharp  criticism  of  Renan’s  Life 
of  Christ.  In  all  his  writings  he  is  of  the  ultramontane  Roman  Catholic  school. 

BRUNNER,  orBRUNN,  Johann  Conrad,  1653-1727;  a German  anatomist,  professor 
in  the  university  of  Heidelberg,  and  physician  to  the  elector  palatine.  He  made  many 
anatomical  investigations,  particularly  in  the  pancreas,  the  small  intestines,  and  the  duo- 
denum. His  name  lives  in  the  Brunner's  Glands. 

BKUNNOW,  Count,  Ernest  Phil. von,  a Russian  diplomatist,  was  b.  at  Dresden,  1797, 
and  studied  at  the  university  of  Leipsic.  At  the  time  of  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  he  entered  the  Russian  service,  and  the  ministers  Nesselrode  and  Capo  d’Istrias 
recognized  at  once  his  fitness  for  a diplomatic  career.  Among  other  posts,  he  attended 
the  congresses  of  Troppau  and  Laybach,  acted  one  year  as  secretary  to  the  embassy  in 
London,  went  to  the  congress  of  Verona,  and  then  occupied  for  a time  a high  office  in 
St.  Petersburg.  He  was  present,  in  a civil  capacity,  in  the  campaigns  of  1828  and  1829 
against  the  Turks.  In  the  autumn  of  1839,  he  was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  London 
to  take  advantage  of  the  unpleasant  feeling  between  Great  Britain  and  France  for  draw 
ing  the  cabinets  of  St.  Petersburg  and  London  closer  together,  and  in  the  following 
spring  was  accredited  as  permanent  ambassador.  In  this  capacity  he  soon  acquired  dis- 
tinction as  a diplomatist.  After  retiring  from  London  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in 
1854,  he  represented  Russia  in  Frankfort,  and,  along  with  count  Orloff,  was  sent  to  the 
•conference  of  Paris,  Feb.,  1856.  Immediately  after  the  treaty  of  peace  had  been  con- 
•cluded,  he  was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  London,  to  re-establish  friendly  relations 
between  the  courts  of  St.  Petersburg  and  St.  James’s.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  to 
the  court  of  Prussia;  but  in  1858  he  returned  to  his  old  place  in  London,  where  he  was 
a great  favorite.  He  represented  Russia  at  the  conferences  in  London  in  1864  and  1871. 
In  recognition  of  his  services,  he  was  raised  by  the  emperor  of  Russia  to  the  rank  of 
count  in  April,  1871.  In  1874,  he  retired  to  Darmstadt,  where  he  died  in  the  following 
year, 

BRTJNO,  Saint,  the  founder  of  the  Carthusian  order  of  monks,  was  b,  at  Cologne 
1051,  and  received  his  earliest  education  in  the  school  attached  to  the  collegiate  church 
of  St.  Cunibert.  Subsequently,  he  studied  at  Rbeims,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
so  greatly,  that  bishop  Gervasius  appointed  him  director  of  all  the  schools  in  his  diocese. 
B,,  however,  soon  began  to  be  troubled  by  the  wickedness  of  his  time,  and,  anxious  to 
■escape  from  what  seemed  to  him  the  general  pollution,  he  took  refuge,  along  with  six 
pious  friends,  in  a desert  place  near  Chartreuse,  in  the  diocese  of  Grenoble.  Here,  in 
1086,  he  founded  one  of  the  most  austere  of  all  the  monkish  orders,  which  received  its 
name  from  the  locality  whence  it  had  sprung.  See  Carthusians.  B.  and  his  compan- 
ions had  each  a separate  cell,  in  which  they  practiced  the  severities  of  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  keeping  silence  during  six  days  of  the  week,  and  onl}-  seeing  one  another  on 
Sundays.  Pope  Urban  II.,  who  was  one  of  B.’s  most  eminent  scholars,  in  1089  sum- 
moned the  saint  to  Rome.  B.  obeyed  the  call  reluctantly,  and  steadily  refused  all  offers 
•of  preferment.  In  1094,  he  established  a second  Carthusian  monastery,  called  La  Torre, 
in  a solitary  district  of  Calabria,  where  he  died  in  1101.  He  was  not  canonized  until 
1628.  B.  left  no  written  regulations  for  his  followers.  These  first  made  their  appear- 
ance in  a complete  form  in  1581,  and  were  enjoined  on  all  Carthusians  by  Innocent  IX. 

BRUNO,  The  Great,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  Duke  of  Lorraine,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  his  time,  was  b.  about  928  a.d.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Henry  the 
fowler,  and  the  brother  of  Otto  I.,  emperor  of  Germany.  Baldrich,  bishop  of  Utrecht, 
and  afterwards  Israel  Scotigena,  and  others,  were  his  tutors.  His  surprising  knowledge, 
sagacity,  and  eloquence  secured  for  him  an  immense  influence  over  the  bishops  and 
clergy,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  his  liberality,  meekness,  and  great  earnestness  of  heart 
won  the  affections  and  reverence  of  the  laity.  Summoned  by  Otto  to  the  imperial  pal- 
ace, he  quickly  assumed  an  influential  position  among  the  chroniclers,  poets,  and  philos- 
ophers of  the  court.  At  a later  period  he  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Cologne,  and 
lord  high  chancellor  of  the  empire.  He  accompanied  Otto  to  Italy  in  951,  and  honor- 
ably distinguished  himself  by  his  fidelity  to  his  brother,  when  Otto’s  own  son,  Conrad, 
and  others  of  his  kindred  rebelled  against  him.  As  a reward,  the  emperor  appointed 


Bruno. 

Brunswick. 


126 


liim  duke  of  Lorraine.  B.  died  at  Rheims,  llth  Oct.,  965.  He  wrote  a commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch,  and  several  lives  of  saints. 

BRUNO,  Giordano,  the  precursor  of  the  school  of  modern  pantheistic  philosophers, 
was  born  at  Nola,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  He 
entered,  at  an  early  age,  the  order  of  the  Dominicans,  but  soon  began  to  express  his 
doubts  in  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  transubstantiation  and  of  the  immaculate  concep- 
tion, in  consequence  of  which  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  his  convent.  Henceforth, 
his  life  was  unsettled.  In  1580,  he  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  spent  two  years,  but  hav- 
ing excited  the  suspicion  and  dislike  of  the  strict  Calvinists  of  that  city  by  his  general 
skepticism,  he  judged  it  prudent  to  betake  himself  to  Paris,  where  he  delivered  prelec- 
tions on  the  “great  art”  (logic)  of  Raymond  Lully.  His  disputes  with  the  bigoted  Aris- 
totelians of  the  university  of  Paris  compelled  him,  however,  to  leave  France.  He 
passed  over  into  England,  where  he  resided  for  two  years  in  comparative  quiet,  enjoy- 
ing the  friendship  of  sir  Philip  Sidney  and  the  protection  of  the  French  ambassador, 
Michel  de  Chateauneuf  de  la  MauvissiSre.  Here  he  composed  his  most  important  works, 
but  at  last,  having  incurred  the*  displeasure  of  the  clergy  by  his  vehement  denunciation 
of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy,  and  other  grave  heresies,  he  returned  to  Paris  in  1585. 
In  1588,  he  proceeded  to  the  university  of  Marburg,  where  he  matriculated;  and  to 
Wittenberg,  where  he  became  professor;  but  being  asked  to  join  the  Lutheran  commun- 
ion, he  refused.  On  his  departure  from  the  city,  he  pronounced  an  impassioned  pane- 
gyric on  Luther.  After  spending  some  time  in  Prague,  Brunswick,  Helmstadt,  and 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  he  resolved  to  go  back  to  Italy.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Padua; 
but  after  a stay  of  two  years,  he  went  to  Venice,  where  he  was  arrested  by  the  officers 
of  the  inquisition,  and  conveyed  to  Rome  in  1598.  He  was  now  subjected  for  two  years 
to  persecution,  in  the  vain  hope  that  he  would  recant;  but  when  all  the  endeavors  of  his 
enemies  proved  ineffectual,  he  was  brought  to  the  stake  on  the  17th  Feb.,  1600,  and 
burned  as  an  obstinate  heretic. 

B.  ’s  writings,  of  which  the  most  valuable  are  composed  in  Italian,  display  through- 
out a strong,  courageous,  excitable  soul,  susceptible  of  deep  enthusiasm,  but  vainly 
laboring  to  attain  perspicacity.  The  Gena  delle  Gene.ri,  or  evening  conversations  on  Ash- 
Wednesda}^  is  an  apology  for  the  Copernican  astronomy;  the  Spaccio  della  Bestia  Triori- 
fante,  or  expulsion  of  the  triumphant  beast  (Par.  1584),  is  a satirical  but  somewhat 
heavy  allegory  in  the  style  of  the  times.  His  greatest  works  are  metaphysical,  such  as 
the  Della  Causa  Principio  ed  Uno  (On  the  One  Sole  Cause  of  Things)  and  the  Del  Injinita 
Universo  e Mondi  (On  the  Infinity  of  the  Universe  and  of  Worlds).  The  doctrine  enun- 
ciated in  these  is  pantheistic.  B.  held  that  the  infinite  soul  of  God  did  not  merely  inhabit 
or  pervade  the  universe,  but  that  the  universe  was  simply  a manifestation  of  him,  and 
therefore  itself  divine.  God  was  therefore,  in  the  most  literal  and  physical  sense,  all  in- 
all.  B.’s  philosophy,  in  later  times,  was  quite  unappreciated,  and  even  neglected,  until 
Jacobi  drew  public  attention  to  it  in  his  Letters  on  the  Doctrine  of  Spinoza.  Both  Spinoza 
and  Descartes  were  much  indebted  to  Bruno.  His  influence  is  also  discernible  in  the 
pantheistic  speculation  of  modern  Germany.  Original  editions  of  B.’s  works  are  very 
rare.  Those  in  Italian  were  published  by  Wagner  in  1830:  some  Latin  ones  by  Gfrdrer 
in  1836.  See  Bartholom^’s  Bruno  (1846);  Berti’s  Vita  di  B.  (1868). 

BRUNSWICK,  a co.  in  s.e.  North  Carolina,  on  the  ocean  and  cape  Fear  and  Wac- 
camaw  rivers;  1100  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  9390 — 4052  colored.  It  is  level  and  swampy,  with 
poor  soil,  but  producing  rice  and  cotton.  Tar,  rosin,  and  fine  lumber  are  exported. 
The  railroads  are  the  Washington,  Columbia  and  Augusta,  and  the  Wilmington  and  Wel- 
don. Co.  seat,  Smithville. 

BRUNSWICK,  a co.  in  s.e.  Virginia,  on  North  Carolina,  watered  by  the  Roanoke 
and  Nottaway  rivers;  600  sq.m.;  pop. ’80, 16,707— 10, 636  colored.  Productions,  tobacco, 
corn,  wheat,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Lawrenceville. 

BRUNSWICK,  a t.  in  Glynn  co.,  Ga. ; a port  of  entry  on  St.  Simon’s  sound,  8 m. 
from  the  ocean,  and  80  m.  s.s.w.  of  Savannah,  at  the  s.e.  terminus  of  the  Macon  and 
Brunswick  and  Albany  railroads.  There  is  a lighthouse  at  the  entrance  of  the  sound, 
and  the  harbor  is  spacious  and  safe.  Pine  lumber  is  the  chief  article  of  export.  Pop. 
2348. 

BRUNSWICK,  a t.  and  village  in  Cumberland  co..  Me.,  on  the  Androscoggin,  8 m. 
w.  of  Bath.  It  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  and  the  foot  of  water-power  on  the  river, 
and  has  mills  and  other  manufacturing  establishments.  Here  are  Bowdoin  college  and 
the  Maine  medical  school.  The  Maine  Central  and  other  railroads  unite  at  B.  Ship- 
building and  lumbering  are  leading  industries.  Pop.  about  2500. 

BRUNSWICK,  Duchy  op  (Ger,  Bra^inschwdg),  a state  of  northern  Germany,  consist- 
ing of  three  larger  and  five  smaller  distinct  parts,  and  lying  mostly  within  lat.  51°  38  'to 
52°  28'  n.,  and  lon^,  9°  23'  to  11°  30'  east.  Its  entire  area  amounts  to  about  1425  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  in  1875,  327,493.  For  administrative  purposes,  B.  is  divided  into  six  circles — viz., 
Brunswick,  Wolfenbiittel,  Helmstedt,  Gandersheim,  Holzminden,  and  Blankenburg.  Of 
the  three  larger  parts,  the  principal  one,  forming  the  circle  of  Wolfenbiittel,  and  includ- 
ing the  capital,  lies  between  Prussia  and  Hanover;  the  second,  extending  e.  and  w.  from 
Prussia  to  the  Weser,  divides  Hanover  into  two  parts;  and  the  third,  forming  the  circle 


127 


Bruno. 

Brunswick. 


of  Blankeriburg,  lies  to  the  s.e.  between  Hanover,  Anhalt,  and  Prussia.  The  smaller 
parts  are  the  isolated  bailiwicks  of  Calvbrde  in  the  e.,  Thedinghaiisen  in  the  w.  (not  far 
from  Bremen),  and  some  very  small  demesnes  in  the  Hanoverian  boundaries.  B.  belongs 
mostly  to  the  basin  of  the  W eser,  which  serves  as  a boundary  on  the  west.  The  surface 
is  mostly  mountainous,  particularly  in  the  southern  portions  of  the  country,  but  B.  has 
nevertheless  level  tracts  of  considerable  extent.  The  rivers,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Weser,  are  comparatively  unimportant,  though  advantage  is  taken  of  one  or  two  for  the 
transport  of  timber.  The  climate  in  the  low  lands  resembles  the  general  climate  of 
northern  Germany;  but  in  the  Harz  district  it  is  so  much  colder,  that  harvest  is  gener- 
ally a month  later  than  in  the  plains. 

The  mines  and  quarries  of  B.  produce  marble,  alabaster,  limestone,  gypsum,  alum, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  sulphur,  and  salt  in  large  quantities,  with  some  portions  of  gold  and 
silver.  Agriculture,  which  is  carried  on  with  intelligence  and  energy,  constitutes  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  duchy.  The  products  include,  beside  the  ordinary  cereals,  large 
quanties  of  leguminous  plants,  potatoes,  tobacco,  and  hops.  The  pasture-land  is  exten 
sive,  and  great  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  especially  to  the  breeding  of 
sheep,  wool  being  an  important  article  of  commerce.  A large  number  of  persons  are 
employed  in  the  cutting  and  preparation  of  timber.  The  chief  manufactures  of  B.  are  of 
linen,  stockings,  woolen  cloth,  metals,  porcelain,  paper,  sugar,  glass,  beer,  etc. 

The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Saxons,  and,  with  the  exceptions  of  about  3000  Reformed, 
7000  Roman  Catholics,  and  1100  Jews,  all  adhere  to  the  Lutheran  church.  The  people 
in  the  rural  districts  speak  a very  broad  low-German  dialect ; but  good  high-German  is 
spoken  by  the  educated  classes.  Education  is  well  looked  after  by  the  government, 
which  is  a limited  monarchy,  the  duke  being  head  of  the  state,  and  his  power  restricted 
by  the  legislature,  which  is  partly  hereditary  and  partly  elective.  As  a state  of  the 
German  empire,  B.  has  two  votes  in  the  Bundesrath  (confederate  council),  and  sends 
three  deputies  to  the  Reichstag  or  parliament. 

Taxes  are  voted  triennially  in  Brunswick.  The  revenue  for  the  three  years  ending 
1878  was  7,700,133i  marks  (£385,006)  a year.  The  public  debt  in  1876  amounted  to 
51,874,442  marks  (£4,593,722),  of  which  a large  portion  was  borrowed  for  the  construc- 
tion of  railways.  The  civil  list  of  the  duke  is  not  comprised  in  the  budget,  being  paid 
out  of  a special  fund  consisting  of  the  revenues  of  the  state  domains,  which  amount  to 
729,166  marks,  and  other  receipts  amounting  to  about  70,000  marks. 

B.  was  included,  as  a part  of  Saxony,  under  the  empire  of  Charlemagne.  In  1235, 
B.,  with  Luueburg,  was  made  a duchy  under  Otto,  who  died  in  1252,  and  was  succeeded, 
in  1267,  by  his  son  Albrecht,  founder  of  the  older  line  of  Wolfenbiittel.  John,  another 
son  of  Otto,  was  the  founder  of  the  older  Liineburg  line,  which  became  extinct  with 
William  of  Liineburg  in  1369.  In  1569,  Henry,  who  styled  himself  duke  of  Brunswick- 
Liineburg-Dannenberg,  founded  the  new  house  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel ; and  hig 
brother  William  founded  the  new  line  of  Brunswick-Lilneburg,  which,  in  1815,  became 
the  kingdom  of  Hanover.  See  Hanover. 

BRUNSWICK,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Brunswick,  is  situated  on  the  Oker,  in  a 
level  and  fertile  district,  in  lat.  52°  46'  n..  and  long.  10°  4'  east.  B.,  which  is  a very  old 
place,  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  walled  about  the  9th  c.,  by  Bruno,  duke  of  Ostfalen. 
But  Henry  the  lion,  in  the  12th  c.,  so  greatly  beautified  and  extended  the  city  that  he 
may  be  almost  said  to  be  its  founder.  In  the  13th  c.,  B.  became  a member  of  the  Hanse 
league,  and  soon  attained  considerable  commercial  prosperity,  but  its  importance  declined 
with  the  decay  of  the  league.  The  town  is  most  irregularly  built,  with  narrow  and 
crooked  streets,  but  possesses  the  advantages  of  good  causeways  and  an  abundant  supply 
of  water.  The  cathedral — in  which  are  preserved  some  interesting  relics  brought  by 
Henry  the  lion  from  the  Holy  Land — with  the  churches  of  St.  Martin,  St.  Catharine, 
and  St.  Andrew,  with  its  steeple  816  ft.  high,  are  among  the  principal  buildings.  In  the 
museum  are  some  interesting  antiquities  and  works  of  art  by  Jan  Steens,  Albert  Diirer, 
Holbein,  Rembrandt,  Raphael,  Guido,  Ruysdael,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Benvenuto  Cellini. 
The  industry  of  B.  consists  chiefly  in  manufactures  of  woolen  and  linen,  chicory,  beet- 
mgar,  to\)2iCQ,o,papier-mdche,  lackered  wares,  etc.  Its  great  annual  fair,  founded  in  1498, 
is  important.  The  old  fortifications  of  B.  have  been  demolished,  and  their  site  converted 
into  pleasant  promenades.  A fine  avenue  of  linden-trees  leads  to  the  duke’s  palace,  an 
imposing  edifice,  built  in  1869.  Pop.  ’75,  65,938. 

BRUNSWICK,  House  op.  Henry  the  Lion,  who  held  the  united  duchies  of  Bavaria 
and  Saxony  in  the  12th  c.,  may  properly  be  called  the  immediate  ancestor  of  this  house, 
though  they  can  trace  their  lineage  back  to  Albert  Azo  I.,  margrave  of  Este  in  Italy, 
who  died  in  964.  The  eldest  son  of  Henry  the  Lion  became  count  palatinate  by  mar- 
riage; his  second  son,  Otho,  died  in  1218  after  having  been  crowned  German  emperor, 
and  it  was  therefore  William,  a younger  son,  who  succeeded  to  the  Brunswick  inherit- 
ance. Otho,  a grandson  of  Henry  the  Lion,  was  invested  in  1235  with  these  domains  as 
a fief  of  the  empire  and  recognized  as  the  first  duke  of  Brunswick.  Ernest  the  Pious,  or 
the  Confessor,  who  died  in  1546,  inherited  the  principalities  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  and 
was  the  founder  of  both  branches  of  the  existing  dynasty;  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
reformation  and  signed  the  confession  of  Augsburg.  His  descendant,  Ernest  Augustus, 
duke  of  Brunswick-Luneburg,  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  ninth  elector  of  the  empire  in 


ISrunswick. 

Urussels. 


128 


1692,  by  his  marriage  with  Sophia,  a grand-daughter  of  James  I.  of  England.  His  son 
George  Lewis  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  in  1714.  Ferdinand,  a later  duke 
of  this  house,  entered  the  Prussian  service  in  1740,  distinguished  himself  in  the  seven 
years’  war,  decided  the  battle  of  Prague,  and  gained  the  victories  of  Corfeld  and  Mindon. 
The  ducal  residence,  which  had  been  at  Wolfenbuttel,  was  in  1754  removed  to  Brunswick 
by  duke  Charles;  he  founded  the  famous  Collegium  Carolinum,  and  was  a faithful  ally 
of  England  during  the  seven  years’ war.  He  died  1780.  His  successor,  Charles  William 
Ferdinand,  was  a nephew  of  Frederick  the  great,  and  married  Augusta,  daughter  of 
George  HI.  of  England.  He  fought  in  the  seven  years’  war,  and  played  an  important 
part  at  the  battle  of  Krefeld  in  1758.  In  1792  he  w*as  commander-in-chief  of  the  allied 
armies  of  Austria  and  Prussia  against  France.  He  marched  into  Champagne,  but  was 
compelled  to  conclude  an  armistice  with  Dumouriez  after  trying  in  vain  to  force  the 
position  of  Valmy.  In  1806  he  was  called  to  lead  the  Prussian  troops  against 
Napoleon,  who  defeated  him  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt;  he  retired  broken-hearted,  and 
died  soon  afterwards  from  the  effects  of  his  wounds.  Napoleon  incorporated  his  duchy 
with  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  but  after  the  battle  of  Leipsic  it  was  restored 
to  his  son  Frederick  William,  who  had  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaigns  of  1792, 
1793,  1806,  and  who  fell  at  the  head  of  his  troops  at  the  battle  of  Quatre-Bras  in  1815. 
His  son  Charles  Frederick  was  a minor,  and  up  to  1823  George  IV.  of  England  acted  as 
prince-regent.  The  people  of  B.  endured  the  misrule  of  Charles  Frederick  for  seven 
years;  then  they  revolted  and  drove  him  out  of  his  duchy  in  1830.  He  died  childless  at 
Geneva  in  1873.  By  an  act  of  the  Germanic  diet  the  duchy  was  transferred  to  his 
brother  William,  prince  of  Oels  (b.  1806),  who  assumed  the  government,  April  25,  1831. 
He  is  still  unmarried,  and,  if  he  dies  without  issue,  Brunswick  will  pass  to  the  house  of 
Hanover. 

BRUNSWICK  BAY,  on  the  n.w.  coast  of  Australia,  in  long.  125°  e.,  and  about  lat.  15® 
south.  It  receives  Prince  Regent  river. 

BRUNSWICK  BLACK  is  a varnish  employed  for  coating  over  coarsely  finished  iron 
grates,  fenders,  etc.  It  is  mainly  compounded  of  lamp-black  and  turpentine,  and  when 
applied  with  a brush,  quickly  dries,  and  leaves  a shining  jet-black  surface. 

BRUNSWICK  GREEN  is  a pigment  used  in  the  arts,  and  consisting  of  the  hydrated 
chloride  and  oxide  of  copper  (CuCl,3CuO,4HO).  It  may  be  prepared  (1)  by  acting  upon 
metallic  copper  with  common  salt  and  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  (2)  by  acting  upon  metallic 
copper  with  moistened  sal-ammoniac,  or  (3)  by  mixing  sulphate  of  copper  and  common 
salt  into  a paste  with  water.  It  is  found  native  at  Atacama,  in  Peru,  in  the  form  of  a 
green  sand,  hence  the  name  atacamite  (q.v.). 

BRUNSWICK,  New.  See  New  Brunswick. 

BRUSA,  or  Bursa.  See  Broussa,  ante. 

BRUSASOR'CI,  or  Domenico  Riccio,  1494-1567;  an  Italian  painter  noted  for  his 
close  imitation  of  Titian.  He  worked  chiefly  in  fresco,  and  on  mythological  themes. 
The  “ Coronation  of  Charles  V.,”  the  “Procession,”  “ Phaethon,”  and  the  “Martyrdom  of 
St.  Barbara,”  are  among  his  more  important  achievements. 

BRUSH,  George  Jarvis,  b.  New  York,  1831 ; educated  at  Tale,  and  at  Munich,  and 
the  Freiberg  mining  academy;  chief  of  the  Sheffield  scientific  school  (of  Yale),  and  pro- 
fessor ©f  mineralogy  and  metallurgy  in  Yale  college.  He  has  written  upon  various 
scientific  subjects  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science,  and  assisted  in  editing  Dana’s 
Mineralogy. 

BRUSHES  AND  BROOMS,  implements  of  vegetable  fiber  or  hair  of  very  early  use, 
mentioned  by  Homer.  Brushes  are  simple  or  coinpound.  The  simple  kind  consists  of 
but  one  tuft,  and  are  such  as  hair  pencils  and  painters’  brushes.  The  compound  have 
more  than  a single  tuft.  Where  they  are  placed  side  by  side  on  flat  boards  they  are 
called  stock  brushes.  Those  with  single  tufts,  such  as  are  used  by  artists,  are  made  of  the 
hair  of  the  camel,  goat,  badger,  and  of  hog’s  bristles.  The  hairs  for  pencils  are  arranged 
so  as  to  form  a point  in  the  center,  and  are  fixed  in  a quill  or  other  small  tube.  Com- 
pound brushes  are  of  set  or  pan  work,  and  of  drawm  work.  The  ordinary  house  broom 
is  an  example  of  pan  work,  into  the  stock  of  which  holes  are  bored  of  the  size  desired. 
The  bristles,  hairs,  or  fibers  needed  to  fill  each  hole  are  collected,  the  thick  ends  dipped 
into  molten  cement,  usually  pitch,  bound  with  thread,  dipped  again,  and  with  a quick 
twist  set  into  the  hole.  In  drawn  brushes,  those  intended  for  shoes,  teeth,  nails,  etc., 
and  clothes,  the  holes  are  more  carefully  bored,  and  have  smaller  ones  at  the  top  com- 
municating with  the  back  of  the  brush,  through  wdiich  a loop  of  wdre  passes  from  the 
back  of  the  stock.  Half  the  number  of  hairs  or  fibers  needed  to  fill  the  holes  are  passea 
around  the  wire,  which  is  then  smartly  drawn  up  so  as  to  double  the  hairs  and  force  them 
as  far  as  possible  into  the  hole.  The  outside  ends  are  made  even  with  trimming,  and 
the  backs  of  the  brushes  are  covered  with  veneer  to  conceal  the  wire-work.  Bristles  are 
imported  from  Poland,  Russia,  and  other  countries.  In  1808,  the  manufacture  of  brushes 
from  the  fibers  of  whalebone,  and  in  1810,  from  twigs  of  broom,  rushes,  and  other 
plants,  was  patented.  In  1842,  split  quills  were  added,  and  in  1872,  horn  and  other  sub- 
stances, The  great  staple  in  the  United  States  is  broom-corn,  a considerable  amount 
being  raised  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and  manufactured  by  the  Shakers.  Revolving 


129 


Brunswick* 

Brussels. 


brushes  were  patented  in  1811;  and  in  1862,  revolving  hair  brushes,  for  the  use  of  bar- 
bers, were  introduced,  but  they  have  never  become  popular.  As  long  ago  as  1699,  there 
was  invented  “a  new  engine  for  sweeping  the  streets  of  London,  or  of  any  city  or 
town.”  But  nothing  of  the  kind  was  put  in  use  until  1825,  when  revolving  brooms  v/ere 
used.  A great  many  improvements  followed,  and  at  the  present  time  street-sweeping  by 
such  machines  is  common  in  large  cities.  The  most  important  recent  invention  in  brush- 
making is  of  American  origin,  the  Woodbury  machine  for  bunching,  wiring,  and  insert- 
ing bristles  in  the  stock.  In  this  machine  a metal  comb  of  uniform  thickness  is  filled 
with  bristles,  holding  them  by  the  middle,  so  that  one  half  of  the  bristles  appear  above 
the  surface  of  the  comb,  and  the  other  half  underneath.  The  comb  thus  charged  moves 
in  guide-ways,  and  discharges  bristles  from  each  division  successively  into  a channel  in 
which  they  are  brought  into  a horizontal  position  and  a proper  quantity  taken  up  to 
form  a tuft.  This  tuft  is  moved  along  an  incline  against  the  end  of  a cylinder,  when  a 
plunger  doubles  the  bristles  into  a loop,  which  is  seized  by  wire,  and  in  an  instant 
■securely  fastened. 

BRUSH  TURKEY,  the  native  name  of  an  Australian  bird  of  the  megapodiidae 
family,  of  which  a dozen  species  are  known;  called  also  the  New  Holland  vulture,  jun- 
gle fowl,  and  native  pheasant.  It  is  the  only  wild  fowl  known  that  is  gregarious  in  the 
duty  of  hatching.  Before  the  time  for  laying  eggs,  several  pairs  of  these  birds  unite  in 
building  an  enormous  pyramidal  heap  of  vegetable  matter  in  part  decayed.  In  this 
muck-heap  of  leaves,  grass,  and  rotting  wood  the  females  deposit  their  eggs,  which  are 
placed  about  a foot  from  each  other  and  covered  2 ft.  deep.  The  hatching  is  done  by 
the  heat  of  the  decaying  matter,  and  the  young  appear  full  feathered  and  able  to  take 
•care  of  themselves  from  the  first.  Nests  have  been  found  that  contained  a bushel  of 
eggs.  Some  species  of  the  brush  turkey  place  their  eggs  in  sand,  some  construct  huge 
mounds  of  earth,  and  some  make  excavations  on  the  sea-shore.  In  size  and  general 
appearance  it  much  resembles  the  common  domestic  turkey. 

BRUSSELS  (Fr.  Bruxelles),  the  capital  of  Belgium,  is  situated  on  the  small  river 
Senne,  a tributary  of  the  Dyle,  in  lat.  50°  51'  n.,  and  long.  4°  2T  east.  It  communicates 
with  Antwerp  and  the  Baltic  sea,  by  means  of  the  Scheldt  canal,  and  railways  connect  it 
with  Germany,  France,  and  Holland,  as  well  as  with  all  the  principal  towns  of  Belgium. 
The  city  is  built  partly  on  the  side  of  a hill,  and  partly  on  a fertile  plain;  and  though 
some  of  the  streets  are  so  steep  that  they  can  be  ascended  only  by  means  of  stairs,  B.,  on 
the  whole,  may  be  pronounced  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Europe.  The  upper  town, 
situated  on  the  side  of  the  hill,  is  the  newest  and  most  fashionable,  and  is  the  residence 
-chiefly  of  the  great  and  wealthy.  The  king’s  palace,  public  offices,  chief  hotels,  and 
mansions  of  foreign  ministers  are  here.  It  is  also  much  more  healthy  than  the  lower 
town,  which,  stretching  along  the  canal  and  the  Senne,  is  greatly  subject  to  fogs.  But 
the  latter,  with  its  numerous  handsome  old  buildings,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Brabant 
nobility,  but  now  occupied  by  merchants  and  traders,  has  a fine  picturesque  appearance, 
while  some  of  its  public  edifices  are  unrivaled  as  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture. 
This  part  has  also  several  noble  churches,  but  it  is  now  wholly  given  over  to  trade. 
French  is  spoken  in  the  upper  part  of  B. ; but  in  the  lower,  Flemish  is  prevalent,  and  in 
one  quarter  the  Walloon  dialect  is  spoken.  The  English  language,  owing  to  the  large 
number  of  English  who  reside  in  B.  for  economy,  is  also  very  common.  The  walls 
which  formerly  surrounded  B.  have  been  removed,  and  their  place  is  now  occupied  by 
pleasant  boulevards,  shaded  by  alleys  of  trees,  extending  several  miles.  The  Allee  Verte 
— a double  avenue  along  the  Scheldt  canal — forms  a splendid  promenade,  and  leads 
towards  the  palace  of  Laeken,  the  suburban  residence  of  the  royal  family,  3 m.  n.  of 
the  city.  Besides  the  fine  park  in  the  upper  town,  covering  an  area  of  some  17  acres, 
ornamented  with  fountains  and  statues,  and  surrounded  by  the  king’s  palace,  the 
^‘palace  of  the  prince  of  Orange,”  the  chamber  of  representatives,  and  other  buildings, 
B.  has  several  other  squares  or  places,  among  which  the  most  noteworthy  are — the 
Place  Boyal,  with  its  colossal  monument  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon;  the  Grand  Place,  in 
which  is  situated  the  HOtel  de  Ville,  a splendid  Gothic  structure,  erected  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  c.,  with  a pyramidal  tower  364  ft.  high,  surmounted  by  a statue  of  St. 
Michael,  the  patron  saint  of  B.,  and  where,  in  1568,  the  patriot  counts,  Egmont  and 
Horn,  were  beheaded  by  order  of  the  duke  of  Alba;  and  the  Place  des  Martyrs,  where  a 
memorial  has  been  erected  to  those  who  fell  here  in  the  revolution  of  1830.  Among  the 
churches  of  B.,  the  largest  and  finest  is  the  cathedral  of  St.  Gudule,  which  dates  from 
the  12th  c.,  and  is  built  in  the  pointed  Gothic  style,  with  two  towers  of  more  modern 
date,  rising  on  each  side  to  a height  of  264  ft.,  many  richly  painted  windows,  a pulpit, 
considered  the  masterpiece  of  Verbruggen,  and  monuments  of  the  dukes  of  Brabant  and 
other  distinguished  persons.  In  the  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts  is  the  picture-gallery,  con- 
taining the  finest  specimens  of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting;  the  public  library,  with 
its  234,000  volumes,  and  its  20,000  MSS.,  collected  by  the  dukes  of  Burgundy — MSS. 
interesting  and  valuable  not  only  for  their  contents,  but  for  the  beautiful  miniature 
paintings  with  which  the  scholars  of  Van  Eyck  adorned  them.  The  observatory  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  educational  establishments  of  B.  are  numerous,  the  princi- 
pal being  the  free  university,  founded  in  1834,  with  four  faculties — viz.,  law,  medicine, 
mathematical  and  physical  sciences,  and  belles-lettres,  and  having  a special  school  of 
U.  K.  III.-9 


Brussels. 

Bryant. 


130 


pharmacy  attached.  It  has  also  numerous  charitable  and  benevolent  institutions;  and  is; 
the  seat  of  the  provincial  government  of  s.  Brabant,  as  well  as  of  the  general  govern- 
ment of  the  kingdom.  B.  is  one  of  the  chief  centers  of  the  industry  of  the  country.  Its 
lace  is  particularly  famous.  Of  the  esteemed  carpets  which  pass  under  the  name  of  B. 
carpets,  only  a few  are  manufactured  here,  most  of  those  of  Belgic  make  being  producei 
at  Tournai.  It  has  also  manufactures  of  damask,  linen,  ribbons,  paper,  jewelry,  hats, 
soap,  porcelain,  mathematical  and  musical  instruments,  etc.  Carriage-building  is  also  an 
important  branch  of  industry.  Printing  and  lithographic  establishments  are  numerous; 
and  about  a dozen  newspapers,  of  which  the  Independance  Beige  has  a European  reputa- 
tion, are  published  daily.  Pop.  in  1876,  161,816;  with  suburbs,  348,180. 

As  early  as  the  8th  c.,  we  find  B.  (Bruchsella),  then  probably  a villa  of  the  Frank 
kings,  mentioned  in  old  chronicles,  and  that  a church  existed  here  in  966  is  proved  by  a. 
deed  of  the  emperor  Otho  I.  Under  Charles  V.,  B.  was  made  the  court-residence  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  became  afterwards,  under  Philip  II.,  the  chief  arena  of  the  revolution, 
and  of  the  atrocities  committed  by  the  duke  of  Alba  and  the  inquisition.  B.  suffered 
greatly  in  the  war  of  Spain  against  Louis  XIV. — in  whose  reign  it  was  bombarded  by 
marshal  Villeroi,  and  upwards  of  4000  buildings  destroyed — and  in  that  of  Austria 
against  Louis  XV. ; but  still  more  from  the  continual  prevalence  of  party  animosities- 
caused  by  the  policy  of  Austria.  Under  the  mild  rule  of  Maria  Theresa,  B.  fiourished 

f reatly,  and  in  this  time,  many  of  its  best  institutions  and  public  buildings  were  founded, 
n 1789  occurred  the  Brabant  revolution  under  Joseph  II.,  and  scarcely  had  Austrian, 
rule  been  re-established,  after  a brief  time  of  independence,  when  B.  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  French,  1792.  After  other  changes  of  fortune,  B.,  with  the  other  parts  of  Bel- 
gium, was  incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  in  1815,  and  so  remained 
until  the  revolution  of  1830,  by  which  it  became  the  capital  of  the  independent  kingdom 
of  Belgium. 

BRUSSELS  CARPETS.  See  Cakpets. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS,  one  of  the  many  cultivated  varieties  of  hrassica  oleracea  (see 
Brassica  and  Cabbage),  distinguished  by  producing,  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  little- 
clusters  of  leaves  which  close  together  and  form  miniature  cabbages.  These  are  used, 
like  other  greens  of  this  species,  for  the  table,  and  are  very  delicate.  The  plant  is  culti- 
vated much  in  the  same  way  as  cabbage  or  kale,  requiring,  however,  less  space  than 
most  of  the  varieties.  It  may  be  planted  in  shady  situations,  or  between  the  rows  of 
crops,  such  as  pease,  beans,  scarlet-runners,  etc.,  which  are  to  be  removed  from  the- 
ground  in  autumn.  The  sprouts  are  fit  for  use  chiefly  in  winter  and  spring.  The  stem 
sometimes  attains  a height  of  4 ft. , and  the  head  resembles  a small,  imperfectly  boiled 
savoy;  but  there  is  a sub^variety  with  shorter  stems,  preferable  for  many  situations.  In 
some  places,  it  is  customary  to  remove  the  head  early  in  winter,  in  order  to  promote  the 
development  of  the  lateral  shoots  in  spring;  but  if  the  head  is  allowed  to  remain, 
the  plant  becomes  taller,  and  new  shoots  are  formed  as  the  lower  ones  are  removed.. 
The  seed  is  sown  in  Feb.  or  March.  Seed  is  very  generally  imported  from  Belgium,, 
as  this  vegetable  is  said  to  degenerate  in  Britain.  Its  use  has  of  late  rapidly  extended, 
and  none  of  the  many  varieties  of  the  species  to  which  it  belongs  is  better  deserving  of 
cultivation. 

BRUTTIUM,  an  ancient  division  of  Italy,  comprising  the  s.  portion,  now  Calabria. 
The  people  known  as  Bruttians  became  rulers  in  the  peninsula  about  356  b.c.  Before- 
that  period  the  people  seem  to  have  been  of  some  Pelasgian  races,  but  at  an  early  date 
Greek  adventurers  started  settlements  on  the  coast,  of  which  the  more  important  were 
Crotona,  Rhegium,  and  Locri.  The  warlike  Greeks  subjected  the  natives  and  held 
them  in  slavery  until  after  the  Peloponnesian  war.  At  that  period  the  Lucunians  came 
in  from  the  n.  and  still  further  oppressed  the  natives.  At  last,  about  the  middle  of  the 
4th  c.  B.C.,  the  people  rising  against  oppression  became  their  own  masters;  they  gained, 
power  rapidly,  captured  some  of  the  Greek  cities,  and,  assisted  by  the  Lucanians,  held 
their  own  against  the  Grecian  arms.  The  B.  were  powerful  until  after  their  participa- 
tion in  the  Samnite  war  against  Rome,  282  b.c.  Not  long  afterwards  they  were  sub- 
jected to  Rome  and  gave  up  much  of  their  territory.  In  the  second  Punic  war  they 
revolted  and  assisted  Hannibal,  for  which  they  were  punished  by  Rome  in  the  sacrifice 
of  what  little  they  had  left  of  independence.  At  that  time  the  Brutti  as  a nation  disap- 
peared from  history. 

BRUTUS,  Lucius  Junius,  figures  in  the  legendary  history  of  early  Rome,  as  the  hero 
who  overturned  the  monarchical,  and  established  the  republican  form  of  government. 
The  legend  runs  that  he  was  the  son  of  a rich  Roman.  On  his  father’s  death,  Tarquin 
the  proud  took  possession  of  the  property,  and  put  an  elder  brother  to  death,  and  B. 
•himself  only  escaped  the  same  fate  by  feigning  idiocy  (hence  the  name  Brutus,  stupid). 
The  oracle  of  Delphi  foretold  that  he  should  govern  in  Rome.  Remembering  his  own 
wrongs,  and  gifted  with  the  strength  and  wisdom  of  one  who  was  fulfilling  the  decrees 
of  fate,  B.,  when  the  foul  rape  committed  by  one  of  the  royal  family  upon  Lucretia  had 
shocked  the  people,  convoked  them,  placed  himself  at  their  head,  and  drove  the  kings 
from  Rome.  He  is  said  to  have  been  then  elected  one  of  the  two  first  consuls  (509  b.c.). 
That  his  character  as  a stern  old  Roman  hero  might  be  complete,  the  legend  adds  that 
he  sacrificed  to  the  new  republic  his  own  sons,  detected  in  a conspiracy  to  restore  the^ 


131 


Brussels. 

Bryant. 


'monarchy;  and  that  at  last  he  fell  in  mortal  combat  repelling  an  attack  led  on  by  one 
• of  the  sons  of  Tarquin.  Little  more,  however,  can  be  said  to  be  established  upon  suf- 
ficient historical  evidence  with  regard  to  B, , than  that  there  existed  a person  of  that 
name  who  held  high  office  in  Rome  at  a very  early  period. 

BRUTUS,  Marcus  Junius,  b.  85  b.c.,  appears  to  have  spent  the  early  years  of  man- 
hood in  exclusive  devotion  to  literary  pursuits,  and  not  to  have  taken  part  in  the  politi- 
cal dissensions  agitating  Rome  till  he  had  attained  a mature  age.  When  the  civil  war 
broke  out  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  he  sided  with  the  former;  but  after  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  made  his  submission  to  the  latter,  and,  in  the  following  year,  was  appointed 
governor  of  Cisalpine  Gaul.  On  returning  to  Rome,  he  divorced  his  wife,  in  order  to 
marry  Portia,  the  daughter  of  Cato,  of  whose  principles  in  politics  he  professed  to  be  a 
disciple.  The  influence  of  Cassius  prevailed  upon  him  to  join  the  conspiracy  which 
^cnded  in  the  murder  of  Caesar.  The  efforts  of  B.  to  retain  popular  favor  afterwards 
being  unavailing  to  counteract  the  effects  of  the  eloquence  of  Antony,  he  was  forced  to 
leave  first  Rome,  and  then  Italy.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  partly  in  Athens, 
partly  in  Asia  Minor,  and  partly  as  the  leader  of  a marauding  force  which  maintained 
itself  by  plundering  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  Defeated  by 
Antony  and  Octavianus  (Augustus)  at  Philippi  (42  b.c.),  he  terminated  his  life  by  falling 
upon  his  sword. 

BRUX,  a t.  of  Bohemia,  situated  on  the  Bila,  about  14  m.  n.  of  Saatz.  In  its  vicinity 
■ are  extensive  coal-mines,  and  the  famous  mineral  springs  of  Pilllna  and  Seidlitz,  from 
which  the  inhabitants  of  B.  prepare  a considerable  quantity  of  salts.  Pop.  Dec.  31,  ’69, 
6102. 

BRUYAS,  Jacques,  1637-1712;  one  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  Canada,  employed 
among  the  Iroquois.  He  mastered  their  speech,  and  wrote  some  pious  works  in  it.  In 
1862,  his  Badical  Words  of  the  Mohawk  Language  yj 2^%  first  published. 

BRUYERE,  Jean  la.  See  labruyeire. 

BRUYS,  or  Bruis,  Peter  de,  a priest  of  southern  France  supposed  to  have  been 
one  of  Abelard’s  pupils,  founder  of  a sect  by  the  name  of  Petrobrussians.  He 
opposed  the  church  as  it  was,  seeking  to  restore  the  Christian  religion  to  its  original 
? simplicity  and  freedom  from  symbols,  denied  the  authority  of  any  established  hierarchy 
and  the  necessity  of  any  priestly  ministration,  opposed  infant  baptism  and  the  com- 
munion, and  held  that,  as  prayer  could  be  offered  anywhere,  churches  were  useless.  His 
followers  destroyed  images,  burnt  crosses,  and  maltreated  priests.  After  many  years  of 
non-molestation  B.  was  burnt  at  the  stake  at  St.  Gilles.  The  sect  existed  for  a long 
time  under  the  name  of  Henricians,  from  Henry  of  Lausanne,  one  of  their  leaders. 

BRYAN,  a co.  of  e.  Georgia,  on  the  sea-coast ; 472  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  4929 — 2561  colored. 
The  soil  is  level  and  mostly  of  sand,  and  in  a large  degree  covered  with  pine  forests. 
‘The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  railroad  passes  through  the  county.  Productions,  rice,  corn, 
•cotton,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Eden. 

BRYAN,  Michael,  1757-1821;  an  English  art  critic  and  connoisseur,  author  of  a 
Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers,  a recognized  standard  work.  In  1794,  he  was 
•employed  by  several  English  noblemen  to  purchase  the  celebrated  Orleans  gallery  of 
paintings,  an  achievement  which  widely  enhanced  his  reputation. 

BRYANT,  Jacob,  an  eminent  English  scholar,  was  b.  at  Plymouth  in  1715.  He  was 
•educated  at  Eton  and  King’s  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  m.a. 
in  1744.  In  1756  he  became  private  secretary  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  accom- 
pained  his  grace  to  the  continent.  Substantial  proofs  of  the  duke’s  esteem  raised  him 
.above  the  region  of  pecuniary  cares,  and  enabled  him  to  devote  his  whole  life  to  letters. 
He  d.  14th  Nov.,  1804.  Among  his  numerous  publications  maybe  mentioned:  Ohser- 
•rations  and  Inquiries  relating  to  various  Parts  of  Ancient  History  (Cambridge,  1767);  A 
Hew  System  or  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mythology  (1774-76);  Vindicice  Flaviance  {2.  defense 
►of  Josephus’  testimony  in  regard  to  Christ),  (1780);  Treatise  on  the  Authenticity  of  the 
Scriptures  and  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Beligion  (1792);  A Dissertation  concerning  the 
War  of  Troy,  etc.  (1796);  The  Sentiments  of  Philo-Judmus  concerning  the  Logos  (1797);  and 
a variety  of  dissertations  on  the  difficult  passages  of  Scripture  (1803).  B.  was  a man 
of  great  and  varied  learning,  but  his  intellect,  although  acute,  was  neither  philosophical 
nor  comprehensive  enough  to  enable  him  to  handle  in  a satisfactory  manner  the  import- 
;ant  questions  on  which  he  wrote. 

BRYANT,  William  Cullen,  a distinguished  American  poet  and  journalist,  was  b. 
in  Hampshire,  Mass.,  Nov.  3, 1794.  At  the  early  age  of  10,  he  published  translation® 
from  some  of  the  Latin  poets;  at  13,  he  wrote  a terse  and  vigorous  political  poem, 
•entitled  The  Embargo;  and  at  18,  he  composed  his  Thanatopsis,  a poem  full  of  beauty.  * 
In  1815  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  for  ten  years  practiced  with  diligence  and  sue 
cess.  In  1825  he  removed  to  a more  congenial  sphere,  and  in  association  with  a friend, 
•established  The  New  York  Review,  to  which  he  contributed  many  of  his  best  poems.  In 
1826  he  became  principal  editor  of  The  Evening  Post,  the  leading  democratic  paper  of 
New  York,  which  he  conducted  with  a manliness  and  purity  of  tone  that  might  be 
-imitated  by  his  professional  brethren  with  great  advantage  to  the  character  of  the  press. 


Bryaxis. 

Buccaneers. 


132 


The  first  collected  edition  of  his  poems  appeared  in  1832.  They  were  soon  after  repub- 
lished in  Britain,  and  were  regarded  as  the  highest  efforts,  up  to  that  time,  of  the 
American  muse.  In  1842,  he  published  The  Fountain  and  other  Poems.  B.  visited  Europe 
in  1834,  and  several  times  afterwards,  and  records  his  observations  in  Letters  of  a 
Traveler  in  Europe  and  America.  In  1858,  appeared  a new  edition  of  his  poetical  works, 
and  in  1869,  a metrical  translation  of  the  Iliad,  followed  in  1871  by  that  of  the  Odyssey. 
He  afterwards  engaged  in  writing  a History  of  the  United  States.  Although  the  pop- 
ularity of  B.’s  wirtings  has  been  eclipsed  by  those  of  Longfellow  and  Poe,  they  have 
yet  a large  circle  of  readers  and  admirers.  B.  died  12th  June,  1878. 

BRYAXIS,  a Greek  sculptor,  contemporary  of  Praxiteles  and  Scopas,  with  whom 
he  participated  in  the  work  on  the  mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  about  345  b.c.  He  also 
created  five  colossal  figures  of  the  gods  at  Rhodes,  of  Bacchus  at  Cnidus,  of  ^sculapius 
and  Hygeia  at  Megara,  Apollo  in  the  grove  of  Daphne  at  Antioch,  a statue  of  Pasiphse, 
and  a portrait  of  Seleucus.  It  is  thought  that  B.  was  the  first  to  produce  statues  of 
-lEsculapius  and  Serapis. 

BRYDGES,  Sir  Samuel  Egertok,  1762-1837;  an  English  author,  bred  to  the  law. 
He  was  a prolific  writer,  and  is  said  to  have  produced  2000  sonnets  in  a single  year.. 
His  more  important  works  are  Censura  Literaria  in  10  vols.  and  his  own  Autobiography,, 
Times,  and  Opinions. 

BRY  ONY,  Bryonia,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  cucurUtacece,  distinguished, 
by  triadelphous  stamens,  with  distinct  anthers,  a trifid  style,  and  a^  few-seeded  fruit  des- 
titute of  hard  rind.  The  stems  climb  by  means  of  lateral  tendrils,  the  leaves  are  angu- 
lar or  3 to  5-lobed,  and  the  flowers  campanulate,  5-partite,  unisexual,  and  generally  yellow. 
The  Common  Bryony  {B.  dioica),  the  only  British  species,  is  frequent  in  hedgerows  im 
England,  but  is  not  indigenous  to  Scotland.  It  has  cordate  palmate  leaves,  axillary 
bunches  of  flowers,  and  red  berries  about  the  size  of  a pea.  It  abounds  in  a fetid  and 
acrid  juice.  The  root  is  perennial,  very-large,  white  and  branched,  has  a repulsive  smell, 
and  is  acrid,  purgative,  and  emetic.  B.  alba,  common  in  the  middle  parts  of  Europe, 
possesses  similar  properties.  The  root  of  both  is  applied  topically  to  bruises,  and  wa» 
formerly  very  much  in  use  as  a purgative.  It  is  now  again  much  employed  in  home- 
opathic practice.  A decoction  made  of  1 lb.  of  the  fresh  root  is  said  by  Withering  to  bo 
“the  best  purge  for  hofned  cattle.”  It  contains  a bitter  extractive,  called  hryonine,  to 
which  it  seems  to  owe  its  properties.  The  young  shoots  of  both  species  are,  however, 
so  free  from  acrid  and  dangerous  qualities,  that  they  may  be  used  as  pot-herbs. — The^ 
roots  of  other  species  of  the  genus  are  also  acrid  and  purgative;  but  it  is  said  that  the 
root  of  B.  Abyssinica,  when  cooked,  is  eaten  without  danger. — Black  Bryony  {tamus- 
communis)  is  a plant  of  a different  natural  order  {dioscoreaceoe,  q.v.).  The  genus  is  dis- 
tinguished bj^  an  inferior  ovary  and  succulent  fruit.  Black  B.  has  long  twining  stems, 
cordate  undivided  leaves,  greenish  flowers,  and  red  berries.  Its  roots  are  very  large  and 
fleshy,  black  externally.  The  berries  are  unwholesome,  and  the  whole  plant  is  acrid,  the 
roots  so  much  so  as  to  have  been  formerly  employed  for  stimulating  plasters.  But  the 
young  suckers,  in  which  the  acrid  principle  is  not  much  developed,  are  eaten  in  Greece 
as  asparagus,  after  careful  boiling  with  change  of  water,  as  are  also  those  of  T.  cretica. 
The  plant  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  found  in  England,  in  hedges  and 
thickets 

BRYOPHYL'LITM  (Gr.  hryon,  moss,  and  phyllon,  a leaf),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  crassulaceos  (q.v.).  B.  calycinum,  a succulent  shrubby  plant,  a native  of  the 
Moluccas,  with  quinate  or  almost  pinnate  leaves,  oblong  deeply  crenulated  leaflets,  and 
panicles  of  large  pendulous  greenish-yellow  flowers,  is  not  unfrequent  in  British  hot- 
houses, being  regarded  as  an  object  of  interest,  upon  account  of  its  producing  buds  on 
the  edges  of  the  leaves  more  frequently  than  almost  any  other  plant.  These  buds  are 
capable  of  forming  independent  plants.  This  curious  mode  of  propagation  is  found 
also  in  the  bog  orchis  {malaxis  paludosa),  a plant  of  a very  different  natural  order.  See 
Bud  and  Leaf. 

BRYOZO  A.  See  Zoophytes. 

BRY'UM  (Gr.  hryon,  moss),  a genus  of  mosses  (q.v.)  distinguished  by  a terminal  fruit- 
stalk,  a double  peristome  (see  Mosses) — the  outer  one  of  16  teeth,  the  inner  a membrane 
cut  into  16  equal  segments — and  a dimidiate  calyptra.  The  species  are  very  numerous, 
and  many  of  them  are  natives  of  Britain.  They  are  all  small,  their  stems  short,  and 
their  leaves  forming  little  rosettes,  from  the  center  of  which  the  fruit-stalk  springs. 
They  very  generally  grow  in  dense  patches  on  wet  rocks,  wet  earth,  the  bark  of  trees, 
etc.,  beautifully  clothing  them  with  bright  green. 

BRZESC  LITEWS'KI,  a walled  t.  of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Grodno,  about  108 
m.  s.  from  the  city  of  the  same  name.  Being  advantageously  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Bug,  it  has  an  extensive  trade.  It  was  the  scene  of  a battle  between  the  Russians, 
and  Poles  in  1794.  Pop.  ’78,  22,132. 

BRZE'ZAN,  a t.  of  Galicia,  situated  on  the  Zlota-Lipa,  about  54  m.  s.e.  of  Lemberg. 
It  has  an  old  castle  and  a gymnasium,  and  manufactures  of  linen,  sail-cloth,  and  leather. 
Pop.  ’69,  9290. 


133 


^ryaxis. 
Buccaneers. 

BTJA'CHE,  or  Garden  Iskand,  an  island  of  Western  Australia,  near  the  mouth  of 
Bwan  river,  in  lat.  33°  10' s.,  and  long.  115°  40'  east.  Though  measuring  only  6 m.  by 
1,  it  is  yet  important  as  sheltering  from  the  open  ocean  the  deep  and  spacious  anchorage 
of  Cockburn  sound,  which  flows  between  it  and  the  mainland  of  the  colony. 

BUANSUAH,  a wild  dog  of  India,  conjectured  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the  domestic 
animal.  It  is  very  shy,  lives  in  thick  woods,  and,  like  the  wolf,  hunts  in  packs.  In 
companies  of  a dozen  these  animals  do  not  fear  to  attack  the  tiger.  If  captured  young 
they  are  easily  tamed. 

BTJ'AZE,  a s.  African  plant,  of  which  the  botanical  characters  and  relations  are  not 
yet  known,  but  which  is  likely  to  prove  of  importance  on  account  of  its  flber.  Dr.  Liv- 
ingstone found  it  growing  in  large  quantities  in  the  Maravi  country,  n.  of  the  Zambesi; 
but  he  could  not  procure  any  specimen  in  flower  or  fruit,  and  Dr.  Hooker  did  not  recog- 
nize the  specimens  of  branches  and  leaves.  It  is  not  cultivated,  and  the  only  use  to 
which  it  is  put  by  the  natives  is  to  afford  threads  for  stringing  beads  on;  but  Dr.  Living- 
stone thinks  its  flber  stronger  and  finer  than  flax,  and  says  that  a firm  thread  of  it  feels 
like  catgut  in  the  hand,  and  would  rather  cut  the  fingers  than  break. 

BU'BALUS,  Bu'balis,  or  Bu'balb,  Antilope  hubalus,  supposed  to  be  the  hubalus  of  the 
ancients — although  that  name  is  now  generally  appropriated  to  the  buffalo  (q.v.) — a spe- 
cies of  antelope,  of  that  section  of  the  genus  which  is  characterized  as  hovi-ioYm  or  ox- 
like. The  Arabic  name  is  bekker-el-wasli,  which  signifies  wild  ox.  It  is  an  animal  about 
the  size  of  a large  stag,  with  very  ox-like  head  and  muzzle — the  head,  however,  remarka- 
bly long ; the  horns  about  as  long  as  the  head,  surrounded  by  a succession  of  thickened 
rings,  curved  so  as  somewhat  to  resemble  the  sides  of  a lyre,  the  points  directed  back- 
ward. The  general  color  is  yellowish-brown,  but  the  tail  is  terminated  by  a black  tuft. 
The  B.  is  an  animal  of  rather  coarse  appearance,  very  destitute  of  the  gracefulness  of 
the  typical  antelopes.  It  inhabits  Barbary,  and  occasional  wanderers  make  their  way  to 
the  banks  of  the  Nile.  It  is  figured  on  the  monuments  of  ancient  Egypt.  It  is  grega- 
rious in  its  habits.  It  is  said  to  be  easily  domesticated.  The  most  nearly  related  spe- 
cies to  this,  of  other  antelopes  known,  is  the  kaama  (q.v.)  of  s.  Africa. 

BUBAS'TIS,  a goddess  of  the  Egyptians,  was,  in  their  mythology,  the  child  of  Isis 
and  Osiris,  and  the  sister  of  Horus.  She  was  identified  by  the  Greeks  with  Artemis 
(Diana),  though  upon  what  grounds  is  unknown,  as  the  best  information  with  regard  to 
her  is,  that  she  was  the  goddess  who  presided  over  pregnancy  and  childbirth.  The 
chief  temple  erected  to  B.  was  at  Bubastis  (q.v.).  B.  is  represented  on  monuments  as 
having  the  head  of  a cat,  an  animal  which  was  sacred  to  her. 

BUBAS'TIS  (the  Pi-heseth  of  Scripture,  and  modern  Tel  Basta),  a ruined  city  of  Egypt, 
about  14  m.  n.  of  Belbeys,  in  lat.  30°  30'  n.,  and  long.  31°  33'  east.  B.  derived  its  name 
from  the  Egyptian  goddess  Bubastis,  in  whose  honor  a temple  was  erected  here,  which, 
if  not  so  large  and  magnificent  as  some  Egyptian  temples,  was,  according  to  Herodotus, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful,  and  vast  numbers  of  persons  were  wont  to  make  annual  pil- 
grimages to  it.  Nothing  but  some  stones  of  the  temple,  which  are  of  the  finest  red 
granite,  now  remain.  There  are  some  other  ruins,  and  mounds  of  great  extent,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  the  remains  of  brick  houses  and  heaps  of  broken  pottery. 

BUBBLE,  as  a term,  is  defined  by  Blackstone  as  an  unwarrantable  undertaking  by 
unlawful  subscriptions,  subjecting  the  parties  who  originate  and  put  them  in  operation 
to  the  penalties  of  praemunire  (q.v.).  The  South-sea  company  (q.v.)  was  a terrible  example 
of  such  a bubble. — The  Bubble  Act  is  the  name  given  to  the 6 Geo.  I.  c.  18,  “enacted,” 
says  Blackstone,  “ in  the  year  after  the  infamous  South-sea  project  had  beggared  half 
the  nation,”  and  which  public  fraud  the  act  was  intended  to  punish.  But  it  was  repealed 
by  the  6 Geo.  IV.  c.  91,  which  at  the  same  time  left  such  companies  to  be  dealt  with  by 
the  common  law. 

BUBBLE  SHELL.  See  Bulla 

BUBO,  an  inflammatory  tumor,  seated  in  the  groin  or  the  armpit. 

BUBO.  See  Owl. 

BUCCANEERS,  a celebrated  association  of  piratical  adventurers,  who,  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  quarter  of  the  16th  c.,  to  the  end  of  the  17th,  maintained  them- 
selves in  the  Caribbean  seas,  at  first  by  systematic  reprisals  on  the  Spaniards,  latterly, 
by  less  justifiable  and  indiscriminate  piracy.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Caribbee 
houcan,  a term  for  preserved  meat,  smoke-dried  in  a peculiar  manner.  From  this  the 
French  adventurers  formed  the  verb  houcaner  and  the  noun  houcanier,  which  was 
adopted  by  the  English ; while,  singularly  enough,  the  French  used,  in  preference,  the 
vfordi  flibustier  (see  Filibusters),  a corruption  of  our  “freebooter.”  The  B.  were  also 
sometimes  called  “brethren  of  the  coast.”  The  arrogant  assumption  by  the  Spaniards 
of  a divine  right — sanctioned  by  the  pope’s  bull — to  the  whole  new  world,  was  not,  of 
course,  to  be  tolerated  by  the  enterprising  mariners  of  England  and  France;  and  the 
enormous  cruelties  practiced  by  them  upon  all  foreign  interlopers,  of  which  the  history 
of  that  time  is  full,  naturally  led  to  an  association  for  mutual  defense  among  the  adven- 
turers of  all  other  nations,  but  particularly  among  the  English  and  French.  The  funda- 
mental principles  of  their  policy — for  they,  in  course  of  time,  formed  distinct  commu- 


Buccari. 

Bucer. 


134 


nities — were  close  mutual  alliance,  and  mortal  war  with  all  that  was  Spanish.  Their 
simple  code  of  laws  bound  them  to  a common  participation  in  the  necessaries  of  life; 
locks  and  bars  were  proscribed  as  an  insult  to  the  general  honor;  and  ever}’-  man  had 
his  comrade,  who  stood  by  him  when  alive,  and  succeeded  to  his  property  after  his  death. 
The  principal  center  of  their  wild  and  predatory  life  was  for  some  time  the  island  of  Tor- 
tuga, near  St.  Domingo.  When  they  were  not  hunting  Spaniards,  or  being  hunted 
themselves,  their  chief  occupation  and  means  of  subsistence  was  the  chase.  From  the 
flesh  of  wild  cattle  they  made  their  ‘ ‘ boucan ;”  their  skins  and  tallow  they  sold  or  bar- 
tered to  Dutch  and  other  traders.  The  history  of  these  men  embraces,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed, narratives  of  cruelty  and  bloodshed  unsurpassed  in  the  annals  of  crime.  It  has, 
however,  not  a few  stories  of  high  and  romantic  adventure,  of  chivalrous  valor,  and 
brilliant  generalship.  Among  the  “great  captains”  whose  names  figure  most  promi- 
nently in  the  records  of  buccaneering,  were  the  Frenchman  Montbars,  surnamed  by 
the  terrible  title  of  “the  exterminator;”  his  countrymen,  Peter  of  Dieppe,  surnamed 
“the  great” — as  truly,  perhaps,  as  others  so  distinguished — and  L’Olonnas,  Michael 
de  Busco,  and  Bartolomeo  de  Portuguez,  Mansvelt,  and  Van  Horn.  Pre-eminent, 
however,  among  them  all  was  the  Welshman,  Henry  Morgan,  who  organized  fleets 
and  armies,  took  strong  fortresses  and  rich  cities,  and  displayed  throughout  the  bold 
genius  of  a born  commander.  He  it  was  that  led  the  way  for  the  B.  to  the  southern 
ocean,  by  his  daring  march  in  1670  across  the  isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  city  of  that 
name,  which  he  took  and  plundered  after  a desperate  battle.  This  brilliant  but  most 
unscrupulous  personage  was  knighted  by  Charles  II.,  and  became  deputy -governor  of 
Jamaica.  A higher  subordination  of  the  love  of  gold  to  the  passion  for  dominion  in  him, 
might  probably  have  made  him  emperor  of  the  West  Indies,  some  dream  of  which  seems 
at  one  time  to  have  occupied  his  mind.  In  1680  and  1689,  extensive  buccaneering  expedi- 
tions were  made  to  the  Pacific,  even  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  China,  of  which  the  best 
record  is  preserved  in  the  lively  pages  of  William  Dampier,  himself  an  important  part- 
ner in  these  bold  adventures.  The  war  between  France  and  Britain,  after  the  accession 
of  William  III.,  dissolved  the  ancient  alliance  of  the  French  and  English  buccaneers. 
After  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  and  the  accession  of  the  Bourbon  Philip  V.  to  the  Spanish 
crown  (1701),  they  finally  disappeared,  to  make  way  for  a race  of  mere  cut-throats  and 
vulgar  desperadoes,  not  yet  utterly  extinct.  The  last  great  event  in  their  history  was 
the  capture  of  Carthagena  in  1697,  where  the  booty  was  enormous. — See  the  Histm'ies  of 
Burney  and  Thornberry,  Dampier’s  Voyages^  and  the  Narmtiws  of  Wafer,  Ringrove, 
and  Sharp. 

BTJCCA'RI,  or  Baka.r,  a free  port  of  Austrian  Croatia,  on  an  inlet  of  the  gulf  of  Quar- 
nero,  5 m.  e.s.e.  from  Fiume.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  slope  of  a hill,  and  has 
a small  but  very  good  and  safe  harbor.  The  linen  manufacture  is  carried  on  here,  and 
ship-building  is  actively  prosecuted ; but  the  inhabitants  are  principally  sailors  and  fish- 
ermen. The  tunny  fishery  is  the  chief  fishery  of  this  part  of  the  Adriatic.  The  vine  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood  of  B.,  and  good  wine  is  made.  Pop.  ’69, 
2116. 

BTJCCINA'TOR  (from  Lat.  huccinare,  to  sound  a trumpet),  the  name  of  a muscle,  situ- 
ated in  the  substance  of  the  cheeks,  it  is  so  called  because,  when  the  cheeks  are  distended 
with  air,  the  contraction  of  the  B muscles  forces  it  out. 

BUCCI'NO,  a t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Salerno,  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
Botta,  which  at  this  point  is  crossed  by  an  old  Roman  bridge,  about  14  m.  e.  from 
Campagna.  In  its  vicinity  are  quarries  yielding  fine  marble.  Pop.  ’72,  6049. 

BUC'CINUM.  See  Whelk. 

BUCCLETJCH'.  The  Scotts,  dukes  of  B.,  are  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  distinguished 
families  in  Scotland.  The  family  traces  its  descent  from  sir  Richard  le  Scott,  in  the 
reign  of  Alexander  III.  (1249-85) ; but  the  ancestor  who  first  becomes  historically  con- 
spicuous is  sir  Walter  Scott  of  Branxholm  and  B.,  a brave  and  powerful  chieftain  on  the 
border.  B.,  which  from  this  early  period  was  destined  to  be  associated  with  the  farnily 
title,  is  a lonely  estate  in  the  vale  of  Rankleburn,  at  the  head  of  Ettrick,  Selkirkshire. 
The  sir  Walter  alluded  to  flourished  in  the  reign  of  James  V.,  and  on  some  incidents  in 
his  life,  his  great  namesake  founded  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.  Sir  Walter  fought 
bravely  at  the  battle  of  Pinkie,  1547,  and  was  slain  in  an  encounter  with  sir  Walter  KeiT 
of  Cessford  in  the  streets  of  Edinburgh,  1552.  He  was  succeeded,  by  his  gi'andson,  sir 
Walter  Scott  of  B.,  a knight  “wise,  true,  and  modest,”  who  was  succeeded  by  his  only 
son,  who  bore  the  same  name.  This  sir  Walter  is  celebrated  for  his  military  exploits  on 
the  border,  not  the  least  daring  of  his  enterprises  being  the  rescue  of  one  of  his  attend- 
ants, Kinmont  Willie,  from  the  castle  of  Carlisle.  (See  Minstrelsy^  of  the  Scottish  Border.) 
For  his  services  to  the  state,  in  which  is  to  be  reckoned  his  carrying  away  of  large  num- 
bers of  the  border  marauders  to  foreign  wars,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  1606,  as  lord 
Scott  of  Buccleuch.  Dying  in  1611,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son,  Walter,  who,  in 
1619,  received  an  elevation  in  the  peerage,  as  lord  Whitchester  and  Eskdale,  and  earl  of 
Buccleuch.  Through  his  son  Francis,  the  second  earl,  the  family,  by  a grant,  acquired 
the  extensive  domain  of  Liddesdale,  formerly  belonging  to  the  house  of  Bothwell ; also, 
by  purchase,  large  territories  in  Eskdale;  and  in  1642,  the  barony  of  Dalkeith,  from. the 


135 


BuccarL 

Bucer. 


Morton  family.  Francis  left  only  two  daughters,  the  eldest  of  whom  dying  without 
issue,  the  titles  and  estates  went  to  her  sister,  Anne,  who,  in  1663,  was  married  to  James, 
duke  of  Monmouth,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Charles  II.  In  1673,  this  pair  were  created 
duke  and  duchess  of  B.,  earl  and  countess  of  Dalkeith,  etc.  After  a marriage  of 
twenty-two  years,  the  unhappy  duke,  on  a charge  of  rebellion,  was  tried  and  beheaded, 
1685;  the  duchess,  however,  retaining  her  honors,  title,  and  estates,  as  in  her  own  right. 
The  duke  left  a family  of  four  sons  and  two  daughters.  The  duchess  afterwards  mar- 
ried Lord  Cornwallis,  by  whom  she  had  a son  and  two  daughters,  and  died  in  1732, 
at  Dalkeith  house,  where  she  had  occasionally  resided  in  princely  splendor.  James,  her 
eldest  surviving  son,  pre- deceased  his  mother,  and  his  son,  Francis,  by  the  death  of  his 
grandmother,  succeeded  to  the  title  of  duke  of  Buccleuch.  Notwithstanding  the  con- 
nection with  the  son  of  Charles  II.,  the  family  still  preserved  the  surname  of  Scott. 
Duke  Francis,  in  1743,  obtained  a restoration  of  his  grandfather  Monmouth’s  earldom 
of  Doncaster  and  barony  of  Tynedale,  and  was  hence  a British  peer.  In  1720,  he  mar- 
ried a daughter  of  James,  second  duke  of  Queensberry,  and  by  this  fortunate  connection, 
a portion  of  the  Queensberry  estates,  along  with  the  dukedom,  merged  in  the  family  of 
B.  in  1810.  Henry,  third  duke  of  B.,  born  in  1746,  was  the  greatest  and  most  estimable 
of  his  family.  He  had  for  his  tutor  and  friend  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  and  his  beneficent 
talents  were  directed  towards  the  improvement  of  his  extensive  estates  in  the  south  of 
Scotland.  The  amelioration  of  the  soil,  the  planting  of  trees,  the  making  of  roads,  the 
improving  of  the  breed  of  sheep,  and  the  social  elevation  of  his  numerous  tenantry, 
uniformly  engaged  his  attention.  He  died  in  1812,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
Charles,  fourth  duke,  who,  dying  in  1814,  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Walter  Francis,  born 
1806,  who  bears  the  title  of  duke  of  B.  and  Queensberry,  marquis  of  Dumfriesshire, 
earl  of  Drumlanrig,  B.,  Sanquhar,  Dalkeith,  etc.,  in  the  peerage  of  Scotland;  and  earl 
of  Doncaster,  etc.,  in  the  peerage  of  England.  His  eldest  son,  William  Henry,  takes 
the  courtesy  title  of  earl  of  Dalkeith.  The  duke,  like  his  grandfather,  is  noted  for  the 
improvement  of  his  estates,  which  in  Scotland  are  situated  in  Mid-Lothian,  Dumfries- 
shire, Roxburghshire,  Selkirkshire,  Peeblesshire,  Lanarkshire,  and  stewartry  of  Kirk- 
cudbright; his  farms  everywhere  being  noted  for  their  good  steadings  and  thriving  ten- 
antry. As  an  heritor,  the  number  of  churches  and  school-houses  which  the  duke  has 
been  concerned  in  building  is  very  considerable.  He  has  one  small  possession  in  Fife — 
the  island  of  Inchkeith  (q.v).  The  greatest  public  improvement  ever  executed  in  Scot- 
land by  an  individual  at  his  own  private  cost,  was  carried  out  by  the  duke  of  B.  at  vast 
expense.  We  allude  to  the  creation  of  the  deep-water  harbor  and  port  of  Granton,  on 
the  firth  of  Forth,  2 m.  from  Edinburgh.  The  duke  of  B.  was  one  of  the  chief 
patrons  of  church  livings  in  Scotland,  but  waived  all  claim  to  compensation  when  pat- 
ronage was  abolished  in  1874.  The  duke  is  lord-lieutenant  of  Mid-Lothian  and  Roxburgh- 
shire, and  captain  of  the  Queen’s  body-guard  in  Scotland. 

BTJCEN'TAIIR,  the  name  of  a ship  which  acquired  much  celebrity  in  Venice  at  a time 
when  that  state  was  a flourishing  republic.  A B.  was  known  as  early  as  the  end  of  the 
12th  c. ; and  a vwssel  of  the  same  name  was  burnt  when  the  French  took  Venice  more  than 
six  centuries  afterwards;  but  it  is  not  certain  whether  this  was  the  same  vessel,  main- 
tained by  being  repeatedly  patched  up  with  new  ribs  and  planking.  The  B.  is  described 
as  having  been  a galley,  about  100  ft.  long  by  21  in  extreme  breadth;  on  a lower  deck 
were  32  banks  or  row5  of  oars,  manned  by  168  rowers;  and  on  an  upper  deck  was  accom- 
modation for  the  illustrious  visitors  who  occasionally  came  on  board.  The  whole  of  the 
fittings  were  of  the  most  gorgeous  character.  Although  propelled  mainly  by  oars,  there 
were  40  mariners  employed  in  other  ways  to  manage  the  galley.  The  B.  was  employed  only 
once  a year,  when  the  doge  “married  the  Adriatic.”  A splendid  water-procession  was 
formed,  with  the  doge  and  the  chief  notables  in  the  B. , and  other  distinguished  persons 
in  gondolas  and  feluccas;  and  when  the  vessels  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  chan- 
nels opening  into  the  Adriatic,  the  doge  dropped  a ring  into  the  water,  using  the  words: 
“ We  wed  thee  with  this  ring  in  token  of  our  true  and  perpetual  sovereignty.  ” This 
singular  ceremony,  which  took  place  on  Ascension  day,  arose  out  of  an  honor  or  privi- 
lege conferred  by  the  pope  on  the  doge  in  1177,  consequent  on  a splendid  victory  gained 
by  the  Venetians  over  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa. 

BTJCEFH'ALTJS  (Gr.  meaning  “ox-head”),  the  name  of  the  favorite  charger  of 
Alexander  the  great,  was  probably  also  the  name  of  a peculiar  breed  of  horses  in  Thes- 
saly. According  to  tradition,  Alexander  in  his  boyhood  was  the  first  to  break  in  the 
steed  B. , and  thus  fulfilled  the  condition  stated  by  an  oracle  as  necessary  for  gaining 
the  crown  of  Macedon. — The  town  Bucephalia,  on  the  river  Hydaspes,  in  India,  was 
founded  near  the  grave  of  B.  which  died  during  Alexander’s  Indian  expedition. 

BUCER,  Maktin,  one  of  the  church  reformers  of  the  16th  c.,  was  b.  1491,  at  Schlett- 
stadt  in  Alsace.  His  real  name  was  Kuhhorn  (cow-horn),  but  in  accordance  with  the 
fashion  of  his  time  among  scholars,  he  changed  it  into  its  Greek  equivalent,  Bucer  being 
derived  from  bous,  an  ox,  and  keras,  a horn.  At  the  age  of  14  he  entered  the  order  of 
Dominicans.  At  the  suggestion  of  his  superior,  he  went  to  Heidelberg  to  study  theol- 
ogy, devoting  his  attention,  however,  at  the  same  time  to  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  lan- 
guages. While  young  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  elector  of  the  palatinate.  An 
acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Erasmus  had  already  inclined  B.  toward  Protestantism, 


Buceros. 

Buchanan. 


136 


and  his  views  were  confirmed  by  the  influence  of  Luther  at  the  Heidelberg  disputations 
in  1518.  Following  the  example  given  by  Luther  at  the  diet  of  Worms  (1521),  B.  became 
one  of  the  boldest  and  most  decided  of  the  German  reformers.  In  1523,  he  went  to 
Strasburg,  where  he  introduced  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation.  In  the  disputes 
between  Luther  and  Zwingli,  he  adopted  a middle  course,  and  endeavored  to  make 
reconciliation  between  them;  but  his  view  of  the  sacraments,  which  approached  that  of 
Zwingli,  exposed  him  to  Luther’s  harsh  reprobation.  At  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  where 
he  conducted  himself  with  great  circumspection  and  moderation,  he  generally  accorded 
with  the  Lutheran  views;  but,  along  with  other  Stasburg  theologians,  declined  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  proposed  confession  of  faith,  and  afterwards  drew  up  the  Confessio  Tetra- 
‘politana.  An  agreement,  however,  was  subsequently  entered  into  between  B.  and  the 
Lutherans,  and  as  a disciple  of  Luther,  he  appeared  at  the  religious  conference  of  the 
reformers  held  at  Leipsic.  In  consequence  of  his  refusal  to  sign  the  Interim — a tempo- 
rary creed  drawn  up  by  order  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. — B.  found  his  situation  irk- 
some in  Germany,  and  therefore  accepted  the  invitation  of  archbishop  Cranmer  (1549), 
and  came  to  England  to  teach  theology  at  Cambridge,  and  assist  Paul  Fagius  and  others 
in  forwarding  the  reformation.  His  modesty,  blameless  life,  and  great  learning  gained 
many  friends  in  England;  but  his  labors  were  soon  interrupted  by  death,  Feb.  27,  1551. 
His  remains  were  interred  in  a church  at  Cambridge  with  great  solemnity;  but  during 
the  reign  of  Mary,  his  bones,  with  those  of  Fagius,  were  taken  from  their  graves  and 
burned  in  the  market-place.  His  constant  attempts  to  express  himself  in  language 
agreeable  both  to  Luther  and  Zwingli,  induced  in  him  at  times  an  obscure,  ambiguous,  and 
elusive  kind  of  thought,  to  which,  perhaps,  Bossuet  refers  when  he  stigmatizes  B.  as 
“the  great  architect  of  subtleties.”  B.  was,  of  course,  exposed  to  many  censures  and 
scandals  by  the  assiduous  malice  of  the  Roman  Catholic  theologians,  whose  fertile  imagina- 
tions during  the  reformation  period  were  exclusively  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  inde- 
cent calumnies;  but  by  Protestant  writers  he  has  been  highly  commended,  and  by  some 
has  been  ranked  above  even  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  His  best  work  is  a translation  and 
exposition  of  the  Psalms,  which  he  published  under  the  pseudonym  Aretinus  Felinus 
(Strasburg,  1529).  Hubert  intended  to  edit  the  whole  of  B.’s  writings  in  ten  volumes, 
but  only  one  volume  appeared  (Basel,  1577). 

BU'CEROS.  See  Hornbill. 

BITCH,  Leopold  von,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  German  geologists,  was  b.  at 
Stolpe,  in  Prussia,  in  1774  or  1777,  and  received  instruction  under  Werner  at  the  mining 
academy,  Freiburg.  He  afterwards  traveled  in  pursuit  of  his  favorite  science,  through 
all  the  states  of  Germany,  through  Scandinavia,  as  far  as  the  North  cape,  and  through 
several  parts  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy,  visiting  the  .Canary  islands  in  1815.  His 
chief  writings  are — Geological  Observations  during  Travels  in  Germany  and  Italy  (1802- 
1809);  a Physical  Description  of  the  Canary  Islands  (1825);  Travels  in  Norway  and  Lapland 
(1810);  and  essays  On  the  Jura  in  Germany  (1839);  and  On  the  Mountain  Systems  of 
Bussia  (1840),  with  several  monographs  on  Ammonites  (1832)  and  other  fossils.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  an  excellent  geological  chart  of  Germany  and  its  neighboring  states, 
published  in  42  plates  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1832).  He  died  in  Berlin,  Mar.  4,  1853.  B.  has 
been  described  by  an  eminent  scientific  man  as  “ the  only  geologist  who  has  attained  an 
equal  fame  in  the  physical,  the  descriptive,  and  the  natural  history  departments  of  his 
science.  In  all  these  he  has  been  an  originator  and  a discoverer.” 

BUCK' AN,  the  n.e.  district  of  Aberdeenshire,  consisting  of  about  a fourth  of  the 
county,  lying  between  the  Ytham  and  tlie  Doveran.  Its  surface  is  undulating,  the 
highest  points  being  Mormond  hill  in  the  n.,  742  ft.,  and  Dudwick  hill  in  the  s.,  562 
feet.  Portions  of  the  coast  are  bold  and  precipitous,  especially  for  a few  m.  e.  of  the 
Doveran  mouth,  where  Troup  head  is  600  ft.  high,  ands.  of  Peterhead,  where  the  coasts 
rise  from  70  to  100  feet.  Among  the  rocks  five  m.  s.  of  this  town  are  the  famous  Pul- 
lers of  B.,  a huge  vertical  well  in  the  granite  margin  of  the  sea,  50  ft.  diameter,  and  100  ft. 
deep,  into  the  bottom  of  which  the  sea  rushes  by  a natural  archway,  and,  in  storms, 
dashes  up  the  sides  with  great  violence.  The  eastern  parts  of  B.  consist  chiefly  of 
granite  and  gneiss,  and  the  western  of  clay-slate  and  old  red  sandstone.  The  chief  seats 
of  population  are  Peterhead,  Fraserburg,  Macduff,  and  Turriff.  B.  contains  several 
so-called  Druid  circles,  as  well  as  the  remains  of  the  abbey  of  Deer,  and  of  several 
castles  belonging  to  the  Comyns,  who  held  the  earldom  of  B. , but  forfeited  their  title  and 
property  in  1309. 

BUCHAN,  David,  1780-1837;  an  officer  in  the  British  navy  who  spent  many  years 
in  explorations  in  the  north  polar  seas.  In  1810,  he  commanded  a schooner  on  the  New- 
foundland station,  and  made  a trip  up  the  river  of  Exploits,  the  largest  stream  in 
Newfoundland.  In  1818,  he  commanded  an  arctic  expedition  for  the  discovery  of  the 
north  pole.  He  reached  80°  34',  but  was  caught  in  the  ice  and  drifted  about  between 
Greenland  and  Spitzbergen  until  his  vessel  was  disabled,  when  he  managed  to  return  to 
England.  In  1823,  he  was  commander  on  the  Newfoundland  station,  and  in  1825  high- 
sheriff  of  the  colony.  A few  years  later  he  sailed  again  for  the  arctic  seas,  and  was 
never  afterwards  heard  from.  He  made  many  important  scientific  observations  concern- 
ing the  variaticn  of  the  needle  and  ocean  currents. 


137 


Buceros. 

Buchanan. 


BUCHANAN,  a co.  in  n.e.  Iowa,  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Red  Cedar  river; 
576  sq.m. ; pop.  ’70,  17,034;  in  ’80,  18,547.  It  is  tolerably  level  and  well  timbered.  The 
Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  railroad  traverses  the  co.  near  the  central  portion.  Produc- 
tions chiefly  agricultural.  Co.  seat.  Independence. 

BUCHANAN,  a co.  in  n.w.  Missouri,  on  the  Missouri  river;  450  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
49,824 — 3731  colored.  Five  railroads,  or  their  branches,  traverse  the  county.  The  soil 
is  fertile;  productions  chiefly  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  St.  Josephs. 

BUCHANAN,  a co.  in  s.w.  Virginia,  on  the  Kentucky  border,  bounded  n.w.  by  the 
Cumberland  mountains;  500  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  3777;  in  ’80,  5694.  The  surface  is  rough 
and  much  of  it  mountainous.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation.  Co.  seat,  Buchanan. 

BUCHANAN,  Claudius,  d.d.,  1766-1815;  an  English  missionary;  in  1796,  chaplain 
to  the  East  India  company.  He  wrote  Christian  Researches  in  Asia,  and  other  works 
which  had  much  influence  in  stimulating  and  supporting  missions. 

BUCHANAN,  Franklin,  b.  Md.,  about  1800;  a midshipman  in  1815,  and  in 
1845  the  first  superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  naval  academy.  In  1855,  he  was  made  a capt., 
and  in  1861  had  command  of  the  Washington  navy-yard.  He  resigned  when  the  rebel- 
lion broke  out,  but  as  his  state  did  not  leave  the  union,  he  asked  to  be  restored.  This 
was  refused,  and  he  went  over  to  the  confederates,  having  command  of  the  Merrimac  in 
the  attack  upon  the  union  fleet  in  Hampton  Roads,  in  which  engagement  he  was 
wounded.  Two  years  later,  as  admiral  he  commanded  the  confederate  fleet  so  thoroughly 
defeated  by  Farragut  in  Mobile  bay.  On  that  occasion  he  was  wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner, but  released  when  the  war  closed. 

BUCHANAN,  George,  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  the  16th  c.,  and  a distinguished 
poet  and  historian,  was  b.  of  poor  parents  in  Killearn,  in  the  co.  of  Stirling, -in Feb., 
1506.  He  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Paris  by  his  uncle,  who  died  two  years  after- 
wards, leaving  B.  without  the  means  of  prosecuting  his  studies.  He  returned  home, 
served  in  one  campaign’against  the  English,  and  entered  St.  Andrews  university  in  1524, 
where,  in  the  following  year,  he  took  his  degree  of  b.a.  In  1526,  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
became  a student  in  the  Scots  college  there.  He  subsequently  obtained  a professorship 
in  the  college  of  St.  Barbe,  but  returned  to  Scotland  about  1537.  During  his  residence 
on  the  continent,  B.  adopted  the  tenets  of  the  reformed  faith.  A satire  entitled  Somnium, 
exposing  the  Franciscans,  brought  down  upon  him  the  wrath  of  the  priests;  and  he  had 
resolved  upon  seeking  safety  in  his  old  college  at  Paris,  when  king  James  V.  took  him 
under  his  protection,  and  intrusted  him  with  the  education  of  one  of  his  illegitimate  sons. 
At  the  request  of  the  king,  B.  wrote  another  and  more  pungent  satire  against  the  monks, 
entitled  Franciscanus,  increasing  their  anger,  and  rousing  especially  the  bitter  hatred  of 
the  powerful  cardinal  Beaton,  who  after  a time  procured  B.’s  arrest,  and  even  went  so 
far  as  to  offer  the  king  money  for  his  life.  Though  to  James  was  entirely  due  the  pub- 
lication of  the  offensive  satire,  he  did  not  interfere  to  protect  the  poet,  who,  however, 
contrived  to  effect  his  escape  to  Paris.  After  spending  some  years  at  Bordeaux  and 
Paris  in  tuition,  he  accompanied  the  learned  Portuguese,  Govea,  to  the  university  of  Coim- 
bra, in  Portugal,  as  one  of  his  associates.  After  the  death  of  Govea,  B.  was  arrested  as 
a heretic,  and  was  for  some  time  detained  in  a monastery,  where  he  began  his  splendid 
Latin  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms.  In  1551,  being  restored  to  liberty,  he  went 
to  England;  but  soon  afterwards  went  to  Paris.  About  1560,  he  returned  to  Scot- 
land, where  he  made  an  open  confession  of  Protestantism.  His  reputation  as  a scholar 
gained  for  him  a good  reception  at  the  court  of  the  young  queen,  Mary,  whose  classical 
tutor  he  became.  But  his  religious  and  political  principles  attached  him  to  the  party 
of  the  regent  Moray,  by  whose  influence  he  was  appointed  principal  of  St.  Leonard’s 
college,  in  St.  Andrews  university,  in  1566.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  chosen  mod- 
erator of  the  general  assembly — a very  high  honor  for  a layman.  The  doings  of  Mary, 
which  scandalized  the  Scottish  public,  disgusted  her  tutor  also,  and  he  accompanied  the 
regent  Moray  to  England,  in  order  to  give  evidence  against  her  before  the  commissioners 
appointed  by  Elizabeth  to  inquire  into  her  guilt.  His  Beiectio  Maria  Regina,  laid  before 
these  functionaries,  was  industriously  circulated  by  the  English  court.  In  1570,  B.  was 
appointed  tutor  to  the  young  king,  James  VI.  (afterwards  James  I.),  who  owed  to  him 
all  the  erudition  of  which  in  later  life  he  was  so  vain.  No  considerations  of  the^  future 
position  of  his  pupil  were  allowed  to  interfere  with  B.’s  treatment  of  him,  which  was 
strict,  if  not  even  stern;  and  in  dedicating  his  De  Jure  Regni  apud  Scotos  to  the  young 
monarch  in  1579,  he  warned  him  against  favorites  with  a freedom  remarkable  not  only 
in  a subservient  iDut  in  any  age.  In  1570,  B.  was  appointed  director  of  chancery,  which 
he  soon  resigned,  and  in  the  same  year  was  made  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  an  office 
which  he  retained  until  within  a short  time  of  his  death.  The  latter  years  of  his  life 
were  devoted  to  the  composition  of  his  History  of  Scotland  (published  in  1582).  He  died 
thirty  days  after  its  publication,  on  the  28th  Sept.,  1582,  and  was  buried  in  Greyfriara 
churchyard,  Edinburgh.  As  a scholar,  B.  was  unrivaled  in  his  age ; and  he  wrote  Latin 
poetry  “with  the  purity  and  elegance  of  an  ancient  Roman.”  He  was  alike  humorous, 
sarcastic,  and  profound.  His  History,  written  in  Latin,  is  remarkable  for  the  richness, 
force,  and  perspicuity  of  its  style,  though  it  has  been  found  fault  with  for  the  partiality 
of  its  narration  of  contemporary  events;  and  two  years  after  the  author’s  death,  it,  as 


Buchanan. 

Buchanlteg. 


138 


well  as  De  Jure  Regni,  etc.,  was  condemned  by  the  Scottish  parliament,  and  every  per- 
son possessed  of  copies  was  ordered  to  surrender  them  within  40  days,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  purged  of  “ the  offensive  and  extraordinary  matters”  they  contained.  Two 
collected  editions  of  B.’s  works  have  been  published — one  by  Ruddiman  in  1715,  2 vols. 
folio ; and  another  by  Burman,  Leyden,  in  2 vols.  quarto,  in  1725.  The  translations 
that  hav’e  yet  appeared  are  far  from  doing  justice  to  the  original. 

BUCHANAN,  James,  a distinguished  American  statesman,  was  b.  in  Franklin  co., 
Penn.,  April  13,  1791.  He  was  educated  at  Dickenson  college,  adopted  the  profession 
of  the  law,  and,  in  1814,  was  elected  a member  of  the  Pennsylvanian  house  of  represen- 
tatives. In  1820,  he  was  chosen  a member  of  congress,  and  remained  so  till  Mar.  4, 
1831.  In  May  of  that  year,  he  was  nominated  ambassador  to  Russia.  He  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  1834,  and  soon  after  was  elected  a member  of  the  senate;  he  was 
re-elected  in  Dec.,  1836,  and  1843.  Appointed  by  president  Polk,  in  Mar.,  1845, 
secretary  of  state,  he  held  that  ofBce  till  the  close  of  Polk’s  presidency.  Ambassador  to 
England  in  1854,  B.  resigned  that  post  the  following  year,  and  in  1856  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  His  administration  was,  on  the  whole,  popular.  He  was  in 
favor  of  the  maintenance  of  slavery,  but  when  the  civil  war  broke  out  he  warmly 
embraced  Lincoln’s  policy.  He  died  June  1,  1868. 

BUCHANAN,  James  the  16th  elected  president  of  the  United  States,  filling  the 
18th  presidential  term  (1857-61);  b,  at  Stony  Batter,  Franklin  co.,  Penn.,  April  22,  1791; 
d.  Lancaster,  Penn.,  June  1,  1868.  He  was  the  son  of  an  Irish  emigrant  and  an  American 
mother,  educated  at  Dickinson  college,  bred  to  the  law,  and  admitted  to  practice  in  1812. 
Though  a professed  federalist,  he  served  as  a private  in  the  war  with  England.  In  1814, 
he  was  a member  of  the  Pennsylvania  legislature,  and  in  1820  was  elected  to  congress, 
where  he  served  through  five  terms.  In  1828,  he  favored  Jackson  for  president,  and  in 
the  congress  of  1829-31  was  chairman  of  the  committee  on  the  judiciary.  After  leaving 
congress,  Jackson  sent  him  as  minister  to  Russia,  where  he  concluded  the  first  commer- 
cial treaty  between  the  two  countries,  securing  valuable  privileges  in  the  Black  and 
Baltic  seas.  In  1833,  he  was  chosen  to  the  United  States  senate,  where  he  supported 
Jackson,  especially  in  the  claim  that  appointments  might  be  made  by  the  president  alone 
when  the  senate  was  not  in  session.  When  it  was  proposed  to  exclude  from  congress 
petitions  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  B.  desired  to  prevent  even  the  discussion  of  slavery  by 
congress,  proposing  to  leave  the  matter  solely  to  the  slaveholding  states,  and  holding  that 
congress  had  no  power  over  it.  He  favored  the  recognition  of  Texan  independence,  and 
the  annexation  of  that  republic  to  the  United  States.  In  the  affair  of  the  French 
indemnity,  he  supported  Jackson’s  demand  for  payment  or  war.  During  Van  Buren’s 
administration  Buchanan  supported  the  independent  treasury  scheme ; favored  the  pre- 
emption of  public  lands,  and  opposed  the  bill  to  prevent  the  interference  of  federal  officers 
in  elections.  He  sustained  the  veto  power  under  Tyler,  and  opposed  the  ratification  of 
the  Ashburton  treatyj  which  settled  the  dispute  concerning  the  northern  boundary.  When 
the  question  of  the  annexation  of  Texas  came  to  the  senate  there  were  but  15  votes  in  its 
favor,  but  the  measure  was  carried  in  the  form  of  joint  resolutions  only  three  days  before 
the  close  of  the  term  of  congress.  B.  was  the  only  member  of  the  senate  committee  of 
foreign  affairs  to  report  in  favor  of  annexation.  Polk  made  him  secretary  of  state.  In  this 
position  he  had  to  deal  with  the  north-western  boundary  question,  whence  arose  the  famous 
partisan  cry  “ 54°  40'  or  fight.”  Both  England  and  the  United  States  had  formally  claimed 
the  territory  between  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  Rocky  mountains  up  to  the  Russian  boun- 
dary, but  after  much  negotiation  the  line  of  49°  n.  lat.  was  agreed  upon.  During  the  war 
with  Mexico,  B.  was  busy  in  avoiding  or  preventing  the  interference  of  other  nations.  He 
was  in  private  life  during  the  discussion  and  adoption  of  the  compromise  measures  of  1850, 
but  fully  approved  them.  When  Pierce  came  into  office  in  1853,  he  sent  B.  as  minister 
to  Great  Britain,  where  he  was  engaged  in  endeavors  to  settle  a series  of  questions  con- 
cerning Central  American  affairs.  In  the  course  of  these  duties  he  was  present  at  the 
Ostend  conference,  the  object  of  which  was  to  bring  about  the  sale  of  Cuba  to  the  United 
States;  but  nothing  resulted  beyond  talk.  In  April,  1856,  B.  returned  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  June  was  nominated  for  president  by  the  democratic  party.  The  electoral 
vote  was:  for  Buchanan,  174;  for  John  C.  Fremont  (candidate  of  the  newly  organized 
republican  party),  114;  for  Millard  Fillmore  (native-American),  8.  Thepopular  vote  was: 
Buchanan,  1,838,169;  Fremont,  1,341,264;  Fillmore,  874,534;  majority  against  Buchanan, 
377,629;  plurality  for  him,  496,905.  He  had  the  votes  of  every  slaveholding  state  except 
Maiyland,  which  went  alone  for  Fillmore.  The  vote  for  Fillmore  also  gave  Buchanan 
California  and  New  Jersey.  In  the  executive  chair  his  effort  was  to  smother  and  put 
out  of  sight  the  agitation  concerning  slavery  not  only  in  new  states,  but  everywhere. 
Among  other  acts  of  his  administration  was  the  temporary  pacification  of  the  Mormon 
troubles,  and  the  vetoing  of  the  homestead  bill.  After  Lincoln’s  election,  B.  was  more  than 
ever  anxious  to  suppress  the  slavery  discussion,  and  pointedly  accused  the  north,  in  his 
last  message  to  congress,  as  to  blame  for  the  impending  disorder,  because  of  that  discus- 
sion, which  had  “ produced  its  malign  influence  on  the  slaves,  and  inspired  them  with  a 
vague  idea  of  freedom.”  While  holding  that  the  executive  ought  to  take  care  that  the 
laws  be  faithfully  executed,  he  shrank  before  the  secession  of  South  Carolina,  declaring 
that  he  could  not  employ  force  except  upon  the  demand  of  the  lawful  authorities  of  the  slate, 


139 


Buchanan. 

Buchaniteg. 


and  in  South  Carolina  no  such  authority  then  existed.  His  argument  was  that,  if  a state 
had  withdrawn,  or  was  even  attempting  to  withdraw,  from  the  union,  there  was  no  power 
in  the  constitution  to  prevent  the  act.  A few  days  later  he  was  confronted  by  commis- 
sioners from  South  Carolina  (that  state  having  passed  an  act  of  secession  on  the  20th 
Dec.,  1860),  who  came  to  demand  the  surrender  by  the  president  to  the  seceded  state  of 
all  public  property,  and  to  negotiate  for  the  continuance  of  ‘ ‘ peace  and  amity  between 
that  commonwealth  and  the  government  at  Washington.”  His  reply  was  that  he  had 
no  power,  and  could  only  refer  the  matter  to  congress;  he  could  only  receive  them  as 
'‘private  gentlemen  of  the  highest  character,” and  treat  respectfully  such  propositions 
as  they  might  make.  He  did,  however,  decline  to  accede  to  their  demand  for  the 
removal  of  the  troops  from  Charleston  harbor.  The  cabinet  immediately  broke  up.  Gen. 
Cass  was  secretary  of  state,  but  resigned  when  the  president  refused  to  order  reinforce- 
ments to  the  Charleston  ports;  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  and  the  secretary  of  the 
interior  had  already  gone ; Floyd,  secretary  of  war,  resigned  because  the  president  refused 
to  withdraw  the  troops.  The  last  official  act  of  president  Buchanan  of  any  importance 
was  characteristic  of  his  whole  course  where  the  south  and  its  institutions  were  con- 
cerned. It  was  embodied  in  a letter  from  the  secretary  of  war  (Holt)  to  the  governor  of 
South  Carolina  ( J an,  15, 1861),  which  declared,  ‘ ‘ by  order  of  the  president,  ” that  ‘ ‘ the  forts 
in  that  state,  in  common  with  the  other  forts,  arsenals,  and  property  of  the  United  States, 
are  in  charge  of  the  president,  and  that  if  assailed,  no  matter  from  what  quarter  or 
under  what  pretext,  it  is  his  duty  to  protect  them  by  all  the  means  which  the  law  has 
placed  at  his  disposal ;”  adding  that  it  was  not  his  present  purpose  to  garrison  the  forts, 
as  he  “ considered  them  entirely  safe  under  the  protection  of  the  law-abiding  sentiment 
^or  which  the  people  of  South  Carolina  had  ever  been  distinguished;  but  should  they  be 
attacked  or  menaced  with  danger  of  being  seized  or  taken  from  the  possession  oi  the 
United  States,  he  could  not  escape  from  his  constitutional  obligations  to  defend  and 
preserve  them.”  After  the  installment  of  his  successor,  B.  retired  altogether  from  public 
affairs,  but  a year  or  two  after  the  rebellion  had  been  put  down,  he  published  a defense 
of  his  administration  and  the  measures  he  adopted  for  the  preservation  of  peace.  He 
was  never  married. 

BUCHANAN,  Robert,  b.  1841;  a poet  of  Scotland,  educated  at  Glasgow  university. 
In  1860,  he  published  Undertones,  a volume  of  verses;  in  1865,  Idyls  and  London  Poems, 
In  the  same  year  he  edited  Wayside  Posies,  and  translated  ballads  from  the  Danish. 
Among  later  works  are  Na/poleon  Fallen — a Lyrical  Drama;  The  Land  of  Lorne,  include 
ing  the  Cruise  of  the  Fern  to  the  Outer  Hebrides;  The  Drama  of  Kings;  On  the  Fleshly 
School  of  Poetry  (a  severe  criticism  of  some  living  English  poets);  Master  Spirits;  A Mad 
Prince  (acted  at  the  Haymarket);  and  his  poems  collected  in  3 vols.  in  1874. 

BTTCH'ANITES,  an  extraordinary  sect  of  fanatics,  which  sprang  up  in  the  w.  of  Scot- 
land in  1783,  but  has  now  become  extinct.  The  founder  of  the  sect  was  Mrs.  or  Lucky 
Buchan,  b.  in  Banffshire  in  1738,  of  humble  parentage.  Her  maiden  name  was  Elspeth 
Simpson.  She  early  fell  into  habits  of  vice,  but  with  her  licentiousness  were  combined 
a sort  of  religious  fervor  and  extreme  antinomian  opinions.  In  1782,  being  resident  in 
Glasgow  with  her  husband,  a potter,  who  ultimately  divorced  her,  she  became 
acquainted  with  the  Rev.  Hugh  White,  minister  of  the  Relief  congregation  in  Irvine,  a 
weak  vain  man  and  coarse  declamatory  preacher,  who  adopted  her  opinions,  for  which 
he  was  deposed  by  his  presbytery,  and  began  along  with  her  to  found  a new  sect  in 
Irvine.  Popular  tumults  arose,  which  led  to  her  expulsion  from  the  town  in  May, 
1784.  Mr.  White  and  his  wife,  with  other  devoted  adherents,  male  and  female,  accom- 
panied her,  regarding  her  as  a divinely  commissioned  person,  and  expecting  her  to  lead 
them  to  the  place  where  Christ  was  speedily  to  appear  again  on  earth.  She  was 
addressed  as  “friend  mother  in  the  Lord,”  and  among  other  more  blasphemous  preten- 
sions, gave  herself  out  to  be  the  woman  mentioned  in  Rev.  xii..  White  being  repre- 
sented as  the  “man-child”  whom  she  had  brought  forth.  She  and  her  followers 
traveled  towards  Nithsdale,  and  found  a resting-place  in  a barn  at  New  Cample,  near 
Thornhill,  where  they  afterwards  built  for  themselves  a house  of  one  apartment  with  a 
loft,  in  which  they  all  dwelt,  supported  chiefly  by  the  money  of  the  more  wealthy  of 
their  number.  A few  additional  persons  joined  them.  They  lived  in  expectation  of 
being  translated  to  heaven  without  death;  and  on  one  occasion,  after  a fast  of  extraor- 
dinary duration,  by  which  many  of  them  were  reduced  to  a very  spectral  condition, 
were  led  out  by  their  prophetess  to  a hill-top  to  be  immediately  taken  up,  but  returned 
disappointed.  After  this,  dissensions  began  to  arise  among  them;  and  some,  recovering 
from  their  infatuation,  left  the  society.  Their  expected  heaven  was  one  of  mere  sensual 
delights;  and  it  is  now  sufficiently  ascertained  that  they  lived  in  unrestrained  sexual 
intercourse — for  they  condemned  marriage  as  unworthy  of  Christians — and  that  they 
systematically  practiced  infanticide.  Yet  they  were  protected  from  the  outbreakings  of 
popular  indignation,  and  no  investigation  was  made  by  the  authorities.  On  the  failure 
of  their  means  of  subsistence,  they  took  a farm  in  a moorish  part  of  the  stewartry  of 
Kirkcudbright ; and  those  who  remained  of  them  accumulated  by  their  industry  the 
means  of  purchasing  a small  property,  on  which  was  built  the  flrst  house  of  the  village 
of  Crocketford,  where  they  Anally  became  extinct,  the  last  of  them  surviving  till  1846, 
full  even  in  his  old  age  of  the  strange  delusions  of  his  youth,  and  preserving  in  his  house 


Bnchan-ness. 

Bucking^ham. 


140 


the  bones  of  Lucky  Buchan,  which  were  buried  with  him  in  his  grave. — See  The  Buch- 
etniteafrom  First  to  Last,  by  Joseph  Train.  (Edin.  1846.) 

BUCHAN-NESS',  the  easternmost  promontory  of  Scotland,  in  the  n.e.  of  Aberdeen- 
ghire,  3 m.  s.  of  Peterhead,  in  lat.  57°  28'  n.,  and  long.  1°  46'  west.  A light-house,  130 
ft.  high,  with  a revolving  light,  has  been  erected  here.  It  may  be  stated  that  the  low 
rocks  at  Peterhead  stretch  a little  further  e.  than  the  Buchan-ness.  In  the  sea  off  the  B. 
lie  the  Buchan  Deeps,  a great  trough  50  to  90  fathoms  deep,  and  25  m.  broad,  and 
stretching  s.  nearly  as  far  as  the  Bell-rock.  Outside  lie  the  Long  Forties,  a bank  at  the 
depth  of  35  to  45  fathoms,  and  10  to  20  m.  broad. 

BUCHAREST',  Bukharest',  or  Bukhorest',  the  chief  city  of  Wallachia,  and  capital 
of  Roumania,  in  a rich  and  extensive  plain  on  the  Dumbovitza,  a tributary  of  the  Argish, 
in  lat.  44°  26'  n.,  and  long.  26°  5'  east.  The  town  is  for  the  most  part  meanly  built,  and 
the  streets  are  very  irregular  and  generally  unpaved.  There  are,  however,  some  hand- 
some hotels;  and  the  churches  are  numerous  and  many-spired,  giving  to  the  place  a 
picturesque  appearance.  The  prince’s  palace,  a large  structure  in  the  center  of  the 
town,  has  no  claim  to  architectural  beauty.  The  number  of  cafes  and  gambling-tables 
is  excessive ; and  altogether  B.  has  the  unenviable  reputation  of  being  the  most  disso- 
lute capital  in  Europe.  The  corso,  or  public  promenade,  is  a miniature  Hyde  Park.  B. 
is  the  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  Turkey  and  Austria,  the  chief  articles  of  commerce 
being  grain,  wool,  salt,  honey,  wax,  building-timber,  and  cattle.  It  has  some  small 
manufactures  of  woolen  cloths  and  carpets.  B.  has  at  various  times  suffered  consider- 
ably at  the  hands  of  the  Russians,  and  is  remarkable  as  the  place  where  in  1812  a treaty 
was  concluded  between  Turkey  and  Russia,  by  which  the  former  ceded  to  the  latter 
the  province  of  Bessarabia  and  a portion  of  Moldavia;  Russia  waiving  her  claim  to  all 
other  territories  she  had  conquered.  This  treaty  also  defined  the  Pruth  as  the  boundary- 
line between  the  two  empires.  During  the  Crimean  campaign,  B.  was  successively 
occupied  by  Russians,  Turks,  and  Austrians.  Pop.  ’66,  141,754;  ’75,  estimated  at 
250,000. 

BUCHEZ,  Philippe  Benjamin  Joseph,  a French  physician,  writer,  and  president 
of  the  national  assembly  in  1848,  was  b.  in  1796  at  Matagne  la  Petite,  in  the  department 
of  Ardennes,  and  studied  medicine  in  Paris,  1815.  He  became  involved  in  several 
plots  against  the  Bourbons,  was  active  in  the  conspiracy  of  the  French  Carbonari  (q.v.), 
and  supported  the  doctrines  of  St.  Simon  (q.v.);  but,  after  editing  for  some  time  the 
communist  journal  Le  Producteur,  he  separated  from  liis  colleagues.  Curiously  enough, 
during  all  his  active  career  of  underhand  politics,  he  was  prosecuting  his  learned  stud- 
ies, and  in  1825  published  a Precis  Elementaire  d'Hyghne,  besides  editing  the  Journal  des 
Progres  des  Sciences  et  Institutions  Medicates.  After  the  revolution,  1880,  B.  established 
and  conducted  the  journal  U Europeen,  the  organ  of  Neo- Catholicism ; and  in  concert 
with  M.  Roux  Lavergne,  began  a republican  history  of  the  French  revolution.  All  his 
writings  are  marked  by  original  views  and  arguments  in  favor  of  the  belief  in  human 
progress.  After  the  Feb.  revolution,  1848,  B.  was  made  president  of  the  national  assem- 
bly; but  by  his  want  of  energy  during  the  disturbance  of  May  15,  he  incurred  the  cen- 
sure of  all  parties.  On  the  inauguration  of  the  empire,  B.  returned  to  his  studies.  He 
died  in  1866. 

BUCHNER,  Friedrich  Karl  Christian  Ludwig,  b.  1824;  a German  atheistic 
philosopher.  He  was  a practicing  physician,  in  the  school  of  Tubingen,  whence  he  was 
removed  because  of  his  publication  of  the  doctrine  that  nothing  beyond  material  force 
is  known  to  man  (published  in  English  as  Force  and  Matter).  The  main  ideas  of  his 
doctrines  are  the  eternity  of  matter,  the  indestructibility  of  force,  the  co-existence  of 
light  and  life,  and  the  infinit}-^  of  forms  of  being  in  time  and  space.  His  works  have 
been  widely  circulated  in  his  own  and  other  languages. 

BUCHU.  See  Bucku,  ante. 

BUCK,  a name  sometimes  distinctively  appropriated  to  the  male  of  the  fallow  deer 
(q.v.),  the  female  of  which  is  a doe.  But  the  term  B.  is  often  also  applied  to  the  male  of 
other  species  of  deer,  as  of  the  roebuck  (q.v.),  although  never  to  that  of  the  red  deer  (see 
Deer),  which,  when  mature,  is  a Stag  or  a Hart. 

BUCKAU,  a t.  in  Saxony  on  the  Elbe,  adjoining  Magdeburg;  pop.  ’71,  9696.  It  has 
extensive  machine  works,  and  several  important  manufactories. 

BUCKBEAN,  or  Marsh  Tre'foil  {Menyanthes  trifoUata),  a plant  of  the  natural  order 
gentianece  (q.v.),  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus,  widely  distributed  in  all  the  colder 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  common  in  Britain.  It  has  been  described  as 
“ perhaps  the  most  beautiful  ” of  all  British  plants.  It  grows  in  rnarshy  places,  its  creep- 
ing root-stalks  (or  rhizomes)  and  densely  matted  roots  often  rendering  boggy  ground  firm. 
The  leaves  are  ternate,  like  those  of  the  trefoils  or  clovers,  and  are  supported  on  pretty 
long  stalks.  The  flower-stalk  bears  a compound  raceme  of  10  to  20  white  flowers,  exter- 
nally tipped  with  red.  The  calyx  is  5-parted ; the  corolla  funnel-shaped,  with  a spread- 
ing *5-lobed  limb,  shaggy  on  the  inner  surface,  with  thick  fleshy  hairs.  The  fruit  is  a 
one-celled,  two-valved  capsule.  The  leaves  are  destitute  of  smell,  but  very  bitter. 
From  them  is  prepared  a valuable  bitter  extract,  which  has  long  been  used  in  cases  of 
dyspepsia  and  disorders  of  the  bowels,  and  which  was  also  formerly  employed  in  intermit- 


141 


Buchan-ness. 

Buckingham. 


tent  fevers.  An  infusion  is  also  sometimes  used,  and  sometimes  the  dried  and  powdered 
leaves.  The  whole  plant  seems  to  possess  the  same  bitter  and  tonic  properties.  It  is 
sometimes  used  in  Germany  as  a substitute  for  hops.  The  root-stock,  however,  which 
is  black  and  jointed,  contains  a considerable  quantity  of  a kind  of  starch,  which  is  sep- 
arated from  the  bitter  substance,  and  used  as  food  in  some  of  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe. 

BUCKEYE.  See  Horse  Chestnut. 

BUCK-HOUND,  a hunting- dog  once  common  in  Britain,  when  buck-hunting  was  a 
most  fashionable  amusement,  but  of  which  few  packs  now  exist.  The  buck-hound 
resembles  a dwarf  Stag-hound  (q.v.),  and  possesses  great  strength  and  perseverance. 
Bucks  are,  however,  often  hunted  by  other  kinds  of  hounds. 

BUCKINGHAM,  a co.  in  central  Virginia  on  the  James  and  Appomattox  rivers,  tra- 
versed by  the  James  canal;  pop.  ’80,  15,540—8715  colored.  The  surface  is  hilly,  but  the 
soil  near  the  rivers  is  good.  There  is  a gold  mine  near  Willis  mountain,  and  iron  and 
slate  are  found.  Co.  seat,  Marysville. 

BUCKINGHAM,  the  old  co.  t.  of  Buckinghamshire,  in  the  n.  part  of  the  shire,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Ouse — which  flows  round  the  town,  and  has  three  bridges.  B.  is  61  m.  n.w. 
of  London  by  rail.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  ’71,  7545.  Bobbin 
lace  is  the  chief  manufacture,  but  it  is  on  the  decline.  B.  is  a place  of  considerable 
antiquity.  Edward  the  elder  fortifled  it  in  978,  and  the  Danes  captured  it  in  1010.  The 
•earls  of  Buckingham  built  a castle  here  soon  after  the  Norman  conquest.  Edward  III. 
made  it  a staple  for  wool.  Here  Catharine  of  Aragon  received  the  news  of  the  battle  of 
Flodden,  and  Charles  I.  had  his  head-quarters  in  B.  for  a few  days  in  1644. 

BUCKINGHAM,  Duke  of,  George  Villiers,  the  favorite  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
•of  England,  third  son  of  sir  George  Villiers,  was  b.  at  his  father’s  seat  of  Brookesley, 
Leicestershire,  Aug.  20, 1592.  Knighted  in  April,  1616,  and  sworn  a gentleman  of  the  bed- 
chamber on  Jan.  1,  1617,  he  became  master  of  the  horse  and  a knight  ^of  the  garter. 
Created  the  same  year  baron  of  Whaddon  and  viscount  Villiers,  and  in  Jan.  follow- 
ing earl  of  B.,  and  sworn  of  the  privy-council,  he  was  next  made  a marquis,  and 
appointed  lord-admiral  of  England,  chief -justice  in  Eyre  of  parks  and  forests  s.  of 
the  Trent,  master  of  the  king’s  bench  office,  high  steward  of  Westminster,  and  constable 
of  Windsor  castle.  In  1620,  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Rutland,  the  richest 
heiress  in  the  kingdom.  In  1623,  while  negotiations  were  in  progress  with  the  Spanish 
court  for  a marriage  between  the  infanta  and  the  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  Charles  I., 
B.  persuaded  the  latter  to  go  himself  to  Madrid  and  prosecute  his  suit  in  person.  The 
ultimate  failure  of  the  negotiations  has  been  ascribed  to  B.’s  arrogance.  In  his  absence 
he  was  created  a duke,  and  on  his  return  nominated  lord-warden  of  the  cinque  ports, 
and  steward  of  the  manor  of  Hampton  court.  By  his  advice,  James  declared  war  against 
Spain.  On  the  accession  of  Charles  I.,  in  1625,  B.  maintained  his  ascendency  at  court,  but 
^fter  the  ill-fated  expedition  against  Cadiz,  he  became  odious  to  the  nation,  and  was 
saved  from  impeachment  only  by  the  king’s  dissolving  parliament.  The  treaty  for  the 
marriage  of  Charles  with  the  princess  Henrietta  of  France  was  concluded  by  him,  but 
he  was  not  allowed  to  return  to  Paris,  in  consequence  of  his  audacity  in  lifting  his  eyes 
to  the  French  queen.  In  1627,  with  an  armament  of  100  sail  and  7000  soldiers,  he 
appeared  before  Rochelle,  then  in  possession  of  the  Huguenots,  who  refused  him  admis- 
sion within  the  harbor.  His  troops  then  made  an  ill-conducted  descent  on  the  neighbor- 
ing isle  of  Rhe,  and  returned  to  England  beaten  and  disgraced.  He  soon  after  under- 
took a second  expedition  to  Rochelle,  and  proceeded  to  Portsmouth  for  embarkation, 
when  he  was  assassinated  by  a discontented  subaltern-officer,  named  Felton,  Aug.  23, 
1628,  in  his  36th  year. 

BUCKINGHAM,  2d  Duke  of  (George  Villiers),  a brilliant  but  profligate  nobleman, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  b.  at  Wallingford  house,  Westminster,  Jan.  30,  1627,  and 
studied  at  Cambridge.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  wars,  he  served  in  the  royal  army ; 
his  estates  were  confiscated  by  the  parliament,  and  he  took  refuge  on  the  continent. 
He  attended  Charles  II.  into  Scotland,  and  after  the  battle  of  Worcester,  in  1651,  went 
s,gain  into  exile.  Returning  secretly  into  England,  he  married,  in  1657,  the  daughter  of 
lord  Fairfax,  the  parliamentary  general,  to  whom  his  forfeited  estates  had  been  assigned. 
Arrested  by  Cromwell,  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  he  was  afterwards  removed  to 
Windsor  castle,  but  released  on  the  abdication  of  Richard  Cromwell.  At  the  restoration, 
he  reaovered  his  estates,  and  was  made  master  of  the  horse,  and  sworn  of  the  privy- 
council.  He  was  mainly  instrumental  in  the  fall  of  the  chancellor.  Clarendon,  whom 
he  made  an  object  of  ridicule  to  the  king,  and  was  one  of  Charles’s  confidential  minis- 
ters, who,  from  the  initial  letters  of  their  titles,  were  called  “the  Cabal.”  Engaging 
in  1666  in  some  treasonable  practices  for  effecting  a change  in  the  government,  he  was 
deprived  of  all  his  offices  at  court,  but,  on  his  submission,  soon  recovered  them.  In 
1670,  he  was  sent  ambassador  to  France,  and  was  employed  on  some  other  embassies. 
He  was  elected  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Cambridge  in  1671.  Supporting  the  non- 
conformists in  1674,  he  opposed  the  test  act,  and  was  deeply  engagedinthe  popish  plot. 
After  Charles’s  death,  in  1685,  B.  retired  to  his  manor  of  Helmsley,  in  Yorkshire,  and 
amused  himself  with  the  chase.  He  died  at  Kirkby-Moorside,  April  16, 1688,  and  was 


Buckingham. 

Buckle. 


142 


interred  in  Westminster  abbey.  The  manufacture  of  glass  and  crystal  is  said  to  have- 
been  introduced  into  England  from  Venice  by  him.  B.  was  the  author  of  several  stage- 
plays,  of  which  the  best  is  Tlie  Rehearsal,  a comedy;  A Satire  against  Mankind j an(t 
some  poems. 

BUCKINGHAM,  James  Silk,  a modern  traveler  and  popular  lecturer,  the  son  of  a. 
farmer,  b.  in  1786,  at  Flushing,  near  Falmouth,  Cornwall;  when  a boy,  went  to  sea, 
and  made  several  voyages  to  Lisbon.  After  years  of  unsettled  and  wandering  life,  he, 
in  1816,  established  a journal  at  Calcutta,  but  the  boldness  of  his  censures  on  the  Indiau 
government  led  to  his  expulsion  from  the  presidency  of  Bengal.  His  lectures,  on  his 
return  to  England,  against  the  East  India  company  monopoly,  and  in  support  of  open- 
ing the  trade  to  China,  tended  greatly  to  direct  public  attention  to  the  subject.  In 
London,  he  established  The  Oriental  Herald,  and  The  Athenceum,  now  the  leading 
weekly  literary  journal.  Subsequently,  he  traveled  through  the  United  States,  and  from 
1832  to  1837  was  M.P.  for  Sheffield.  He  was  projector  and  secretary  of  the  British  and 
foreign  institute,  literary  club,  1843-1846;  and  president  of  the  London  temperance- 
league,  1851.  B.  was  the  author  of  numerous  works  of  travel  on  the  continent,  in  the 
east,  and  in  America.  He  was  engaged  on  his  autobiography,  two  volumes  of  which 
were  published  before  his  death,  which  took  place  June  30,  1855. 

BUCKINGHAM,  Joseph  Tinker,  1779-1861;  an  American  journalist,  native  of 
Connecticut.  He  was  bred  a printer,  and  in  1800  went  to  Boston,  where,  six  years- 
later,  he  began  The  Polyanthus,  a monthly  magazine,  which  was  soon  suspended,  but 
resumed  in  1812.  In  1809,  he  published  a weekly  called  The  Ordeal;  from  1817  to- 
1828,  The  New  England  Galaxy  and  Masonic  Magazine;  and,  in  1831,  The  New  England^ 
Magazine.  In  1824,  he  started  the  Boston  Courier,  of  which  he  was  editor  until  1848. 
On  the  24th  of  June,  1840,  he  presided  over  the  celebration  (in  Boston)  of  the  four 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  invention  of  printing.  As  an  editor  he  was  a vigorous- 
writer,  but  rather  bitter  and  personal.  He  was  several  times  elected  to  the  legislature. 
Besides  his  ordinary  work,  he  published  Specimens  of  Newspaper  Literature,  with  Per- 
sonal Memoirs,  Anecdotes,  and  Reminiscences,  and  Personal  Memoirs  and  Recollections  of 
Editorial  Life. 

BUCKINGHAM,  William  Alfred,  ll.d.,  1804-75;  the  “ war  governor”  of  Con- 
necticut (1858-66),  noted  for  his  zeal  and  untiring  energy  in  support  of  the  union  cause 
during  the  rebellion.  Before  his  election  as  governor  he  was  a carpet  manufacturer  and 
merchant.  In  1869,  he  was  elected  U.  S.  senator.  Among  his  benefactions  was  $25,000' 
to  the  theological  school  of  Yale  college. 

BUCKINGHAM,  or  BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,  John  Sheffield,  Duke  of;  1649-1721 ;; 
son  of  the  second  earl  of  Mulgrave.  In  the  war  with  Holland,  he  served  in  the  navy  and 
commanded  a ship ; and  afterwards,  in  the  land  forces,  he  joined  Turenne  to  study  the 
art  of  war.  James  II.  made  him  lord  chamberlain  and  one  of  the  privy  council.  He 
acquiesced  in  the  revolution  and  was  in  the  cabinet  of  William  HI. ; and,  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Anne,  with  whom  he  was  a personal  favorite,  he  received  the  privy  seal  and 
became  lord  lieutenant  of  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  He  sided  with  the  tories, 
and  held  last  the  dignity  of  lord  president.  He  wrote  two  tragedies,  and  an  essay  on 
poetry,  and  one  on  satire. 

BUCKINGHAMSHIRE,  a south-midland  county  of  England,  its  greatest  length  being^ 
about  54  m.,  its  average  breadth  18,  and  total  area  738  sq.  miles.  The  plastic  clay 
tertiary  strata  occupy  the  southern  parts  of  the  county,  which  is  finely  diversified  with 
hill  and  dale,  wood  and  water.  To  the  n.  is  a broad  chalk-band,  including  the  Chiltern 
range  of  chalk-hills,  which  enter  from  Oxfordshire,  and  stretch  across  the  county  in  a 
n.e.  direction  into  Bedfordshire,  partly  covered  with  heath  and  wood,  and  near  Ivinghoe 
and  Wendover,  above  900  ft.  high.  Sloping  n.  from  these  hills,  and  crossed  by  narrower 
bands  of  greensand  and  oolite,  is  the  extensive  and  very  fertile  vale  of  Aylesbury, 
watered  by  the  Thame.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Thames,  bordering  the  county  on  the 
S.W.,  the  Ouse,  Ousel,  Colne,  and  Thame,  the  latter  two  falling  into  the  Thames.  The 
Grand  Junction  canal,  and  the  Great  Western  and  North-western  railways,  intersect  the 
county  on  the  e.  and  south.  The  climate  of  Bucks  is  mild  and  healthy;  the  soil  is 
mostly  good,  chalk  and  clay  predominating.  About  half  the  county  is  under  tillage, 
the  rest  in  meadows  and  pasture.  The  agriculture  is  not  equal  to  the  capabilities  of  the 
land,  which  is  often  overcropped  and  exhausted.  The  farms  are  generally  small, 
averaging  200  acres.  The  cottages  are  generally  good.  Wheat  and  beans  are  the  prin- 
cipal crops.  The  chief  dairy  product  is  butter,  of  which  four  to  five  millions  of  pounds 
are  annually  sold,  chiefiy  in  London.  In  the  vale  of  Aylesbury,  fattening  of  cattle  is 
extensively  carried  on;  the  sheep  are  noted  for  their  fine  and  heavy  fieeces;  and  large 
numbers  of  ducks  are  reared  for  metropolitan  consumption.  In  1875,  the  number  of 
cattle  in  the  county  was  68,831;  sheep,  292,383;  and  pigs,  35,370.  Beech  and  oak  are 
the  chief  timber-trees,  but  box  and  juniper  are  also  grown.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
paper,  straw-plait,  and  thread-lace.  B.  returns  8 members  to  parliament — 3 for  the 
county  and  5 for  the  boroughs.  The  chief  towns  are  Aylesbury,  Buckingham,  Marlow, 
and  Wycombe.  B.  contains  some  Roman  and  British  remains,  as  traces  of  Watling, 
Ic^eld,  and  Akeman  streets  or  ways.  The  chief  ecclesiastical  ruins  are  those  of  Miss- 


143 


Buckingbtam. 

Buckle. 


enclen  and  Notley  abbey,  the  latter  of  which  has  been  converted  into  farm-buildings. 
There  are  many  examples  of  early  English  and  decorated  architecture.  The  church  of 
Chetwode,  near  Buckingham  (13th  c.),  contains  some  very  fine  examples  of  ancient 
;glass-staining.  Many  events  of  historical  interest  occurred  in  this  county.  It  was  the 
scene  of  contest  in  the' civil  wars  of  Stephen  and  John.  At  Chalfont  St.  Giles,  Milton 
finished  his  Paradise  Lost,  and  at  Horton,  he  wrote  L' Allegro.  At  Hampden  lived  the 
great  patriot  of  that  name;  Waller  was  proprietor  of  Beaconsfield  manor;  Atterbury 
was  born  at  Milton;  Stoke  Poges  churchyard  suggested  Gray’s  Elegy,  and  is  the  place 
of  his  burial ; at  Olney,  Cowper  lived ; at  Gregcries,  near  Beaconsfield,  Burke  died  and 
was  buried ; Scott,  the  Biblical  commentator,  was  rector  of  Aston  Sandford ; Herschel’s 
great  telescope  still  stands  at  Slough,  where  he  made  most  of  his  important  discoveries; 
and  at  Stowe  is  a magnificent  mansion — one  of  the  finest  in  England,  alike  for  extent, 
architecture,  and  beauty  of  site — formerly  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  Pop. 
’71,  fi'5,879. 

BUCKLAND,  Cykus,  b.  Conn.,  1799;  a successful  inventor,  pattern-maker  of  the 
XT.  S.  armory  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  designer  of  machinery  for  making  arms. 
He  has  produced  many  new  machines  and  tools  in  the  line  of  arms  manufacturing. 

BUCKLAND,  Francis  Trevelyan,  a son  of  the  rev.  Dr.  Buckland  (q.v.),  b.at  Christ 
Church  college,  Oxford,  Dec.  17,  1826.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester  school,  and  at 
Christ  Church  college,  Oxford.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  medicine;  and  after 
being  house-surgeon  of  St.  George’s  hospital,  London,  was  appointed  assistant-surgeon 
to  the  2d  life-guards  in  1854,  retiring  in  1863.  From  his  boyhood,  he  manifested  an 
enthusiastic  delight  in  natural  history,  especially  when  it  could  be  applied  practically  to 
the  cultivation  of  useful  quadrupeds,  birds,  or  fish,  in  which  study  he  was  encouraged 
and  guided  by  his  father.  He  has  contributed  a vast  number  of  brief  papers  on  various 
branches  of  his  favorite  science  to  the  Times,  Meld,  Queen,  Land  and  Water  (of  which  he 
is  editor),  etc.  He  is  also  the  author  of  Curiosities  of  "Natural  History  (Lond.  1857 ; 
second  series,  1860;  third  series,  2 vols.,  1866)  ; of  a work  entitled  Fish-hatching  (Londi. 
1863);  diudi  Logbook  of  a Fisherman  and  Zoologist  and  editor  of  a new  edition  of 

his  father’s  Bridgewater  treatise  (Routledge,  1858);  and  of  White's  SeJborne  (1876).  He 
was  first  secretary  to  the  acclimatization  society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  He  is 
an  acute  observer,  and  his  writings  on  subjects  of  natural  history  in  great  part  exhibit 
the  results  of  fresh  and  original  observations,  which  his  sprightly  style  exhibits  in  a 
most  interesting  manner.  He  has  long  taken  a great  interest  in  fish-culture,  and  has 
been  actively  concerned  in  the  recent  endeavors  to  promote  it  in  England.  He  has,  at 
his  own  cost,  established  under  the  science  and  art  department.  South  Kensington,  a 
^ ‘ museum  of  economic  fish-culture,  ” illustrating  the  natural  history  of  salmon  and  sea- 
fish  by  means  of  plaster-casts,  which  he  makes  with  his  own  hands,  and  by  preparations 
and  dissections  in  spirits.  In  1867,  B.  was  appointed  inspector  of  salmon  fisheries  for 
England  and  Wales,  and,  in  1870,  special  commissioner  on  the  salmon  fisheries  of  Scot- 
land, and  in  1877  on  the  Scotch  herring  fisheries. 

BUCKLAND,  William,  d.d.,  a distinguished  geologist,  whose  labors  tended  greatly 
to  the  advancement  of  science,  was  born  at  Axminster,  Devonshire,  England,  in  1784. 
Educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  he  was  appointed,  in  1813,  reader  in  mineralogy 
in  Oxford  university.  The  same  year,  he  was  elected  a fellow  of  the  geological  society, 
and  he  was  twice  its  president.  In  1818,  he  became  reader  in  geology  at  Oxford,  and 
was  elected  fellow  of  the  royal  society.  In  1822,  he  received  the  Copley  medal  for 
an  account  of  an  assemblage  of  fossil  teeth  and  bones  of  22  different  animals,  discovered 
in  a cave  at  Kirkdale,  Yorkshire;  and,  in  1823,  he  published  a treatise  founded  on  it, 
-entitled  Beliquice  Bilumaim,  or  Observations  on  Organic  Bemains,  attesting  the  Action  of 
u Universal  Deluge,  a theory  which  he  afterwards  saw  cause  to  modify.  In  1825,  B. 
was  appointed  a canon  of  Christ  church,  Oxford.  In  1827,  he  was  chosen  a member  of 
the  council  of  the  royal  society;  in  1832,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  British  associa- 
tion at  Oxford,  its  second  meeting;  and,  in  1836,  he  published  his  Bridgewater  treatise. 
Geology  and  Mineralogy  Considered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology  (2  vols.  8vo).  To 
the  transactions  of  the  geological  society  he  contributed  many  valuable  papers ; and  his 
sketch  of  the  structure  of  the  Alps,  in  the  Annals  of  Philosophy,  is  esteemed  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  his  geological  writings.  In  1845,  he  was  made  dean  of  Westminster, 
and,  in  1847,  a trustee  of  the  British  museum.  Under  his  great  and  continuous  labors 
to  benefit  others,  his  mental  faculties  gave  way  some  years  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  Aug.  14,  1856. 

BUCKLANDIA,  a magnificent  and  beautiful  evergreen  tree  of  the  natural  order  hama- 
melidece  (see  Witch-Hazel),  a native  of  the  mountains.  It  grows  unbranched  to  the 
height  of  40  ft. , the  trunk  sometimes  21  ft.  in  girth  at  5 ft.  from  the  ground.  The 
foliage  is  thick,  bright,  and  glossy.  The  timber  is  not  valuable.  Dr.  Hooker  thinks 
that  this  tree  would  probably  succeed  in  the  mild  climate  of  the'  w.  of  England. 

BUCKLE,  Henry  Thomas,  an  author  who  attained  a sudden  notability  in  1857  by 
the  publication  of  the  first  volume  of  a work  entitled  The  History  of  Civilization  in  Eng- 
land. He  was  born  at  Lee,  in  Kent,  Nov.  24,  1823,  and  was  for  a very  short  time 
at  Dr.  Holloway’s  school  in  Kentish-town,  near  London.  No  other  school  and  no 


Suckler. 

}iuckthorn. 


144 


university  claims  credit  for  his  education,  which,  nevertheless,  was  in  the  highest  degree 
liberal.  An  easy  fortune  and  a large  library  enabled  Mr.  B.  to  gratify,  without  any  sort- 
of  impediment  or  restraint,  an  all-absorbing  love  of  letters.  After  bringing  out  a second 
volume  of  his  work  in  1861,  he  undertook  a journey  to  the  east,  in  order  to  restore  hi». 
health  and  extend  his  knowledge.  Having  spent  the  winter  in  Egypt,  he  went  over  the 
desert  to  Syria,  caught  typhus  fever  by  the  way,  and  died  at  Damascus,  May,  1862. 

B.’s  plan  involved,  before  tracing  the  particular  history  of  English  civilization,  a gen- 
eral consideration  of  the  progress  of  those  European  countries,  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Scotland,  Spain,  and  America,  in  which  the  elements  of  mod^ern  civilization  are 
originally  found.  The  two  volumes  published  are  occupied  with  this  preliminary  ex- 
amination, which  they  do  not  even  complete.  His  objects,  however,  are  clear.  They 
are  (1)  to  discover  what  is  the  essential  spirit  of  a nation’s  history  apart  from  particular 
men  and  events,  and  (2)  to  trace  out  the  causes  of  the  progress  which  has  been  made  in. 
England  and  France.  Under  the  first  head  B.  endeavors  to  show  that  the  spirit  or  char- 
acter of  a people  is  dependent  on  material  circumstances,  such  as  soil,  climate,  food, 
aspect  of  nature,  and  the  like,  and  to  be  sought  for  in  these ; under  the  second  head 
occurs  the  theory,  the  vigorous  application  of  which  by  B.  has  startled  and  offended 
many  readers — viz. , that  the  progress  of  society  depends  upon  skepticism ; that  the  re- 
tarding force  is  credulity ; and  that  the  excessive  “protection  ” exercised  by  governments, 
the  nobility,  the  church,  etc.,  over  the  “people,”  has  dwarfed  and  held  back  the  spirit  df 
freedom  and  civilization.  These  and  other  positions  are  defended  by  B.  with  great  in- 
genuity and  lucidity  of  argument  and  expression,  and  have  been  admitted,  even  by  his 
opponents,  to  contain  much  sound  truth.  He  is  accused — perhaps  not  unjustly — of  being 
often  one-sided,  and  of  drawing  sweeping  deductions  from  an  imperfect  survey  of  the 
facts.  He  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  best  chess-players  in  the  world.  See  his  Mis- 
cellaneous and  Posthumous  Works,  edited  by  Miss  Helen  Taylor;  and  Pilgrim  Memories,. 
by  J.  S.  Stuart  Glennie. 

BUCKLER,  in  old  armor,  was  a kind  of  shield  worn  on  the  left  arm.  The  bucklers 
worn  by  the  hastati,  or  spearmen,  among  the  ancient  Romans,  were  about  4 ft.  long, 
by  2|  in  width,  made  of  boards,  covered  on  the  inside  with  linen  and  sheepskin,  and  on 
the  outside  with  iron  plate.  In  the  middle  ages  the  B.  was  round,  oval,  or  square  in 
shape,  and  was  frequently  made  of  wicker-work  or  of  hide,  strengthened  by  metal- 
plates. 

BUCKLES,  metal  instruments,  consisting  of  a rim  and  tongue,  used  for  fastening 
straps  or  bands  in  dress  and  harness.  The  use  of  B.,  instead  of  shoe-strings,  was  intro- 
duced into  England  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  They  soon  became  very  fashion- 
able, attained  an  enormous  size  (the  largest  being  called  Artois  buckles,  after  the  comte^ 
d’ Artois,  brother  of  the  king  of  France),  and  were  usually  made  of  silver,  set  with  dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones.  In  the  latter  half  of  last  century  the  manufacture  of  B. 
was  carried  on  most  extensively  in  Birmingham,  there  being  at  one  time  not  less  than  4000' 
people  employed  in  that  town  and  its  vicinity,  who  turned  out  2,500,000  pairs  of  B. 
annually,  at  the  average  value  of  2s.  Qd.  per  pair.  When  the  trade  was  at  its  height,  how- 
ever, fashion  changed,  and  in  1791  we  find  buckle-makers  petitioning  the  prince  of 
Wales  for  sympathy,  on  the  ground  that  the  introduction  of  shoe-strings  had  nearly 
ruined  their  trade.  The  prince  promised  to  assist  them  as  far  as  he  could,  by  wearing 
B.  himself,  and  enjoining  his  household  to  do  the  same;  but  fashion  was  too  strong 
even  for  him,  and  B.  became  almost  extinct.  The  opportunity,  however,  as  is  remarked 
by  a writer  in  Notes  and  Queries  for  1854,  “ which  buckles  afford  of  ornament  and  ex- 
pense has  preserved  them  as  a part  of  the  court-dress;  and  of  late  years  they  ha v& 
appeared  a little  in  private  society.  They  are  generally,  though  not  always,  worn 
when  a prince  of  the  royal  famil}'’ is  of  the  party;  and  at  the  king’s  private  parties, 
although  the  rest  of  the  dress  be  that  usually  worn,  buckles  are  almost  indispensable.’^ 
Large  shoe-buckles,  of  silver  or  other  metal,  are  still  worn  by  the  clergy  of  several  con- 
tinental countries,  as  part  of  their  ordinary  costume. 

BUCKMINSTER,  Joseph,  d.d.,  1751-1812;  an  American  Congregational  clergyman, 
b.  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Yale,  studied  theology,  and  was  for  a time  tutor  in  the  col- 
lege. .In  1779,  he  became  pastor  of  the  North  church,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  where  he 
remained  for  a third  of  a century,  retiring  only  by  reason  of  failing  health.  He  died 
soon  afterwards,  while  on  a visit  to  Vermont.  Dr.  B.  took  deep  interest  in  the  contro- 
versy that  in  his  later  years  divided  the  Congregationalists  into  liberals  and  conserva- 
tives. He  published  many  sermons,  a memoir  of  Dr.  Mackintosh,  and  was  one  of  the 
compilers  of  the  Piscataqua  River  Prayer  Book.  His  daughter  published  his  memoirs 
and  those  of  his  son. 

BUCKMINSTER,  Joseph  Stevens,  son  of  Rev.  Joseph,  1784-1812.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard,  an4  was  a teacher  in  Phillips  Exeter  academy,  having  Daniel  Webster 
for  one  of  his  pupils.  In  1804,  he  was  made  pastor  of  Brattle  street  church,  Boston,  one 
of  the  leading  congregations  in  New  England.  In  1806-7,  he  traveled  in  Europe,  taking 
a deep  interest  in  the  purchase  of  books  for  the  Boston  Athenaeum.  In  1808,  he  super- 
vised the  republication  of  Griesbach’s  New  Testament  (in  Greek),  and  was  soon  after- 
wards appointed  lecturer  on  biblical  criticism  at  Cambridge.  He  was  a member  of 
most  of  the  important  literary  societies  of  the  day.  His  works  have  been  published  in 


145 


Buckler. 

Buckthorn, 


two  volumes.  While  preparing  for  his  biblical  lectures  in  1811,  he  had  an  attack  of  epi- 
lepsy which  broke  his  intellect,  and  from  its  effects  he  died  in  the  following  year. 

BUCKNER,  Simon  Bolivar,  b.  Ky.,  1823;  a graduate  of  West  Point  who  went 
into  the  service  of  the  confederacy,  issuing  an  address  to  the  people  of  Kentucky  to  take 
arms  against  the  usurper  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  surrendered  Fort  Donelson  and  16,000 
troops  to  gen.  Grant ; was  for  a time  a prisoner  of  war,  and  was  finally  in  Kirby  Smith’s 
surrender  to  gen.  Canby. 

BUCKS,  a CO.  in  e.  Pennsylvania,  on  the  New  Jersey  border,  bounded  by  Delaware 
river;  600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  64,336;  ’80,  68,654.  It  possesses  mines  and  quarries  of  iron, 
plumbago,  zircon,  limestone,  and  sandstone.  Surface  hilly  but  well  cultivated.  The 
North  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia  and  Trenton,  and  Doylestown  railroads  pass  through. 
Productions,  corn,  oats,  hay,  potatoes,  butter,  tobacco,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Doylestown. 

BUCKS.  See  Buckinghamshire,  ante. 

BUCKSKIN  is  a fanciful  name  for  a heavy-made,  strong-twilled  woolen  fabric,  for  trou- 
serings— highly  milled  to  about  the  usual  width  for  such  goods — 27  in. ; and  cropped  and 
finished,  with  the  pile  or  nap  so  shorn  as  to  show  the  texture  through  it. 

BUCKSPORT,  a t.  in  Hancock  co..  Me.,  on  the  Penobscot,  16  m.  s.  of  Bangor;  pop. 
’70,  3433;  ’80,  3056.  It  is  a handsome  town,  regularly  laid  out  on  a gentle  slope.  At 
the  bend  of  the  river  there  is  a strong  fort  commanding  the  narrow's  and  the  river  both 
up  and  down.  As  the  river  seldom  freezes  here,  B.  is  a convenient  winter  port  for  ves- 
sels bound  to  Bangor.  There  are  several  ship-yards  and  manufactories.  In  the  last  war 
with  England,  B.  was  captured  by  the  British. 

BUCKSTONE,  John  Baldwin,  a distinguished  comedian  and  dramatic  writer,  was  b. 
in  the  suburbs  of  London,  in  1802.  Preferring  the  excitement  of  the  stage  to  the 
monotony  of  an  attorney’s  office,  he  sought  and  soon  found  an  opportunity  in  a provincial 
town  for  the  display  of  his  theatrical  abilities.  After  a probation  in  the  country,  he 
appeared  at  the  Surrey  theater  in  1823,  and  his  success  was  so  unequivocal,  that  he  was 
soon  engaged  by  the  “management”  of  the  Adelphi  theater,  where  he  continued  for 
many  years  as  leading  low  comedian.  He  afterwards  played  at  the  Haymarket  and 
Drury  Lane  theaters,  of  the  former  of  which  he  was  lessee  from  1853  to  1878.  He  died 
31st  Oct.,  1879.  B.’s  acting  was  not  more  noted  for  its  comicality  and  humor,  which 
never  degenerates  into  vulgarity,  than  for  its  distinct  appreciation  of  the  peculiar  traits 
in  each  individual  character  he  assumed.  In  all  his  delineations  there  w'as  the  same 
broad  general  effect,  but  the  details  of  each  w^ere  wrought  out  with  great  care  and 
minuteness.  B.  was  also  a prolific  dramatic  author,  and  of  the  150  pieces  he  is  said  to 
have  written  for  the  stage,  several  have  been  highly  popular.  Among  the  best  known  are 
The  Green  Bushes;  The  Flowers  of  the  Forest;  Luke  the  Laborer;  The  Wreck  Ashore;  The 
Bough  Diamond;  Good  for  Nothing;  the  Irish  Lion;  and  Th^  Alarming  Sacrifice. 

BUCKTHOB.N,  Bhamnus,  a genus  of  shrubs  or  small  trees  of  the  natural  order 
rhamnaceoe  (q.v.),  distinguished  by  a bell  shaped  4 to  5-cleft  calyx,  which  divides  around 
the  middle  after  flowering,  the  upper  part  falling  away,  and  the  base  remaining  and 
adhering  to  the  fruit;  which  is  globose,  and  sometimes  succuleut,  sometimes  rather  dry 
or  spongy,  with  2 to  4 stones.  The  petals  are  sometimes  wanting.  Some  of  the  species 
are  dioecious,  some  hermaphrodite.  They  are  numerous,  and  natives  of  most  of  the 
tropical  and  temperate  regions  of  the  world. — The  Common  Buckthorn  {B.  catharticus) 
is  a deciduous  shrub  or  low  tree,  frequent  in  England  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe  and 
the  n.  of  Asia.  The  leaves  are  ovate,  crenate,  and  bright  green ; the  branches  spiny ; the 
flowers  small,  yellowish-green,  and  densely  clustered ; male  and  female  flowers  on  sepa- 
rate plants;  the  berries  about  the  size  of  peas,  globular,  bluish-black,  nauseous,  and  vio- 
lently purgative.  They  were  formerly  much  used  in  medicine,  but  now  more  rarely, 
and  only  in  the  form  of  a syrup  prepared  from  their  juice.  They  supply  the  sap  green 
(q.v.)  or  bladder  green  of  painters.  The  bark  affords  a beautiful  yellow  dye.  The  B. 
is  sometimes  planted  for  hedges,  but  is  of  too  straggling  a habit. — The  Alder  Buck- 
thorn, or  Berry-bearing  Alder  {B.  frangula),  is  also  a native  of  Britain,  and  is  fre- 
quent in  woods  and  thickets  throughout  Europe.  It  is  a shrub,  rarely  a small  tree,  with 
spineless  branches,  oval  entire  leaves,  and  small,  whitish,  axillarv  flow'ers,  which  are  in 
general  somewhat  clustered.  The  bark  of  the  twigs  is  gray,  and  has  a very  disgusting 
smell  and  a nauseous  bitter  taste.  It  was  formerly  used  in  medicine,  along  with  that  of 
the  last  species,  and  has  recently  been  recommended  in  many  quarters  as  a remedy  for 
intermittent  fevers.  It  contains  principally  an  acrid  bitter  extractive,  a volatile  oil  con- 
taining hydrocyanic  acid,  and  a yellow'  coloring  matter  called  rhamnin.  The  berries  ar(j 
small  and  black,  and  violently  purgative.  It  is  objected  to  their  use  in  medicine  that 
much  sickness  and  thirst  attend  it.  The  charcoal  of  the  wood  is  light,  and  is  used  foi 
the  preparation  of  gunpowder.  The  bark,  leaves,  and  berries  are  used  for  dyeing;  the 
bark  for  dyeing  yellow,  and  with  preparations  of  iron,  black;  the  unripe  berries  to  dye 
wool  green  and  yellow;  the  ripe  berries  to  dye  it  bluish-gray,  blue,  and  green.  The 
flowers  are  peculiarly  grateful  to  bees. — Dyer’s  Buckthorn  (B.  infectorious),  is  a low 
shrub,  abundant  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  whose  unripe  fruit  yields  a brilliant  yellow  dye. 
The  berries  and  inner  bark  of  B.  tinctorius,  a native  of  Hungary,  are  also  used  in  dye- 
ing; and  the  berries  of  B.  saxatilis,  a procumbent  shrub,  growing  amongst  rocks  as  far 

u.  K.  m.— 10 


Bucku. 

Butla. 


146 


n.  as  Switzerland.  The  French  berries,  Avignon  berries,  or  yellow  berries  of  dyers,  are 
the  fruit  of  B.  infectorius,  B.  saxatilis,  B.  amygdalina  (or  oleoides),  and  B.  Glusii. — The 
Sea  Buckthokn  is  a shrub  of  a different  genus  and  order.  See  Sallow-thorn. 

BUCKU,  a name  common  to  several  small  shrubs  of  the  genus  barosma  (formerly 
included  in  diosma),  natives  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  leaves  of  which  ure  used  in 
medicine — sometimes  in  the  form  of  a powder,  more  generally  of  an  infusion  or  a tincture 
— particularly  on  account  of  their  powerful  operation  on  the  urinary  organs,  as  in 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  bladder,  urinary  calculus,  etc.  They  are  also  used  in  dys- 
pepsia, rheumatism,  and  dropsy ; and  are  stimulant  and  antispasmodic,  diuretic,  diapho- 
retic, and  tonic.  They  generally  appear  in  commerce  mixed  with  stalks  and  fruit. 
They  are  smooth,  leathery,  and  shining,  more  or  less  crenated,  or  serrated,  and  are  much 
covered  with  pellucid  dots,  which  are  glands  filled  with  a strongly  smelling  yellowish 
volatile  oil.  The  strong  odor  of  B.  leaves  is  generally  regarded  as  disagreeable,  but  the 
Hottentots  perfume  themselves  with  them.  They  have  a warm  taste,  resembling  that 
of  mint. — The  genus  barosma  belongs  to  the  natural  order  rutacece,  and  is  distinguished 
by  regular  flowers  with  5 petals,  5 fertile  and  5 abortive  scale-like  stamens,  anthers 
bearing  a minute  terminal  gland,  and  a 5-lobed  ovary.  The  species  principally  yielding 
the  B.  Jeaves  of  the  shops  are  B.  serratifolia,  B.  crenata,  B.  crenulata,  and  B.  venusta. 

BUCKWHEAT, a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  ord^er  polygoneoe  {c^.y.), 
or,  according  to  many  botanists,  a subgenus  of  poljpgonum,  distinguished  by  the  central 
embryo,  and  by  racemes  of  flowers  grouped  in  panicles.  Common  B.  {fagopyrum  esculen- 
turn,  ov  polygonum  fagopyrum)  is  a native  of  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  and  many  parts  of  central  Asia,  from  which  it  is  said  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  and  thence  to  have  extended  over  Europe,  in  many 
parts  of  which,  and  in  some  places  in  Britain,  it  is  now  naturalized.  Another  account 
represents  it  as  having  been  brought  to  Europe  by  the  crusaders.  In  France,  it  is  called 
Me  Sarradn,  or  Saracen  wheat.  It  is  cultivated  on  account  of  the  farinaceous  albumen 
of  its  seeds,  which  are  used,  as  grain,  for  food  of  man  and  cattle.  It  is  upright,  branched, 
1 to  3 ft.  in  height;  the  leaves  are  between  heart-shaped  and  arrow-shaped,  the  flowers 
pale  red,  the  seed  (nut)  black  and  triangular,  the  angles  even  (not  toothed).  The  resem- 
blance of  this  seed  in  form  to  the  beech-nut  is  supposed  to  be  the  reason  of  the  German 
name  buchwezen  (beech- wheat),  from  which  the  English  name  is  derived.  B.  is  a very 
common  crop  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  and  of  the  United  States  of  North  America;  but 
is  seldom  sown  in  Britain,  except  as  food  for  pheasants.  It  requires  continued  dry 
weather  in  autumn  for  profitable  harvesting,  and  this  in  the  climate  of  Britain  cannot 
well  be  reckoned  on.  In  Germany,  B.  is  much  valued  as  a crop,  particularly  for  moor- 
lands and  other  poor  soils.  In  Bretagne,  also,  it  is  as  extensively  cultivated  as  wheat.  It 
yields  very  abundantly,  and  requires  little  attention  and  little  manure.  Forty  bushels 
or  more  per  acre  may  be  expected,  weighing  46  or  48  lbs.  per  bushel ; and  notwithstand- 
ing the  resemblance  of  the  seed  to  grain  in  its  qualities  and  uses,  wheat,  or  any  other 
cereal  crop,  generally  succeeds  well  after  B. , if  care  has  been  taken  to  keep  the  land 
clear  by  tilling.  The  seed  is  most  frequently  used  in  the  shape  of  groats,  or  made  into 
pottage,  and  in  the  United  States  thin  cakes  are  very  often  made  of  it.  It  is  very  nutri- 
tious, containing  about  10  per  cent  of  gluten  and  52  per  cent  of  starch,  besides  about  6 per 
cent  of  gum  and  sugar.  It  is  said  to  be  as  good  as  barley  for  fattening  cattle,  and  better 
for  horses  than  oats.  But  as  the  seed  is  covered  with  a very  hard  rind  or  thin  shell,  it 
must  always  be  shelled  before  being  given  to  cattle.  Poultry  are  very  fond  of  it.  Beer 
IS  sometimes  brewed  from  it,  and  it  yields  a spirituous  liquor  of  good  quality ; indeed,  it 
is  frequently  used  in  gin-distilleries.  As  green  fodder,  the  herbage  of  the  plant  is^  said 
to  be  more  nutritious  than  clover;  but  it  acts  as  a narcotic  on  sheep.  Bees  delight  in  its 
flowers,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  it  is  sown  on  this  account.  In  America 
the  seed  is  usually  sown  broadcast  over  the  land  which  has  been  plowed  in  autumn  or 
early  spring  and  well  scarified  or  harrowed.  About  a bushel  and  a half  of  seed  is 
required  when  sown  broadcast,  but  a bushel  is  sufiicient  if  drilled  with  a machine.  In 
the  latter  case  it  should  not  be  sown  in  narrower  drills  than  one  foot  apart,  but  2 ft. 
is  recommended  as  being  better  for  the  succeeding  crop,  as  the  wider  intervals  can  be 
properly  cultivated.  It  should  not  be  sown  in  England  before  the  middle  of  May,  as 
the  least  frost  is  injurious.  When  the  lower  seeds  are  ripe  it  should  be  mown,  as  they 
are  easily  shed  out  if  allowed  to  stand  too  long.  When  bread  made  from  B.  forms  the 
principal  food  of  the  people,  it  is  thought  to  have  an  injurious  action  on  the  brain.  As 
1 supplementary  article,  however,  it  is  a favorite  among  all  classes  where  it  is  raised. — 
Tartarian  B.  {F.  or  P.  Tataricum)  is  distinguished  by  the  toothed  edges  of  the  seeds 
and  its  more  vigorous  growth.  It  is  hardy,  and  adapted  for  cold  situations.  It  is  a 
native  of  Siberia.  It  is  very  productive,  but  the  seed  falls  out  when  ripe  more  readily 
than  that  of  the  common  species;  and  the  flour  is  darker  colored,  and^  somewhat  bitter. 
— Notch-seeded  B.  {F.  or  P.  emarginatiim)  is  said  to  be  a native  of  China.  Its  seeds  are 
larger  than  those  of  common  B.,  and  their  angles  are  winged.  When  grown  in  Britain, 
many  of  its  flowers  are  generally  abortive. — Perennial  B.  {F.  or  P.  cyrtwsum)  is  a native 
of  Nepaul,  very  vigorous  in  its  growth,  but  producing,  at  least  in  Britain,  comparatively 
little  seed. — The  triangular  black  seed  of  climbing  B.  or  blackbine  (P.  or  P.  convolvulus), 
familiar  to  every  one  who  has  eaten  oatmeal  cakes  or  porridge,  greatly  resembles  B.,  but 


147 


Bncku. 

Buda. 


is  smaller.  The  plant — a very  common  weed  in  gardens  and  cornfields  in  Britain — also 
exhibits  much  similarity,  notwithstanding  its  different  habit  and  twining  stem. — Dyer’s 
B.  is  Polygonum  tinctorium.  See  Polygone.iE. 

BUCKWHEAT  TREE,  Cliftonia  ligustrina,  an  evergreen  shrub  in  the  gulf  states  of 
the  order  cyrillacese,  bearing  fragrant  white  blossoms.  It  grows  around  ponds  and 
streams,  and  gets  its  name  from  the  shape  of  its  pendulous  fruit.  Its  local  name  is 
“ titi.” 

BUCOLIC,  a term  derived  from  the  Greek,  meaning  “belonging  to  herdsmen,”  and 
equivalent  to  the  Latin  term  pastoral.  See  Pastoral  Poetry. 

BUCYRUS,  the  co.  seat  of  Crawford  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Sandusky  river,  63  m.  n.  of 
Columbus;  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  railroad;  pop.  ’70,  3066;  in 
’80,  3848.  There  are  mineral  springs  and  a spring  of  inflammable  oil  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. It  is  in  a thickly  populated  district,  and  is  noted  for  manufactories  and  schools. 

BUC'ZACZ,  a t.  of  the  Austrian  empire,  in  Galicia,  30  m.  e.n.e.  of  Stanislawow,  on 
the  Stripa,  a considerable  affluent  of  the  Dniester.  A treaty  of  peace  between  the  Poles 
and  the  Turks  was  signed  here  in  1673.  Pop.  8500. 

BUD,  Oemma,  in  botany,  that  part  of  a plant  which  contains  the  rudiments  of  leaves 
or  flowers  prior  to  their  development.  Buds  are  distinguished  into  leaf-buds  and  flower- 
buds,  the  former  producing  leaves,  and  having  a power  of  extension  into  a branch ; the 
latter  producing  flowers  only,  and  ordinarily  destitute  of  this  power  of  extension.  The 
different  parts  of  the  flower  being  regarded,  however,  as  leaf  organs  or  altered  leaves 
(see  Flower),  the  flower-bud  may  be  regarded  as  merely  a modifled  leaf -bud;  and  it  is 
well  known  that,  by  treatment  which  checks  the  luxuriant  growth  of  a plant,  it  may  be 
caused  to  produce  flower- buds  where  only  leaf -buds  could  otherv^ise  have  been  expected 
to  appear — a physiological  fact,  of  which  advantage  is  taken  in  various  ways  by  gar- 
deners, as  by  removing  portions  of  the  bark  and  even  of  the  woody  part  of  the  stem, 
root-pruning,  conflning  the  roots  in  a flower-pot,  etc.  Buds  usually  appear  in  the  axils 
of  leaves,  the  terminal  bud  of  a branch  being  no  exception  to  this  rule ; and  there  is  no 
leaf  without  one  or  more  buds  in  its  axil,  although  many  never  pass  beyond  the  most 
rudimentary  state.  See  Branch.  In  cold  and  temperate  climates,  buds  are  formed 
about  midsummer,  beginning  to  appear  as  soon  as  the  young  branch  which  bears  them 
has  itself  been  properly  developed,  and  are  generally  covered  with  scales  and  often  alsa 
coated  with  resinous  matter,  by  which  their  tender  contents  are  protected  from  the 
severity  of  winter;  but  in  the  trees  of  warm  climates,  the  protection  of  scales  is  generally 
wanting.  Within  the  leaf -bud,  the  future  leaves  may  be  discovered,  often  very  curiously 
folded  or  rolled  up,  and  the  different  forms  and  positions  which  the  leaves  assume  in 
the  bud,  are  very  characteristic  of  different  kinds  of  plants.  This  is  called  the  rernation 
(q.v.)  of  leaves,  and  is  analogous  to  the  cestwation  (q.v.)  of  flowers.  The  buds  of  exoge- 
nous plants  originate  in  cellular  prolongations  of  the  medullary  rays  bursting  through 
the  bark;  those  of  endogenous  plants  are  in  communication  with  the  cellular  matter 
which  lies  between  the  bundles  of  woody  tissue  in  the  stem;  and  buds  elongate  into 
branches  by  the  addition  of  new  cellular  matter  to  the  extremity.  Leaf-buds  are 
capable  of  subsisting  when  separated  from  the  parent  plant  and  placed  in  favorable  situ- 
ations, developing  themselves  into  new  plants  with  the  most  exact  correspondence  in 
their  characteristics  to  the  parent  plant;  and  of  this  gardeners  avail  themselves  in  the 
process  of  budding  (q.v.),  and  in  various  ways  for  the  propagation  of  plants.  Some 
plants  propagate  themselves  by  a natural  detachment  of  buds  (bulbils  or  bulblets),  modi- 
fied into  a character  analogous  to  that  of  bulbs  (q.v.);  and  bulbs  themselves  may  indeed 
be  regarded  as  subterranean  leaf -buds  with  thickened  scales.  The  eyes  of  the  potato 
are  also  subterranean  leaf -buds,  the  tuber  being  regarded  as  a thickened  subterranean 
stem;  and  all  plants  with  subterranean  stems  produce  subterranean  leaf -buds,  sending 
above  ground  only  herbaceous  annual  shoots,  as  asparagus,  the  banana,  etc.  Buds  may 
be  produced  in  exogenous  plants  from  the  extremity  of  any  medullary  ray,  and  may  be 
niade  to  spring  from  a leafless  part  of  the  stem  by  an  incision,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
direct  a greater  supply  of  sap  to  the  part  immediately  beneath  it.  In  a few  plants,  buds 
are  produced  on  the  edges,  or  even  on  the  surface  of  leaves.  In  consequenee  of  their 
power  of  independent  existence,  buds  have  been  looked  upon  by  some  physiologists  as 
distinct  organized  beings  congregated  in  the  tree  or  plant,  a view  which  involves  exag- 
geration, and  therefore  error. — Flower-buds  cannot  be  used  for  budding,  or  otherwise 
for  propagation  of  the  plant,  but  when  removed  from  their  original  stock,  always  die. 

Some  of  the  lowest  animals  propagate  themselves  by  buds  {gemmation),  and  many  of 
the  zoophyte  systems  or  polypidoms  extend  in  this  manner.  See  Gemmation,  Repro- 
duction, Polypi,  and  Zoophytes. 

BU'DA  (Slavonic,  Bu'din;  German,  Ofen),  a city  of  Hungary,  forming  with  Pesth 
(with  which  it  is  united  by  a magnificent  suspension-bridge)  the  capital  of  the  country, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube  about  130  m.  s.e.  of  Vienna,  in  lat.  47°  39' 
n.,  and  long.  19°  3'  east.  ^ B.  has  a highly  picturesque  appearance,  being  built  round  the 
Schlossberg  (Castle-hill)  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater,  in  the  midst  of  a district  cov- 
ered with  vineyards.  Crowning  this  center  hill  or  rock,  which  has  an  elevation  of  485 
ft.  above  the  sea,  i.s  the  citadel ; the  palace  in  which  are  preserved  the  royal  insignia  of 


BndaeYlg. 

Suddhism. 


148 


Hungary;  and  an  old  Gothic  church.  Behind,  and  towering  above  the  rock,  rises  the 
Blocksberg,  strongly  fortified,  with  a precipitous  face  to  the  Danube,  the  slopes  of  the 
other  sides  being  occupied  with  houses.  B.  has  many  educational  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions; and  a fine  observatory  crpwns  the  Blocksberg.  It  has  some  celebrated  hot. 
sulphur  springs,  with  a temperature  of  117°  5'  F.,  from  which  it  derives  its  German 
name,  Ofen  (Oven).  Three  of  the  baths  erected  by  the  Turks  are  still  in  a perfect  state 
of  preservation,  and  are  much  frequented  by  the  common  people.  B.  has  some  manu- 
factures of  silk,  velvet,  woolens,  cotton,  leather,  and  gunpowder,  and  cannon  and  type 
foundries*;  but  its  chief  trade  is  in  wine,  of  which  it  produces  between  four  and  five 
millions  of  gallons  annually.  This  is  known  as  the  “ Ofenerwein,”  and  is  of  excellent 
quality.  Pop.  ’69,  53,998.  B.  is  a place  of  great  antiquity,  but  its  importance  dates 
from  1240,  when  the  fortress  was  erected  on  the  Schlossberg.  During  the  inroads  of 
the  Turks,  it  was  regarded  as  the  key  of  Christendom.  It  was  captured  by  Solyman 
the  magnificent  in  1526,  but  retaken  in  the  following  year  by  Ferdinand  I.,  king  of 
Bohemia.  In  1541,  it  was  again  taken  by  Solyman,  who  introduced  into  it  a garrison 
cf  12,000  janizaries;  and  it  remained  in  possession  of  the  Turks  until  1686,  when  it  was 
captured  by  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  B.  and  Pesth  (q.v.)  were  in  1872  incorporated  with 
one  another,  the  official  name  being  the  compound  Budapest. 

BUD.EirS  (the  Latinized  form  of  Guillaume  Bude),  one  of  the  greatest  French  scholars 
of  his  age,  was  b.  in  Paris  in  1467.  He  studied  there  and  at  Orleans.  His  works  on 
philology,  philosophy,  and  jurisprudence  display  extensive  learning,  but  the  two  best 
known  are  the  Be  Asse  et  Partihus  ejus  (Paris,  1514),  which  contains  a very  thorough 
investigation  into  ancient  coins;  and  the  Gommentarii  Linguae  Orcecce  (Paris,  1519), 
which  greatly  advanced  the  study  of  Greek  literature  in  France,  and  is  still  held  in  high 
estimation  by  classical  scholars.  B.’s  knowledge  of  Greek  was  particularly  good.  His 
style  both  in  Latin  and  French  is  nervous,  but  harsh,  and  abounds  in  Greek  construc- 
tions. His  abilities  were  manifested  not  only  in  literature,  but  in  public  business. 
Louis  XII.  twice  sent  him  to  Rome  as  ambassador;  and  Francis  I.  also  employed  him 
in  several  negotiations.  At  B.  ’s  suggestion,  Francis  founded  the  College  de  Prance,  and 
was  also  persuaded  to  refrain  from  prohibiting  printing,  which  the  bigoted  Sorbonne 
had  advised  in  1533.  During  his  life,  B.  held  several  important  offices.  He  was  royal 
librarian,  maitre  des  requites,  and  provost  of  Paris.  He  died  23d  Aug.,  1540.  A col- 
lected edition  of  his  works  appeared  at  Basel  in  1557.  B.  was  suspected  of  a leaning 
towards  Calvinism.  Certain  circumstances  render  this  highly  probable.  In  his  corres- 
pondence with  his  friend  Erasmus,  he  repeatedly  expresses  his  contempt  for  monks  and 
ignorant  ecclesiastics,  and  on  one  occasion  terms  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  ‘ ‘ prating 
sophists.”  Besides,  what  is  perhaps  even  more  conclusive,  shortly  after  his  death,  his 
widow  and  several  members  of  his  family  went  to  Geneva,  and  openly  abjured  Cathol- 
icism. 

BTJDAON',  Budaun,  or  Budayoon,  a t.  of  India,  140  m.  n.w.  of  Lucknow,  givingits 
name  to  a British  district  of  the  Rohilcund  division  of  the  lieutenant-governorship  of 
the  n.w.  provinces.  It  is  situated  in  28°  2'  n.  lat.,  and  79°  11'  e.  long.  Its  pop.  was 
officially  ascertained  in  1872  to  amount  to  33,322.  It  was  occupied  by  the  mutineers  and 
a body  of  liberated  prisoners  from  Bareilly,  June  1,  1857.  The  Europeans  escaped  hy 
flight.  It  was  captured  by  gen.  Whitelock,  April  19,  1858,  and  the  rebels  in  this  quar 
ter  were  soon  afterwards  entirely  subdued. — The  district  of  Budaon  contains  an  area  of 
2005  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  (1872)  of  934,348.  of  which  nearly  six  sevenths  are  Hindus,  and  the 
remainder  mostly  Mussulmans.  The  district  is  a level,  fertile  tract  on  the  Ganges  and 
tributaries  of  it,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  Ramgunga, 

BUDD^US,  Johann  Franz,  1667-1729;  a learned  Lutheran  divine,  b.  in  Pomera- 
nia. At  Wittenberg  he  won  distinction  in  languages,  theology,  and  history;  was  Greek 
'and  Latin  professor  at  Coburg,  professor  of  ethical  sciences  and  politics  in  the  university 
of  Halle,  and  in  1705  professor  of  divinity  at  Jena.  He  produced  an  historical  German 
dictionary,  an  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  Old  Testament,  a work  on  practical  philoso- 
phy, one  on  laws,  and  a universal  theological  history. 

BUD'DHISM — BUD'DHA.  The  religion  known  as  Buddhism  ^rom  the  title  of  “The 
Buddha,”  meaning  “ the  wise,”  “ the  enlightened,”  acquired  by  Js  founder)  has  existed 
now  for  2460  years,  and  may  be  said  to  be  the  prevailing  religion  of  the  world.  In 
Hindustan,  the  land  of  its  birth,  it  has  now  little  hold,  e.  cept  among  the  Nepaulese 
and  some  other  northern  tribes;  but  it  bears  full  sway  in  Ceylon,  and  over  the  whole 
eastern  peninsula;  it  divides  the  adherence  of  the  Chinese  with  the  systems  of  Confu- 
cius and  Lao-tse,  claiming  perhaps  two  thirds  of  the  population;  it  prevails  also  in 
Japan  (although  not  the  established  religion);  and,  n.  of  the  Himalayas,  it  is  the  religion 
of  Thibet  (where  it  assumes  the  form  of  Lamaism),  and  of  the  Mongolian  population  of 
central  Asia,  and  extends  to  the  very  n.  of  Siberia,  and  even  into  Swedish  Lapland.  Its 
adherents  are  estimated  at  400  millions — more  than  a third  of  the  human  race.  Yet,  till 
near  the  middle  of  this  century,  nothing  was  known  in  Europe  respecting  the  nature  and  > 
origin  of  this  world-religion,  beyond  the  vaguest  notices  and  conjectures.  About  the 
year  1828,  Mr,  B.  H.  Hodgson,  British  resident  at  the  court  of  Nepaul,  where  Buddhism 
prevails,  discovered  the  existence  of  a large  set  of  writings  in  the  Sanscrit  language, 
forming  the  national  canonical  books.  These  books  have  since  been  found  to  be  the 


149 


■ Budsens. 
Buddhism. 


texts  from  which  the  Buddhist  Scriptures  of  Thibet,  Mongolia,  and  China  must  have 
been  translated.  The  books  of  the  Ceylon  Buddhists  are  in  the  language  called  Pali; 
and  though  not  translations  of  the  Nepaulese  standards,  they  are  found  to  agree  with 
them  in  substance,  and  to  be  only  another  and  somewhat  later  version  of  the  same  tra- 
ditions. Translations  from  the  Ceylon  standards  are  used  by  the  Buddhists  of  Burmah 
and  Siam.  Copies  of  the  Sanscrit  books  of  Nepaul,  having  been  sent  by  Mr.  Hodgson 
to  the  Asiatic  societies  of  London  and  Paris,  engaged  the  attention  of  the  eminent  ori- 
ental scholar,  Eugene  Burnouf,  who  published  in  1844  his  Introduction  to  the  History  of 
Buddhism;  and  this  book  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  beginning  of  anything  like  cor- 
Tect  information  on  the  subject  among  the  western  nations. 

The  most  diverse  opinions  had  previously  prevailed  as  to  the  time  and  place  of  the 
origin  of  Buddhism.  Some  looked  upon  it  as  a relic  of  what  had  been  the  original 
religion  of  Hindustan,  before  Brahmanism  intruded  and  drove  it  out;  a relic  of  a wide- 
spread primeval  worship,  whose  ramifications  it  was  endeavored  to  trace  by  identifying 
Buddha  with  the  Woden  of  the  Scandinavians,  the  Thoth  or  Hermes  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  other  mythological  personages.  Others  held  that  it  could  not  be  older 
than  Christianity,  and  must  have  originated  in  a blundering  attempt  to  copy  that 
religion — so  striking  are  the  many  points  of  resemblance  that  present  themselves. 
Although  the  means  are  still  wanting  of  giving  a circumstantial  history  of  Buddhism, 
the  main  outline  is  no  longer  doubtful.  Oriental  scholars  now  concur  in  fixing  the  date 
of  its  origin  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c.  b.c.,  and  in  making  it  spring  up  in  the 
n.  of  Hindustan.  According  to  the  Buddhist  books,  the  founder  of  the  religion  was  a 
prince  of  the  name  of  Siddhartha,  son  of  Suddhodana,  king  of  Kapilavastu,  which  is 
placed  somewhere  on  the  confines  of  Oude  and  Nepaul.  He  is  often  called  Sakya, 
which  was  the  name  of  the  family,  and  also  Gautama,  the  name  of  the  great  “ Solar” 
race  of  which  the  family  was  a branch.  The  name  Sakya  often  becomes  Sakya-muni 
{muni,  in  San.,  means  “solitary,”  and  is  allied  to  Gr.  monos,  the  root  of  “monk”),  in 
allusion  to  the  solitary  habits  assumed  by  the  prince.  To  Gautama  is  frequently  pre- 
fixed Bramana,  meaning  ascetic.  Of  the  names,  or  rather  titles,  given  to  Siddhartha  in 
his  state  of  perfection,  the  most  important  is  the  Buddha,^  which  is  from  the  root  budh, 
to  know,  and,  according  to  Wilson,  means  properly,  “he  to  whom  truth  is  known:”  it 
is  indicative  of  the  leading  doctrine  of  his  system.  Others  are  “ The  blessed  ” (Bhaga- 
vat);  “ the  venerable  of  the  world;”  “the  Bodhisatva,”  the  import  of  which  will  be 
afterwards  explained.  The  history  of  this  person  is  overlaid  with  a mass  of  extrava- 
gant and  incredible  legend ; and  at  least  one  eminent  orientalist,  prof.  H.  H.  Wilson, 
thinks  it  still  doubtful  whether  the  Buddha  was  an  actual  historical  personage,  and  not 
rather  an  allegorical  figment.  Agreeing  that  the  doctrine  was  introduced  about  the 
time  assigned,  he  thinks  it  more  likely  that  it  originated  with  a school  formed  of  per- 
sons of  various  castes,  comprising  even  Brahmans.  But  by  oriental  authorities  gener- 
ally, the  Buddha  is  received  as  the  actual  personal  founder  of  the  religion  that  goes  by 
his  name. 

Assuming  that  the  Buddha  was  a real  person,  and  that  there  is  a basis  of  fact 
under  the  mass  of  extravagant  fable  with  which  he  is  surrounded,  the  history  of  Buddh- 
ism may  be  thus  briefly  outlined : The  prince  Siddhartha  gives  early  indications  of  a 
contemplative,  ascetic  disposition ; and  his  father,  fearing  lest  he  should  desert  his  high 
station  as  Kshatriya  (see  Hinduism  and  Caste)  and  ruler,  and  take  to  a religious  life, 
has  him  early  married  to  a charming  princess,  and  surrounded  vdth  all  the  splendor  and 
dissipation  of  a luxurious  court.  Twelve  years  spent  in  this  environment  only  deepen 
the  conviction,  that  all  that  life  can  offer  is  vanity  and  vexation  of  spirit.  He  is  con- 
stantly brooding  over  the  thought  that  old  age,  withered  and  joyless,  is  fast  approaching; 
that  loathsome  or  racking  sickness  may  at  any  moment  seize  him ; that  death  will  at  all 
events  soon  cut  off  all  present  sources  of  enjoyment,  and  usher  in  a new  cycle  of 
unknown  trials  and  sufferings.  These  images  hang  like  Damocles’  sword  over  ev^y 
proposed  feast  of  pleasure,  and  make  enjoyment  impossible.  He  therefore  resolves  to 
try  whether  a life  of  austerity  will  not  lead  to  peace;  and,  although  his  father  seeks  to 
detain  him  by  setting  guards  on  every  outlet  of  the  palace,  he  escapes,  and  begins  the 
life  of  a religious  mendicant,  being  now  about  30  years  old.  To  mark  his  breaking  off 
all  secular  ties,  he  cuts  off  the  long  locks  that  were  a sign  of  his  high  caste;  and  as  the 
shortened  hair  turned  upwards,  he  is  always  represented  in  figures  with  curly  hair, 
which  induced  early  European  writers  to  consider  him  as  of  Ethiopian  origin.  He 
commences  by  studying  all  that  the  Brahmans  can  teach  him,  but  finds  their  doctrine 
unsatisfactory.  Six  years  of  rigorous  asceticism  are  equally  vain;  and  resolving  to 
return  to  a more  genial  life,  he  is  deserted  by  his  five  disciples,  and  then  undergoes  a 
fierce  temptation  from  the  demon  of  wickedness.  But  no  discouragement  or  opposition 
can  divert  Sakya-muni  from  the  search  after  deliverance.  He  will  conquer  the  secret  by 
sheer  force  of  thinking.  He  sits  for  weeks  plunged  in  abstraction,  revolving  the  causes 

* There  is  a confusing  variety  in  the  modes  in  which  this  name  is  spelled  by  European  writers, 
S.  Hardy,  in  his  Manual  of  Buddhism,  gives  more  than  fifty  forms  that  have  come  under  his  notice. 
Some  of  the  more  common  are  Bud,  Bod,  Buth,  Budh,  Boodh,  Bhood,  Budo,  Buddow,  Boutta,  Poota, 
Poth,  Pot.  The  Chinese,  owing  to  the  meagerness  of  their  articulations,  seem  to  have  been  unable 
come  nearer  to  the  real  sound  than  Fo,  Foe,  or  FoM;  from  the  same  cause,  they  convert  Brahma  inM«» 
Fan. 


Buddiilsm. 


150 


of  things.  If  we  were  not  bom,  he  reflects,  we  should  not  be  subject  to  old  age,  misery^ 
and  death ; therefore,  the  cause  of  these  evils  is  birth.  But  whence  comes  birth  or  con- 
tinued existence?  Through  a long  concatenation  of  intermediate  causes,  he  arrives  at 
the  conclusion  that  ignorance  is  the  ultimate  cause  of  existence;  and  therefore,  with  the- 
removal  of  ignorance,  existence  and  all  its  anxieties  and  miseries  would  be  cut  off  at 
their  source.  Passing  through  successive  stages  of  contemplation,  he  realizes  this  in  his- 
own  person,  and  attains  the  perfect  wisdom  of  the  Buddha.  The  scene  of  this  final 
triumph  received  the  name  of  Bodhimanda  (the  seat  of  intelligence),  and  the  tree  under 
which  he  sat  was  called  Bodhidruma  (the  tree  of  intelligence),  whence  bo-tree.  The 
Buddhists  believe  the  spot  to  be  the  center  of  the  earth.  Twelve  hundred  years  after 
the  Buddha’s  death,  Hiouen-Thsang,  the  Chinese  pilgrim,  found  the  Bodhidruma — or  a. 
tree  that  passed  for  it — still  standing.  Although  the  religion  of  Buddha  is  extinct  in  the 
neighborhood,  there  are,  about  5 m.  from  Gaya  Proper,  in  Bahar,  extensive  ruins  and 
an  old  dagoba,  or  a temple,  which  are  believed  to  mark  the  place.  Near  the  temple 
there  flourished,  in  1812,  a peepul-tree,  apparently  100  years  old,  which  may  have  been 
planted  in  the  place  of  the  original  bo-tree. 

Having  arrived  at  the  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  misery,  and  of  the  means  by  which, 
these  causes  are  to  be  counteracted,  the  Buddha  was  now  ready  to  lead  others  on  the 
road  to  salvation.  It  was  at  Benares  that  he  first  preached,  or,  in  the  consecrated 
phrase,  “turned  the  wheel  of  the  law;”*  but  the  most  important  of  his  early  converts 
was  Bimbisara,  the  sovereign  of  Magadha  (Bahar),  whose  dynasty  continued  for  many 
centuries  to  patronize  the  new  faith.  During  the  forty  years  that  he  continued  to  preach 
his  strange  gospel,  he  appears  to  have  traversed  a great  part  of  northern  India,  combating 
the  Brahmans,  and  everywhere  making  numerous  converts.  He  died  at  Kusinagara  (in 
Oude),  at  the  age  of  80,  in  the  year  543  b.c.  ; and  his  body  being  burned,  the  relics  were 
distributed  among  a number  of  contending  claimants,  and  monumental  tumuli  were 
erected  to  preserve  them.  See  Topes. 

The  most  important  point  in  the  history  of  Buddhism,  after  the  death  of  its  founder, 
is  that  of  the  three  councils  which  fixed  the  canon  of  the  sacred  scriptures  and  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  church.  The  Buddha  had  written  nothing  himself;  but  his  chief  follow- 
ers, assembled  in  council  immediately  after  his  death,  proceeded  to  reduce  his  teaching 
to  writing.  These  canonical  writings  are  divided  into  three  classes,  forming  the  tripitaka. 
or  “triple  basket.”  The  first  class  consist  of  the  soutras,  or  discourses  of  the  Buddha; 
the  second  contains  the  mnaya,  or  discipline ; and  the  third  the  abhidharma,  or  meta- 
physic. The  first  is  evidently  the  fundamental  text  out  of  which  ail  the  subsequent 
writings  have  been  elaborated.  The  other  two  councils  probably  revised  and  expanded 
the  writings  agreed  upon  at  the  first,  adding  voluminous  commentaries;  as  to  the  dates 
of  the  other  two  councils,  there  are  irreconcilable  discrepancies  in  the  accounts;  but  at 
all  events  the  third  was  not  later  than  240  b.c.,  so  that  the  Buddhist  canonical  scrip- 
tures, as  they  now  exist,  were  fixed  two  centuries  and  a half  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  Buddhist  religion  early  manifested  a zealous  missionary  spirit;  and  princes  and  even 
princesses  became  devoted  propagandists.  A prince  of  the  royal  house  of  Magadha, 
Mahindo,  carried  the  faith  to  Ceylon,  307  b.c.  The  Chinese  annals  speak  of  a Buddhist 
missionary  as  early  as  217  b.c.  ; and  the  doctrine  made  such  progress,  that  in  65  a.d. 
it  was  acknowledged  by  the  Chinese  emperor  as  a third  state  religion.  The  Chinese 
Buddhists  have  always  looked  on  India  as  their  ‘ ‘ holy  land ;”  and,  beginning  with  the 
4th  c.  of  our  era,  a stream  of  Buddhist  pilgrims  continued  to  flow  from  China  to  India, 
during  six  centuries.  Several  of  these  pilgrims  have  left  accounts  of  their  travels,  which, 
throw  a light  on  the  course  of  Buddhism  in  India,  and  on  the  internal  state  of  the  coun- 
try in  general,  that  is  looked  for  in  vain  in  the  literature  of  India  itself.  See  Hiouen- 
Thsang.  As  to  the  spread  of  Buddhism  n.  of  the  Himalayan  mountains,  we  have  the 
historical  fact,  that  a Chinese  general,  having  about  the  year  120  b.c.  defeated  the  bar- 
barous tribes  to  the  n.  of  the  desert  of  Gobi,  brought  back  as  a trophy  a golden  statue  of 
the  Buddha. 

A prominent  name  in  the  history  of  Buddhism  is  that  of  Asoka,  king  of  Magadha,  in 
the  3d  c.  of  our  era,  whose  sway  seems  to  have  extended  over  the  whole  peninsula  of 
Hindustan,  and  even  over  Ceylon.  This  prince  was  to  Buddhism  what  Constantine  was  to 
Christianity.  He  was  at  first  a persecutor  of  the  faith,  but  being  converted — by  a miracle, 
according  to  the  legend — he  became  its  zealous  propagator.  Not,  however,  as  princes 
usually  promote  their  creed ; for  it  is  a distinguishing  characteristic  of  Buddhism,  that 
it  has  never  employed  force,  hardly  even  to  resist  aggression.  Asoka  showed  his  zeal 
by  building  and  endowing  viharas  or  monasteries,  and  raising  topes  and  other  monuments 
over  the  relics  of  Buddha  and  in  spots  remarkable  as  the  scenes  of  his  labors.  Hiouen- 
Thsang,  in  the  7th  c.  of  our  era,  found  topes  attributed  to  Asoka  from  the  foot  of  the 
Hindu  Kush  to  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula.  There  exist,  also,  in  different  parts 
of  India,  edicts  inscribed  on  rocks  and  pillars  inculcating  the  doctrines  of  Buddha.  The 
edicts  are  in  the  name  of  king  Piyadasi;  but  orientalists  are  almost  unanimous  in  hold- 

* From  a too  literal  understanding  of  this  phrase  have  arisen,  probably,  those  praying-wheels,  or 
rather  wheels  for  meditation,  seen  standing  before  Buddhist  monasteries  in  Thibet  and  elsewhere.  The 
doctrines  of  Buddha  are  inscribed  on  the  wheel,  which  is  then  set  in  motion  by  a windlass,  or  even  by 
horse-power.  The  individual  monks  have  portable  ones,  with  which  they  perform  their  devotions 
wherever  they  may  happen  to  be. 


151 


Buddhism. 


!ng  Piyadasi  and  Asoka  to  be  one  and  the  same.  Not  a single  building  or  sculptured 
stone  has  been  discovered  in  continental  India  of  earlier  date  than  the  reign  of  this  mon- 
arch, whose  death  is  assigned  to  226  b.c.  A remarkable  spirit  of  charity  and  toleration  runs 
through  these  royal  sermons.  The  “king  beloved  of  the  gods”  desires  to  see  the  ascetics  of 
all  creeds  living  in  all  places,  for  they  all  teach  the  essential  rules  of  conduct.  “A  man 
«ught  to  honor  his  own  faith  only;  but  he  should  never  abuse  the  faith  of  others.  . . . 
There  are  even  circumstances  where  the  religion  of  others  ought  to  be  honored,  and  in 
acting  thus,  a man  fortifies  his  owm  faith,  and  assists  the  faith  of  others.” 

For  the  glimpses  we  get  of  the  state  of  Buddhism  in  India,  we  are  indebted  chiefly  to 
the  accounts  of  Chinese  pilgrims.  Fa-hian,  at  the  end  of  the  4th  c.,  found  some  appear- 
ances of  decline  in  the  e.  of  Hindustan,  its  birthplace,  but  it  was  still  strong  in  the 
Punjab  and  the  north.  In  Ceylon,  it  w^as  flourishing  in  full  vigor,  the  ascetics  or  monks 
numbering  from  50,000  to  60,000.  In  the  7th  c. — that  is,  1200  years  after  the  death  of 
the  Buddha — Hiouen-Thsang  represents  it  as  widely  dominant  and  flourishing,  and 
patronized  by  powerful  rajahs.  Its  history  was  doubtless  more  or  less  checkered.  The 
Brahmans,  though  little  less  tolerant  than  the  followers  of  Buddha,  seem  to  have  been 
in  some  cases  roused  into  active  opposition;  and  some  princes  employed  persecution  to 
put  down  the  new  faith. 

It  was  probably  during  the  first  four  or  five  centuries  of  our  era,  and  as  a result  of 
persecution,  that  Buddhists,  driven  from  the  great  cities,  retired  among  the  hills  of  the 
west,  and  there  constructed  those  cave-temples  which,  for  their  number,  vastness,  and 
elaborate  structure,  continue  to  excite  the  wonder  of  all  who  see  them.  There  are  reck- 
oned to  be  not  fewer  thon  900  Buddhist  excavations  still  extant  in  India,  nearly  all 
within  the  presidency  of  Bombay.  How  the  destruction  of  the  Buddhist  faith  in  Hin- 
dustan came  about — whether  from  internal  corruption,  or  the  persecution  of  powerful 
princes,  adherents  of  the  old  faith — we  are  utterly  in  the  dark.  But  it  is  certain  that 
from  the  time  of  Hiouen-Thsang’s  visit,  its  decay  must  have  been  rapid  beyond  pre- 
cedent; for  about  the  11th  or  12th  c.,  the  last  traces  of  it  disappear  from  the  Indian 
peninsula. 

What,  then,  is  the  nature  of  this  faith,  which  has  been  for  so  long,  and  is  still,  the 
sole  light  of  so  many  millions  of  human  beings?  In  answering  this  question,  we  must 
confine  ourselves  here  to  a brief  outline  of  the  intellectual  theory  on  which  the  system  is 
based,  and  of  the  general  character  of  its  morality  and  ritual  observances,  as  they  were 
conceived  by  the  founder  and  his  more  immediate  followers ; referring  for  the  various 
forms  which  the  external  observances  have  assumed  to  the  several  countries  where  it  is 
believed  and  practiced.  See  Burmah,  Ceylon,  China,  Japan,  Lamaism. 

Buddhism  is  based  on  the  same  views  of  human  existence,  and  the  same  philosophy 
of  things  in  general,  that  prevailed  among  the  Brahmans.  It  accepts  without  questioning, 
and  in  its  most  exaggerated  form,  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  which  lies 
at  the  root  of  so  much  that  is  strange  in  the  eastern  character.  For  a particular  account 
of  this  important  doctrine  or  notion,  which  seems  ingrained  in  the  constitution  of  eastern 
minds,  and  without  a knowledge  of  which  no  phase  of  thought  or  feeling  among  them 
can  be  understood,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Transmigration;  while  the  peculiar  cos- 
mogony or  system  of  the  universe  with  which  it  is  associated,  and  which  is  substantially 
the  same  among  Hindus  and  Buddhists,  will  be  described  under  Hinduism.  It  is  suffi- 
cient here  to  say,  that,  according  to  Buddhist  belief,  when  a man  dies,  he  is  immediately 
born  again,  or  appears  in  a new  shape;  and  that  shape  may,  according  to  his  merit  or 
demerit,  be  any  of  the  innumerable  orders  of  being  composing  the  Buddhist  universe — 
from  a clod  to  a divinity.  If  his  demerit  would  not  be  sufficiently  punished  by  a 
degraded  earthly  existence — in  the  form,  for  instance,  of  a woman  or  a slave,  of  a perse- 
cuted or  a disgusting  animal,  of  a plant,  or  even  of  a piece  of  inorganic  matter — he  will 
be  born  in  some  one  of  the  136  Buddhist  hells,  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  earth. 
These  places  of  punishment  have  a regular  gradation  in  the  intensity  of  the  suffering 
and  in  the  length  of  time  the  sufferers  live,  the  least  term  of  life  being  10  millions  of 
years,  the  longer  terms  being  almost  beyond  the  powers  of  even  Indian  notation  to 
express.  A meritorious  life,  on  the  other  hand,  secures  the  next  birth  either  in  an  exalted 
and  happy  position  on  earth,  or  as  a blessed  spirit,  or  even  divinity,  in  one  of  the  many 
heavens;  in  which  the  least  duration  of  life  is  about  10  billions  of  years.  But  however 
long  the  life,  whether  of  misery  or  of  bliss,  it  has  an  end,  and  at  its  close  the  individual 
must  be  born  again,  and  may  again  be  either  happy  or  miserable — either  a god  or,  it  may 
be,  the  vilest  inanimate  object.*  The  Buddha  himself,  before  his  last  birth  as  Sakyamuni, 
had  gone  through  every  conceivable  form  of  existence  on  the  earth,  in  the  air,  and  in 
the  water,  in  hell  and  in  heaven,  and  had  filled  every  condition  in  human  life.  When 
he  attained  the  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Buddha,  he  was  able  to  recall  all  these  exist- 
ences; and  a great  part  of  the  Buddhist  legendary  literature  is  taken  up  in  narrating  his 
exploits  when  he  lived  as  an  elephant,  as  a bird,  as  a stag,  and  so  forth. 

The  Buddhist  conception  of  the  way  in  which  the  quality  of  actions — which  is 
expressed  in  Pali  by  the  word  karma,  including  both  merit  and  demerit — determines 

* One  legend  makes  Bhagavat,  in  order  to  impress  upon  the  monks  of  a monastery  the  importance 
of  their  duties,  point  to  a besom,  and,  by  his  supernatural  insight,  reveal  to  them  that  it  had  once  been 
a novice,  who  had  been  negligent  in  sweeping  he  hall  of  assembly ; the  walls  and  pillars,  again,  he 
told  them,  had  once  existed  as  monks,  who  soiled  the  walls  of  the  hall  by  spitting  :pon  them. 


Buddhism. 


152 


the  future  condition  of  all  sentient  beings,  is  peculiar.  They  do  not  conceive  any  god 
or  gods  as  being  pleased  or  displeased  by  the  actions,  and  as  assigning  the  actors" their 
future  condition  by  way  of  punishment  or  of  reward.  The  very  idea  of  a god,  as. 
creating  or  in  any  way  ruling  the  world,  is  utterly  absent  in  the  Buddhist  system.  God 
is  not  so  much  as  denied;  he  is  simply  not  known.  Contrary  to  the  opii^ion  once  confi- 
dently and  generally  held,  that  a nation  of  atheists  never  existed,  it  is  no  longer  to  be 
disputed  that  the  numerous  Buddhist  nations  are  essentially  atheist;  for  they  know  nc 
beings  with  greater  supernatural  power  than  any  man  is  supposed  capable  of  attaining 
to  by  virtue,  austerity,  and  science;  and  a remarkable  indication  of  this  startling  fact  ia 
to  be  seen  in  the  circumstance  that  some  at  least  of  the  Buddhist  nations — the  Chinese, 
Mongols, and  Thibetans — have  no  word  in  their  languages  to  express  the  notion  of  God. 
The  future  condition  of  the  Buddhist,  then,  is  not  assigned  him  by  the  Ruler  of  the- 
universe;  the  “ karma”  of  his  actions  determines  it  by  a sort  of  virtue  inherent  in  the 
nature  of  things — by  the  blind  and  unconscious  concatenation  of  cause  and  effect.  But 
the  laws  by  which  consequences  are  regulated  seem  dark,  and  even  capricious.  A bad 
action  may  lie  dormant,  as  it  were,  for  many  existences;  the  taint,  however,  is  there, 
and  will  some  time  or  other  break  out.  A Buddhist  is  thus  never  at  a loss  to  account 
for  any  calamity  that  may  befall  himself  or  others. 

Another  basis  of  Buddhism  is  the  assumption  that  human  existence  is  on  the  whole- 
miserable,  and  a curse  rather  than  a blessing.  This  notion,  or  rather  feeling,  is,  like 
transmigration,  common  to  Buddhism  and  Brahmanism,  and  is  even  more  prominent  in 
Buddhism  than  in  the  old  faith.  It  is  difficult  for  a European  to  conceive  this  state  of 
mind,  or  to  believe  that  it  can  be  habitual  in  a whole  people ; and  many  signal  errors  in 
dealing  with  the  Indian  nations  have  arisen  from  overlooking  the  fact.  The  cause 
would  seem  to  lie  chiefly  in  the  comparatively  feeble  physical  organization  of  easterns 
in  general.  With  a vigorous  animal  vitality,  there  is  a massive  enjoyment  in  mere 
bodily  existence  sufficient  to  drown  a large  amount  of  irritation  and  suffering,  leaving 
life  still  sweet  and  desirable;  while  the  spontaneous  activity  attending  this  vigor, 
makes  it  a pleasure  instead  of  a pain  to  contend  with  and  conquer  difficulties.  The 
Indian,  on  the  contrary,  even  when  he  looks  robust,  has  little  intensity  of  animal  vitality; 
and  therefore,  bodily  existence,  in  itself,  has  to  him  little  relish.  Tedium  of  life,  it  is 
well  known,  arises  more  from  negative  than  positive  sources;  and  it  requires  but  little 
bitter  added  to  make  his  cup  disgusting.  So  far,  again,  from  finding  activity  a source 
of  enjoyment,  exertion  is  painful,  and  entire  quiescence  is,  in  his  eyes,  the  highest  state 
of  conceivable  enjoyment.  When  to  this  we  add  that  want  of  security  and  peace^  and 
that  habitual  oppression  of  the  many  by  the  few,  with  all  the  attendant  degradation  and 
positive  suffering,  which  may  be  considered  the  normal  state  of  things  in  the  east,  need 
we  wonder  that  to  men  so  constituted  and  so  circumstanced,  life  should  seem  a burden, 
a thing  rather  to  be  feared  than  otherwise?  The  little  value  that  Hindus  set  upon  their 
lives  is  manifested  in  many  ways.  The  punishment  of  death,  again,  has  little  or  na 
terror  for  them,  and  is  even  sometimes  coveted  as  an  honor.  For,  in  addition  to  the 
little  value  of  their  present  existence,  they  have  the  most  undoubting  assurance  that 
their  soul,  if  dislodged  from  its  present  tenement,  will  forthwith  find  another,  with  a 
chance,  at  least,  of  its  being  a better  one 

In  the  eyes,  then,  of  Sakya-muni  and  his  followers,  sentient  existence  was  hopelessly 
miserable.  Misery  was  not  a mere  taint  in  it,  the  removal  of  which  would  make  it 
happy;  misery  was  its  very  essence.  Death  was  no  escape  from  this  inevitable  lot;  for, 
according  to  the  doctrine  of  transmigration,  death  was  only  a passage  into  some  other 
form  of  existence  equally  doomed.  Even  the  heaven  and  the  state  of  godhead  which 
form  part  of  the  cycle  of  changes  in  this  system,  were  not  final;  and  this  thought 
poisoned  what  happiness  they  might  be  capable  of  yielding.  Brahman  philosophers  had 
sought  escape  from  this  endless  cycle  of  unsatisfying  changes,  by  making  the  individual 
soul  be  absorbed  in  the  universal  spirit  (Brahm);  Gautama  had  the  same  object  in  view 
— viz.,  exemption  from  being  born  again;  but  he  had  not  the  same  means  of  reaching  it. 
His  philosophy  was  utterly  atheistic,  like  that  of  the  original  Sankhya  school  of  phi- 
losopy,  whose  views  he  chiefly  borrowed,  and  ignored  a supreme  God  or  Creator;  it  did 
not  leave  even  an  impersonal  spirit  of  the  universe  into  which  the  human  soul  could  be 
absorbed.  Gautama  sees  no  escape  but  in  what  he  calls  Nirvana,  the  exact  nature  of 
which  has  been  matter  of  dispute.  According  to  its  etymology,  the  word  means 
“extinction,”  “ blowing  out,”  as  of  a candle;  and  most  orientalists  are  agreed  that  in 
the  Buddhist  scriptures  generally  it  is  equivalent  to  annihilation  Even  in  those  schools 
which  attempt  to  draw  a distinction,  the  distinction  is  of  the  most  evanescent  kind.  See 
Nirvana, 

The  key  of  the  whole  scheme  of  Buddhist  salvation  lies  in  what  Gautama  called  his 
four  sublime  verities.  The  first  asserts  that  pain  exists;  the  second,  that  the  cause  of 
pain  is  desire  or  attachment — the  meaning  of  which  will  appear  further  on ; the  third, 
that  pain  can  be  ended  by  Nirvana;  and  the  fourth  shows  the  way  that  leads  to  Nirvana 
This  way  to  Nirvana  consists  in  eight  things:  right  faith,  right  judgment,  right  language 
right  purpose,  right  practice,  right  obedience,  right  memory,  and  right  meditation.  In 
order  to  understand  how  this  method  is  to  lead  to  the  proposed  end,  we  must  turn  to  the 
metaphysical  part  of  the  system  contained  in  the  “concatenation  of  causes,”  which  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a development  of  the  second  “verity” — namely,  that  the  cause  of 


153 


Buddhism. 


pain  is  desire — or  rather,  as  the  analysis  upon  which  that  verity  is  founded.  The 
immediate  cause  of  pain  is  birth,  for  if  we  were  not  born,  we  should  not  be  exposed  to 
death  or  any  of  the  ills  of  life.  Birth,  again,  is  caused  by  previous  existence ; it  is  only 
a transition  from  one  state  of  existence  into  another.  All  the  actions  and  affections  of 
a being  throughout  his  migrations  leave  their  impressions,  stains,  attachments  adhering 
to  him,  and  the  accumulation  of  these  determines  at  each  stage  the  peculiar  modification 
of  existence  he  must  next  assume.  But  for  these  adhesions,  the  soul  would  be  free;  not 
being  bound  down  to  migrate  into  any  determinate  condition  of  life,  it  would  follow 
that  it  need  not  migrate  at  all.  These  adhesions  or  attachments,  good  and  bad,  depend 
upon  desire,  or  rather,  upon  affection  of  any  kind  in  the  soul  towards  the  objects;  as  if 
only  what  moved  the  soul  to  desire  or  avoidance  could  leave  its  impress  upon  it.  We 
thus  arrive  at  desire — including  both  the  desire  to  possess,  and  the  desire  to  avoid — as 
one  link  in  the  chain  of  causes  of  continued  existence  and  pain.  Beyond  this  the 
■dependence  of  the  links  is  very  difficult  to  trace;  for  desire  is  said  to  be  caused  by 
perception,  perception  by  contact,  and  so  on,  until  we  come  to  ideas.  Ideas,  however, 
■are  mere  illusions,  the  results  of  ignorance  or  error,  attributing  durability  and  reality  to 
that  which  is  transitory  and  imaginary.  Cut  off  this  ignorance,  bring  the  mind  into  a 
state  in  which  it  can  see  and  feel  the  illusory  nature  of  things,  and  forthwith  the  whole 
train  vanishes;  illusory  ideas,  distinction  of  forms,  senses,  contaet,  perception,  desire, 
•attachment,  existence,  birth,  misery,  old  age,  death! 

Morality  and  Religious  Observances.  — The  eight  parts  or  particulars  constituting  the 
theoretical  “ way”  (to  Nirvana),  was  developed  by  Gautama  into  a set  of  practical  pre- 
■cepts  enjoining  the  various  duties  of  common  life  and  of  religion.  They  are  all  ostensi- 
bly intended  as  means  of  counteracting  or  destroying  the  chain  of  causes  that  tie  men 
to  existence  and  necessitate  being  born  again,  especially  that  most  important  link  in  the 
chain  constituted  by  the  attachments  or  desires  resulting  from  former  actions;  although 
the  special  fitness  of  some  of  the  precepts  for  that  end  is  far  from  being  apparent.  It  is 
easy  to  understand  how  the  austerities  that  are  prescribed  might  subdue  the  passions 
and  affections,  and  lessen  the  attachment  to  existence;  but  how  the  exercise  of  benevo- 
lence, of  meekness,  of  regard  to  truth,  of  respect  to  parents,  etc.,  on  which  Gautama 
laid  so  much  stress,  should  have  this  effect,  it  is  diflBcult  to  conceive.  Luckily  for  the 
’Buddhist  world,  Gautama’s  moral  nature  was  better  than  his  logic,  or  rather  than  the 
perverse  assumptions  from  which  his  logic  starts;  and  as  he  felt  strongly — what  all  men 
have  felt  more  or  less — that  these  things  are  essentially  right  and  good,  he  takes  it  for 
granted  that  they  must  contribute  to  what  was  in  his  eyes  the  chief  good — escape  from 
existence,  or  Nirvana.  In  delivering  his  precepts,  the  Buddha  considers  men  as  divided 
into  two  classes — those  who  have  embraced  the  religious  life  {Sramanas),  and  those  who 
continue  in  the  world,  or  are  laymen.  These  last  are  considered  as  too  much  attached 
to  existence  to  feel  any  desire  or  have  any  hope  of  emancipation,  at  least  at  this  stage. 
But  there  are  certain  precepts  which  it  is  necessary  for  all  to  obey,  that  they  may  not 
bring  greater  misery  upon  themselves  in  their  next  births,  and  rivet  the  bonds  of  exist- 
ence more  indissolubly.  There  are  ten  moral  preeepts  or  “precepts  of  aversion.”  Five 
of  these  are  of  universal  obligation — viz.,  not  to  kill;  not  to  steal;  not  to  commit  adul- 
tery; not  to  lie;  not  to  be  drunken.  Other  five  are  for  those  entering  on  the,  direct 
pursuit  of  Nirvana  by  embracing  the  religious  life : to  abstain  from  food  out  of  season 
— that  is,  after  midday;  to  abstain  from  dances,  theatrical  representations,  songs,  and 
music ; to  abstain  from  personal  ornaments  and  perfumes ; to  abstain  from  a lofty  and 
luxurious  couch;  to  abstain  from  taking  gold  and  silver.  For  the  regular  ascetics  or 
monks,  there  are  a number  of  special  observances  of  a very  severe  kind.  They  are  to 
dress  only  in  rags,  sewed  together  with  their  own  hands,  and  to  have  a yellow  cloak 
thrown  over  the  rags.  They  are  to  eat  only  the  simplest  food,  and  to  possess  nothing 
except  what  they  get  by  eollecting  alms  from  door  to  door  in  their  wooden  bowl.  They 
are  allowed  only  one  meal,  and  that  must  be  eaten  before  midday.  For  a part  of  the 
year,  they  are  to  live  in  forests,  with  no  other  shelter  except  the  shadow  of  a tree,  and 
there  they  must  sit  on  their  carpet  even  during  sleep,  to  lie  down  being  forbidden.  They 
are  allowed  to  enter  the  nearest  village  or  town  to  beg  food,  but  they  must  return  to 
their  forests  before  night. 

Besides  the  absolutely  necessary  ‘ ‘ aversions  and  observances”  above  mentioned,  the 
transgression  of  which  must  lead  to  misery  in  the  next  existence,  there  are  certain  vir- 
tues or  “ perfections”  of  a supererogatory  or  transcendent  kind,  that  tend  directly  to 
‘ ‘ conduct  to  the  other  shore”  (Nirvana).  The  most  essential  of  these  are  almsgiving  or 
charity,  purity,  patience,  courage,  contemplation,  and  knowledge.  Charity  or  benevo- 
lence may  be  said  to  be  the  charateristic  virtue  of  Buddhism — a charity  boundless  in  its 
self-abnegation,  and  extending  to  evei'y  sentient  being.  The  benevolent  actions  done  by 
the  Buddha  himself,  in  the  course  of  his  many  millions  of  migrations,  were  favorite 
themes  of  his  followers.  On  one  occasion,  seeing  a tigress  starved  and  unable  to  feed 
her  cubs,  he  hesitated  not  to  make  his  body  an  oblation  to  charity,  and  allowed  them  to 
<levour  him.  Benevolence  to  animals,  with  that  tendency  to  exaggerate  a right  principle 
so  characteristic  of  the  east,  is  carried  among  the  Buddhist  monks  to  the  length  of 
avoiding  the  destruction  of  fleas  and  the  most  noxious  vermin,  whieh  they  remove  from 
their  persons  with  all  tenderness. 

There  are  other  virtues  of  a secondary  kind,  though  still  highly  commendable.  Thus, 


Buddhism. 


154 


not  content  with  forbidding  lying,  the  Buddha  strictly  enjoins  the  avoidance  of  all 
offensive  and  gross  language,  and  of  saying  or  repeating  anything  that  can  set  others  at 
enmity  among  themselves;  it  is  a duty,  on  the  contrary,  especially  for  a sramana,  to  act 
on  all  occasions  as  a peacemaker.  Patience  under  injury,  and  resignation  in  misfortune, 
are  strongly  inculcated.  Humility,  again,  holds  a no  less  prominent  place  amongst 
Buddhist  graces  than  it  does  among  the  Christian.  The  Buddhist  saints  are  to  conceal 
their  good  works,  and  display  their  faults.  As  the  outward  expression  of  tliis  sentiment 
of  humility,  Gautama  instituted  the  practice  of  confession.  Twice  a month,  at  the  new 
and  at  the  full  moon,  the  monks  confessed  their  faults  aloud  before  the  assembly.  This 
humiliation  and  repentance  seems  the  only  means  of  expiating  sin  that  was  known  ta 
Gautama.  Confession  was  exacted  of  all  believers,  only  not  so  frequently  as  of  the 
monks.  The  edicts  of  Piyadasi  recommend  a general  and  public  confession  at  least 
once  in  five  years.  The  practice  of  public  confession  would  seem  to  have  died  out  by 
the  time  of  Hiouen-Thsang’s  visit  to  India. 

Such  are  the  leading  features  of  the  moral  code  of  the  Buddha,  of  which  it  has  been, 
said,  that  “for  pureness,  excellence,  and  wisdom,  it  is  only  second  to  that  of  the  Divine 
Lawgiver  himself.”  But  the  original  morality  of  Buddhism  has,  in  the  course  of  time, 
been  disfigured  by  many  subtilties,  puerilities,  and  extravagances,  derived  from  the 
casuistry  of  the  various  schools  of  later  times;  just  as  the  casuistry  of  the  Jesuits,  for 
instance,  perverted  many  of  the  precepts  of  Christianity.  The  theory  on  which  the 
Buddha  founds  his  whole  system  gives,  it  must  be  confessed,  only  too  much  scope  to 
such  perversions;  for,  on  that  theory,  truth  is  to  be  spoken,  self  to  be  sacrificed,  benevo- 
lence to  be  exercised,  not  for  the  sake  of  the  good  thus  done  to  others,  but  solely  for  the 
effect  of  this  conduct  on  the  soul  of  the  actor,  in  preparing  him  for  escape  from  exist- 
ence. To  teach  men  “the  means  of  arriving  at  the  other  shore,”  was  another  expression 
for  teaching  virtue;  and  that  other  shore  was  annihilation.  On  this  principle,  the 
Buddhist  casuist  can,  like  the  Jewish,  render  of  none  effect  the  universal  law  of  charity 
and  the  duty  of  respecting  and  aiding  parents,  on  which  the  Buddha  laid  such  stress. 
Thus,  a Bikshu — that  is,  one  who  has  engaged  to  lead  a life  of  self-denial,  celibacy,  and. 
mendicancy,  and  is  thus  on  the  high-road  to  Nirvana — is  forbidden  to  look  at  or  con- 
verse with  a female,  lest  any  disturbing  emotion  should  ruffle  the  serene  indifference  of 
his  soul;  and  so  important  is  this,  that  “if  his  mother  have  fallen  into  a river,  and  be 
drowning,  he  shall  not  give  her  his  hand  to  help  her  out ; if  there  be  a pole  at  hand,  he 
may  reach  that  to  her ; but  if  not,  she  must  drown.  ” — Wilson. 

Contemplation  and  science  or  knowledge  (i.  e. , of  the  concatenation  of  causes  and 
effects)  are  ranked  as  virtues  in  Buddhism,  and  hold  a prominent  place  among  the 
means  of  attaining  Nirvana.  It  is  reserved,  in  fact,  for  abstract  contemplation  to  effect 
the  final  steps  of  the  deliverance.  Thought  is  the  highest  faculty  of  man,  and,  in  the  mind 
of  an  eastern  philosopher,  the  mightiest  of  all  forces.  A king  who  had  become  a con- 
vert to  Buddhism  is  represented  as  seating  himself  with  his  legs  crossed,  and  his  mind 
collected ; and  ‘ ‘ cleaving,  with  the  thunderbolt  of  science,  the  mountain  of  ignorance,  ” 
he  saw  before  him  the  desired  state.  It  is  in  this  cross-legged,  contemplative  position 
that  the  Buddha  is  almost  always  represented — that  crowning  intellectual  act  of  his, 
when,  seated  under  the  Bo-tree  (q.v.),  he  attained  the  full  knowledge  of  the  Buddha, 
saw  the  illusory  nature  of  all  things,  broke  the  last  bonds  that  tied  him  to  existence, 
and  stood  delivered  for  evermore  from  the  necessity  of  being  born  again,  being  consid- 
ered the  culmination  of  his  character,  and  the  highest  object  of  imitation  to  all  his 
followers. 

“Complete”  Nirvana  or  extinction  cannot,  of  course,  take  place  till  death;  but  this 
state  of  preparation  for  it,  called  simply  Nirvana,  seems  attainable  during  life,  and  was, 
in  fact,  attained  by  Gautama  himself.  The  process  by  which  the  state  is  attained  is 
called  Dhyana,  and  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  ecstacy  or  trance,  which  plays  so 
important  a part  among  mystics  of  all  religions.  The  individual  is  described  as  losing 
one  feeling  after  another,  until  perfect  apathy  is  attained,  and  he  reaches  a region 
“where  there  are  neither  ideas,  nor  the  idea  of  the  absence  of  ideas!” 

The  ritual  or  worship  of  Buddhism — if  worship  it  can  be  called — is  very  simple  in  its 
character.  There  are  no  priests,  or  clergy,  properly  so  called.  The  Sramanas  or  Bik- 
shus  (mendicants)  are  simply  a religious  order — a kind  of  monks,  who,  in  order  to  th.? 
more  speedy  attainment  of  Nirvana,  have  entered  on  a course  of  greater  sanctity  and 
austerity  than  ordinary  men ; they  have  no  sacraments  to  administer  or  rites  to  perform 
for  the  people,  for  every  Buddhist  is  his  own  priest.  The  only  thin^  like  a clerical 
function  they  discharge,  is  to  read  the  scriptures  or  discourses  of  the  Buddha  in  stated 
assemblies  of  the  people  held  for  that  purpose.  They  have  also  everywhere,  except  in 
China,  a monopoly  of  education ; and  thus  in  Buddhist  countries  education,  whatever 
may  be  its  quality,  is  very  generally  diffused.  In  some  countries,  the  monks  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous,  around  Lhassa  in  Thibet,  for  instance,  they  are  said  to  be  one  third  of 
the  population.  They  live  in  mharas  or  monasteries,  and  subsist  partly  by  endowments, 
but  mostly  by  charity.  Except  in  Tibet,  they  are  not  allowed  to  engage  in  any  secular 
occupation.  The  vow  is  not  irrevocable.  This  incubus  of  monachism  constitutes  the 
great  weakness  of  Buddhism  in  its  social  aspect.  Further  particulars  regarding  Bud- 
dhist monks  and  monasteries,  as  -well  as  the  forms  of  Buddhist  worship  generally,  will 
be  given  when  speaking  of  the  countries  where  the  religion  prevails.  See  Lamaism. 


155 


BnddMsm« 


The  adoration  of  the  statues  of  the  Buddha  and  of  his  relics  is  the  chief  external 
ceremony  of  the  religion.  This,  with  prayer  and  the  repetition  of  sacred  formulas,  con- 
stitutes the  ritual.  The  centers  of  the  worship  are  the  temples  containing  statues,  and 
the  topes  or  tumuli  erected  over  the  relics  of  the  Buddha,  or  of  his  distinguished  apos- 
tles, or  on  spots  consecrated  as  the  scenes  of  the  Buddha’s  acts.  The  central  object  in 
a Buddhist  temple,  corresponding  to  the  altar  in  a Roman  Catholic  church,  is  an  image 
of  the  Buddha,  or  a dagoba  or  shrine  containing  his  relics.  Here  flowers,*  fruit,  and 
incense  are  daily  offered,  and  processions  are  made  with  singing  of  hymns.  Of  the 
relics  of  the  Buddha,  the  most  famous  are  the  teeth  that  are  preserved  with  intense  ven- 
eration in  various  places.  Hiouen-Thsang  saw  more  than  a dozen  of  them  in  different 
parts  of  India;  and  the  great  monarch  Ciladitya  was  on  the  eve  of  making  war  on  the 
king  of  Cashmere  for  the  possession  of  one,  which,  although  by  no  means  the  largest, 
was  yet  an  inch  and  a half  long.  The  tooth  of  the  Buddha  preserved  in  Ceylon,  a piece 
of  ivory  about  the  size  of  the  little-finger,  is  exhibited  very  rarely,  and  then  only  with 
permission  of  the  English  government — so  great  is  the  concourse  and  so  intense  the 
excitement.  See  Ceylon. 

There  appears  at  first  sight  to  be  an  inconsistency  between  this  seeming  worship  of 
the  Buddha  and  the  theory  by  which  he  is  considered  as  no  longer  existing.  Yet  the 
two  things  are  really  not  irreconcilable;  not  more  so,  at  least,  than  theory  and  practice 
often  are.  With  all  their  admiration  of  the  Buddha,  his  followers  have  never  made  a 
^od  of  him.  Gautama  is  only  the  last  Buddha — the  Buddha  of  the  present  cycle.  He 
had  predecessors  in  the  cycles  that  are  past  (24  Buddhas  of  the  past  are  enumerated, 
and  Gautama  could  even  tell  their  names) ; and  when,  at  the  end  of  the  present  cycle, 
all  things  shall  be  reduced  to  their  elements,  and  the  knowledge  of  the  way  of  sal- 
vation shall  perish  with  all  things  else,  then,  in  the  new  world  that  shall  spring  up, 
another  Buddha  will  appear,  again  to  reveal  to  the  renascent  beings  the  way  to  Nirvana. 
Oautama  foretold  that  Mitraya,  one  of  his  earliest  adherents,  should  be  the  next 
Buddha  f (the  Buddha  of  the  future),  and  he  gratified  several  of  his  followers  with  a like 
prospect  in  after-cycles.  The  Buddha  was  thus  no  greater  than  any  mortal  may  aspire 
to  become.  The  prodigious  and  supernatural  powers  which  the  legends  represent  him 
as  possessing,  are  quite  in  accordance  with  Indian  ideas;  for  even  the  Brahmans  believe 
that  by  virtue,  austerities,  and  science  a man  may  acquire  power  to  make  the  gods 
tremble  on  their  thrones. 

The  Buddha,  then,  is  not  a god;  he  is  the  ideal  of  what  any  man  may  become;  and 
the  great  object  of  Buddhist  worship  is  to  keep  this  ideal  vividly  in  the  minds  of  the 
believers.  In  the  presence  of  the  statue,  the  tooth,  or  the  footprint,  the  devout  believer 
vividly  recalls  the  example  of  him  who  trod  the  path  that  leads  to  deliverance.  This 
veneration  of  the  memory  of  Buddha  is  perhaps  hardly  distinguishable,  among  the 
ignorant,  from  worship  of  him  as  a present  god ; but  in  theory,  the  ritual  is  strictly  com- 
memorative, and  does  not  necessarily  involve  idolatry,  any  more  than  the  garlands  laid 
on  the  tomb  of  a parent  by  a pious  child.  See  Tope. 

The  prayers  addressed  to  the  Buddha  are  more  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  belief  in 
his  having  ceased  to  exist.  It  is  improbable,  indeed,  that  the  original  scheme  of  Buddh- 
ism contemplated  either  the  adoration  of  the  statues  of  the  Buddha,  or  the  offering  of 
prayers  to  him  after  his  death.  These  are  an  after-growth — accretions  upon  the  simple 
scheme  of  Gautama,  and  in  a manner  forced  upon  it  during  its  struggle  with  other  relig- 
ions. For,  a system  of  belief  that  seeks  to  supplant  other  systems,  finds  itself  enticed 
to  present  something  to  rival  and  outdo  them,  if  possible,  in  every  point.  Even  the 
Christian  church,  in  the  middle  ages,  adopted  with  this  view  many  of  the  rites  and 
legends  of  paganism  that  were  quite  inconsistent  with  its  own  character;  merely  casting 
over  them  a slight  disguise,  and  giving  them  Christian  names.  Prayer,  too,  is  natural 
' to  man — an  irrepressiffie  instinct,  as  it  were,  and  had  to  be  gratified.  And  then  the 
: inconsistency  in  uttering  prayers  when  there  is  no  one  to  hear  or  answer,  glaring  as  it 
appears  to  us,  is  by  no  means  great  to  the  eastern  mind.  Prayers,  like  other  formulas, 
are  conceived  less  as  influencing  the  will  of  any  superior  being  to  grant  the  request,  than 
as  working  in  some  magical  way — producing  their  effects  by  a blind  force  inherent  in 
themselves.  They  are,  in  short,  mere  incantations  or  charms.  Even  the  prayers  of  a 
Brahman,  who  believes  in  the  existence  of  gods,  do  not  act  so  much  by  inclining  the  deity 
|i  addressed  to  favor  the  petitioner,  as  by  compelling  him  through  their  mysterious  potency 
I — through  the  operation  of  a law  above  the  will  of  the  highest  gods.  The  Buddhist,  then, 
may  well  believe  that  a formula  of  prayer  in  the  name  of  “ the  venerable  of  the  world  ” 
will  be  potent  for  his  good  in  this  way,  without  troubling  himself  to  think  whether  any 
' conscious  being  hears  it  or  not. 

The  element  in  Buddhism  which  more  than  any  other,  perhaps,  gave  it  an  advantage 
I over  all  surrounding  religions,  and  led  to  its  surprising  extension,  was  the  spirit  of  uni- 
! versal  charity  and  sympathy  that  it  breathed,  as  contrasted  with  the  exclusiveness  of 

* The  quantity  of  flowers  used  as  offerings  is  prodigious.  A royal  devotee  in  Ceylon,  in  the  15th  c., 
offered  on  one  occasion  6,480,320  flowers  at  the  shrine  of  the  tooth.  At  one  temple  it  was  provided 
that  there  should  be  offered  “ every  day  100,000  flowers,  and  each  day  a different  flower.” 

t One  who  is  on  the  way  to  become  a supreme  Buddha,  and  has  arrived  at  that  stage  when  he  has 
only  one  more  birth  to  undergo,  is  styled  a Bodhisatva  (having  the  essence  of  knowledge;  a mere  can- 
didate for  Nirvana  is  an  arhat  (venerable). 


Budding. 

Bnel. 


156 


caste.  In  this  respect,  it  held  much  the  same  relation  to  Brahmanism  that  Christianity 
did  to  Judaism.  It  was,  in  fact,  a reaction  against  the  exclusiveness  and  formalism  o*f 
Brahmanism — an  attempt  to  render  it  more  catholic,  and  to  throw  off  its  intolerable  bur- 
den of  ceremonies.  Buddhism  did  not  expressly  abolish  caste,  but  only  declared  that 
all  followers  of  the  Buddha  who  embraced  the  religious  life  were  thereby  released  from 
its  restrictions ; in  the  bosom  of  a community  who  had  all  equally  renounced  the  world, 
high  and  low,  the  twice-born  Brahman  and  the  outcast  were  brethren.  This  was  the 
very  way  that  Christianity  dealt  with  the  slavery  of  the  ancient  world.  This  opening 
of  its  ranks  to  all  classes  and  to  both  sexes — for  women  were  admitted  to  equal  hopes  and 
privileges  with  men,  and  one  of  Gautama’s  early  female  disciples  is  to  be  the  supreme 
Buddha  of  a future  cycle — no  doubt  gave  Buddhism  one  great  advantage  over  Brahman- 
ism. The  Buddha,  says  M.  Muller,  “addressed  himself  to  castes  and  outcasts.  He 
promised  salvation  to  all;  and  he  commanded  his  disciples  to  preach  his  doctrine  in  all 
places  and  to  all  men.  A sense  of  duty,  extending  from  the  narrow  limits  of  the  house, 
the  village,  and  the  country,  to  the  widest  circle  of  mankind,  a feeling  of  sympathy  and 
brotherhood  towards  all  men,  the  idea,  in  fact,  of  humanity,  were  first  pronounced  by 
Buddha.”  This  led  to  that  remarkable  missionary  movement,  already  adverted  to,  which, 
beginning  300  b.c.,  sent  forth  a succession  of  devoted  men,  who  spent  their  lives  in 
spreading  the  faith  of  Buddha  over  all  parts  of  Asia. 

In  the  characteristic  above  mentioned,  and  in  many  other  respects,  the  reader  can- 
not fail  to  remark  the  striking  resemblance  that  Buddhism  presents  to  Christianity,  and 
this  in  spite  of  the  perverse  theory  on  which  it  is  founded.  So  numerous  and  surpris- 
ing are  the  analogies  and  coincidences,  that  Mrs.  Speir,  in  her  book  on  Life  in  Ancient 
India,  “ could -almost  imagine  that  before  God  planted  Christianity  upon  earth,  he  took 
a branch  from  the  luxuriant  tree,  and  threw  it  down  to  India.” 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  attempt  here  any  formal  refutation  of  the  religion  of  the 
Buddha.  To  the  readers  of  this  work,  the  fundamental  errors  of  the  theory  will  be 
apparent  enough.  By  giving  prominence  to  the  extravagances  and  almost  inconceivable 
puerilities  and  absurdities  with  which  the  system  has  been  overloaded,  it  would  have 
been  easy  to  make  it  look  suflficiently  ridiculous.  But  this  is  not  to  depict,  it  is  to  cari- 
cature. It  is  only  too  common  for  Christian  writers  to  treat  of  heathen  religions  in 
such  fashion.  The  only  fair — the  only  true  account  of  any  religion,  is  that  which  enables 
the  reader  to  conceive  how  human  beings  may  have  come  to  believe  it  and  live  by  it.  It 
is  this  object  that  has  been  chiefly  kept  in  view  in  the  preceding  meager  sketch  of  a vast 
subject.  Those  who  wish  to  pursue  it  further  are  referred  to  Spence  Hardy’s  Manual 
of  Buddhism,  and  his  Eastern  Monachism,  consisting  chiefly  of  translations  from  the 
sacred  books  used  in  Ceylon ; to  J.  Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  Le  Bouddha  et  sa  Religion; 
and  especially  to  a complete  and  elaborate  digest  by  C.  F.  Koeppen  of  Berlin,  in  two 
vols. — Religion  of  the  Buddha,  and  Lamaist  Hierarchy  of  Thibet. 

BUDDING,  sometimes  called  Inoculation,  is  an  operation  analogous  to  Grafting 
(q.v.),  or  indeed  may  be  regarded  as  merely  a particular  mode  of  grafting,  in  which  a 
leaf -bud  is  used  as  a graft  instead  of  a young  shoot.  It  is  generally  preferred  for  trees- 
which  are  apt  to  throw  out  much  gum  when  wounded,  as  the  plum,  cherry,  peach, 
apricot,  and  stone-fruits  in  general,  also  for  roses  and  many  other  flowering  shrubs. 
The  time  for  it  is  when  the  bud  is  perfectly  formed,  about  or  a little  after  midsummer. 
The  bud  to  be  employed  is  taken,  by  means  of  a sharp  knife,  from  the  branch  on  which 
it  has  grown — generally  a branch  of  the  former  year — a small  portion  of  the  bark  and 
young  wood  being  taken  with  it,  extending  to  about  half  an  inch  above  and  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  below  the  bud.  The  woody  part  is  then  separated  from  the  bark  and 
bud;  but  care  is  to  be  taken  that  the  bud  itself  is  not  injured,  which,  however,  is  always 
the  case  when  the  operation  is  attempted  before  the  bud  is  sufficiently  matured,  and  is 
indicated  by  a hollow  left  at  the  bud  when  the  wood  has  been  removed.  A longitudinal 
and  a transverse  cut  are  made  in  the  bark  of  the  stock  intended  to  receive  the  bud,  in 
the  form  of  the  letter  T;  the  bark  is  raised  on  both  sides,  for  which  purpose  the  handle 
of  the  budding-knife  generally  terminates  in  a thin  ivory  blade,  and  the  bud  is  inserted, 
the  bark  attached  to  the  bud  being  cut  across  so  as  to  join  exactly  to  the  transverse  cut 
in  that  of  the  stock,  that  the  bud  may  be  nourished  by  the  descending  sap.  The  leaf  in 
the  axil  of  which  the  bud  grew  is  cut  off.  The  newly-inserted  bud  is  for  a time  pre- 
served in  its  place,  and  prevented  from  too  much  access  of  air  by  strands  of  bass-mat- 
ting. The  process  just  described  is  distinctively  called  shield-budding,  and  is  the  most 
common  method  of  budding.  Other  methods  are  occasionally  employed,  as  rewrsed 
shield-budding,  in  which  the  incisions  are  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T reversed,  which  is 
sometimes  practiced  with  trees  of  the  orange  family  and  others  in  which  there  is  a very 
great  flow  of  descending  sap ; and  scallop-budding,  in  which  a thin  slip  of  bark  is  removed 
from  the  stock,  and  a similar  slip  bearing  the  bud  is  placed  upon  it,  the  upper  edge  and 
one  of  the  lateral  edges  being  made  to  fit  exactly.  Scallop-budding  may  be  performed 
in  spring,  and  if  it  fails,  the  ordinary  method  may  be  resorted  to  in  summer.  B.  is  also 
sometimes  performed  by  taking  a tube  of  bark  with  one  or  more  buds  from  a small  branch, 
and  placing  it  upon  a branch  of  similar  thickness  in  the  stock,  from  which  the  bark  has 
been  removed. 

BUDDLE'A,  a genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  scrophularinece,  of  which  many  spe- 
cies are  known,  all  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  some  of  them  much 


mJKuddine» 

Buel. 

admired  for  their  beautiful  flowers.  B.  Neemda  has  received  the  praise  of  being  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  plants  of  India.  B.  globosa,  a native  of  Chili,  with  downy  branches, 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  globose  heads  of  orange-colored  flowers,  is  hardy  enough  to  endure 
the  climate  of  most  parts  of  England,  and  has  become  a very  common  ornament  of 
gardens,  but  in  Scotland  it  needs  the  protection  of  the  greenhouse  or  frame. 

BTTDE  burner  and  Bude  Light.  The  B.  B.,  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  resi- 
dence of  the  inventor,  Mr.  Gurney,  consists  of  two,  three,  or  more  concentric  argand 
burners,  each  inner  one  rising  a little  above  the  outer.  On  the  same  principle,  a power- 
ful light  is  produced  by  a number  of  flat  flames  disposed  in  concentric  circles  like  the 
petals  of  a rose. — The  Bude  light,  also  the  invention  of  Mr.  Gurney,  depends  upon 
introducing  oxygen  into  the  center  of  the  flame  instead  of  air,  as  in  the  common  argand. 
A light  of  the  most  dazzling  brilliancy  is  thus  produced.  The  house  of  commons  ia 
lighted  by  this  means,  the  brilliancy  being  softened  by  the  intervention  of  a ceiling  of 
ground  glass. 

BUDGELL,  Eustace,  an  English  writer  for  the  Tatler,  Spectator,  and  Guardian. 
He  was  under-secretary  to  Addison,  and  afterwards  a member  of  the  Irish  parliaments 
Still  later  he  was  comptroller-general  of  the  revenue  in  Ireland,  from  which  office  he 
was  removed  because  of  a lampoon  written  by  him  upon  the  lord  lieutenant.  In  1730, 
he  lost  £20,000  in  the  South  Sea  scheme,  and  afterwards  spent  £5000  to  get  into  parlia- 
ment, but  did  not  succeed.  Then  he  started  the  Bee,  a weekly  journal  of  short  but 
stinging  life.  Lawsuits  accumulated,  and  he  ended  his  troubles  by  drowning,  leaving^ 
on  his  table  a slip  of  paper  on  which  was  written  “What  Cato  did,  and  Addison 
approved,  cannot  be  wrong.  ” 

BUDGET,  from  the  same  source  as  the  French  hougette,  means  a small  bag,  and  has. 
been  used  metaphorically  to  express  a compact  collection  of  things,  as  a budget  of  news, 
a budget  of  inventions,  and  the  like.  Water-budgets  or  buckets  were  a very  honorable 
blazon  on  a coat-armorial,  as  being  generally  conferred  in  honor  of  some  valiant  feat  for 
supplying  an  army  with  water.  Guillim,  in  his  Display  of  Heraldry,  thinks  the  three 
mighty  men  in  David’s  army  who  broke  into  the  host  of  the  Philistines,  and  drew  water 
from  the  well  of  Bethlehem,  ‘ ‘ deserved  to  have  been  remunerated  with  such  armorial 
marks  on  their  coat-armors  for  their  valor.” 

The  term,  “The  Budget,”  is  in  Britain,  from  long  usage,  applied  to  that  miscel- 
laneous collection  of  matters  which  aggregate  into  the  annual  financial  statement  made 
to  parliament  by  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  It  contains  two  leading  elements — 
a statement  how  the  nation’s  account  of  charge  and  discharge  stands  in  relation  to  the 
past,  and  an  explanation  of  the  probable  expenditure  of  the  ensuing  year,  with  a scheme 
of  the  method  in  which  it  is  to  be  met,  whether  by  the  existing  or  new  taxes,  or  by 
loan.  The  statement  of  the  budget  is  always  an  important,  sometimes  a very  exciting 
occasion;  as  for  instance,  sir  Rob^ert  Peel’s  adoption  of  an  income-tax  in  1842,  and  his. 
legislation  for  free-trade  in  1846.  Another  instance  is  Mr.  Gladstone’s  reduction  of  the 
wine-duties  and  treaty  with  Prance  in  1860. 

BUDHA'NUH,  a t.  of  India,  in  the  British  district  of  Mozuffurnuggur,  n.w.  provinces, 
on  the  route  from  Kurnoul  to  Meerut,  43  m.  s.  from  Kurnoul.  The  surrounding; 
country  is  wooded  and  well  cultivated,  and  the  bazaar  of  the  town  is  well  supplied. 
Pop.  ’72,  6162. 

BUDINGTON,  William  Ives,  d.d.,  b.  Conn.,  1815;  graduate  at  Yale,  and  ia 
theology  at  Andover.  He  was  ordained  in  1840,  and  took  charge  of  the  first  Congrega- 
tional church  in  Charlestown,  Mass,,  remaining  there  14  years.  He  published  a history 
of  that  church  in  1845.  In  1855,  he  took  charge  of  the  Clinton  avenue  church,  Brooklyn, 
New  York.  Failing  health  compelled  him  to  relinquish  public  duties  early  in  1879, 
and  he  died  in  December.  Dr.  B.  was  one  of  the  acknowledged  leaders  in  his  denom- 
ination, 

BUDOS  HEGY,  a mountain  belonging  to  the  Carpathians,  on  the  eastern  border  of 
Transylvania,  in  lat.  46°  12'  n.,  and  long.  25°  40'  east.  It  is  quite  isolated,  steep,  and 
of  conical  shape,  densely  wooded  on  the  lower  slopes,  and  has  an  elevation  of  7340  feet, 
it  has  numerous  caverns,  that  emit  sulphurous  exhalations,  and  from  its  base  issuo 
strong  sulphur  springs. 

BUDWEIS,  a t.  of  Bohemia,  situated  on  the  Moldau,  about  77  m.  s.  of  Prague,  B.  is 
well  built,  is  partially  fortified,  and  has  an  old  cathedral,  manufactures  of  woolens,  stone- 
ware, machines,  lead -pencils,  saltpeter,  etc.  It  has  also  a brisk  trade  in  grain,  wood, 
coals,  and  salt.  There  are  numerous  schools,  both  for  education  in  the  Bohemian  and 
in  the  German  tongue.  The  Slavic  name  of  B.  Budejowice.  Pop,  ’69,  17,413.  In  the 
neighborhood  is  an  old  feudal  fortress,  the  Schloss  Frauenberg,  one  of  the  seats  of  prince* 
Schwarzenberg,  and  a fine  new  Gothic  castle  also  belonging  to  the  same  nobleman.  Here 
he  keeps  herds  of  wild  swine  for  the  chase. 

BUEL,  Jesse,  1778-1839;  a native  of  Connecticut,  began  life  as  a printer,  and  estab- 
lished the  Albany  Argus  in  1813,  continuing  as  the  publisher  until  1831,  when  he  retired 
to  a farm  and  became  one  of  the  most  successful  cultivators  in  the  country.  In  1834,  he- 
started  the  Albany  Gultimtor,  and  subsequently  published  the  Farmer's  Instructor  and. 
the  Farmer's  Companion. 


Buell. 

Buffalo. 


158 


BUELL,  Don  Carlos,  b.  Ohio,  1818;  a graduate  of  West  Point;  serred  in  the 
Florida  and  Mexican  wars,  from  1849  to  1861  assistant  adjutant-general  in  various  mili- 
tary departments;  in  the  latter  year  commanding  the  department  of  the  Ohio,  and  in 
1862  made  maj.gen.  of  volunteers.  He  was  mustered  out  in  1864,  and  resigned  his 
command. 

BUENA  VISTA,  a co.  in  n.w.  Iowa,  traversed  by  the  Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  rail- 
road, and  watered  by  Coon  and  other  rivers;  576  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  7537.  Agriculture  is 
the  main  business.  Co.  seat.  Prairie ville. 

BUENA  VISTA,  a small  settlement  in  Coahuila,  Mexico,  on  the  San  Juan,  a tribu- 
tary of  the  Rio  Grande,  7 m.  s.  of  Saltillo;  the  site  of  a battle  between  the  United  States 
forces  under  gen.  Taylor  and  the  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna,  Feb.  23,  1847,  the  former 
with  5200  men  and  the  latter  with  about  20,000.  After  two  days  of  sharp  fighting,  Santa 
Anna  was  defeated  with  a loss  of  nearly  2000 ; Taylor’s  loss  being  746.  The  result  was 
■due  in  great  part  to  the  superior  effectiveness  of  Taylor’s  artillery. 

BUEN  AY'RE,  in  Spanish,  or  Bon  Air  in  French,  an  island  in  that  subdivision  of  the 
West  Indies  which  runs  parallel  with  the  coast  of  Venezuela.  It  is  inlat.  12°  20'  n.,  and 
long.  68°  27'  w.,  being  30  m.  to  the  e.  of  Cura9ao,  which,  like  itself,  belongs  to  the 
Dutch.  B.  A.  produces  cattle  and  salt.  It  measures  20  m.  by  4,  and  contains  about 
4000  inhabitants.  It  has  a tolerable  harbor  on  its  leeward  or  s.w.  side. 

BVE'NOS  AY'EES,  a province  of  the  Argentine  Confederation  in  South  America,  of 
which  the  city  B.  A.  is  capital,  extends  itself  along  the  Atlantic,  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Plata  to  that  of  the  Rio  Negro  on  the  41st  parallel;  on  the  n.e.,  it  is  washed  by  the 
Plata  and  the  Parana  as  far  as  the  Arroyo  del  Medio;  on  the  n.  and  the  adjacent  section 
of  the  w.,  it  touches  the  province  of  Santa  Fe.  Elsewhere,  its  borders  cannot  be 
defined,  constantly  advancing,  by  slow  and  perilous  steps,  into  the  domain  of  the  abo- 
rigines, for  here  the  contest  is  not  with  the  wilderness  itself,  which  is  a boundless 
prairie,  but  with  its  tenants,  who,  having  an  unlimited  supply  of  horses  for  all  pur- 
poses, are  secured,  in  their  every  foray,  alike  against  famine  and  fatigue.  Its  area  is 
estimated  at  63,000  sq.m.,  with  a pop.  of  (1869)  495,107.  Besides  the  existing  province 
of  the  name,  it  at  one  time  comprised  Uruguay  or  Banda  Oriental,  Paraguay,  Bolivia, 
and  the  Argentine  Confederation,  being  originally  an  appendage  of  Peru,  under  the 
immediate  command  of  a capt.gen.,  and  becoming,  in  1775,  a separate  vice-royalty  of 
itself.  Though  the  first  three  of  these  four  divisions  broke  off  chiefly  in  connection 
with  the  revolutionary  struggle,  yet  the  fourth  continued,  down  to  1853,  to  recognize 
the  city  of  B.  A.  as  its  head;  and  the  inland  states  endeavored  both  by  war  and  diplo- 
macy to  re-annex  the  maritime  province  to  the  republic,  till,  in  June,  1860,  their  object 
was  obtained,  and  B.  A.  became  once  more  a province  of  the  Argentine  Confederation. 

The  country  approaches  so  nearly  to  a plain,  that  most  of  the  rain  which  falls  is 
oither  absorbed  or  evaporated,  or  lost  in  salt-lakes,  comparatively  little  drainage  enter- 
ing the  Parana  or  the  Plata.  The  climate,  though  on  the  whole  healthy  and  agreeable,  is 
yet  by  no  means  steady  or  uniform.  Every  wind,  in  general,  has,  to  a remarkable  degree. 
Its  own  weather — sultriness  coming  from  the  n. , freshness  from  the  s. , moisture  from 
the  e. , and  storm  from  the  w. ; and  besides  the  periodical  heats  of  every  summer,  suc- 
cessive years  of  more  than  ordinary  drought  occur.  Apiculture,  properly  so  called,  is 
followed  chiefly  in  the  more  temperate  and  humid  districts  of  the  eastern  coast;  while 
the  interior  presents  almost  uninterrupted  pasturage  to  countless  herds  of  horses  and 
cattle.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  business  of  grazing  and  hunting  combined  occu- 
pies or  interests  the  great  bulk  of  the  population — a business  that  renders  the  province, 
whether  as  to  the  disposal  of  its  productions  or  as  to  the  supply  of  its  wants,  peculiarly 
dependent  on  that  external  commerce,  which,  throughout  the  whole  of  Spanish  America, 
has  naturally  been  identified  with  political  freedom.  Let  it  be  added  that  the  Indians 
are  intractable,  and  that  the  Africans,  few  in  number  at  best,  are^  principally  menials; 
and  it  is  seen  at  once  why,  in  spite  of  national  jealousies  pd  sectarian  prejudices,  immi- 

f ration  from  Europe  has  been  not  only  tolerated  by  public  opinion,  but  also  encouraged 
y legislative  enactments.  Moreover,  a comparatively  congenial  climate,  as  a recom- 
mendation to  foreigners,  has  powerfully  seconded  the  efforts  of  liberality  and  patriotism. 
It  is  perhaps  mainly  owing  to  this  cause,  which  is  common  alike  to  Chili  and  to  B.  A., 
that  these  two  districts,  notwithstanding  their  full  share  of  wars  and  troubles,  have  so 
decidedly  outstripped  the  other  fragments  of  the  same  colonial  empire  in  all  the  elements 
of  liberty  and  civilization.  Hence  their  higher  importance  in  the  eyes  of  Europeans  in 
general,  and  of  Englishmen  in  particular.  B.  A.  is  the  largest,  most  populous,  and 
most  flourishing  of  the  provinces  which  comprise  the  Argentine  Confederation.  Numer- 
ous railways  traverse  it,  emanating  from  the  city  of  B.  A.,  and  extending  to  other  parts 
of  the  republic.  The  annual  immigration  into  B.  A.  is  from  15,000  to  20,000. 

BUE'NOS  AY'RES,  a city  of  South  America,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Plata,  which 
here,  at  a distance  of  150  m.  from  the  open  sea,  is  36  m.  across.  It  stands  in  lat.  34°  36' 
s.,  and  long  58°  west.  Its  disadvantages  as  a maritime  town  are  great;  the  flood- 
tides  of  the  ocean,  when  backed  by  easterly  winds,  being  apt  to  make  the  estuary  over- 
flow its  banks;  and  again,  when  westerly  winds  prevail,  the  estuary  loses  both  width  and 
depth.  Monte  Video,  on  the  opposite  shore,  possesses  a better  harbor,  and  is  nearer  to 


159 


Buell. 

Buffalo.- 


the  Atlantic,  nor  can  ii  ue  doubted  that,  but  for  the  greater  facilities  of  A.  in  carry- 
ing on  an  inland  trade,  the  former  town  would  have  proxed  a dangerous  rival.  Steam 
is  rapidly  placing  both  upon  more  equal  terms.  Of  the  trade,  however,  with  Chili  by 
Mendoza  and  the  Andes — a trade  which  must  always  be  carried  on  by  land— B.  A.  must 
still  command  the  monopoly.  So  familiar  had  B.  A.  become  with  land-carriage  on  au 
extensive  scale,  that  its  merchants,  when  blockaded  in  front  during  a war  with  Brazil, 
established,  as  it  were,  a new  port  of  entry  in  the  mouth  of  the  Salado  or  Saladillo,  at  a 
distance  of  at  least  150  miles.  As  a city,  B.  A.  labors  under  some  peculiar  disadvan- 
tages. Its  supplies  of  fresh  water  are  received  from  the  Plata  in  rudely  constructed 
carts,  though  a thorough  scheme  of  water-supply  and  drainage  is  now  being  carried  out. 
Its  immediate  territory,  purely  alluvial,  is  almost  as  destitute  of  timber  as  of  stones — 
the  latter  being  brought  either  as  ballast  from  Europe,  or  as  freight  from  Martin  Garcia, 
an  island  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  estuary;  and  the  former  from  the  province  of 
Entre  Rios,  and  from  the  islets  of  the  Uruguay  and  the  Parana.  Fuel  is  almost  as  scarce 
as  building  material — peach-trees  and  the  withered  thistles  of  the  prairies  yielding  the 
only  indigenous  supplies.  B.  A.,  which  appears  to  deserve  its  name  of  good  airs,  con- 
tains (1869)  177,787  inhabitants — about  a third  of  whom  are  of  European  birth  or 
descent.  Among  the  Europeans  the  vast  majority  are  Spanish,  Italian,  French,  and 
British.  B.  A.  publishes  newspapers  in  French,  English,  Italian,  and  German,  as  well 
as  in  Spanish.  The  city  is  partitioned  into  blocks  of  about  150  yards  square,  by  granite- 
paved  streets.  New  houses  are  everywhere  springing  up;  tramways  traverse  it  in  every 
direction;  and  the  value  of  property  has  enormously  increased.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral  and  its  dependent  churches.  Episcopalian  and  Presbyteriau 
chapels,  a foundling  hospital,  an  orphan  asylum,  the  university,  a military  college,  sev- 
eral  public  schools,  and  the  government  offices;  there  are  also  printing  establishments, 
and  manufactories  of  cigars,  carpets,  furniture,  and  boots  and  shoes.  The  exports  con- 
sist of  precious  metals,  hides,  beef,  wool,  skins,  tallow,  and  horse-hair;  and  the  imports^ 
of  cottons,  linens,  woolens,  jewelry,  perfumery,  and  deals.  The  custom-house  dues, 
which  in  1860  were  $3,000,000,  in  1870  had  increased  to  $13,000,000.  The  value  of 
imports  in  1873  was  £11,886,861,  and  of  exports,  £6,886,506.  B.  A.  was  founded  iu 
1535;  but  having  subsequently  been  twice  destroyed  by  the  Indians,  it  ought,  in  reality, 
to  date  only  from  1580.  In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  achieved,  with  very 
little  aid  from  home,  two  triumphs  over  England.  In  1806,  one  British  force,  which  had 
just  captured  the  city,  was  obliged  to  surrender;  and  in  1807,  another  which  attempted, 
ito  recover  the  place,  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss;  and  these  successes  over  so  formi- 
dable a foe  emboldened  the  colonists,  three  years  afterwards,  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
Spain. 

BUFFALO,  Bos  hubalus,  an  animal  of  the  ox  tribe,  very  important  and  useful  to  man. 
It  is  a native  of  the  East  Indies,  where  it  has  been  long  domesticated,  and  from  which  it 
was  carried  to  Egypt  and  to  the  south  of  Europe.  It  was  introduced  into  Italy  about 
the  close  of  the  6th  c.  a.d.,  and  is  now  very  generally  used  as  a beast  of  draught  and  of 
burden  in  that  country,  as  it  is  also  in  India. 

The  B.  is  larger  than  the  ox,  and  its  limbs  are  stouter.  Its  form  is  more  angular  and 
clumsy;  the  head  is  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body;  and  the  forehead  is 
rather  convex,  and  higher  than  broad ; the  dorsal  line  rises  into  a considerable  elevation 
above  the  shoulders ; the  dewlap  and  the  tail  resemble  those  of  the  ox ; the  horns  are 
large,  slightly  compressed,  recline  towards  the  neck,  and  have  their  points  turned  up. 
It  is  characteristic  of  the  B.,  when  walking  or  running,  to  carry  the  head  with  the  muz- 
zle projecting  straight  forward,  and  the  horns  laid  back  on  the  shoulders.  The  hair  is 
irregular  and  bristly,  often  very  thin,  so  that  the  smooth  brown  hide  “shines  with  an 
unpleasant  polish  in  the  sunlight.”  In  this  as  in  other  respects,  the  animal  is  adapted 
for  marshy  situations,  which  it  naturally  affects;  preferring  for  its  food  the  rank  coarse 
herbage  which  they  afford,  delighting  to  immerse  itself  in  water  till  only  its  head  appears 
above  the  surface,  in  which  condition  it  will  remain  for  hours,  and  often  enveloping 
itself  in  mud  as  a protection  against  insects.  On  account  of  these  propensities,  the  buf- 
faloes used  as  beasts  of  burden  in  India  are  seldom  laden  with  any  goods  liable  to  be 
spoiled  by  water,  as  the  animal  is  always  ready  to  take  an  opportunity  of  lying  down 
with  his  load  in  any  river  or  pond  which  presents  itself.  In  Italy,  the  B.  seems  nowhere 
more  at  home  than  in  the  Pontine  marshes  and  the  pestilential  Maremma.  The  very 
regions  where  malaria  is  most  prevalent  seem  to  be  those  most  adapted  to  its  constitution. 

The  B.  is  a very  powerful  animal,  much  more  powerful  than  the  ox,  and  capable  of 
dragging  or  carrying  a far  heavier  load.  The  female  yields  a much  greater  quantity  of  milk 
than  a cow,  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  is  from  B.  milk  that  the  gl\£e  or  semi-fluid  butter 
of  India  is  made.  The  hide  is  greatly  valued  for  its  strength  and  durability,  but  the  flesh 
is  very  inferior  to  that  of  the  ox. 

The  B.  exhibits  a considerable  amount  of  intelligence.  In  a state  of  domestication, 
it  is  capable  of  becoming  very  docile.  In  the  s.  of  Europe,  it  is  generally  managed 
by  a ring  passed  through  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  but  in  India  by  a mere  rope.  The 
Indian  driver  rides  upon  a B. ; but  these  animals  keep  so  closely  together  as  they  are 
driven  along,  that,  if  necessary,  he  walks  from  the  back  of  one  to  that  of  another  per- 
fectly at  his  ease.  In  a wild  state,  the  B.  is  savage  and  dangerous,  and  even  in  domesti- 


Buffalo. 


160 


cation  it  is  apt  to  resent  injury.  The  native  princes  of  India  make  buffaloes  and  tigers 
fight  in  their  public  shows;  and  the  B.  is  more  than  a match  for  the  tiger,  even  in  single 
combat.  The  appearance  of  a tiger  excites  a herd  of  buffaloes,  much  as  we  see  oxen 
excited  by  the  approach  of  a dog ; and  if  his  safety  is  not  secured  by  flight,  they  kill  him, 
tossing  him  from  one  to  another  with  their  horns,  and  trampling  him  with  their  feet. 

The  B.  is  used  in  some  parts  of  the  east  in  the  shooting  of  waterfowl,  being  trained 
to  the  sport,  and  sold  at  a considerable  price.  The  sportsman  conceals  himself  behind 
the  B.,  which,  being  a familiar  sight,  is  not  alarming  to  the  birds. 

The  Cape  B.  , Bos  Gaffer,  is  generally  regarded  as  a distinct  species.  It  seems  never 
to  have  been  reduced  to  the  service  of  man,  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  it  to  be 
very  capable  of  domestication.  The  horns  are  very  large ; they  spread  horizontally  over 
the  top  of  the  head,  and  are  then  bent  down  laterally,  and  turned  upwards  at  the  point. 
The  head  is  carried,  as  by  the  common  B.,  with  projecting  muzzle  and  reclining  horns, 
but  the  bases  of  the  horns  nearly  meet  on  the  forehead,  where  they  are  from  8 to  10  in. 
broad.  The  length  of  a full-grown  Cape  B.  is  about  8 ft.  from  the  root  of  the  horns  to 
the  tail,  and  the  height  5^  feet.  This  animal  is  regarded  as  more  formidable  than  any 
other  in  South  Africa;  and  the  hunter  will  more  readily  risk  an  encounter  with  a lion 
than  offer  any  provocation  to  a B.  without  great  advantages  for  the  combat,  or  great 
facilities  for  escape.  The  B.  is  still  found  in  large  herds  in  the  interior  of  South  Africa, 
but  in  Cape  Colony,  where  it  was  once  plentiful,  it  has  now  become  comparatively  rare. 
The  hide  is  so  thick  and  tough  that  the  Caffres  make  shields  of  it,  impenetrable  to  mus- 
ket-shot : and  the  balls  used  by  the  huntsmen  in  shooting  the  animal  are  mixed  with  tin, 
and  yet  are  often  flattened  by  the  resistance.  The  Cape  B.  grazes  chiefly  in  the  evening, 
and  lies  in  woods  and  thickets  during  the  day. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  establish  a genus,  huhalus,  naving  the  common  B.  for 
its  type;  but  the  characters  lack  precision,  and  the  limits  are  uncertain. — The  bufftalo  of 
the  Anglo-Americans  is  the  American  bison.  See  Bison. 

BUFFALO,  a co.  in  central  Dakota,  on  the  Missouri  river;  750  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  246. 
Iron  ore  has  been  discovered. 

BUFFALO,  a co.  in  central  Nebraska,  on  the  Platte  river;  850  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  7531. 
Soil  fertile.  The  Union  Pacific  railroad  passes  through.  Co.  seat.  Gibbon. 

BUFFALO,  a co.  in  w.  Wisconsin,  on  the  Mississippi  and  Chippewa  rivers.  Grain 
and  wool  are  the  main  products;  650  sq.m.;  pop.  ’75,  14,219;  in  ’80,  15,528.  Co.  seat, 
Alma. 

BUFFALO,  a city  of  the  state  of  New  York,  standing  at  the  mouth  of  Buffalo  river, 
which  enters  lake  Erie  within  2 m.  of  its  outlet,  the  Niagara  river.  In  1801,  when  B. 
was  founded,  the  basin  of  its  fresh-water  sea  contained  certainly  fewer  than  50,000 
inhabitants,  and  seemed  cut  off  from  commercial  communication  by  the  Niagara  falls  on 
the  e.  and  the  currents  of  the  Detroit  and  St.  Clair  on  the  west.  But  these  and  other 
natural  disadvantages  have  been  made  to  vanish.  The  construction  of  piers  and  break- 
waters in  the  river  and  at  its  mouth  have  removed  the  bar,  and  given  B.  one  of  the  best 
harbors  on  the  lakes.  Steam  has  brought  lakes  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Superior  within 
easy  reach.  Its  commerce  is  large,  the  grain  trade  being  the  most  important  item  in  it. 
The  receipts  of  grain  and  flour  during  the  decade  ended  in  1874  amounted  to  522,874,- 
944  bushels.  There  are  more  than  30  elevators  in  B.,  with  storage  capacity  for  upwards 
of  7,000,000  bushels.  Next  to  the  traffic  in  grain  is  that  in  live-stock.  In  1874,  504,594 
oattle,  783,800  sheep,  1,431,800  hogs,  and  21,937  horses,  amounting  in  value  to  nearly 
$60,000,000,  passed  through  Buffalo.  British  improvements  along  the  Niagara  and  the  St. 
Lawrence,  available  as  they  are  for  sea-going  ships,  have  rendered  B.  a maritime  empo- 
rium. The  Erie  canal,  364  m.  long,  has  connected  B.  as  its  terminus  with  the  tide- 
waters of  the  Hudson;  while  three  other  enterprises  of  the  kind,  commencing  respect- 
ively at  Erie,  Cleveland,  and  Toledo,  have  linked  lake  Erie  at  three  or  rather  four  points 
with  the  Ohio,  and  through  it  with  the  Mississippi.  Since  about  1862,  its  lake  commerce 
has  much  decreased,  owing  to  the  increase  of  railway  facilities,  and  manufacturing 
industries  have  taken  the  lead.  Among  manufactures,  that  of  iron  is  the  chief.  Ship- 
building is  also  largely  carried  on,  and  there  are  extensive  wool-factories  and  numerous 
saw-mills.  The  rise  of  B.  has  been  remarkably  rapid;  in  1810,  there  were  1508  inhabit- 
ants; 1830,  8653;  1850,  42,261;  1870,  117,714;  and  in  1875,  134,573.  The  city  debt  in 
1878  was  $7,509,257;  and  the  valuation,  $99,975,575.  In  1814,  the  British  burned 
Buffalo.  In  1825,  the  Erie  canal  was  opened. 

B.  is  situated  in  lat.  42°  53'  n.,  and  long.  78°  55'  west.  It  is  regularly  built.  Its 
streets  are  straight  and  broad — Main  street,  in  particular,  being  2 m.  long  and  120  feet 
wide ; and  its  squares,  which  are  3 in  number,  are  shaded  by  rows  of  trees.  The  most 
prominent  public  buildings  are  the  city  and  county  hall,  erected  at  a cost  of  $2,000,000, 
custom-house,  post-office,  arsenal,  penitentiary,  and  an  asylum  for  the  insane.  There 
are  nearly  80  churches,  a universit3^  8 daily  newspapers,  several  libraries,  etc.  It  is 
divided  into  5 wards,  and  is  governed  by  a mayor  and  council  annually  elected. 

BUFFALO  {ante),  city,  a port  of  entry,  and  the  seat  of  justice  of  Erie  co.,  N.  Y.,  in 
42°  53'  n.,  78°  55'  w.,  at  the  foot  of  lake  Erie,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Buffalo  river  and  at  the 
head  of  Niagara  river,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge.  The  city  has  a water 


161 


Buffalo. 


front  of  about  5 m.,  running  2i  m.  along  the  shore  of  the  lake,  and  2i  m.  along  Niao-ara 
river.  It  is  c^nected  with  Goderich  on  lake  Huron  by  the  Buffalo  and  Lake  HiJron 
railroad;  with  Detroit  by  the  Great  Western  railway;  with  Toronto  and  Montreal  by  the 
Grand  Trunk  railway.  The  climate  is  pleasant  and  healthful ; the  streets,  broad  and 
generally  lined  with  trees,  are  well  paved,  lighted,  and  supplied  with  sewers  There 
are  many  fine  residences  with  attractive  grounds,  and  numerous  squares  and  public 
places.  A combination  of  parks  and  pleasure  grounds  has  been  laid  out,  extending  to  over 
5UU  acres.  It  comprises  three  sections,  situated  respectively  in  the  northern  western  and 
eastern  parts  of  the  city,  which,  with  the  connecting  boulevards,  afford  a drive  of  nearly 
population  Buffalo  is  the  third  city  in  New  York,  and  the  thirteenth  in  the 
United  States  It  was  founded  in  1801,  became  a military  post  in  1813,  and  was  burned 
by  the  British  on  the  last  day  of  the  same  year.  After  the  war  the  place  was  rebuilt 
and  in  1832  it  attained  the  rank  of  a city.  In  1820,  it  contained  2095  inhabitants! 
After  the  opening  of  the  Erie  canal  in  1825,  its  growth  was  rapid,  the  ponulation 
in  1830;  18,213  in  1840;  42,261  in  1850;  81,129  in  1860;  117  714  in  1870- 
134,238  in  1875,  and  155,137  in  1880.  A portion  of  the  river  front  is  a bold  bluff  60  ft’ 
above  the  lake  and  the  Erie  canal,  which  passes  near  it.  There  are  5 public  squares 
Niagara,  Lafayette  place,  Washington,  Franklin,  and  Delaware  place.  The  principal 
streets  are  Mam  street,  about  3 m.  in  length,  Niagara  street,  4 m.,  and  Delaware  street 
3 miles.  The  most  important  public  buildings  are  the  city  and  county  hall  a granite 
structure  erected  at  a cost  of  oyer  $2,000,000,  in  the  form  of  a double  Roman  cross  with 
the  United  States  custom-house  and  post-office;  the  state  arsenal 
the  Erie  co.  penitentiary,  which  is  one  of  the  6 penal  establishments  of  New  York- 
and  the  state  asylum  for  the  insane,  an  edifice  which  cost  about  $3,000,000,  and  has  a 
front  of  2700  ft.  and  a capacity  for  600  patients.  There  are  76  churches,  the  most 
imposing  edifices  being  St.  Joseph’s  cathedral  (Roman  Catholic)  and  St.  Paul’s  (Episco- 
churches  are  divided  among  the  various  denominations  as  follows:  18  Roman 
Catholic,  11  German  Lutheran  and  Evangelical,  10  Episcopal,  10  Methodist,  9 Presby- 
terian, 8 Baptist,  4 Mission,  2 Jewish,  1 French  Protestant,  1 Congregational  1 Uni- 
tarian  1 Universalist,  and  1 Friends\  The  Forest  Lawn  cemetery  in  the  suburbs  cou- 
sins 75  ac^s,  tastefully  laid  out.  There  are  9 daily  newspapers,  5 in  English  and  4 in 
German,  10  weeklies,  and  7 periodicals  issued  monthly.  The  educational  institutions 
a state  normal  school,  50  public  schools  with  an  average  of  353  teachers  and 
21,808  pupils  and  a number  of  collegiate  schools  and  academies.  Among  other  educa- 
tional institutions  are  Canisius  college,  founded  by  the  Jesuit  fathers;  St  Joseph’s  col- 
lege conducted  by  the  Christian  brothers;  Martin  Luther  college  (theological);  St.  Mary’s 
academy  and  industrial  school  for  girls;  and  the  medical  college  of  the  university  of 
Buffalo.  The  charitabl^e  institutions  of  the  city  are  numerous.  The  Buffalo  orphan 
asylum  founded  in  1835,  occupies  a fine  building  in  Virginia  street.  The  St.  Vincent’s 
asylum  for  orphan  girls  is  under  the  care  of  the  sisters  of  charity.  The  St.  Joseph’s 
asylum  for  orphan  boys,  founded  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  has  a reformatory  insti- 
w church  charity  foundation  (Episcopal)  supports  a home 

mr  aged  and  destitute  females  opened  in  1858,  and  an  orphan  ward  organized  in  1866 
1 best.  Johns  orphan  home  is  under  the  care  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  church. 

le  Ingleside  honae  was  organized  in  1869  for  the  purpose  of  reclaiming  erring  women. 
Ainong  other  chanties  are  the  St.  Maiy’s  asylum  for  widows,  foundlings,  and  infants;  the 
Bimalo  general  hospital  in  High  street;  the  Buffalo  association  for  the  relief  of  the  poor- 

lias3  national  banks,  6 state  banks  and 
5 savings  banks.  The  Young  Men  s association  has  a library  of  30,000  volumes,  and  real 
estate  valued  at  about  $250,000.  This  society  owns  St.  James  hall,  which  is  greatly  in 
demand  for  concerts  and  lectures;  and  their  large  library  building  is  occupied  by  the 
Buffalo  historical  society  with  its  large  library  and  cabinet;  by  the  society  of  natural 
sciences,  which  has  made  an  extensive  collection  of  minerals  and  fossil  casts;  by  the 
academy  of  film  arts;  and  by  the  mechanics’  institute.  The  Young  Men’s  Christian 
union  and  the  German  Young  Men’s  association  have  good  libraries.  The  Grosvenor 
libra^  contains  about  15,000  volumes  of  valuable  reference  works. 

/9  city  government  is  composed  of  a mayor,  a common  council  of  26  members 
1 trcm  each  of  the  13  wards),  a treasurer,  controller,  city  attorney,  superintendent  of 
education,  city  engineer,  overseer  of  the  poor,  and  3 assessors.  It  is  often  claimed  that 
B.  IS  the  healthiest  city  of  the  United  States,  having  the  best  water  and  the  most' 
®®"^®^age;  its  water-supply  is  procured  from  the  Niagara,  through  a tunnel 
extending  almost  to  the  middle  of  the  river.  The  police  department,  with  a force  of 
under  the  control  of  a board  of  three  commissioners.  The  city  has  a paid 
fire  department,  3 volunteer  hook-and-ladder  companies,  and  a volunteer  protection 
and  police  alarm  telegraph,  with  70  m.  of  wire,  68  signal-stations,  and 
telephone  has  been  introduced  and  extends  to  various  parts  of  the 
three  private  companies.  There  are  several  lines  of 
street  railroads.  The  total  debt  of  the  city  in  1879  was  $7,514,264  72-  the  assessed  val- 
uation  of  property  was  $88,876,545;  (real  estate,  $80,929,165;  personal’property,  $7,947,- 

the  great  water  and  railway  channels  of  communication  between 
me  west  and  the  east  gives  it  a large  commercial  importance.  Its  harbor  is  capacious 
U.  K.  III.— 11 


Buffalora. 

Bug. 


162 


and  is  protected  by  extensive  breakwaters.  The  city  is  the  center  of  an  important  sys- 
tem of  railroads:  it  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern 
railroad,  of  the  Canada  Southern,  and  a branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk  railroad  of  Canada; 
it  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  Erie  canal,  the  New  York  Central  railroad,  and  a divis- 
ion of  the  Erie  railway;  and  other  lines  converge  here.  There  is  a board  of  trade, 
organized  in  1844  and  incorporated  in  1857.  The  immense  quantities  of  grain  moving 
from  western  states  to  the  sea-board  constitute  the  most  important  feature  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  city.  The  facilities  for  handling  and  storing  it  are  unexcelled  by  those  of 
any  other  city  on  this  continent.  The  first  grain  elevator  was  built  in  1843  by  Joseph 
Dart,  and  thirty  years  from  that  date,  in  1873,  there  were  32  elevators,  with  a capacity 
for  handling  3,000,000  bushels  a day.  The  record  of  receipts  and  exports  is  as  follows: 
receipts,  1836-45,  41,851,483  bushels;  1846-55,  174,717,437  bushels;  1856-65,432,390,318 
bushels;  1866-75,  571,255,254  bushels.  During  the  same  length  of  time  the  exports  kept 
pace  with  the  receipts.  Many  of  these  elevating  warehouses  are  costly  structures  of 
stone,  or  of  iron  and  brick;  several  of  them  have  grain  “ driers ” attached.  The  live 
stock  trade  of  B.  is  second  only  to  the  grain  trade,  but  will  probably  exceed  it  before 
long.  For  the  accommodation  of  this  branch  of  business  the  New  York  Central  railroad 
■company  has  built  large  yards  in  the  eastern  suburbs;  these  yards  are  well  sheltered, 
paved,  watered,  and  taken  care  of  with  strict  regard  to  cleanliness.  In  the  amount  of 
this  business  this  city  has  third  rank  among  the  cities  of  the  United  States.  B.  has  a 
large  trade  in  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal,  received  from  Pennsylvania  and  distrib- 
uted both  e.  and  w. ; great  improvements  have  been  made  lately  for  handling  and  ship- 
ping this  article.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  coal  trade  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  the 
lake  shipments  westward  during  the  season  of  1879  amounted  to  612,976  tons  against 
325,676  tons  in  1878.  The  lumber  and  timber  trade  is  large,  although  want  of  harbor 
and  proper  storage  has  driven  a great  part  of  it  to  Tonawanda  on  the  Niagara  river, 
about  ten  miles  below  Buffalo.  The  receipts  in  1879  amounted  to  207,531,000  ft.,  exceed- 
ing those  of  1878  by  30,000,000  feet. 

The  manufacturing  interests  of  B.  are  extensive,  and  have  grown  with  marked 
rapidity  in  recent  years,  especially  the  manufacture  of  iron,  which  is  carried  on  in  more 
than  30  large  establishments,  employing  5000  men.  The  leading  establishments  are  blast 
furnaces,  rolling-mills,  foundries,  breweries,  tanneries,  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  and  flour-mills.  Of  the  last-named  there  are  eleven,  with  a yearly  capacity 
of  839,000  barrels;  the  average  annual  production  of  flour  being  about  250,000  barrels. 
Wooden  ship  building  was  formerly  carried  on  here,  but  it  has  been  superseded  by  iron 
ship  building.  Two  extensive  establishments  are  devoted  to  this  industry;  these  have 
constructed  the  flnest  lake  steamers,  besides  supplying  the  government  with  a number 
of  iron  revenue  vessels. 

BXJFFALO'BA,  a small  t.  of  Lombardy,  about  25  m.  n.n.w.  of  Pavia,  on  the  Ticino, 
here  crossed  by  a bridge.  The  Austrians  commenced  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859  by 
entering  Piedmont  at  this  point.  The  bridge  was  partially  blown  up  by  Austrian  engi- 
neers. Pop.  1250. 

BUFFET,  an  article  of  furniture  formerly  serving  the  same  purpose  as  a sideboard, 
which  has  now  superseded  it.  B.  is  the  name  given  in  France  to  a refreshment  bar. 

BUFFIER,  Claude,  1661-1737;  a French  psychologist  and  metaphysician,  for  the 
most  of  his  life  a lecturer  in  the  Jesuit  college  in  Paris.  His  best  known  work  is  Traite 
dss  Verites  Premieres,  in  which  he  intended  to  discover  the  ultimate  principles  upon 
which  all  knowledge  is  based.  He  wrote  also  on  the  elements  of  metaphysics,  and  a 
French  grammar  on  a new  plan. 

BUFF  LEATHER  is  usually  made  out  of  salted  and  dried  South  American  light  ox 
and  cow  hides.  After  being  limed  in  the  usual  way,  they  are  unhaired  and  rounded,  so 
that  only  the  best  part  of  the  hide  is  made  into  buff  leather.  The  grain  and  flesh  being 
then  scraped  or  cut  off,  the  true  cuticle,  which  is  of  a flexible  fibrous  nature,  alone 
remains.  The  hide  is  next  sprinkled  over  with  cod-oil,  and  placed  in  the  stocks,  where 
it  is  worked  for  about  15  minutes.  Having  been  taken  out  and  partially  dried,  it  is 
again  submitted  to  a similar  process  of  oiling  and  stocking;  and  during  the  first  day, 
these  operations  may  be  repeated  six  times,  decreasing  daily  for  about  a week,  when  one 
oiling  and  stocking  in  a day  is  sutticient.  The  hides  are  then  placed  in  a stove,  and 
subjected  to  a process  called  “ heating  off,”  after  which  they  are  scoured  and  rendered 
free  from  oiliness  by  being  soaked  in  a strong  lye  of  carbonate  of  potash.  They  are 
next  worked  well  in  the  stocks,  hot  water  being  poured  copiously  upon  them  until  the 
water  runs  off  pure.  Having  been  dried,  they  are  subjected  to  a process  called  ground- 
ing— i.e.,  they  are  rubbed  with  a round  knife,  and  also  with  pumice-stone  and  sand, 
until  a smooth  surface  is  produced.  The  leather,  which  is  very  pliant,  and  not  liable 
to  crack  or  rot,  is  now  ready  for  the  market,  and  is  generally  used  for  soldiers’  belts  and 
other  army  purposes. 

During  the  early  part  of  this  century,  the  principal  seat  of  the  B.  L.  manufacture 
was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburgh,  one  manufacturer  turning  out,  previous  to  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  about  1300  hides  per  week.  In  peaceable  times,  the  demand  for 
B.  L.  is  comparatively  small,  and  the  manufacture  is  now  almost  confined  to  London 
and  the  neighborhood,  where  the  raw  material  is  most  readily  procured,  and  the  demand 


163 


BulTItlora* 

Bug. 


for  the  manufactured  article  is  greatest.  'The  natural  color  of  the  leather  is  light-yel- 
low, but  for  some  purposes  it  is  bleached  white.  The  precise  chemical  operation  of  the 
oil  in  the  process  of  the  manufacture  is  rather  obscure,  but  as  no  glue  can  be  got  from 
hide  that  has  been  made  into  buff,  the  gelatine  of  the  hide  must  have  entered  into 
combination  with  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  oil,  and  had  its  nature  completely 
changed. 

BUFFO  (Ital.  from  corrupt  Latin  buffa,  a slap  on  the  cheek,  as  practiced  by  clowns 
and  mountebanks  in  farces),  an  Italian  theatrical  term  applied  to  an  actor  or  operatic 
singer  who  takes  the  light  or  humorous  part  in  an  opera  or  play.  A burlesque  opera  is 
called  opera  buff  a,  and  a burlesque  play,  commedia  buff  a. 

BUFFON,  George  Louis  Leclerc,  Comte  de,  one  of  the  most  famous  naturalists  and 
writers  of  the  18th  c.,  was  b.  at  Montbard,  in  Burgundy,  Sept.  7,  1707.  He  studied  law 
at  the  college  of  Jesuits  at  Dijon,  but  showed  so  marked  a predilection  for  astronomy 
and  mathematics,  that  his  father  allowed  him  to  follow  his  own  inclinations.  At  Dijon, 
he  became  acquainted  with  lord  Kingston,  whose  tutor,  a man  of  learning  and  taste, 
directed  the  mind  of  B.  to  the  study  of  the  sciences.  With  lord  Kingston  and  his  tutor, 
B.  traveled  through  France  and  Italy,  and  came  to  England,  where,  to  improve  his 
knowledge  of  our  language,  he  translated  Newton’s  Fluxions  and  Hales’  Vegetable 
Statics.  In  1733,  he  wrote  several  original  essays,  which  gained  notice  in  the  academy, 
of  which  he  had  been  made  a member.  His  general  love  of  science  received  a definite 
impulse  toward  zoology  by  his  appointment,  in  1739,  as  intendant  of  the  royal  garden 
and  museum.  Hitherto  zoology,  consisting  of  a series  of  unconnected  observations  and 
fruitless  attempts  at  classification,  had  been  commonly  regarded  by  educated  readers  as 
a dry  study,  and  bysavans  as  play-work.  B.  first  conceived  the  idea  of  making  it 
attractive  to  the  first  of  these  classes,  and  of  securing  for  it,  at  the  same  time,  the  respect 
of  the  second.  His  plan  was  assuredly  comprehensive  enough,  since  he  aimed  at  noth- 
ing less  than  a collection  of  all  the  separate  known  facts  of  physical  investigation,  and 
a systematic  arrangement  of  these,  to  assist  the  author  in  forming  a theory  of  nature ; 
but  B.  possessed  neither  the  science  nor  the  patience  necessary  for  such  a task. 
Endowed,  however,  with  a brilliantly  rhetorical  imagination,  and  always  inclined  to^ 
deliver  himself  from  doubts  and  ignorance  by  sparkling  hypotheses,  the  elaboration  of 
which  cost  him  little  trouble,  he  contrived  to  produce  a work  which,  if  not  severely 
scientific  in  its  method,  at  least  shone  with  what  many  then  conceived  to  be  the  brightest 
literary  luster.  However,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  many  of  his  views  are  very  ingeni- 
ous, although  later  researches  have  completely  exploded  them.  The  Natural  Ilistoi'y  of 
B.  made  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  though  it  has  now  little  or  no 
scientific  value.  His  attempted  explanations  of  natural  phenomena  were  opposed  by 
Condillac,  who,  with  Helvetius,  Diderot,  D’Alembert,  and  others,  also  ridiculed,  with  *a 
certain  degree  of  justice,  the  excessive  pomp  of  style  used  by  Buffon.  The  most  insig- 
nificant part  of  B.’s  treatise  is  the  mineralogy,  for  which  he  was  quite  unqualified  by 
the  deficiencies  of  his  chemical,  mathematical,  and  physical  knowledge.  The  systern- 
atic  and  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  mammalia  was  executed  byDaubenton,  the 
colleague  of  Buffon.  B. ’s  works  passed  through  numerous  editions,  and  several  were 
translated  into  most  of  the  languages  of  Europe.  The  best  complete  edition  is  the 
Histoire  Naturelle  Oenerale  et  Particuliere,  in  36  volumes  (Par.  1749-88.)  After  receiv- 
ing several  high  honors,  being  elevated  to  the  rank  of  comte  de  B.  by  Louis  XY . , and 
treated  with  ^eat  distinction  by  Louis  XYI.,  B.  died  in  Paris,  April  16,  1788.  In  per- 
son and  carriage,  B.  was  noble;  as  a Parisian  academician,  and  a self-complacent,, 
theoretical  naturalist,  dressed  in  courtly  style,  pursuing  his  pleasant  studies  in  the  allees 
of  the  royal  garden,  and  largely  participating  in  the  vices  of  his  time,  B.  was  quite  a 
model  of  a French  philosopher  of  the  18th  century.  His  son,  Henri  Leclerc,  comte  de 
B.,  b.  1764,  was  attached,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  to  the  party  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  and  fell  under  the  guillotine.  His  last  words  were : Gitoyens,  je  me  nomme 

Buffon. 

BUFFOON  (Fr.  bouffon),  a low  jester.  The  Italian  buffo  (from  buff  a,  a farce)  is  the 
name  given  to  a comic  singer  in  an  opera.  In  the  corrupt  Latinity  of  the  middle  age, 
buffa  meant  a slap  on  the  cheek;  and  in  the  Italian,  buffare  signifies  the  puffing  of  wind 
through  the  mouth.  It  is  probably  from  the  favorite  trick  played  by  clowns  in  farces — 
one  swelling  out  his  cheeks  with  wind,  the  other  slapping  them,  so  as  to  make  a ludic- 
rous explosion — that  the  terms  buffones  in  Latin,  buffoni  in  Italian,  bouffons  in  French, 
and  in  English  buffoon,  were  derived.  In  Italy,  the  buffo  cantante  is  distinct  from  the 
buffo  comico;  the  former  having  greater  musical  talent,  and  sustaining  a more  important 
part,  the  latter  having  greater  license  in  jocoseness  The  voice  of  a buffo  cantante  is 
generally  a bass,  but  sometimes  a tenor  buffo  is  introduced. 

BUFORD,  John,  1826-63;  b.  Ky. ; graduate  of  West  Point,  was  capt.  of  dragoons 
in  1859.  In  the  war  of  the  rebellion  he  served  on  the  union  side,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  and  useful  of  cavalry  officers,  participating  in  many  engagements, 
in  one  of  which  he  was  wounded.  He  rose  to  maj.gen.  of  volunteers. 

BUG,  a name  applied  to  a large  family  of  insects,  cimicidce,  of  the  order  Tiemiptera 
(q.v.),  suborder  heteroptera,  and  often  still  further  extended  in  its  signification  so  as  to 


Bug. 

13ulirstone. 


164 


include  the  whole  of  that  suborder,  the  of  the  section  geocorim  being  designated 

land-bugs,  and  those  of  the  section  hy draco risce,  water-bugs,  the  latter  including  water- 
scorpions,  boat-flies,  etc.  All  these  insects,  and  particularly  the  land-bugs,  although 
some  of  them  are  radiant  in  beautiful  colors,  have  a strong  resemblance  in  form  and 
structure  to  the  annoying  and  disgusting  house  B.  or  bed  B.  {cimex  lectulanus)  The 
statement  that  this  insect  was  introduced  into  England  with  timber  brought  from 
America  to  rebuild  London  after  the  great  Are  of  1666,  must  be  rejected 'as  erroneous; 
for  although  it  appears  to  have  been  comparatively  rare  in  England,  it  was  well  known 
in  some  parts  of  Europe  long  before  that  time,  and  is  mentioned  by  Dioscorides.  The 
bed  B.  ,is  destitute  of  wings — an  anomalous  peculiarity,  as  the  insects  of  its  order,  and 
even  of^  the  same  family,  are  generally  furnished  with  them.  The  body  is  very  flat,  of  a 
somewhat  oval  form ; the  whole  insect  is  of  a dirty  rust  color,  emits  an  offensive  odor, 
and  is  about  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  length;  the  legs  are  moderately  long,  and 
capable  of  being  employed  for  pretty  rapid  motion ; the  antennae  are  thread-like  and 
very  slender,  about  half  the  length  of  the  body ; the  mouth  is  formed  for  suction  alone, 
and  is  furnished  with  a sort  of  proboscis,  which  is  three-jointed,  forms  a sheath  for  the 
true  sucker,  and  when  not  in  use  is  recurved  under  the  head  and  thorax.  The  B.  lurks 
during  the  day  in  crevices  of  walls,  of  bedsteads,  and  of  other  furniture,  but  is  suf- 
ficiently active  during  the  night;  and  when  it  finds  opportunity,  sucks  blood  until  it 
distends  itself.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  capable  of  subsisting  long  without  food. 
Young  bugs  resemble  their  parents  in  most  things,  except  size  and  the  want  of  elytra, 
insects  of  this  order  not  undergoing  such  marvelous  transformations  as  those  of  some 
other  orders.  The  best  preventive  of  bugs  in  a house  is  scrupulous  attention  to  cleanli- 
ness; but  where  the  nuisance  exists,  it  is  not  easily  removed,  and  various  means  are 
employed  for  this  purpose,  of  which  one  of  the  best  and  safest  is  thorough  washing 
with  spirit  of  turpentine,  although  recourse  is  even  had  to  washing  with  a solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate. — Other  species  of  B.  (cimex)  suck  the  blood  of  some  of  the  inferior 
vertebrate  animals,  as  pigeons,  swallows,  bats,  etc. ; but  the  greater  number  of  insects 
of  the  B.  family  live  by  sucking  the  juices  of  vegetables.  A small  species  (tingis  pyri), 
which  sucks  the  leaves  of  the  pear-tree,  is  very  destructive  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
where  it  is  popularly  called  the  tiger.  Some  of  these  winged  wood-bugs  or  field-bugs 
are  capable  of  inflicting  very  painful  wounds.  Flying-bugs,  “ enormous  and  fetid,”  are 
among  the  pests  of  India.  Night  is  the  time  of  their  activity.  Warm  countries  gener 
ally  have  winged  bugs  of  great  size  and  beauty ; but  if  touched  or  irritated,  they  ‘ ‘ exhale 
an  odor  that,  once  perceived,  is  never  after  forgotten.”  A winged  B.,  as  large  as  a cock- 
chafer,' lodges  in  the  thatch  and  roofing  of  houses  in  Chili,  and  sallies  forth  at  night, 
like  the  bed  B.,  to  suck  blood,  of  which  it  takes  as  much  as  a common  leech. — It  is 
w^orthy  of  notice  that  a species  of  field  B.  (acanthosoma  grisea),  a native  of  Britain,  is  one 
of  the  few  insects  that  have  yet  been  observed  to  show  affection  and  attention  to  their 
young.  De  Geer  observed  the  female  of  this  species,  which  inhabits  the  birch-tree,  con- 
ducting’a family  of  thirty  or  forty  young  ones  as  a hen  does  her  chickens,  showing  great 
uneasiness  when  they  seemed  to  be  threatened  with  danger,  and  waiting  by  them  instead 
of  trying  to  make  her  own  escape. 

BUG,  or  Bog.  There  are  two  rivers  of  this  name  in  Russian  Poland.  The  Western 
B.,  the  largest  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  rises  in  Austrian  Galicia,  and  after  a course  of 
about  450  English  miles,  and  receiving  numerous  tributaries,  it  joins  the  Vistula  at  the 
fortress  of  Modlin,  near  Warsaw.  It  is  navigable  for  a considerable  distance.  The 
Eastern  B. , the  Hypanis  of  the  ancients,  rises  in  Podolia,  and  flows  s.  into  the  estuary 
of  the  Dnieper.  Its  length  is  more  than  400  miles.  It  is  navigable  for  small-craft  as 
far  as  Wosnessensk.  At  the  junction  of  the  Ingul  with  the  B.,  stands  the  city  of  Nico- 
laiew  (q.v.). 

BUGEAUD,  Marshal,  was  b.  at  Limoges,  in  France,  Oct.  15th,  1784.  In  his  20th 
year  he  entered  the  army  as  a private.  His  conspicuous  bravery  in  the  Prussian,  Polish, 
and  Spanish  campaigns  gained  him  rapid  promotion.  Shortly  before  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon, B.  was  made  a col.,  and  in  1815  commanded  the  advance-guard  of  the  army 
corps  of  the  Alps.  He  afterwards  retired  to  his  estate,  but  was  called  into  public  life 
by  the  July  revolution  of  1830.  He  was  elected  deputy  for  Perigueux,  and  gained  the 
esteem  of  Louis  Philippe,  who  created  him  a marshal.  In  1835,  he  voted  against  elec- 
toral reforms  and  universal  suffrage,  denounced  “the  tyranny  of  the  press,”  and  soon 
contrived  to  make  himself  very  unpopular.  In  Dec.,  1840,  he  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  Algiers.  He  immediately  set  about  organizing  the  celebrated  irregular  force 
known  as  the  zouaves,  and  in  a few  years  the  French  arms  were  eveiywhere  triumphant 
over  the  Arab  tribes.  The  crueltjr  of  some  of  B.  ’s  proceedings  excited  strong  feelings 
of  reprobation  at  the  time,  as  well  in  France  as  in  Europe  generally.  In  1844,  he  gained 
a victory  over  the  emperor  of  Morocco’s  forces  at  Isly,  for  which  he  was  created  due 
d’Isly.  In  the  revolution  of  Feb.,  1848,  marshal  B.  had  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Paris,  and  would  have  dissuaded  the  king  from  signing  the  act  of  abdication;  but  panic 
made  such  counsel  useless.  Among  all  the  friends  of  Louis  Philippe,  marshal  B.  seerns 
to  have  been  the  only  man  who  preserved  firmness  and  presence  of  mind.  When  Louis 
Napoleon  became  president,  he  intrusted  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  Alps  to 
B.,  who  died  of  cholera  in  Paris,  June  9th,  1849. 


165 


Bug. 

Buhrstone. 


BUGENHAGEN,  Johann,  surnamed  Pomeranus,  or  Dr.  Pommer,  one  of  Luther’s 
chief  helpers  in  the  reformation,  was  b.  at  Wollin,  near  Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  1485; 
studied  at  Greifswald,  and  as  early  as  1503  became  rector  of  the  Treptow  academy. 
There  he  lived  quietly,  fulfilling  the  duties  of  his  office  until  1520,  when  his  religious 
views  were  changed  % reading  Luther’s  little  book,  De  Captivitate  Babylonicd.  B.  was 
now  seized,  as  it  were,  by  the  zealous  spirit  of  the  reformation,  and,  to  avoid  the  per- 
secutions of  the  Catholic  party,  he  betook  himself  to  Wittenberg,  where  his  talents  pro- 
cured for  him  in  succession  several  high  positions.  B.’s  remarkable  philological  and 
exegetical  powers  were  of  great  service  to  Luther  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible.  In 
1525,  he  opened  the  controversy  between  Luther  and  Zwingli  by  a treatise  against  the 
latter,  to  which  Zwingli  ably  replied.  He  possessed  a superior  talent  for  organization, 
establishing  churches  in  Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and  Pomerania,  In  1537,  he 
was  called  to  Denmark  by  Christian  III.  to  reform  the  ecclesiastical  establishments  of 
that  country.  He  accomplished  this  so  admirably,  that  the  Danes  to  this  day  con- 
sider him  their  reformer.  In  1542,  he  returned  to  Wittenberg,  and  continued  his  ener- 
getic efforts  to  extend  the  new  theology  throughout  his  native  land.  He  died  20th  April, 
1858.  His  best  work  is  his  Interpretatio  in  Librum  Psalmorum  (Nurnberg,  1523). 

BUGHIS,  or  Bugis,  a Malay  people  in  the  island  of  Celebes.  The  merchants  of 
these  people  do  much  of  the  trade  of  the  island  and  the  neighboring  seas.  Their  govern- 
ment is  an  elective  monarchy,  the  chief  ruler  being  chosen  by  the  nobles  and  the  higher 
classes.  He  holds  power  only  during  good  behavior,  and  may  at  any  time  be  voted  out 
of  oflSce.  The  people  are  represented  as  being  orderly,  peaceable,  and  well  behaved;  good 
good  workers  in  iron,  copper,  cotton,  etc. ; constructing  good  houses  and  durable  ships. 
Their  language  has  been  reduced  to  writing,  and  they  use  the  common  divisions  of  the 
year.  They  also  use  the  magnetic  compass  and  charts.  Half  a century  ago  they  were 
represented  as  cannibals,  but  they  were  conquered  by  the  Macassars  and  compelled  to 
embrace  Mohammedanism.  In  recent  years  they  have  settled  colonies  of  their  own 
people  in  some  of  the  adjacent  countries. 

BUGLE,  Ajuga,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  laUatce,  having  an  irregular 
corolla,  with  very  short  upper  lip  and  trifid  lower  lip,  the  stamens  protruding.  The 
species  are  mostly  natives  of  the  colder  parts  of  the  old  world,  and  several  are  British. 
The  common  B.  {A  reptam)  is  abundant  in  moist  pastures  and  woods.  Its  flowers  are 
generally  blue,  but  varieties  occur  with  white  and  purplish  flowers,  which  are  often 
introduced  into  flower-borders.  The  Alpine  A {A.  Alpina)  is  one  of  the  beautiful 
flowers  of  the  Swiss  Alps. 

BU'GLOSS,  a name  popularly  applied  to  many  plants  of  the  natural  order  horaginem 
<q.v.),  as  to  the  species  of  anchusa  or  alkanet  (q.v.),  etc.  In  some  botanical  works  it 
is  confined  to  the  genus  lycopm,  a genus  differing  from  anchusa  in  little  but  the 
curiously  curved  tube  of  the  corolla,  and  of  which  one  species,  L.  a/rwnsis,  is  a common 
weed  in  cornfields  in  Britain.  The  beautiful  genus  echium  bears  the  English  name  of 
Yiper’s  Bugloss. 

BUHLE,  Johann  Gottlieb,  1763-1821;  a German  scholar  and  historian  of  philoso- 
phy ; a graduate  of  Gottingen ; at  an  early  age  occupied  a professor’s  chair  at  Bruns- 
wick. Thence  he  went  to  Moscow  as  professor  of  ancient  languages,  and  on  his  return 
to  Brunswick  took  the  chair  of  natural  law,  which  he  held  during  his  life.  He  edited 
Aratus,  and  a part  of  Aristotle,  and  WTOte  a hand-book  of  history  and  philosophy,  and 
R useful  history  of  modern  philosophy. 

BUHL-WORK,  or  Bool- WORK,  is  the  name  applied  to  a sort  of  inlaying  of  brass  scrolls 
and  other  ornamental  patterns  in  wood.  The  name  is  derived  from  its  inventor,  Boule, 
an  Italian  cabinet-maker,  who  settled  in  France  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIY.  He  employed 
veneers  of  dark-colored  tortoise-shell,  inlaid  with  brass.  Cabinets  of  his  manufacture 
are  highly  prized,  as  are  also  those  of  his  contemporary  Reisner,  a German,  who  used 
a ground  of  tulip-wood,  inlaid  with  flowers,  etc.,  in  darker  woods,  and  varied  with 
margins  and  bands  of  light  wood,  with  the  grain  crossed  for  contrast.  This  modification 
of  buhl -work  is  correctly  called  Reisner  work.  For  details  of  the  methods  of  working, 
see  Inlaying  and  Mosaic. 

BUHREACH',  or  Bharaich,  a t.  of  Oude,  India,  the  principal  place  of  a district  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  in  n.  lat.  27°  34',  e.  long.  81°  33'— 65  m.  n.e.  of  Lucknow.  It  is 
an  old  town,  of  considerable  size,  situated  in  a pleasant  wooded  plain,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Sarju.  The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  mud  and  covered  with  thatch ; but 
the  mausoleums,  mosques,  and  residences  of  merchants  are  of  brick  and  lime-mortar. 
North-east  of  the  town  is  the  tomb  of  Selar,  a reputed  Mussulman  saint,  to  which  there 
is  a great  concourse  of  pilgrims  annually  in  the  month  of  May.  Pop.  ’71,  18,889;  of 
district,  774,640.  j > 

BUHRSTONE,  a variety  of  quartz  (q.v.),  containing  many  small  empty  cells,  which 
give  it  a peculiar  roughness  of  surface,  particularly  adapting  it  for  millstones.  The 
name  is  given  without  reference  to  geological  relations,  but  it  is  vein  quartz,  rather  than  true 
quartz^  rock,  which  ordinarily  assumes  the  character  of  buhrstone.  There  are  different 
varieties  of  B.,  some  of  which  are  more  compact,  or  have  smaller  cells  than  others;  and 
those  if>  which  the  cells  are  sfnall  and  very  regularly  distributed,  about  equal  in  diameter 


Bull. 

Building:. 


166 


to  the  spaces  between  them,  the  stone  being  also  as  hard  as  rock-crystal,  are  most 
esteemed.  Good  B.  is  found  at  Conway  in  Wales,  and  at  several  places  in  Scotland; 
but  the  finest  millstones  are  obtained  from  the  quarries  of  La  Ferte-sous-Jouarre,  in  tha 
department  of  Seine-et-Marne,  near  Paris.  A single  millstone  in  one  piece  of  6 ft. 
diameter,  sells  for  about  £50,  and  one  formed  of  several  pieces  for  about  £33.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  form  millstones  of  pieces  of  B.  cut  into  parallelopipeds,  like  great  wedges  of 
soap,  and  bound  together  by  iron  hoops.  The  stone  is  found  in  beds  or  in  detached 
masses,  and  the  mode  of  quarrying  is  peculiar.  When  the  mass  is  large,  it  is  cut  outf 
into  the  form  of  a huge  cylinder;  around  this,  grooves  are  cut,  at  distances  of  about  18 
in.,  the  intended  thickness  of  the  millstones;  into  these  grooves  wooden  wedges  are 
driven,  and  water  is  thrown  upon  the  wedges,  which,  causing  the  wood  to  swell,  splits 
tlie  cylinder  into  the  slices  required. — Millstones  are  not  always  made  of  B.,  but  some- 
times of  silicious  gritstones,  of  sandstone,  and  even  of  granite.  B.  millstones  are 
extremely  durable. 

BUIL,  Bernardo,  d.  1520;  a Spanish  Benedictine  monk,  in  1493  sent  by  the  pope  as 
apostolic  vicar  to  the  new  world,  accompanying  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage.  In 
1495,  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  was  one  of  the  foremost  in  pressing  charges  against  the 
unfortunate  discoverer. 

BUILDING-,  the  art  of  erecting  or  building  houses  and  other  edifices,  in  which  several 
distinct  professions  are  usually  and  more  immediately  concerned.  At  the  head  of  the 
building-trade  is  the  architect,  who  is  employed  to  draw  plans  and  make  out  specifica- 
tions of  the  work  to  be  performed.  The  builder  acts  ministerially;  his  duty  consists  in 
carrying  out  the  plans  put  into  his  hands,  according  to  certain  stipulated  terms.  The 
profession  of  the  architect  demands  not  only  much  imaginative  power,  but  great  artistic 
skill,  along  with  a practical  knowledge  of  details.  Endeavoring  to  realize  the  wishes  of 
his  employer,  the  architect  devises  what  shall  be  the  external  effect  and  interior  accom- 
modation of  a building,  and  portrays  the  whole  on  paper  with  rigorous  accuracy.  Besides 
general  designs  to  give  an  idea  of  the  structure  and  its  interior  arrangements,  he  furnishes 
the  working-plans  or  drawings,  which  are  to  guide  the  different  mechanics — masons, 
joiners,  etc. — in  their  several  operations.  These  services  of  the  architect,  of  course, 
involve  much  thought  and  labor,  and  he  is  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  employing  a 
staff  of  assistants,  % whom  the  plans  are  executed  under  his  orders.  The  making  out 
of  the  specifications  is  a matter  of  careful  study.  To  perform  this  part  of  his  duty 
properly,  the  architect  needs  to  be  acquainted  with  the  qualities  of  different  kinds  of 
materials;  such  as  stone,  lime,  sand,  bricks,  wood,  iron,  etc.  A knowledge  of  the  strength 
of  timber  is  particularly  desirable.  When  the  specifications  are  made  out,  they  and  the 
contract  are  subscribed  by  the  builder.  To  insure  as  far  as  possible  a faithful  adherence 
to  the  specifications,  the  architect  appoints  a “ clerk  of  works”  to  keep  watch  over  the 
whole  operations,  and  who  is  authorized  to  check  any  seeming  fault.  During  the  whole 
proceedings,  the  architect  is  paramount.  For  the  due  execution  of  his  plans,  he  feels 
that  his  professional  reputation  is  at  stake  ; and,  accordingly,  having  involved  his 
responsibility,  the  employer  cannot  with  propriety  interfere  to  make  alterations  while 
the  work  is  in  progress.  Such  is  the  etiquette  of  the  profession.  Should  alterations  be 
desirable,  they  become  matter  for  a fresh  agreement  among  the  parties.  When  the  works 
are  finished,  the  builder  hands  his  account  to  the  architect  to  be  examined  and  checked. 
If  satisfied  of  its  correctness,  he  grants  a certificate  of  the  fact,  and  this  is  the  warrant  for 
payment  by  the  employer.  The  builder  having  been  settled  with,  the  employer  now 
pays  the  architect’s  fee,  which  closes  the  transaction.  This  fee  may  be  one,  two,  or  more 
per  cent  on  the  entire  cost  of  the  B.,  according  to  local  usage  or  terms  agreed  on;  what- 
ever it  is,  it  covers  all  charges  for  advice,  plans,  and  other  professional  trouble. 

Builders  undertake  work  by  “contract,”  or  by  “ schedule  of  prices.”  If  by  contract, 
they  engage  to  execute  the  whole  works  for  a stipulated  sum.  If  by  schedule  of  prices, 
they  agree  to  abide  by  the  measurements  of  valuators  appointed  by  the  architect.  These 
valuators  go  over  the  works  when  finished,  and,  taking  an  exact  account  of  everything, 
compare  it  with  the  account  rendered  by  the  builder;  the  architect  being  the  ultimate 
referee.  It  is  exceedingly  important,  for  the  sake  of  an  amicable  adjustment  of  accounts, 
that  the  builder  should  adhere  scrupulously  to  the  letter  of  the  specifications — i.e.,  the 
covenant  under  which  he  has  become  bound.  He  can  justify  no  departure  from  the 
specifications,  on  the  plea  that  something  as  good  has  been  given  or  done,  or  that  he  was 
not  checked  at  the  time  by  the  clerk  of  works.  Being  explicitly  a person  employed  to 
do  a certain  piece  of  work,  in  a certain  way,  he  is  in  no  respect  entitled  to  substitute  his 
own  notions  for  those  of  his  employers. 

It  may  happen  that  a proprietor  acts  as  his  own  architect,  and  employs  a builder  to 
execute  his  designs,  on  the  understanding  that  he  is  to  pay  for  everything  according  to  a 
schedule  of  prices.  In  many  instances,  the  builder  is  proprietor  as  well  as  architect,  and 
merely  carries  out  his  own  plans.  Such  is  generally  the  case  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London,  where  builders  speculate  in  leasing  land  and  erecting  rows  of  dwellings  for  sale. 
This  plan  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  opportunity  of  buying  eveiy  article  required  in 
house-building  ready  for  use,  such  as  bricks,  door-steps,  hearthstones,  joists,  flooring, 
doors,  windows,  marble  mantel-pieces,  slates,  etc.  In  fact,  house-building  in  the  metro- 
politan district  is  very  much  reduced  to  a system  of  purchasing  and  putting  together 


167 


Bull. 

Building. 


certain  articles  from  manufactories  and  depots.  For  this  kind  of  business,  there  may  be 
said  to  be  establishments  for  the  sale  of  doors  and  windows,  as  there  are  shops  for  the 
sale  of  nails,  locks,  and  hinges. 

The  application  of  a comprehensive  manufacturing  system  in  the  preparation  of  var- 
ious parts  of  a building  is  observable  most  particularly  in  certain  establishments  of 
great  magnitude.  The  test  is  this — whether  the  builder  conducts  so  gigantic  a trade  as 
to  warrant  him  in  setting  up  a steam-engine  of  great  power,  and  in  providing  highly 
wrought  machines  for  cutting  and  otherwise  treating  wood,  stone,  etc.  When  once 
this  degree  of  magnitude  is  reached,  the  operations  are  conducted  under  very  great 
advantage.  The  Crystal  palace  in  Hyde  park  could  never  have  been  built  at  the  stipu- 
lated cost,  nor  in  the  required  space  of  time,  but  by  the  application  of  steam  power  to 
work  the  machines  which  shaped  and  grooved  the  two  hundred  miles  of  sash  bars ; by 
the  resources  of  the  largest  English  establishment  in  the  glass-trade,  in  making  1,000,000 
sq.  ft.  of  sheet-glass ; and  by  the  skill  and  capital  of  our  great  iron  manufacturers,  in 
rapidly  producing  3000  iron  columns,  and  more  than  that  numbei  of  iron  girders. 
When  the  late  Mr.  Thomas  Cubitt  was  engaged  in  the  vast  building  operations  at  Bel- 
gravia (a  district  in  the  w.  of  London  owned  by  the  marquis  of  Westminster),  his 
factory  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames  was  the  most  complete  ever  known  in  the  trade.  It 
exemplified  both  the  principles  adverted  to  above — the  manufacture  of  various  articles 
by  steam-worked  machinery;  and  the  collecting  of  large  stores  of  other  articles  made  in 
a similar  way  by  other  firms.  There  was  a store  of  drawing-room  and  parlor  doors,  a 
store  of  window-sashes,  a store  of  street-doors,  and  stores  of  mantel-pieces,  stone  and 
marble  steps,  balusters,  slates,  knockers,  bells,  and  all  the  materials  for  house-building 
from  the  coarsest  to  the  finest.  There  was  also  observed  that  systematic  gradation  of 
kinds  and  dimensions  which  is  so  much  attended  to  in  the  higher  kinds  of  machinery, 
and  which  so  much  expedites  all  operations;  seeing  that  one  particular  piece  would  not 
only  fit  into  or  against  another,  but  into  or  against  any  one  of  a whole  class  to  which 
that  other  belonged.  A house  built  in  this  systematic  way  partakes  a good  deal  in  the 
nature  of  a large  machine,  in  which  all  the  parts  fit  together  with  very  great  accuracy. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  if  skill  and  capital  be  judiciously  applied  in  this  way,  a 
house  ought  to  be  better  built  and  to  cost  less  than  if  built  in  the  ordinary  unsystem- 
atic manner.  It  may  also  be  mentioned  here  that  Mr.  Cubitt  was  the  owner  of  a very 
large  brick-making  establishment  on  the  banks  of  the  Medway,  between  Rochester  and 
Maidstone,  where  steam-power  was  employed  in  all  the  operations  of  making  bricks. 
Some  of  the  great  railway  contractors,  who  have  become  millionaires,  were  originally 
house-builders,  alive  to  the  grand  results  producible  by  the  combination  of  steam-worked 
machinery  with  the  labor  of  well-organized  bodies  of  men. 

As  an  art,  B.  is  of  vast  antiquity,  and  has  assumed  different  forms,  according  to  the 
necessities  of  mankind  and  the  materials  readily  at  their  disposal.  In  ancient  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Italy,  B.  in  stone  rose  to  a high  state  of  perfection,  and  till  the  present  day 
it  may  be  said  that  the  greatest  progress  in  the  art  is  made  only  where  stone  of  a man- 
ageable kind  is  conveniently  at  command.  Rome,  Paris,  Lyons  (with  very  many  Italian 
and  French  cities),  Bordeaux,  Brussels,  Munich,  Geneva,  Vienna,  Edinburgh,  and 
Glasgow  are  specimens  of  what  maybe  achieved  in  stone  workable  with  the  chisel; 
Aberdeen  is  mainly  built  of  granite.  On  the  other  hand,  London,  jthe  greatest  city 
within  the  bounds  of  civilization,  is  built  of  brick;  so  likewise  are  Manchester  and 
Liverpool;  also  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  other  towns  in  Holland;  and  as  a general 
fact,  it  would  appear  that  wherever  brick  has  to  be  resorted  to,  there  the  allied  arts  of 
architecture  and  building,  as  regards  domestic  accommodation  and  elegance  of  style, 
are  on  a poor  scale.  B.  with  stone  of  a superior  kind  is  now  becoming  common  in 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  some  other  American  cities.  It  is  not  necessary  to  trace 
in  this  article  the  various  processes  embraced  in  the  comprehensive  term  Bullding;  see- 
ing that  all  the  materials  used,  and  all  the  operations  conducted,  are  noticed  under  the 
proper  headings  in  the  encyclopaedia. 

BUILDING  ACT  for  LONDON  A27D  its  NEIGHBORHOOD.  See  Metropolis  Local 
Management  Act. 

BUILDING  LEASES.  In  the  law  of  England,  a building  lease  is  a demise  of  land  for 
R long  term  of  years,  the  lessee  covenanting  to  erect  certain  houses  or  edifices  thereon, 
According  to  specification.  By  the  19  and  20  Viet.  c.  120,  amended  by  the  21  and  22 
Viet.  c.  77,  and  which  acts  also  apply  to  Ireland,  the  court  of  chancery  is  empowered  to 
authorize  leases  of  settled  estates  and  B.  L.,  which  shall  take  effect  in  possession  within 
one  year  next  after  the  making  of  the  same;  the  term  for  such  building  lease  being  99 
years;  or  where  the  court  shall  be  satisfied  that  it  is  the  usual  custom  of  the  district, 
and  beneficial  to  the  inheritance  to  grant  B.  L.,  for  longer  terms,  then  for  such  term  as 
the  court  shall  direct.  By  a subsequent  enactment,  it  is  declared  that  the  term  building 
lease  shall  include  a repairing  lease,  but  such  repairing  lease  to  be  for  a term  not  exceed- 
ing 60  years. 

By  the  5 and  6 Viet.  c.  108 — passed  to  enable  ecclesiastical  persons  to  grant  long 
leases  for  building,  repairs,  or  other  improvements — it  is  enacted  that  any  ecclesiastical 
■corporations,  aggregate  or  sole,  excepting  as  mentioned  in  the  act,  may,  with  con- 
sent of  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners  for  England  (q.v.) — to  which,  where  the  lessor  is 


Building. 

Bulgaria. 


168 


incumbent  of  a benefice,  the  consent  of  the  patron  also  must  be  added — demise  hj  deed 
the  corporate  lands  or  houses  for  any  term  not  exceeding  99  years,  to  take  effect  m pos- 
session and  not  in  reversion,  to  any  person  willing  to  improve  or  repair  the  same ; pro- 
vided that  on  the  grant  of  such  leases,  a small  rent  may  be  reserved  during  the  six  first 
years,  with  an  increased  rent  afterwards;  but  no  such  lease  is  to  comprise  the  usual 
house  of  residence,  its  out-buildings,  or  pleasure-grounds.  The  act  contains  other  regu- 
lations, and  it  declares  generally  that  it  is  made  without  prejudice  to  any  right  that 
ecclesiastical  persons  have  under  the  former  law  to  grant  or  lease,  whether  by  renewal 
or  otherwise. 

In  the  Scotch  law,  the  term  building  lease  is  applied  to  the  case  of  proprietors  of 
entailed  estates,  who,  in  order  to  encourage  the  building  of  villages  and  houses  upon 
property  so  settled,  are  to  have  it  in  their  power  to  grant  leases  of  land  for  the  purpose 
of  building,  for  any  number  of  years  not  exceeding  99  years.  See  this  matter  regulated 
by  the  10  Geo.  III.  c.  51.  By  the  3 and  4 Viet.  c.  48,  proprietors  of  entailed  estates  in 
Scotland  may  feu  or  lease  on  long  leases  ground  for  the  building  of  churches  and 
schools,  and  for  the  dwelling-houses  and  gardens  for  the  ministers  and  masters  of  the 
same,  and  also  for  burying-ground  and  play-ground  attached  to  such  churches  and 
schools.  See  Lease,  Leasehold,  and  Ground-Rent. 

BUILDING  SOCIETIES.  See  Benefit  Societies,  ante;  Co-operation. 

BUILDING  STONE.  The  chemical  composition  of  B.  S.  varies.  The  majority  of 
kinds  are  more  or  less  silicious,  and  are  designated  sandstones.  These  consist  of  particles 
of  sand,  united  together  by  the  force  of  cohesion,  and  by  a small  proportion  of  a natural 
cement;  in  some  cases,  ferruginous,  consisting  of  a compound  of  iron;  and  in  other 
instances,  calcareous,  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Igneous  rocks  furnish  very 
durable  B.  S. , though  in  general  the  hardness  of  the  materials  renders  them  so  difficult 
to  work,  that  they  are  seldom  resorted  to  where  softer  stones  can  be  procured.  Thus, 
granite  is  largely  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  houses  in  Aberdeen,  in  the  erec- 
tion of  bridges,  in  the  paving  of  streets,  and  wherever  great  durability  is  required. 
Greenstone  and  basalt  are  also  occasionally  used.  The  B.  S.  employed  in  the  new  houses 
of  parliament  is  a magnesian  limestone,  or  a double  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
which  is  very  close  and  compact  in  texture,  and  is  soft  enough  to  be  easily  cut  with  the 
chisel ; unhappily  it  has  not  proved  firm  enough  to  resist  weathering,  having  already 
shown  signs  of  decay.  The  other  forms  of  carbonate  of  lime  exhibit  considerable  dura- 
bility. Near  Bath  and  in  the  isle  of  Portland,  an  oolitic  limestone  is  quarried,  which  is 
easily  cut,  and  stands  well. 

A very  convenient  and  accurate  way  of  determining  the  durability  of  a B.  S. — in 
other  words,  its  power  of  resisting  the  effects  of  frost  and  other  atmospheric  agencies — 
is  to  place  a small  block  in  a cold  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda;  raise  to  the 
boiling-point,  so  as  to  expel  air  from  cavities  in  the  stone,  which  then  become  filled  with 
the  solution ; then  allow  to  cool,  and  suspend  the  block  of  B.  S.  in  air.  Every  now  and 
then,  it  is  dipped  into  the  solution,  and  subsequently  air-dried.  The  result  is,  that  the 
sulphate  of  soda  crystallizes  on  the  outside  and  partially  in  the  interior  of  the  block, 
and  in  this  respect  acts  as  water  does  when  it  is  frozen  during  winter;  and  if  the  B.  S. 
be  porous,  and  liable  to  decay  by  natural  agencies,  it  gradually  breaks  up,  and  particles 
scale  off.  The  amount  of  this  corrosion  can  be  determined  by  weighing  the  detached 
portions.  Some  building  stones  contain  iron  pyrites  in  little  nodules  diffused  here  and 
there  throughout  the  mass,  and  such  become  discolored  from  the  pyrites  being  decom- 
posed by  atmospheric  influence,  and  the  brownish-red  oxide  of  iron  (rust)  is  left  as  a 
stain  on  the  surface  of  the  block.  The  liability  to  decay  or  to  discoloration  in  a B.  S. 
may  be  arrested  to  a great  extent  by  coating  the  outer  surface  with  boiled  linseed-oil. 
which  communicates  a dark  appearance  to  the  stone,  but  prevents  oxygen  or  moisture 
from  gaining  access  to  the  block.  Ordinary  oil-paint  is  employed  for  the  same  purpose. 
For  the  preservation  of  B.  S.  from  decay  by  means  of  various  solutions,  see  Stone, 
Preservation  op. 

BUITENZORG,  a t.  in  Java,  66  m.  s.  of  Batavia,  with  which  it  has  railway  com- 
munication. It  is  in  a fine  situation,  800  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  is  a favorite  residence 
for  Batavia’s  rich  men.  The  country  palace  of  the  governor-general  is  one  of  the  chief 
buildings,  and  there  are  a mansion  for  the  regent,  a garrison  church,  and  mosques.  The 
botanical  gardens,  laid  out  in  1817,  are  among  the  best  in  the  world.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood is  a sacred  forest  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  natives. 

BUJALANGE,  a city  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  about  20  m.  e.  of  Cordova.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a moat  and  a wall  flanked  with  old  towers,  has  an  old  Arab  castle,  and  manufactures 
of  woolens,  glass,  and  pottery,  exports  of  agricultural  produce,  and  an  important  annual 
cattle-fair.  Pop.  about  9000. 

BUKKUM  WOOD.  See  Brazil  Wood  and  Sappan  Wood. 

BUK'KUR,  a fortified  island  of  the  Indus,  in  Sinde,  in  lat.  27°  39'  n.,  and  long.  68°  56'  e. 
It  is  400  yards  from  Roree,  on  the  left  bank,  and  100  from  Sukkur  on  the  right.  In 
the  ordinary  state  of  low  water,  the  western  and  eastern  arms  of  the  river  are  respect- 
ively 15  ft.  and  30  ft.  deep.  In  particularly  dry  seasons,  however,  the  former  has  been 
known  to  disappear  altogether,  and  even  the  latter  is  said  to  have  occasionally  beeu 


169 


Building. 

Bulgaria. 


fordable.  In  1839,  a British  force,  on  its  march  to  Afghanistan,  made  a stepping-stone, 
as  it  were,  of  B.  in  crossing  the  Indus,  having  joined  it  to  either  mainland  by  a bridge 
of  boats.  B.  is  no  longer  of  any  military  value  against  a civilized  issailant,  commanded, 
as  it  is,  on  both  sides  by  higher  grounds.  It  is  composed  of  limestone,  being  800  yards 
long,  and  300  broad,  and  rising  30  ft.  from  the  average  level  of  the  stream. 

BTJK'KUB,  a t.  of  Sinde,  about  3 m.  e.  from  the  Indus,  on  a water-course  derived 
from  the  great  river,  and  flowing  parallel  with  it,  190  m.  w.  of  Lahore.  It  is  situated 
in  a fertile  district,  and  carries  on  an  active  commerce.  Pop.  8000. 

BTJKOWI'NA,  a duchy  in  the  Cis-Leithan  (non-Hungarian)  section  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  on  the  Russian  frontier;  area,  4000  sq.m.;  pop.  ’69,  513,404  (of  whom  41  per 
cent  are  Ruthenian  Slavs  and  38  are  Moldavians).  It  is  traversed  by  offsets  of  the 
Carpathians,  gives  rises  to  many  rivers,  and  abounds  in  wood,  along  with  consider- 
able mineral  riches.  Wood-cutting  and  mining  afford  occupation  for  a great  number 
of  the  inhabitants.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared,  and  also  excellent  horses. 
B.,  till  the  end  of  the  15th  c.,  belonged  to  Transylvania,  when  it  came  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Turks,  by  whom  it  was  ceded  to  Austria  in  1777.  Czernowitz  is  the 
chief  town. 

BULACAN',  a t.  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Manila,  about  20 
m.  n.w.  of  the  city  of  that  name.  B.  is  chiefly  composed  of  wooden  houses,  but  has 
spacious  streets,  manufactures  of  silken  mats  and  other  fabrics,  and  large  sugar-boiling 
establishments.  Pop.  between  9000  and  10,000. 

BULAMA,  the  most  easterly  of  the  Bissagos  islands  off  the  w.  coast  of  Africa;  11* 
34'  n.,  15°  33'  w. ; 18  by  9 m. ; fertile  and  heavy  wooded,  but  insalubrious.  There  is  a 
good  harbor.  An  English  colony  was  sent  here  in  1792,  but  nearly  all  soon  fell  victims 
to  the  climate. 

BUL AU,  or  Tikus,  Oymnura  rafflesii,  vig. , an  animal  in  Sumatra,  of  the  mole  family 
resembling  the  opossum.  The  body  is  12  to  14  in.  and  the  tail  9 or  10  in.  long.  It  is 
^bout  5 in.  high  at  the  shoulder;  color  black  and  white,  with  a black  stripe  over  each 
eye;  the  fur  mixed  with  long  bristly  hairs,  and  tail  nearly  naked.  It  feeds  on  insects, 
and  secretes  a strong  odor  of  musk. 

BULB,  in  botany,  a subterranean  bud  covered  with  imbricated  scales,  having  at  their 
base  a flattened  disk,  which  represents  the  proper  stem  of  the  plant,  and  from  which 
the  roots  proceed  downwards,  whilst  from  the  midst  of  the  scales  an  annual  herbaceous 
stem  and  leaves  are  sent  up.  The  scales  are  regarded  as  modifled  leaves,  and  sometimes 
are  all  fleshy,  as  in  the  lily;  sometimes  the  outer  ones  are  membranous,  as  in  the  onion, 
in  which  case  the  B.  is  said  to  be  tunicated.  The  B.  is  popularly  but  erroneously 
regarded  as  the  root  or  part  of  the  root  of  the  plant,  and  plants  in  which  it  is  found  are 
very  generally  described  as  hulbous-rooted.  New  buds  are  formed  in  the  axils  of  its 
scales,  which  grow  at  the  expense  of  the  parent  B.,  and  gradually  destroy  it.  In  some 
plants,  as  the  tiger-lily  and  some  species  of  allium,  leaf-buds  {bulbils  or  bulblets)  are 
developed  on  the  stem  above-ground,  which  spontaneously  separate  and  serve  for  the 
propagation  of  the  plant,  and  which  are  entirely  of  the  nature  of  bulbs,  being  formed  of 
thickened  scales,  sometimes  so  closely  united  as  to  form  a solid  mass.  The  Corm  (q.v.) 
was  formerly  regarded  as  a kind  of  B. , and  described  as  a solid  B. , but  its  structure  is 
•essentially  different,  although  both  it  and  the  Tuber  (q.v.)  may  be  included  in  the 
description  which  Linnaeus  has  given  of  the  B.  with  reference  to  the  purpose  which  it 
serves  as  “the  winter- quarters  of  the  plant.”  Many  bulbs,  if  removed  from  the  ground 
during  the  period  when  the  vegetation  of  the  plant  is  most  dormant,  may  be  kept  in  a 
dry  place  without  injury  for  a considerable  time,  even  for  years.  Bulbs  serve  also  for 
the  preservation  of  plants  in  periods  of  drought,  and  are  particularly  frequent  in  those 
which  delight  in  sandy  soils.  The  abundance  of  “bulbous-rooted”  plants  is  a remark-^ 
able  characteristic  of  the  flora  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  Bulbous-rooted”  plants  are ' 
very  often  distinguished  by  the  beauty  of  their  flowers,  and  many  of  them  are  among 
the  most  esteemed  ornaments  of  gardens,  greenhouses,  and  stoves.  The  bulbs  of  tulips, 
hyacinths,  and  other  favorite  flowers  are  important  articles  of  trade.  Some  bulbs,  as 
that  of  the  onion,  are  valuable  as  articles  of  food ; others,  as  that  of  the  squill,  from  their 
medicinal  properties. 

BUL'BUL,  an  Armenian  name  for  the  nightingale,  which  has  found  its  vray  into  Eng- 
lish poetry  chiefly  through  the  patronage  of  lord  Byron.  But  the  same  name  is  given  in 
India  to  a very  different  bird,  pycnonotus  TimmorrTious,  belonging  to  the  great  tribe  of 
dentirostres,  and  formerly  ranked  among  the  thrushes,  to  which  it  is  pretty  nearly 
allied.  It  is  a little  bird  of  brilliant  plumage,  and  the  male  has  a crest  or  tuft  on  its 
head.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  pugnacity;  the  Singhalese  consider  it  the  most  game  of  all 
birds. 

BULGA'BIA,  an  autonomous  principality,  tributary  to  Turkey,  which  till  1878  constb 
tuted  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  the  Danube  (Tuna).  B.  is  bounded  to  the  n.  by  the  Danube 
and  the  Dobrudscha,  now  Roumanian;  on  the  e.  it  has  the  Black  sea;  on  the  s.  the  Bal- 
kan range;  and  on  the  w.,  Servia  andRoumelia.  There  are  altogether  between  2,000,000 
and  3,000,000  of  the  Bulgarian  race;  of  the  2,000,000  souls  who  form  the  population  of 
the  new  state  of  B.,  the  great  majority  are  Bulgarians.  The  area  of  B.  is  about  33,000 


Bulgarian. 

Bull. 


170 


sq.  miles.  The  country  slopes  terrace-like  from  s.  to  n.,  and  from  the  w.  to  the  e.,  acquir- 
ing a plain-like  character  before  reaching  the  Black  sea.  The  rivers  are  rapid  and  tribu- 
tary to  the  Danube.  The  soil  in  some  parts  is  very  fertile,  producing  great  abundance 
of  corn ; in  others,  it  does  not  yield  sufficient  for  the  consumption.  There  is  excellent 
pasture-land,  and  the  lower  terraces  are  richly  wooded.  The  exports  include  horned 
cattle,  sheep,  corn,  wine,  iron,  wood,  honey,  wax;  and  otto  of  roses  is  an  important 
article.  The  inhabitants  are  hard-working,  hospitable,  and  fairly  intelligent,  but  suspi- 
cious and  greedy;  their  faith  is  that  of  the  Greek  church.  The  prince,  freely  elected  by 
the  people,  must  be  confirmed  by  the  porte  with  the  assent  of  the  powers.  The  first 
choice  of  the  Bulgarians  was  the  prince  of  Battenberg,  a cousin  of  the  grand-duke  of 
Hesse,  who  in  1879  became  Alexander  I.  of  Bulgaria.  The  government  is  Christian, 
and  there  is  a national  militia.  The  Berlin  congress  decided  that  the  military  impor- 
tance of  B.  should  meanwhile  be  decreased  by  the  demolition  of  all  its  fortresses. 

The  earliest  known  inhabitants  of  B.  were  the  Mgesians,  who  contended  long  against 
the  Romans,  and  allied  themselves  with  Gothic  and  Slavonic  tribes  against  the  Greek 
empire.  Anastasius,  the  Greek  emperor,  in  507,  built  an  extensive  wall  to  defend  his 
territories  from  Moesian  invaders.  In  the  7th  c.,  the  Bulgarians,  a people  of  Finnish 
origin,  whose  original  seat  was  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  conquered  the  Mcesians,  and 
established  the  kingdom  of  Bulgaria;  they  soon  lost  their  own  language  and  customs, 
and  became  assimilated  to  the  other  Slavonic  inhabitants.  After  being  tributary  to  the 
Greek  emperors,  and  contending  for  some  time  against  Hungary,  B.  became  subject  to 
the  Porte  in  1392;  but  the  frightful  oppression  of  despotic  and  sanguinary  pashas  has 
not,  even  to  the  present  day,  robbed  the  inhabitants  of  a distinctively  national  life 
and  love  of  freedom.  In  April,  1876,  an  insurrection  broke  prematurely  out  in  B.,  and 
was  quenched  in  blood,  the  bashi-bazouks  or  Turkish  irregulars  committing  savage 
excesses.  The  atrocities  in  B.,  taken  in  connection  with  the  Servian  war  and  the  con- 
dition of  other  Christian  provinces  of  Turkey,  led  to  diplomatic  intervention ; and  in 
December  a conference  met  at  Constantinople,  but  without  result.  The  war  of  1877- 
78,  between  Russia  and  Turkey,  followed.  The  congress  of  Berlin,  which  revised  the 
treaty  of  San  Stefano,  declined  to  sanction  the  erection  of  a Bulgarian  principality 
extending  from  the  Danube  to  the  ^gean.  But  it  constituted  an  autonomous,  though 
tributary,  Bulgaria  n.  of  the  Balkans,  and  to  the  mainly  Bulgarian  province  s.  of 
them,  that  of  eastern  Roumeiia  (q.v.),  it  granted  administrative  autonomy. 

The  Bulgarian  Language  is  divided  into  two  dialects — Old  Bulgarian  and  New 
Bulgarian;  the  former,  the  richest  of  the  Slavonic  dialects;  the  latter  remarkable  for  its 
store  of  popular  songs. 

BULGARIAN  LANGUAGE,  the  richest  of  the  old  Slavic  tongues,  used  by  the 
Graeco-Slavic  church,  and  the  chief  medium  of  religious  writings  in  that  region.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Bulgarian  kingdom,  about  1400  a.d.,  the  language  became  mixed  with 
neighboring  dialects  and  lost  its  purity.  In  the  older  literature  are  found  translations 
of  the  Bible  made  in  the  10th  century.  The  literature  of  the  present  time  is  of  small 
account,  being  only  such  as  is  found  in  elementary  and  doctrinal  works.  Grammars 
and  dictionaries  have  been  published  since  1835,  and  a New  Testament  was  issued  in  1840’ 
for  the  British  and  foreign  Bible  society.  The  language  lives  in  many  native  songs,  but 
IS  not  as  yet  printed  anywhere  in  the  country. 

BTJLGAKIN,  Thaddeus,  a Russian  author,  was  b.  in  Lithuania,  1789;  fought  in  the 
campaign  against  France,  but  afterwards  served  under  Napoleon.  On  Napoleon’s  fall, 
he  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  wrote  both  in  Polish  and  Russian;  and  ultimately 
settling  in  St.  Petersburg,  became  a popular  author.  He  composed  several  romances— 
of  which  Demetrius  and  Mazejppa  are  the  best — and  published  different  periodicals.  His 
large  work,  Russia  in  its  Historical,  Statistical,  Geographical,  and  Literary  Aspect,  was  pub- 
lished at  Riga,  1839-41.  He  died  in  1859. 

BULGARUS,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  famous  “four  doctors”  of  the  law  school 
of  Bologna.  He  was  a native  of  that  city,  and  was  regarded  as  the  Chrysostom  of  the 
gloss  writers.  He  lived  to  a great  age,  becoming  childish  before  his  death  in  1166.  B. 
was  one  of  the  most  trusted  advisers  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  The  commentary  De 
Regulis  Juris  is  his  most  celebrated  work. 

BULI'MUS,  a genus  of  land  snails  most  numerous  in  the  moist  parts  of  BraziL 
Bulimus  ovatus,  sometimes  6 in.  long,  is  sold  in  the  Rio  Janeiro  markets.  It  has  an 
oblong  turreted  shell  of  unequal  margin,  and  lays  large  eggs  nearly  an  inch  long, 
resembli^  those  of  birds,  but  very  brittle,  which  it  protects  by  a covering  of  dried 
leaves.  Jiiere  are  many  fossil  species.  The  species  of  temperate  regions  are  small. 

BULKHEADS,  in  a ship,  are  the  partitions  between  the  several  portions  of  the  interior;, 
whether  to  separate  it  into  rooms,  or  as  a safeguard  in  case  of  wreck. 

Water-tight  B.  are  among  the  improvements  in  modern  ship-building;  they  are  iron 
walls  running  athwart  the  hold,  as  a means  of  dividing  it  into  several  portions;  the  inte- 
rior is  thus  cut  off  into  cells,  each  water-tight  in  reference  to  its  neighbors.  When  such 
a ship  is  leaking  in  any  one  of  the  compartments,  there  is  thus  a chance  that  the  others 
may  be  kept  dry  until  the  damage  is  repaired.  In  iron  steamships  the  water-tight 
B.  are  generally  placed  transversel}^  but  there  are  frequently  longitudinal  water- 


171 


Bulg^arlan. 

Bull. 


tight  divisions  also.  The  number  and  disposition  of  the  compartments  depends  on  the 
ship-owner  and  the  ship-builder;  but  it  is  now  the  common  practice  to  place  the  engines 
and  boilers  in  water-tight  sections,  and  experience  has  proved  the  special  value  of  a 
collision-bulkhead  in  the  bow.  In  iron-clads  of  the  navy,  such  as  the  Hercules  and  the 
Bellerophon,  which  have  an  inner  bottom,  there  are  nine  transverse  water-tight  bulkheads. 
In  the  torpedo-ram  Polyphemus,  the  principle  of  having  numerous  water-tight  compart- 
ments in  the  lower  part  of  the  vessel  has  been  carried  as  far  as  possible. 

BULKLEY,  Peter,  1583-1659;  b.  England;  the  earliest  minister  in  Concord,  Mass. 
He  was  his  father’s  successor  at  Woodhull,  England,  but  was  removed  for  non-conformity, 
and  in  1635,  with  a number  of  other  emigrants,  founded  the  Concord  settlement.  He 
wrote  several  Latin  poems,  and  a work  called  The  Gospel  Covenant  Opened,  published  in 
England.  His  son  Edward  succeeded  him  in  the  ministry. 

BULL  (Lat.  bulla,  primarily,  anything  round  or  swelling)  was  originally  the  name  of 
the  capsule  of  the  seal  appended  to  letters  from  emperors  or  from  the  pope.  Af tetwards, 
the  word  was  applied  to  the  seal,  and  next  to  the  document  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cele- 
brated golden  bull  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV. , which  was  so  named  from  the  golden  cap- 
sule appended  to  imperial  letters  and  other  important  documents  by  the  Byzantine  and 
Frank  emperors  as  early  as  the  9th  century.  They  are  issued  by  the  apostolic  chancel- 
lor, and  are  dated  “from  the  day  of  incarnation,”  whereas  briefs  are  always  dated 
“from  the  day  of  the  nativity.”  The  name  is  now  applied  exclusively  to  letters  or  docu- 
ments issued  in  the  name  of  the  pope.  In  cases  of  granting  favors,  etc.,  the  seal  is 
appended  to  the  open  letter  b^  a yellow  or  red  band  of  silk;  but  in  the  administration  of 
justice,  a ^ray  hempen  band  is  used.  All  bulls,  excepting  those  addressed  to  the  united 
Greek  Christians,  are  written  in  Latin  with  Gothic  letters,  and  on  the  rough  side  of  the 
parchment.  See  Brief.  All  bear  the  name  and  title  of  the  pope — for  example,  Gregonus 
Episeopus  Servus  Servorum Dei,  etc.,  is  prefixed;  then  follows  a general  introduction,  of 
which  the  initial  words  are  used  to  give  a distfnct  name  to  the  B.,  as  in  the  examples:  the 
B.  Exsurge  Domine,  issued  by  pope  Leo  X.  against  Luther  in  1520;  the  B.  In  Gcena  Domini, 
the  celebrated  B.  against  heretics,  often  reissued  since  1536;  the  famous  Unigenitus,  or 
B.  against  Quesnel’s  writings,  1713;  the  Dominus  ac  Eedemptor  Noster,  or  B.  for  the 
abolition  of  the  order  of  Jesuits;  the  Ecclesia  Ghristi,  or  the  B.  which  completed  the 
concordat  with  Prance  in  1801;  the  De  Salute  Animarum,  or  the  B.  for  the  regula- 
tion of  the  Catholic  church  in  Prussia.  To  every  B.,  the  leaden  seal  of  the  church 
is  appended,  bearing  on  the  obverse  the  arms  of  the  pope,  and  on  the  reverse  his 
name.  Bulls  issued  during  the  interim  between  the  election  and  consecration  of  a 
pope  have  no  armorial  bearings  on  the  seal.  A bullarium  is  a collection  of  papal 
"bulls,  as  the  Bullarium  Magnum  Romanum  a Leone  Magno  ad  Benedictum  XIIL 
(19  vols.,  Luxembourg,  1727-58),  the  B.  Romanum  (28  vols.,  Rome,  1737-44), 
and  the  B.  Benedicti  XIV  (Mechlin,  1826-27),  and  more  recently,  the  continuation  of 
the  Bullarium  Romanum  Magnum  by  Barberini  (Vienna,  1835). — From  the  same 
mediaeval  Latin  word  bulla  is  derived  the  word  bulletin  (Ital.  bulletino),  commonly 
applied  to  dispatches  from  generals,  reports  of  the  health  of  royal  personages,  and  on 
the  continent,  at  least,  to  other  brief  authenticated  documents,  such  as  those  of  scientific 
societies,  the  best  known  of  which  are  the  bulletins  of  the  St.  Petersburg  and  Belgic 
academies.  It  is,  moreover,  used  as  a title  for  periodicals,  and,  in  France,  also  desig. 
nates  the  slips  of  paper  on  which  electors  write  their  votes. 

BULL.  See  Ox,  ante. 

BITLL,  George,  d.d.,  a learned  prelate  and  theological  writer,  b.  at  Wells,  Glouces- 
tershire, England,  Mar.  25,  1634;  studied  at  Oxford,  whence  he  retired  in  1649,  having 
refused  to  take  the  commonwealth  oath  imposed  by  the  parliament.  Receiving  holy 
^orders,  his  first  charge  was  the  parish  of  St.  George’s,  Bristol.  In  1658,  he  obtained 
the  rectory  of  Suddington  St.  Mary’s,  near  that  city;  and  in  1662,  was  presented  to  the 
vicarage  of  Suddington  St.  Peter’s.  In  1669,  he  published  his  Harmonia  Apostolica,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  reconcile  the  apostles  Paul  and  James  on  the  subject  of  justifica- 
tion. This  work  occasioned  considerable  controversy  among  divines,  and  in  answer,  B. 
published  his  Examen  Gensurm,  and  Apologia  pro  Harmonia.  In  1678,  he  was  presented 
to  a prebend  in  Gloucester  cathedral,  and  made  rector  of  Avening,  Gloucestershire.  In 
1679,  he  was  installed  archdeacon  of  Llandaff,  and  received  the  degree  of  d.d.  from 
Oxford  University.  In  1685,  he  published  his  Defensio  Fidei  Nicence,  against  the  Arians 
and  Socinians,  Tritheists  and  Sabellians ; and  in  1694,  his  Judicium  Ecclesim  Catholicce, 
for  which  the  thanks  of  the  whole  French  clergy  were  sent  to  him  through  the  celebrated 
Bossuet.  His  last  work  was  his  Primitive  ,and  Apostolical  Tradition,  etc.  He  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  St.  Davids  in  1705,  and  died  Feb.  17,  1709. 

BULL,  John,  1563-1628;  an  English  organist  and  composer.  He  was  appointed 
■organist  in  the  queen’s  chapel  in  1591,  and  next  year  made  doctor  of  music  in  Gresham 
college.  Not  understanding  Latin,  he  was  especially  permitted  to  lecture  *in  English. 
He  visitpd  the  continent,  and  had  many  oflfers  of  honorable  and  lucrative  positions,  but 
declined  all,  returning  to  England  to  be  organist  to  James  I.  On  another  visit  to  the 
continent  he  became  organist  to  the  cathedral  in  Antwerp,  where  he  died.  The  claim 
(that  he  composed  the  English  national  anthem  has  not  been  sustained. 


Bull. 

Bull-dog. 


172 


BULL,  John,  a familiar  synonym  for  the  English  people.  Its  origin  is  attributed  to 
dean  Swift,  but  Arbuthnot  first  gave  it  literary  currency  in  his  Uintory  of  John  Bull 
(1712),  a political  allegory  intended  to  satirize  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  to  increase 
feeling  against  the  war  with  France.  In  art  John  Bull  is  well  known  as  a burly  country 
squire,  impetuous,  honest,  narrow-minded,  dogmatic,  and  easily  imposed  upon. 

BULL,  Ole  Bornemann,  a famous  violinist,  was  b.  5th  Feb.,  1810,  at  Bergen,  in 
Norway.  His  father,  it  is  said,  attempted  to  coerce  him  into  the  study  of  theology,  and 
would  not  permit  a musical  instrument  about  the  house.  This  foolish  treatment  only 
gave  a more  decisive  character  to  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  boy.  At  the  age  of  18  he 
was  placed  at  the  university  of  Christiania,  from  which  he  is  said  to  have  been  expelled 
for  taking  temporary  charge  of  the  orchestra  at  one  of  the  theaters.  In  1829,  he  went  to 
Cassel,  in  Germany,  to  study  under  Spohr,  but  was  so  coldly  received  that  he  betook 
himself  to  the  study  of  law  at  Gottingen.  He  was  subsequently  at  Minden,  whence,  in 
consequence  of  a duel,  he  fled  to  Paris  in  1831.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  drown 
himself  in  the  Seinfe  was  the  turning-point  in  his  life.  He  thereafter  acquired  the  pat- 
ronage of  a lady  of  rank,  and  rapidly  rose  to  fame  as  a violinist.  His  style  of  playing 
was  like  that  of  Paganini.  B.,  however,  wished  to  excel  his  model  in  originality,  and  in 
triumphing  over  the  most  extraordinary  difficulties;  but  it  was  impossible  for  him  to 
follow  the  flight  of  the  great  Italian,  in  whose  brain  some  capricious  musical  demon 
seemed  to  lurk.  Nevertheless,  he  was  received  in  Italy  with  prodigious  enthusiasm — 
Malibran  herself  embracing  him  on  the  stage  at  Naples.  In  1836,  he  visited  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  subsequently  traveled  in  a professional  capacity  through 
Belgium,  Holland,  Russia,  and  Germany.  After  a long  repose,  he  sailed  for  America, 
whence  he  returned  in  1850;  but  he  again  went  out,  and  was  so  successful,  that  he 
thought  of  retiring  from  public  life.  He  purchased  in  Pennsylvania  125,000  acres  of 
excellent  ground,  and  founded  a colony  of  Scandinavians.  This  turned  out  a complete 
failure,  and  B.  was  again  compelled  to  resume  his  violin.  He  visited  Europe,  returning 
with  a fortune  to  the  United  States  in  I860;  he  revisited  Europe  in  1875  and  1879. 

BULL,  Ole  Bornemann  {ante),  d.  1880;  came  to  New  York  the  first  time  in  1843. 
He  became  attached  to  this  country,  taking  a great  interest’  in  its  republican  form  of 
government.  Returning  to  Norway,  his  American  ideas  offended  the  government, 
resulting  in  many  lawsuits  and  the  dissipation  of  his  wealth.  His  wife,  a Parisian  lady, 
died ; and  in  1852,  after  an  absence  of  7 years,  he  came  again  to  this  country.  Here  he 
put  into  practice  a scheme  long  contemplated,  which,  like  most  of  his  business  specu-' 
lations,  resulted  disastrously.  He  purchased  120,000  acres  of  land  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
attempted  to  found  there  a colony  of  his  countrymen.  He  designed  a castle  for  his 
permanent  home,  and  erected  it  on  the  summit  of  a mountain,  from  which  there  was  a 
commanding  view.  Before  the  castle  was  completed  the  colonists  grew  discontented, 
and  about  the  same  time  he  learned  that  the  title  to  the  land  which  he  had  purchased 
was  worthless.  Ole  Bull  relinquished  everything,  and  again  had  recourse  to  his  violin 
to  repair  his  bankrupt  fortunes.  All  that  remains  as  a reminder  of  his  grand  scheme 
is  the  village  of  Oleana,  named  after  him,  which  clusters  around  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tain capped  by  the  once  lordly  castle  known  to  this  day  as  “ Ole  Bull’s  Folly.”  After  a 
profitable  European  tour,  he  returned  to  this  country,  and  has  made  his  home  since  1869 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.  In  1870,  he  made  a happy  marriage  with  a young  Wisconsin  lady. 
His  form  was  tall  and  erect  even  to  old  age.  He  was  gifted  with  a remarkable  memory 
and  with  social  qualities  by  which  he  made  and  retained  many  friends.  On  his  seven- 
tieth birthday,  which  occurred  in  Feb.,  1880,  a surprise  party  was  given  in  his  honor  at 
his  home  in  Cambridge,  at  which  many  literary  celebrities  of  the  vicinity  were  present. 
He  was  then,  to  all  appearances,  strong  and  healthy.  Early  in  the  summer  he  sailed  for 
his  summer  residence  in  Norway,  where  he  died. 

BULLA,  a genus  of  mollusca,  which  in  the  older  systems,  founded  upon  characters 
t aken  from  the  shell  alone,  contained  a heterogeneous  assemblage  of  species  essentially  very 
different.  Some  of  those  having  been  removed  to  other  orders,  according  to  their  organi- 
zation, the  genus  bulla,  and  the  family,  bulUdm,  of  which  it  is  the  type,  are  placed  in  the 
order  tectibrancMata  of  Cuvier,  an  order  of  the  class  gasteropoda  (q.v.),  and  of  that 
section  of  it  called  moneBcia,  having  the  male  and  female  organs  of  sex  combined  in  the 
same  individual.  The  bullidoe  have  a convoluted  and  generally  thin  shell,  which  serves 
as  a covering  and  protection  for  the  gills,  and  which  in  some  of  them  is  large  enough  tO' 
form  a retreat  for  the  entire  animal,  in  others  is  itself  enveloped  in  the  mantle.  This 
shell  forms  a sort  of  transition  link  between  the  flat  calcareous  plate  inclosed  in  the 
mantles  of  the  aplysice  or  sea-hares — to  which  B.  is  nearly  allied — and  the  spiral  shell  of 
snails  and  other  such  conchiferous  mollusks..  The  mouth  of  the  shell  is  large,  extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  shell,  widening  towards  one  end,  the  lip  acute.  Tlie  gizzard  of 
i\\c  bullida  \B,  very  muscular;  and  among  its  thick  coats,  in  many  species,  are  found 
calcareous  bony  plates,  which  being  moved  against  each  other  by  its  muscles,  serve  to' 
grind  down  the  food.  All  the  species  are  marine,  some  are  found  on  the  British  coast. 
Some,  from  their  form  and  fragility,  are  popularly  called  Bubble  Shells,  as  the  British 
bulla  hydatis. 

BULLACE,  Prunus  insititia,  a shrub  or  small  tree,  larger  and  much  less  spiny  than 
the  sloe,  but  very  closely  allied  to  it,  as  it  is  also  to  the  plum,  so  that  many  botanists 


173 


Bull. 

Bull-dog. 


regard  them  all  as  one  species,  an  opinion  much  confirmed  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
varieties  pass  into  each  other  by  imperceptible  gradations.  The  B.  may  be  regarded  as 
a form  intermediate  between  the  plum  and  the  sloe.  Its  leaves,  however,  are  generally 
broader  in  proportion  to  their  length  than  those  of  either  of  these,  and  its  fruit-stalks 
more  frequently  in  pairs ; it  differs  also  from  both  of  them  in  its  downy  fruit-stalks,  and 
in  having  the  under  side  of  its  leaves  permanently  downy.  The  flowers  are  rather 
larger  than  even  those  of  the  plum;  the  fruit  is  larger  than  the  sloe,  generally  globose, 
and,  although  it  partakes  in  some  degree  both  of  the  acidity  and  the  roughness  of  the 
sloe,  it  is  not  unpleasant,  especially  after  having  been  mellowed  by  frosts,  and  makes 
excellent  pies  or  tarts.  “ A bullace-pie  is  a standing  dish  at  the  harvest-home  supper  in 
the  south  of  England,  only  it  requires  rather  more  sugar  than  the  housewife  is  always 
willing  to  allow.  ” The  B.  is  common  in  hedges,  coppices,  and  banks  in  England,  and 
in  many  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  rare  in  Scotland. 

BTJLL^  are  collections  of  serous  fluids  of  considerable  size,  situated  immediately 
beneath  the  cuticle,  and  rising  from  the  true  skin.  They  differ  from  vesicles  only  in 
size ; and  no  very  deflnite  line  can  be  drawn  between  a large  vesicle  and  a small  bulla. 
They  usually  vary  in  diameter  from  a quarter  of  an  inch  to  two  inches.  They  may  be 
followed  by  crusts  or  by  ulcerations.  They  constitute  a special  order  of  skin-diseases, 
which  includes  pemphigus  and  rupia  (q.v.). 

BTJLLAS,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  and  26  m.  w.n.w.  of  the  town  of 
Murcia.  It  is  situated  on  a hill,  1840  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  streets  are  steep  and 
unpaved.  B.  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  hempen  fabrics,  earthenware,  and  brandy, 
and  a considerable  trade  in  manufactured  goods  and  grain.  Pop.  5145. 

BTJLL-BAITING,  a barbarous  sport,  once  very  popular  in  England,  and  in  which  all 
classes  of  society  equally  delighted,  but  now,  through  the  progress  of  civilization,  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  lowest,  and  rare  even  among  them,  it  consists  in  causing  a bull 
to  be  attacked  by  dogs;  and,  in  order  that  the^bull  might  be  made  as  furious  as  possible, 
his  nose  was  sometimes  blown  full  of  beaten  pepper  before  he  was  turned  loose.  Another 
form  of  this  sport  was  to  fasten  the  bull  to  a stake,  by  a rope  of  some  yards  long,  and  to 
send  bull-dogs  against  him,  one  at  a time,  which  were  trained  to  seize  him  by  the  nose, 
and,  when  this  was  accomplished,  it  was  called  'pinning  the  bull.  But  no  small  part  of 
the  enjoyment  of  the  spectators  was  derived  from  the  success  with  which  the  attacks  of 
the  dogs  were  met  by  the  bull  lowering  his  head  to  the  ground,  and  receiving  them  on 
his  horns,  often  tossing  them  to  a great  distance.  In  some  places,  bull-baiting  took  place 
regularly  as  a sort  of  annual  festival,  and  funds  were  sometimes  left  to  provide  for  it. 
King  James  I.  of  England  greatly  delighted  in  this  sport.  When  the  late  emperor  Nich- 
olas of  Russia  visited  England,  before  his  accession  to  the  empire,  he  was  present  at  a 
boxing-match  and  a bull-baiting,  which  were  got  up  to  show  him  English  tastes. 

An  equally  barbarous  sport,  termed  hull-running,  was  formerly  practiced  at  Stam- 
ford and  Tutbury,  where  men  and  women  took  the  place  of  dogs,  maddened  the  bull 
with  hideous  noise,  and  then  pursued  it  with  “bull-clubs,”  till  th^e  unfortunate  animal 
expired  beneath  the  blows  of  its  brutal  assailants. 

BULL-DOG,  a kind  of  dog  which  is  regarded  as  peculiarly  English,  but  concerning 
which  it  is  doubted  whether  it  has  existed  as  a distinct  race,  at  least  from  the  Roman 
era,  or  has  more  recently  sprung  up,  as  a variety  of  the  mastiff,  or  a cross  between  the 
mastiff  and  some  other  breed.  Buffon,  indeed,  represents  the  bull-dog  as  the  parent 
race,  and  the  mastiff  as  derived  from  it,  but  this  opinion  is  generally  rejected  as  errone- 
ous. The  bull-dog  has  been  regarded  as  a distinct  species  by  some  naturalists,  and 
named  canis  Anglicus,  C.  laniarius,  etc.  It  is  much  smaller  than  the  mastiff,  but  is  very 
strong  and  muscular.  The  breadth  of  muzzle  is  greater  than  in  the  mastiff,  and  the 
head  is  very  large,  almost  appearing  as  of  disproportionate  size  to  the  body.  “The 
forehead  sinks  between  the  eyes,  and  the  line  of  the  nose  rises  again  at  a considerable 
angle;  the  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper,  often  showing  the  teeth,  which  alto- 
gether, with  the  frequent  redness  about  the  eyelids,  produces  a most  forbidding  aspect ; 
the  ears  are  partially  drooping,  unless  the  terrier  blood  is  crossed  in  the  animal,  and  the 
tail  is  carried  high.”  The  hair  is  short,  and  the  tail  taper,  and  not  bushy.  The  color 
may  be  ochry  or  reddish  buff,  brindled,  fawn,  or  white,  the  last  being  preferred,  and 
should  be  whole  or  unmixed,  though  dogs  of  two  colors  are  exceedingly  common.  The 
bull-dog  used  seldom  to  be  seen  except  in  the  company  of  persons  who  delight  in  dog- 
fighting and  other  barbarous  sports,  but  now  has  sometimes  more  reputable  patrons.  It 
was  formerly  much  employed  in  bull-baiting,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  savage  ferocity,  and  the  pertinacity  with  which  it  retains  its 
hold,  as  if  its  jaws  were  locked,  and  it  could  not  let  go.  It  will  hang  to  the  jaw  or  nose 
of  a bull,  although  lifted  from  the  ground.  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  says  he  has  seen  one 
“pinning  an  American  bison,  and  holding  his  nose  down,  till  the  animal  gradually 
brought  forward  its  hind  feet,  and,  crushing  the  dog  to  death,  tore  his  muzzle  out  of  the 
fangs,  most  dreadfully  mangled.”  The  bull-dog  is  also  bold  enough  to  attack  any  ani- 
mal, however  superior  in  size  and  strength. 

The  Bull-Terriek  is  a cross  between  the  bull-dog  and  the  terrier.  It  is  smaller 
than  the  bull-dog,  more  lively  and  docile,  and  equally  courageous.  The  ears  are  always 


Bailer. 

Bull-linch. 


174 


pointed ; the  best  color  is  white,  with  some  black  about  the  head.  It  is  unrivaled  in 
rat-catching.  It  is  a great  favorite  as  the  companion  of  young  men. 

BULLER,  Charles,  b,  in  Calcutta  in  1806,  was  a gentleman  whose  name  falls  to  be 
recorded  more  on  account  of  the  hopes  which  his  death  in  1848  disappointed,  than  for 
the  performances  of  his  life.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Cambridge,  at  both  of 
which  he  distinguished  himself,  and  for  a time  studied  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  had  Mr. 
Thomas  Carlyle  for  one  of  his  tutors.  He  was  called  to  the  English  bar  in  1830,  and 
entering  parliament  before  the  reform  bill,  continued  a member  of  the  lower  house  till 
his  death.  He  was  still  but  a rising  man  when  he  died.  In  politics,  a philosophical 
radical,  he  occupied  successively  the  posts  of  judge-advocate-general  and  president  of 
the  poor-law  commission  under  whig  governments.  The  interest  taken  in  his  career, 
and  his  popularity,  were,  it  would  seem,  largely  owing  to  his  amiability  and  accom- 
plishments for  society. 

BULLET  is  the  leaden  projectile  discharged  from  a musket,  fowling-piece,  pistol,  or 
similar  weapon.  When  the  smooth-bore  muskets  alone  were  used  by  British  infantry, 
the  bullets  were  made  by  casting.  Molten  lead  was  poured  into  molds;  and  the  molds 
were  dipped  in  cold  water,  to  hasten  the  solidification  of  the  lead.  The  molds  were 
cooled  after  every  few  times  of  using ; and  the  lead  was  heated  only  just  to  the  degree 
for  maintaining  fluidity.  Bullets  are  now,  however,  made  more  expeditiously,  and 
more  truly  spherical  in  form,  by  compressing  machines,  one  form  of  which  has  been 
invented  by  Mr.  George  Napier.  The  lead  is  first  fashioned  into  a rod  about  a yard 
long,  by  five  or  six  eighths  of  an  inch  thick;  this  rod  is  passed  between  rollers  to  con- 
dense it;  then  between  other  rollers  to  press  it  into  a row  of  nearly  globular  pieces;  then 
a spherical  die  gives  the  proper  form  to  each  of  these  pieces;  and,  lastly,  a treadle- 
worked  punch  separates  them  into  bullets.  With  one  of  these  machines  and  two  dies, 
nine  boys  can  make  40,000  bullets  in  a day. 

Spherical  bullets  for  the  old  muskets,^  carbines,  and  pistols  varied  from  14  to  20  to 
the  pound,  and  from  0.60  to  0.68  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  There  is  a particular  ratio, 
depending  on  the  specific  gravity  of  lead,  by  which  the  number  to  the  pound  will  give 
the  diameter,  or  vice  versa. 

Such  bullets  are,  however,  becoming  every  year  less  and  less  used  in  the  army,  being 
superseded  by  other  forms  better  suited  for  rifles.  These  forms  are  singularly  numer- 
ous. Robins’  B.  was  egg-shaped,  with  the  center  of  gravity  at  the  larger  end ; Beau- 
foy’s  was  ovoid,  with  a hemispherical  cavity  at  one  end ; Manton’s  was  a spherical  ball 
put  into  a wooden  cup,  with  projections  on  the  exterior;  Greener’s  was  oval,  with  a 
plug  of  mixed  metal  driven  into  a hole  barely  large  enough  for  it;  Norton’s,  Delvigne’s 
Minie’s  and  others,  are,  or  were,  of  various  elongated  shapes,  mostly  with  some  kind  of 
plug,  which,  driven  into  the  lead  by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  causes  it  to  fill  up  the 
grooves  in  the  rifling  of  the  barrel.  This  expanding  or  dilating  action  has  been  claimed  by 
many  inventors;  but  the  government,  in  1857,  awarded  Mr.  Greener  £1000,  as  the  person 
who  had  practically  solved  the  difficulty  as  far  back  as  1836.  The  bullets  for  the  Enfield 
rifles  are  now  made  with  extraordinary  speed,  by  machinery  of  beautiful  construction. 
The  machine  draws  in  a coil  of  leaden  rod,  unwinds  it,  cuts  it  to  the  required  length, 
stamps  out  the  bullets  with  steel  dies,  drops  them  into  boxes,  and  conveys  them  away. 
Each  machine,  with  its  four  dies,  makes  7000  bullets  per  hour;  and  four  such  machines, 
in  an  easy  day’s  work,  turn  out  300,000  bullets.  So  nearly  are  the  machines  automatic, 
that  one  man  can  attend  them  all.  Other  machines,  attended  by  children,  produce  an 
equal  number  of  little  boxwood  plugs  for  filling  the  cavity  at  the  hinder  end  of  the  bul- 
let. The  differences  between  various  bullets  of  modern  invention  are  further  noticed 
under  Cartridge  and  Breech-loading  Arms  and  Needle-Guns. 

BULLET-TREE,  or  Bully-tree,  a tree  found  in  Guiana,  and  valued  for  its  wood, 
which  is  solid,  heavy,  close-grained,  and  durable,  and  also  for  its  fruit,  which  is  a 
drupe  about  the  size  of  a cherry,  and  very  delicious.  It  is  supposed  to  belong  to  the 
genus  mimusops  (natural  order  sapotacem,  q.v.). 

BULLETIN.  See  Bull. 

BULL-FIGHT.  Combats  of  men  with  bulls,  for  the  entertainment  of  the  public, 
were  common  in  Greece,  particularly  in  Thessaly,  and  in  Rome  under  the  emperors, 
though  in  later  times  they  were  forbidden  both  by  emperors  and  popes.  They  are  still 
a favorite  pastime  in  Spain  and  Mexico.  In  Spain,  they  were  abolished  by  Charles  IV. : 
but  Joseph,  Napoleon’s  brother,  re-established  them,  out  of  policy,  the  mass  of  the 
Spanish  population  being  passionately  fond  of  the  sport.  The  most  magnificent  bull- 
fights were  at  one  time  instituted  by  the  monarchs  themselves;  at  present,  both  in  the 
capital  and  in  the  larger  towns  of  Spain,  they  are  held  either  as  private  speculations, 
or  for  the  benefit  of  public  institutions.  In  Madrid,  the  bull-fighting  season  com- 
mences in  April,  and  lasts  until  November.  During  that  time,  there  is  at  least  one 
afternoon  in  every  week  devoted  to  the  sport.  The  proceeds  go  to  the  funds  of  the 
general  hospital.  The  fights  take  place  in  a kind  of  circus,  called  the  Plaza  de  Toros. 
round  which  the  seats  rise  one  above  another,  like  the  steps  of  a stair,  with  a tier  of 
boxes  over  them.  The  Plaza  is  capable  of  containing  from  10.000  to  12,000  people,  who 
pay  a high  price  of  admission,  considering  the  rate  of  wages  in  Spain;  and  all  go  attired 


175 


Buller. 

JBull-finch. 


in  their  best  to  the  spectacle.  The  best  Andalusian  bulls  are  bred  at  Utrera,  the  best 
Castilian  ones  on  the  Jarama,  near  Aranjuez.  The  latter  are  the  breed  usually  chosen 
for  fight  in  Madrid.  They  are  fiercer  and  more  active,  but  inferior  in  strength  to 
British  animals.  The  horses  engaged  in  the  conflicts  are  worthless  brutes,  fit  only  for 
the  knacker.  The  men  employed  in  the  fight  are  generally  those  who  have  been  bred 
to  it  as  a profession,  but  occasionally  amateurs  may  take  part  in  it.  The  bull-fight  has 
been  described  as  a tragedy  in  three  acts.  The  principal  performers  in  the  first  are  the 
picadores;  in  the  second,  the  chulos  are  the  only  actors ; the  third  and  last  act  devolves 
solely  on  the  matador.  The  picadores  are  all  mounted,  dressed  like  Spanish  knights  of 
the  olden  time,  and  armed  with  a lance ; they  take  up  their  position  in  the  middle  of 
the  circus,  opposite  the  bull-stalls.  The  chulos,  who  are  on  foot,  are  gay  with  ribbons, 
and  wear  very  bright-colored  cloaks;  they  distribute  themselves  in  the  space  between 
the  barriers.  The  matador,  or  chief  combatant,  is  also  on  foot.  He  is  handsomely 
dressed,  and  holds  in  the  right  hand  a naked  sword,  in  the  left  the  muleta,  a small  stick, 
with  a piece  of  scarlet-colored  silk  attached.  On  a sign  given  by  the  chief  magistrate, 
ahull  is  let  out  from  the  stalls;  the  picadores  stand  ready  in  the  arena  waiting  his 
charge.  With  a brave  bull,  they  find  all  their  skill  requisite  in  acting  on  the  defensive; 
with  a cowardly  one,  they  act  on  the  offensive ; and  should  their  stabs  be  ineffectual  in 
rousing  the  animal  to  the  requisite  fury,  the  poor  beast  is  hooted  by  the  crowd,  and 
ultimately  stabbed  ingloriously  in  the  spine.  Whenever  a horse  is  wounded,  the  rider 
betakes  himself  to  flight;  and  when  either  the  above  casualty  happens,  or  di, picador  is, 
thrown,  the  chulos  rush  in,  and  attract  the  bull  by  their  cloaks,  saving  themselves,  if 
need  be,  by  leaping  over  the  palisade  which  incloses  the  circus.  At  the  same  time, 
another  picador  calls  off  the  bull’s  attention  to  himself  by  shouting.  When  the  bull 
begins  to  flag,  the  picadores  are  succeeded  by  the  chulos,  who  bring  with  them  the  ban- 
derillas — i.e.,  barbed  darts  about  two  feet  long,  ornamented  with  colored  paper  flags, 
which  they  stick  into  the  neck  of  the  animal.  Sometimes  these  darts  have  crackers 
attached  to  them,  the  explosion  of  which  makes  the  bull  furious.  The  matador  now 
enters  alone  to  complete  the  tragic  business.  As  soon  as  the  bull’s  eye  catches  the 
muleta,  he  generally  rushes  blindly  at  it;  and  then  the  matador,  if  he  is  well  skilled, 
dexterously  plunges  the  sword  “between  the  left  shoulder  and  the  blade,”  and  the 
animal  drops  dead  at  his  feet.  The  victorious  matador  is  greeted  with  acclamations, 
and  not  less  so  the  bull,  should  he  wound  or  even  kill  the  matador,  in  which  case, 
another  matador  steps  forth  into  the  arena;  but  human  life  is  rarely  sacrificed.  Eight 
or  ten  bulls  are  often  dispatched  in  a single  day ; twenty  minutes  being  about  the  time 
usually  taken  to  slay  one. 

In  Madrid,  in  June,  1833,  99  bulls  were  killed  in  the  course  of  a single  week.  Bull- 
fighters are  regarded  as  the  lowest  class  in  Spain.  They  are  very  ignorant  and  super- 
stitious ; and  those  who  are  killed  on  the  spot  and  die  without  confession,  are  denied 
burial  rites. 

BTJLL-FINCH,  Pyrrhula  mlgaris,  a bird  of  the  great  family  of  fringillidoe  (q.v.),  a 
little  larger  than  the  common  linnet,  and  of  a genus  closely  allied  to  the  grossbeaks  and 
crossbills.  The  genus  is  particularly  characterized  by  the  short,  thick,  rounded  bill,  of 
which  the  sides  are  inflated  and  bulging,  and  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  overhangs 
that  of  the  lower  one.  The  bull-finch  is  a bird  of  very  soft  and  dense  plumage,  of  a delicate 
bluish-gray  color  above,  the  under  parts  of  a bright  tile-red,  the  crown  of  the  head  and 
the  beak  jet  black,  which  color  also  appears  in  the  greater  wing  and  tail  coverts,  in  the 
quills,  and  in  the  tail-feathers;  the  wings  are  crossed  by  a conspicuous  white  bar.  The 
colors  of  the  female  are  less  bright  than  those  of  the  male.  The  tail  of  the  bull-finch  is 
almost  even  This  bird  is  not  unfrequent  in  England,  Ireland,  and  the  s.  of  Scot- 
land; and  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  from  the  s.  of  Norway  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, extending  eastward  throughout  Asia,  even  to  Japan.  It  frequents  woods  and 
gardens,  builds  its  nest  in  trees  or  bushes  a few  feet  from  the  ground,  feeds  chiefly  on 
seeds  and  berries  in  winter,  and  in  spring  is  excessively  destructive  to  the  buds  of  fruit- 
trees  in  those  localities  in  which  it  is  abundant,  selecting  the  flower-buds,  and  appar- 
ently finding  them  the  most  palatable  of  all  food.  Selby  says:  “ I have  known  a pair  of 
these  birds  to  strip  a considerable  sized  plum-tree  of  every  bud  in  the  space  of  two 
days.  ” On  this  account,  gardeners  are  sometimes  compelled  to  wage  war  against  the 
bull-finch. 

The  song  of  this  bird,  in  a wild  state,  is  very  simple,  and  has  no  particular  quality  to 
recommend  it;  but  it  is  remarkably  susceptible  of  improvement  by  education;  and 
trained  bull-finches  of  superior  acquirements  are  sold  at  a very  considerable  price. 
Some  of  these  birds  learn  to  whistle  an  air  very  accurately,  and  with  a power  and  variety 
of  intonation  far  exceeding  their  natural  song.  The  ability  to  whistle  several  airs  well, 
is  rare.  ^ The  training  of  these  birds  is  a work  both  of  time  and  trouble : it  is  chiefly  car- 
ried on  in  Germany.  Not  less  than  nine  months  of  training  are  requisite:  it  begins 
when  the  bird  is  a mere  nestling,  and  must  be  carefully  continued  till  after  the  first 
moulting;  for  it  is  a curious  circumstance,  that  all  which  W been  previously  acquired  is 
very  apt  to  be  lost  at  that  time,  or  is  afterwards  so  imperfectly  remembered  that  the  bird 
is  of  little  value.  The  bull-finch  is  capable  of  very  strong  attachment  to  those  who  feed 
and  caress  it,  and  often  becomes  so  thoroughly  domesticated  as  to  exhibit  no  desire  for 


Bull-frog. 
Bull  Buu. 


176 


liberty. — Curious  variations  of  plumage  are  sometimes  observed  in  it. — Other  species 
of  the  genus  pyrrhula  are  known,  natives  of  different  parts  of  the  world ; and  in  this 
genus  some  ornithologists  include  corythus  of  Cuvier,  of  which  one  species,  the  pine- 
finch  (q.v.),  or  pine  grosbeak,  is  a native  of  Britain. 

BULL-FROG,  Rana  pipiens,  a species  of  frog  (q.v.)  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  but  chiefly  abundant  in  the  southern  states.  It  is  of  a large 
size,  8 to  12  in.  long,  of  an  olive-green  color,  clouded  with  black.  It  receives  its  name 
from  the  remarkable  loudness  of  its  voice,  which  has  been  compared  to  the  bellow- 
ing of  a distant  bull,  and  comes  in  as  a hollow  bass  in  the  frog  concerts  which  take 
place  in  the  evening  and  all  night  long  in  marshy  places  in  America.  Its  voice  can  be 
distinctly  heard  at  a distance  of  40  or  50  yards.  It  sits  for  hours  during  the  day, 
basking  in  the  sun,  near  the  margin  of  a stream,  into  which  it  plunges  with  a great  leap 
on  the  least  appearance  of  danger.  It  does  not  confine  itself  to  insect  and  molluscous 
food,  like  smaller  frogs,  but  is  said  to  be  partial  to  young  ducks,  and  to  swallow  then* 
entire.  Audubon  says  “its  flesh  is  tender,  white,  and  affords  excellent  eating,”  the 
hind  legs,  however,  being  the  only  part  used  for  food.  He  adds  that  these  parts  make 
excellent  bait  for  the  larger  cat-fish,  and  that  he  has  generally  used  the  gun  for  procuring 
them,  loading  with  very  small  shot. 

BULL,  Golden,  applied  to  the  decree  of  Charles  IV.  of  Germany,  published  in  1356, 
to  fix  the  laws  for  the  election  of  emperors  and  regulate  the  number  of  electors.  A 
similar  edict  by  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary  (1222),  for  similar  purposes  bears  the  name. 

BULLHEAD,  River  Bullhead,  or  Miller’s  Thumb,  Gottns  gohio,  a small  fish, 
abundant  in  clear  rivers  and  streams,  in  some  parts  of  the  British  islands,  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  Europe,  and  in  the  n.  of  Asia.  It  seldom  exceeds  4 or  5 in.  in 
length;  is  of  a dark  brown  color  on  the  upper  parts,  and  white  beneath;  has  rather 
large  fins,  with  rays  slightly  produced  into  spines  and  prettily  spotted ; and  in  general 
appearance  is  not  unlike  the  gurnards  (q.v.).  It  is,  however,  generally  regarded  as  a 
disagreeable  object  to  the  sight,  on  account  of  the  great  size  and  depressed  form  of  its 
head,  from  which  it  derives  its  English  names;  the  name,  miller’s  thumb,  alluding  to 
the  broad  rounded  form  which  the  last  joint  of  the  thumb  of  a miller  used  to  acquire 
in  times  when  machinery  was  ruder  than  now,  by  its  continual  employment  in  testing 
the  quality  of  the  flour  produced,  and  in  turning  it  over  on  the  fingers  for  inspection, 
that  it  might  be  known  if  the  mill  was  doing  its  work  well.  The  appearance  of  the  B. 
is  rendered  still  more  unattractive  by  the  entire  absence  of  scales,  a characteristic  of  the 
genus  to  which  it  belongs,  the  whole  body  and  head  being  covered  with  a soft  skin. 
Yet  it  is  said  to  be  of  a very  delicate  flavor,  and  in  some  countries  is  much  sought  after 
as  an  article  of  food.  Its  flesh,  when  boiled,  is  reddish,  like  that  of  the  salmon.  Izaak 
Walton  speaks'  of  angling  for  the  B.,  and  in  his  pleasant  quaint  style  describes  the  habits 
of  the  fish:  “He  does  usually  dwell  and  hide  himself  in  holes,  or  amongst  stones  in 
clear  water,  and  in  very  hot  days  will  lie  a long  time  very  still,  and  sun  himself,  and 
will  be  easy  to  be  seen  upon  any  flat  stone,  or  any  gravel,  at  which  time  he  will  suffer 
an  angler  to  put  a hook  baited  with  a small  worm  very  near  into  his  mouth,  and  he  never 
refuses  to  bite,  nor  indeed  to  be  caught,  with  the  worst  of  anglers.” — The  other  British 
species  of  the  genus  coitus  (q.v.)  are  marine.  The  name  B.  is  not  usually  given  to  any 
of  them.  A sea-flsh  of  a nearly  allied  genus  {aspidopTiorus)  is  sometimes  called  the 
Armed  Bullhead;  it  is  also  known  as  the  Pogge  (q.v.). — The  river  B.  differs  from  the 
marine  species  of  the  same  genus,  in  having  only  one  short  spine  on  each  side  of  the 
head,  on  the  preoperculum. 

BULLHEAD  {ante),  a popular  name  applied  to  several  species  of  fresh  and  salt 
water  fish  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  America,  and  belonging  to  the  genera  cottus  and 
acanthocottus.  The  common  B.,  often  called  the  “sculpin,”is  well  known  to  anglers 
for  its  scarecrow  form  and  colors.  They  are  voracious,  devouring  small  fish,  crabs, 
decayed  flesh,  etc.,  and  frightening  away  such  fish  as  they  cannot  eat.  They  vary 
greatly  in  size,  but  are  usually  small,  and  seldom  used  for  food. 

BULLINGER,  Henry,  the  friend  of  Zwingli,  and  one  of  the  chief  reformers  in  Swit- 
zerland, was  born  at  Bremgarten,  in  the  canton  of  Aargau,  July  18,  1504.  He  studied 
at  Cologne,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Luther;  and  during  the 
year  1527,  he  attended  the  theological  expositions  of  Zwingli,  and  went  along  with  the 
latter  to  the  religious  conference  held  at  Bern  in  1528,  the  result  of  which  vras  the  ref- 
ormation of  the  canton.  In  1529,  he  married  Anna  Adlischwyler,  formerly  a nun, 
who  bore  him  eleven  children.  By  a powerful  sermon  which  he  preached  at  Bremgar- 
ten, on  Whitsunday,  1529,  B.  induced  his  whole  congregation  to  make  a profession  of 
Protestantism.  In  1531,  he  was  compelled  by  the  Catholic  party  to  flee  from  the  can- 
ton, and  went  to  Zurich,  where,  in  the  following  year,  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  the 
principal  church.  In  the  controversy  on  the  eucharist  and  the  affairs  of  the  Anabap- 
tists, B,  distinguished  himself  by  his  integrity  and  moderation;  and  in  his  house  at 
Zurich  several  Gernr'u  theologians,  compelled  to  leave  their  country,  were  hospitably 
sheltered.  He  took  part  in  drawing  up  the  first  Helvetic  confession  at  Basel,  in  1536, 
and  in  establishing  a close  relation  between  the  Swiss  and  Anglican  churches.  He  died 
Sept.  17,  1575.  His  writings  are  numerous.  The  most  important  is  a History  of  the 


177 


Bull-frog. 
Bull  Bun. 


Reformation,  which  was  first  published  at  Zurich,  1838.  His  sermons  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English.  See  the  Lives  of  B.  by  Hess  (1828)  and  Christoffel  (1875). 

BULLION  usually  means  uncoined  gold  and  silver,  in  bars  or  other  masses ; but  in 
discussions  on  the  currency,  the  term  is  frequently  employed  to  signify  the  precious 
metals  coined  and  uncoined.  The  origin  of  the  word  B.  in  its  present  sense,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  French  Ulhn  (q.  v.),  and  the  corresponding  Spanish  rellon,  seems  to  be  as 
follows : B.  originally  meant  the  mint,  where  the  alloy  for  the  coinage  was  prepared, 
and  the  coin  stamped  (either  from  the  Lat.  hulla,  a round  boss  or  stud,  or  stamp;  or 
from  the  verb  bullare,  to  boil  or  bubble);  and  hence  it  came  in  England  to  signify  the 
standard  metal  of  which  the  coins  are  made.  In  France,  where  the  kings  debased  the 
currency  much  more  than  ever  took  place  in  England,  billon,  the  mint,  came  to  signify 
the  base  mixture  issued  therefrom. 

It  is  a question  not  yet  satisfactorily  settled,  how  far  any  great  increase  in  the  sup- 
ply of  B.  has  that  effect  in  lessening  the  value  of  money,  and  consequently  raising 
prices,  which  has  always  been  very  naturally  attributed  to  it.  It  may  indeed  be  main- 
tained with  some  plausibility,  that  if  B.  were  capable  of  being  produced  to  such  an 
extent  beyond  the  actual  demand  for  it  as  to  glut  the  market,  it  would  cease  to  be  that 
general  standard  of  money  value  which  it  has  become,  just  because  it  is  of  all  others  the 
article  which  is  steadiest  in  requiring  a certain  outlay  of  labor  to  produce  it.  Rises  in 
prices  have  accompanied  large  supplies  of  gold,  but  they  have  also  accompanied  large 
supplies  of  other  commodities  indicative  of  a great  increase  in  riches.  It  is  certain  that 
great  increases  in  the  supply  of  B.  do  not,  as  in  the  case  of  other  goods,  glut  the  mar- 
ket. For  some  years  past,  the  supply  of  gold,  owing  to  the  new  fields  opened  in 
America  and  Australia,  has  been  quadrupled,  with  certainly  no  more  influence  on  prices 
than  what  a general  increase  in  prosperity  might  cause.  There  is,  it  will  be  observed, 
this  great  difference  between  gold  and  other  commodities,  that  besides  what  may  be 
within  the  crust  of  the  earth,  there  is  a great  mass  which  has  been  accumulating  for 
thousands  of  years  in  the  possession  of  mankind,  which  comes  forth  as  it  is  wanted. 
A few  millions  of  tons  of  iron,  or  bales  of  cotton,  beyond  the  usual  annual  average, 
would  perhaps  add  a hundred  per  cent  to  the  available  quantity  for  consumption  ; but  a 
few  millions  of  pounds’ worth  of  g'old,  having  to  be  counted  with  all  the  gold  in  existence 
in  the  world,  makes  a scarcely  perceptible  addition  to  the  stock. 

The  term  B.  is  in  this  country  associated  with  the  memorable  Bullion  Report  of 
1810.  In  the  year  1797,  by  what  was  called  the  restriction  act  (see  Bank),  the  bank  of 
England  was  restrained  from  paying  its  notes  in  gold.  There  thus  came  to  be  two  sep- 
arate and  independent  currencies  in  the  country — one  of  B.,  the  other  of  paper.  They 
came  to  differ  in  value  from  each  other  so  much  that  in  the  year  1813,  gold,  of  which 
the  mint  price  was  £3  17s.  \0d.  per  ounce,  was  actually  worth,  in  bank  paper,  £5  10s., 
or,  in  other  words,  the  one-pound  bank-note  was  worth  14s.  2d.  There  were  various 
opinions  on  the  cause  of  this  difference.  Some  people  simply  said  that  gold  was  dear, 
taking  paper  as  the  standard  of  value;  others  said  it  was  owing  to  our  exports  not  bal- 
ancing our  imports;  others,  to  too  great  facilities  in  discounting,  by  which  money  was 
advanced  on  bad  security;  and  in  general,  it  was  held  that  there  could  be  no  overissue 
of  paper-money,  if  it  was  backed  by  good  security,  and  employed  only  for  genuine 
transactions,  and  not  in  fictitious  credits.  In  the  meantime,  the  select  committee  on 
the  high  price  of  gold  B.,  had  been  wishing  to  get,  not  through  theories  or  speculations, 
but  through  actual  facts,  at  the  truth.  The  work  of  the  committee  was  chiefly  con- 
ducted by  Mr.  Horner,  aided  by  sir  Robert  Peel,  then  a young  man ; and  both  of  them 
entered  on  the  task  without  any  prepossession,  and  the  desire  to  And  the  truth.  They 
established  the  conclusion,  among  other  important  truths,  that  paper-money  is  always 
liable  to  be  overissued,  and  consequently  depreciated,  unless  it  be  at  all  times  imme- 
diately convertible  into  gold,  and  the  monetary  policy  of  the  empire  was  subsequently 
established  on  this  principle.  A full  analysis  of  the  B.  report  will  be  found  inMacleod’s 
Dictionary  of  Political  Economy. 

BULLITT,  a co.  in  n.  Kentucky,  on  Salt  river  and  Rolling  fork,  intersected  by  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville,  the  Bardstown,  and  the  Lebanon  branch  railroads;  250  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  8521 — 1305  colored.  Productions  chiefly  agricultural.  Co.  seat.  Shepherds- 
ville. 

BULLOCK,  a co.  in  s.e.  Alabama,  on  the  Conecuh  river,  the  Mobile  and  Girard,  and 
the  Montgomery  and  Eufaula  railroads;  750  sq.m.;  pop.  ‘80,29,079 — 22,143  colored. 
Productions,  corn,  cotton,  etc.  Co.  seat.  Union  Springs. 

BULLOCK,  a CO.  in  s.e.  Georgia,  between  the  Ogeechee  and  Cannouchee  rivers ; 900 
sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  8053 — 2258  colored.  It  is  level,  with  poor  soil,  in  large  part  covered 
with  pine  forests,  and  abounding  in  game.  Corn,  cotton,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  raised. 
Co.  seat,  Statesborough. 

BULL  RUN,  a small  stream  in  n.e.  Virginia,  falling  into  the  Occoquan  about  25  m. 
s.w.  of  Washington,  the  site  of  two  important  battles  early  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion. 
The  first  battle  took  place  July  21, 1861,  the  national  forces  commanded  by  gen.  McDowell 
and  the  confederates  by  geps.  Johnson  and  Beauregard.  The  forces  were  about  28,000 
for  McDowell  and  very  nearly  the  same  number  on  the  other  side,  though  not  more  than 
U.  K.  III.— 12 


Bulls. 

Bulwer. 


178 


18,000  union  men  were  actually  in  the  conflict.  Until  about  4 p.m.  the  advantage  was 
evidently  with  the  union  side;  but  at  that  time  an  impetuous  charge  from  Beauregard’s 
whole  line  turned  the  tide,  and  the  union  army  was  completely  routed  and  fled  as  best 
they  could  across  the  stream  to  Centreville,  where  a council  of  war  was  held  and  a retreat 
to  Washington  determined  upon.  The  union  loss  was:  killed,  481;  wounded,  1011; 
missing,  1460.  The  confederate  loss  was:  killed,  378;  wounded,  1489;  missing,  30. 

On  the  29th  and  30th  of  Aug.,  1862,  the  second  battle  was  fought,  gens.  McDowell 
and  Pope  commanding  the  union  forces,  with  gens.  Lee,  Jackson,  and  Longstreet  on 
the  other  side.  On  the  last  day  the  unionists  were  defeated  and  fell  back  to  Chancellors- 
ville,  where  they  suffered  another  repulse,  and  then  retired  to  Washington.  The  forces 
engaged  were  about  35,000  union,  and  46,000  confederate.  No  complete  report  of 
the  union  losses  was  given,  but  the  figures  for  killed,  wounded,  captured,  and  missing 
are  put  at  11,000;  Lee  reported  the  confederate  loss  to  be  1090  killed,  and  6514  wounded, 
but  the  report  was  incomplete,  others  making  the  total  loss  8400.  The  confederates  call 
these  engagements  the  “first  and  second  battles  of  Manassas.” 

BULLS  AND  BEARS,  a common  designation  in  the  stock  market  for  two  classes  of 
operators;  the  “bulls”  being  those  who  seek  to  advance  prices,  and  the  “bears”  those 
who  endeavor  to  bring  them  down.  A fanciful  derivation  of  the  term  is  that  a bull 
tosses  up  with  his  horns,  while  a bear  tears  down  with  his  claws. 

BULL’S  EYE,  among  the  rigging  of  a ship,  is  a sort  of  small  pulley  in  the  form  of  a 
ring,  with  a rope  spliced  round  the  outer  edge,  and  another  sliding  through  a hole  in 
the  center. — B.  E.,  in  rifle  practice,  is  the  small  black  center  within  the  circle  of  tho 
target. 

BULL-TERRIER,  a cross-breed  of  the  regular  bull-dog  and  various  kinds  of  terriers,, 
having  more  docility  than  the  bull-dog  and  all  the  sagacity  of  the  terrier.  The  bull- 
terrier  is  a favorite  house-dog,  noted  for  watchfulness  and  its  intense  enmity  to  rats. 

BULL  TROUT,  Salmo  eriox  or  8.  griseus,  a fish  nearly  allied  to  the  salmon,  and  like  it, 
migratory  in  its  habits,  ascending  rivers,  in  which  it  deposits  its  spawn,  but  living 
chiefly  in  the  sea.  It  occurs  in  many  of  the  rivers  pf  Britain,  and  is  not  unfrequently 
taken  in  the  Tweed  and  its  tributaries.  It  is  frequently  called  the  Gray  Trout,  sometimes 
simply  the  Gray,  and  is  the  Sewen  of  the  Welsh  rivers.  It  sometimes  attains  the  weight 
of  20  lbs.,  although  it  is  more  commonly  under  15  lbs.  weight.  It  is  less  elegant  in 
form  than  the  salmon;  the  head  and  nape  of  the  neck  are  thicker  in  proportion;  and 
the  tail,  beyond  the  adipose  fin,  is  more  bulky  and  muscular;  the  tail  fin  is  square  at 
the  end  in  young  fish  (in  some  places  called  whitlings),  and  in  older  ones,  becomes  con- 
vex by  the  elongation  of  the  central  rays,  whence  the  name  roundtail  sometimes  given 
this  species.  The  scales  are  rather  smaller  than  those  of  a salmon  of  equal  size,  and 
the  color  is  less  bright;  the  males  in  the  spawning  season  being  recjdish  brown,  the 
females  blackish  gray ; at  other  times  the  general  color  is  like  that  of  the  salmon  trout. 
The  B.  T.  agrees  with  the  salmon  in  having  only  a few  teeth  on  the  most  anterior  part 
of  the  vomer  (the  bone  which  runs  down  the  center  of  the  palate) ; while  the  salmon 
trout,  the  common  trout,  and  the  great  lake-trout,  have  a long  line  of  teeth  there:  the 
teeth  are  larger  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  salmon ; there  are  differences  also  in  the 
form  of  the  gill-covers.  To  anglers  the  B.  T.  is  next  to  the  salmon  as  a prize,  and  by  many 
is  mistaken  for  it.  The  flesh  is  paler  in  color,  coarser,  with  much  less  flavor,  and  is 
much  less  esteemed. — The  name  B.  T.  has  been  also  given  to  the  Hucho  {salmo  huchd), 
or  salmon  of  the  Danube,  which  sometimes  attains  the  size  of  30,  or  it  is  said,  even  of 
60  lbs. 

BULOW,  Fried.  Wilh.  von,  a famous  Prussian  gen.  in  the  war  of  liberation,  was 
b.  in  1755,  entered  the  army  young,  and  soon  distinguished  himself.  When  Prussia 
declared  war  with  France  in  1813,  it  was  B.  that  commanded  in  the  first  successful 
encounter  with  the  French  at  Mbckern,  April  5,  and  revived  the  self-confidence  of  the 
army  after  the  adverse  battle  of  Llitzen.  His  victories  over  Gudinot  and  Ney  at  Gross- 
beeren  and  Dennewitz,  saved  Berlin,  and  inflicted  severe  loss  on  the  enemy.  He  acted 
a conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  by  taking  possession  of  Montmartre, 
finished  the  campaign  of  1814.  The  king  acknowledged  his  services  by  an  estate  worth 
£30,000,  and  the  title  of  count  Dennewitz.  In  the  campaign  of  1815,  he  joined  Bliicher 
by  forced  marches,  and  headed  the  column  that  first  came  to  the  aid  of  Wellington  at 
Waterloo.  He  died  at  Konigsberg,  11th  Jan.,  1818. 

BULOW,  Hans  Guido  von,  a celebrated  pianist  and  composer,  was  b.  at  Dresden, 
Germany,  Jan.  8,  1830.  His  father,  a well-known  author,  who  intended  that  he  should 
study  law,  and  was  very  much  opposed  to  his  adopting  music  as  a profession,  refused  to 
support  him  after  he  had  given  up  his  law  studies  at  Berlin.  He  was  assisted  by  Liszt, 
who  recognized  his  talent,  and  Richard  Wagner  secured  him  a position  as  leader  of 
orchestra  at  a theater  in  Zurich  in  1850.  During  the  year  1851-52  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  piano  at  Weimar,  under  the  tuition  of  Liszt.  In  1852,  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  public  as  a pianist;  edited  the  Neue  ZeitscTiHft  fur  Musik,  and  composed  his 
famous  overture  to  Julius  Ccesar,  which  was  performed  with  great  success.  In  1855.  he 
became  leading  professor  in  the  conservatory  of  music  at  Berlin,  and  in  1857,  married 
Cosima,  daughter  of  Liszt,  from  whom  he  was  divorced  in  1869.  In  1875,  he  came  to 


179 


Bulls. 

Bulwer. 


this  country  and  made  a very  successful  concert  tour.  He  never  plays  his  own  pieces 
at  public  performances,  although  his  compositions  are  very  numerous  and  often  chosen 
by  other  artists.  His  larger  works  number  over  30,  and  he  has  composed  many  songs 
and  choruses.  He  is  considered  one  of  the  leading  pianists  of  modern  times. 

BULBAMFUR',  a t.  of  Oude,  India,  near  the  frontier  of  Nepaul,  in  n.  lat.  27°  24', 
e.  long.  82°  15',  on  the  Kaptee,  in  a plain,  90  m.  n.e.  from  Lucknow.  It  is  a town  of  con- 
siderable size,  but  mostly  of  mud  houses,  covered  with  thatch.  From  B.  there  is  a 
magnificent  view  of  Dhawalagiri.  The  town  is  on  one  of  the  most  frequented  routes 
between  Lucknow  and  Nepaul,  so  that  during  spring  and  summer  it  is  much  thronged 
by  traders,  exchanging  the  products  of  Hindustan  and  Thibet.  Pop.  71,  14,026. 

BULRUSH,  an  English  popular  name  for  large  rush-like  or  reed-like  plants  growing 
in  marshes,  not  very  strictly  limited  to  any  particular  kind.  Some  authors  employ  it  in 
a restricted  sense  as  the  designation  of  plants  of  the  genus  typha,  also  known  (as  cat’s- 
tail  or  reed-mace.  See  Typha.  It  is  perhaps  more  commonly  restricted  to  large  species 
of  the  genus  scirpus  (q.v.),  also  called  club-rush,  and  particularly  to  8.  lacustris,  a com- 
mon British  plant,  found  also  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  growing  about  the 
muddy  margins  of  lakes  and  ponds,  with  a creeping  root  and  round  stems  varying  from 
2 to  8 ft.  in  height,  which  are  almost  leafless,  and  bear  their  flowers  in  compound  umbels 
of  small  brown  spikelets  on  their  side.  The  root  is  astringent  and  diuretic,  and  was 
formerly  employed  in  medicine ; but  the  stems  are  the  most  useful  part  of  the  plant, 
being  much  employed  for  making  chair-bottoms,  mats,  etc. ; also  by  coopers  for  filling 
up  spaces  between  the  seams  of  casks,  to  which  purpose  their  spongy  nature  particularly 
adapts  them,  and  not  unfrequently  for  thatching  cottages. 

BUL'SAR,  a seaport  of  India,  in  the  British  district  of  Surat,  presidency  of  Bombay, 
on  the  estuary  of  a small  river  of  the  same  name,  which  falls  into  the  gulf  of  Cambay. 
It  is  44  m.  s.  of  Surat.  It  is  a thriving  place,  with  manufactures  of  ginghams,  and  a 
considerable  trade  in  grain,  salt,  and  sugar.  Pop.  71,  11,313,  chiefly  weavers  and  sailors, 
but  partly  also  employed  in  agriculture. 

BULTI,  or  Little  Thibet',  a territory  lying  on  the  upper  Indus  beyond  the  Himalaya, 
and  forming  a sort  of  debatable  land  between  India  and  Tartary.  It  is  immediately  to 
the  n.  of  the  valley  of  Cashmere,  with  which  it  is  politically  connected  by  conquest.  It 
occupies  about  8000  sq.m.,  extending  in  n.  lat.  between  34°  30'  and  36°,  and  in  e.  long, 
between  75°  and  77°.  With  an  average  elevation  of  about  7000  ft.  above  the  sea,  B.  is 
surrounded  by  mountains  of  nearly  the  same  height  above  its  owm  level.  Hence  the 
temperature  is  such  that  only  snow  falls  in  what  ought  to  be  the  rainy  season,  though  in 
summer  the  thermometer  ranges  at  noon  from  70°  to  90°  F.  European  fruits  are  said  to 
be  plentiful.  The  inhabitants  are  of  the  Mongolian  race,  and  chiefly  Mohammedans. 
Among  the  animals  are  the  sha,  the  large- horned  goat,  the  sheep,  the  musk-deer,  and  the 
ibis.  The  only  town  of  consequence  is  the  capital,  Iskardoh,  which,  in  fact,  sometimes 
gives  its  name  to  the  whole  province. 

BULUBGrURH',  or  Ballamgakh,  a t.  of  India,  the  principal  place  of  a jaghire  of  the 
same  name,  called  also  Furreedabad.  The  town  is  situated  on  the  route  from  Delhi  to 
Muttra,  29  m.  s.  of  Delhi,  in  a pleasant  well-cultivated  country.  The  town  is  not  large, 
and  is  very  crowded,  surrounded  by  a high  brick  wall,  with  mud  bastions  and  a deep 
ditch.  The  jaghire  has  an  area  of  190  sq.m.,  and  its  pop.  is  supposed  to  be  about 
57,000.  The  British  have  never  interfered  with  the  civil  or  criminal  affairs  of  the  jag- 
hire, except  when  their  interference  was  requested,  during  the  minority  of  the  present 
I’ajah;  but  the  rajah  of  B.  derives  his  rights  from  the  British  government.  The  revenue 
of  the  state  is  estimated  at  160,000  rupees.  The  rajah  maintains  a small  force  of  100 
cavalry  and  350  infantry. 

BULWARK,  in  military  matters,  was  the  old  name  for  a rampart  or  bastion.  In  a 
ship,  the  bulwarks  are  the  boarding  above  the  level  of  the  upper  deck,  nailed  to  the 
outside  of  the  timber-heads  and  stanchions.  In  ordinary  vessels  they  form  a parapet, 
protecting  the  seamen  from  the  waves,  and  prevent  loose  articles  from  being  swept  off 
the  deck ; in  men-of-war  they,  in  addition,  serve  to  protect  the  men  from  an  enemy’s 
shot.  In  an  inquiry  made  a few  years  ago  concerning  the  availability  of  merchant 
steamers  as  ships  of  war,  it  was  found  that  the  bulwarks  would  not  afford  sufficient  pro 
tection  to  the  men  from  musket-shot;  but  that  if  hammock-stanchions  were  fixed  all 
round  the  bulwarks,  and  the  men’s  hammocks  placed  in  a netting  upheld  thereby,  a very 
good  protection  might  be  obtained. 

BULWER,  Sir  Henry  Lytton,  G.C.B.,  the  right  hon.,  diplomatist  and  author,  an 
elder  brother  of  the  late  lord  Lytton,  was  born  in  1804,  entered  the  diplomatic  service 
in  1827,  and  was  attached  successively  to  the  British  embassy  at  Berlin,  Brussels,  and 
the  Hague.  In  1830,  he  entered  parliament,  and  during  the  following  seven  years  he 
represented,  in  order,  the  constituencies  of  Wilton,  Coventry,  and  Marylebone,  In  1837, 
he  became  secretary  of  embassy  at  Constantinople,  where  he  negotiated  and  concluded 
a treaty  which  is  the  foundation  of  our  present  commercial  system  in  the  east.  In  1843, 
he  was  made  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Madrid,  and  concluded  the  peace 
between  Spain  and  Morocco  in  the  following  year.  Whilst  in  Spain,  his  firmness  and 
candor  proved  a source  of  great  inconvenience  to  Narvaez,  the  Spanish  soldier-diplo- 


Bulwer. 

Bungay. 


180 


matist  of  that  day,  and  who,  pretending  to  have  discovered  the  complicity  of  the  Brit- 
ish plenipotentiary  in  certain  plots  against  the  Spanish  government,  ordered  him  to  leavo 
Madrid.  Both  parties  in  the  house  of  commons  approved  of  the  whole  course  of  B.’s 
conduct  while  at  the  court  of  Madrid,  and  her  majesty  awarded  to  him  the  highest 
decorations  of  the  order  of  the  Bath.  He  afterwards  proceeded  to  Washington,  where 
he  evinced  equal  art  in  conciliating  the  temper  of  the  people,  and  maintaining  the  inter- 
ests of  his  own  country.  In  1852,  he  was  sent  to  Tuscany  as  envoy  extraordinary ; and 
in  1856  was  nominated  by  lord  Palmerston  commissioner  at  Bucharest  for  investigating 
the  state  of  the  Danubian  principalities.  As  British  commissioner,  he  called  forth  from 
every  minister  and  from  every  government  concerned  the  warmest  expressions  of 
approval,  and  all  concurred  in  recommending  him  for  the  post  of  ambassador  to  the 
Ottoman  porte,  on  the  return  of  lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  in  the  spring  of  1858.  Sir 
Henry  Lytton  became  a peer  in  1871,  with  the  title  of  lord  Dalling  and  Bulwer.  He  died 
in  1872.  His  works  include  a Life  of  Palmerston;  Historical  Characters;  An  Autumn  in 
Greece;  France,  Social,  Literary,  and  Political;  and  a Life  of  Byron. 

BULWER-LYTTON,  Edward  Robert,  Earl,  only  son  of  the  English  novelist,  b. 
1831;  educated  by  private  tutors;  went  into  diplomatic  service  in  1849  under  his  uncle, 
sir  Henry,  who  was  then  British  envoy  to  the  United  States;  afterwards  served  diplo- 
matically at  Florence,  Paris,  the  Hague,  Vienna,  Copenhagen,  Athens,  Lisbon,  Madrid, 
and  again  at  Vienna  and  Paris.  He  succeeded  to  his  title  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1873.  In  1874,  he  was  sent  again  to  Lisbon  as  ambassador,  and  in  1876  was  viceroy  of 
India,  where,  Jan.  1,  1877,  he  presided  at  the  ceremonial  proclamation  of  Victoria  as 
empress  of  India.  In  literature  he  is  widely  known,  first  as  “Owen  Meredith,”  the  author 
of  many  poems,  the  chief  of  which  is  Lucile.  Other  works  are  Tannhauser,  or  the 
Battle  of  the  Bards;  Nerille  Temple;  Julian  Fane;  songs  of  Servia;  The  King  of  Amasis; 
Chronicles  and  Characters;  Orval,  or  the  Fool  of  Time;  imitations  in  verse  from  various 
languages ; Fables  in  Song,  etc. 

BULWER  LYTTON,  Sir  Edward.  See  Lytton. 

BUMBOAT,  a boat  employed  to  carry  provisions  and  other  articles  from  harbors  and 
ports  to  vessels  lying  at  some  distance  from  the  shore.  Boats  of  this  kind  belong  to  a 
class  of  petty  traders,  who  in  England  are,  for  the  most  part,  women.  The  provisions 
commonly  offered  for  sale  are  soft  bread,  butter,  fruit,  vegetables,  fish,  and  fresh  meat 
— the  fish  fried,  and  the  meat  roasted,  if  wanted.  Among  the  other  articles  are  included 
shirts,  drawers,  stockings,  gloves,  pipes,  needles,  thread,  and  a variety  of  odds  and  ends. 
The  less  respectable  of  the  B.  traders  try  to  smuggle  spirits  on  board ; but  if  this  is  dis- 
covered, it  leads  to  instant  punishment.  In  fitting  out  and  also  in  paying  off  ships  in 
H.  M.  navy,  the  B.  people  are  allowed  on  board  for  a certain  length  of  time  daily;  but 
when  a ship  is  in  active  commission,  they  come  alongside  only  at  meal-hours.  Among 
the  class  of  B.  people  generally,  there  is  no  little  acuteness  and  enterprise.  They  learn 
all  particulars  about  ships  going  and  coming,  and  will  even  write  to  far-distant  ports  to 
secure  a vessel’s  patronage.  In  their  dealings,  they  of  course  prefer  ready  money,  but 
in  certain  cases  they  give  credit,  and  it  is  understood  lose  little  by  their  liberality ; for 
any  attempt  at  evasion  of  payment  by  any  of  the  crew,  meets  the  displeasure  of  com- 
manding officers.  From  Hong-Kong  up  to  the  Bogue  forts,  and  in  other  Chinese  waters, 
bumboats  frequently  accompany  vessels,  and  are  apt  to  become  troublesome.  From. 
Malta  and  some  other  places  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  bumboats  also  haunt  vessels  on 
short  cruises,  in  the  hope  of  doing  a little  trade. 

BUMKIN,  or  Boomkin  (diminutive  of  boom),  on  shipboard,  is  a short  boom  which  pro- 
jects over  each  bow  of  the  ship,  to  aid  in  extending  the  lower  edge  or  clue  of  the  fore- 
sail to  windward — in  nautical  phrase,  “to  board  the  fore  tack  to.”  In  a boat,  the  B.  is- 
a small  outrigger  over  the  stern,  used  for  extending  the  mizzen. 

BUMMALOTI,  Saurus  ophiodon,  a fish  of  the  family  scopelidoe  or  sauridm,  often 
regarded  as  a subdivision  of  the  great  family  salmonidm.  It  is  a marine  fish,  a native  of 
the  coasts  of  India,  particularly  of  the  Bombay  and  Malabar  coasts,  from  which  it  is 
exported  in  large  quantities,  salted  and  dried,  to  other  parts  of  India,  being  highly 
esteemed  for  its  rich  fiavor,  and  often  used  as  a relish.  In  commerce,  it  is  known  not 
only  by  the  name  B.,  but  by  the  singular  appellation  of  Bombay  duck  It  is  a fish  of 
elongated  form,  with  large  fins  and  a very  large  mouth,  the  gape  of  which  extends  far 
behind  the  eyes,  and  which  is  furnished  with  a great  number  of  long,  slender  teeth, 
barbed  at  the  points.  It  is  extremely  voracious. 

BUNCOMBE,  a co.  in  s.w.  North  Carolina,  n.e.  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  on  French  Broad 
river  and  the  Western  North  Carolina  railroad;  450  sq.m.;  pop. ’70,  15,412 — 2303  col- 
ored; in  ’80,  21,910.  The  surface  is  rough,  but  the  soil  is  fertile  and  good  for  cattle- 
raising.  There  are  warm  springs  in  the  n.w.  part.  Corn,  wool,  and  tobacco  are  the 
chief  productions.  Co.  seat,  Ashville. 

BUNDELCUND',  a territory  of  Hindustan,  between  Gwalior  on  the  w.  and  the  t/umna, 
which  separates  it  from  the  Doab,  on  the  n.e.  The  area  formerly  known  as  B.  included 
four  districts  belonging  to  the  British  north-western  provinces,  (Banda,  Jalun,  Jhansi, 
and  llamirpur).  Now  B.  is  officially  used  only  for  the  “ Bandalkhand  agency,”  a sub- 
division of  the  Central  India  agency  and  in  this  sense  is  applied  to  a group  of  nine  nativo- 


181 


Bulwer. 

Bungay. 


states,  and  twenty-five  petty  jaghires  under  native  princes.  The  area  of  the  agency  is 
10,600  sq.m.,  and  the  pop.  estimated  (1872)  at  1.278,000.  Studded,  as  B.  is,  with  isolated 
rocks,  rising  precipitous!}'  from  its  surface — each  of  them  a nucleus,  as  it  were,  of  inde- 
pendence— it  has  generally  been  very  much  subdivided.  Notwithstanding  that  it  is  well 
watered,  the  climate  renders  irrigation  indispensable;  and  it  is  accordingly  interspersed, 
at  the  cost  of  great  labor  and  ingenuity,  with  artificial  dams.  B.,  though  not  destitute 
of  woodlands,  presents  rather  jungle  and  copse  than  heavy  timber.  It  is  said  to  possess 
inexhaustible  deposits  of  iron-ore  and  some  coal.  The  principal  towns  of  B.  are  Calpee, 
Jhansi,  Callinger,  Banda,  Jalun,  and  Chaturpur.  The  first  three  are  noticed  in  their 
places,  Callinger  being  famous  for  its  cave-temples,  and  Jhansi  and  Calpee  having, 
acquired  cele&ity  in  the  mutiny  of  1857-58. 

BUN'DI,  or  Boondee,  a t.  of  India,  in  n.  lat.  25°  26',  e.  long.  75°  43',  190  m.  s.w. 
from  Agra,  the  capital  of  a small  state  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situated  in  a valley 
nearly  surrounded  by  rocky  hills.  The  palace  of  the  rajah  is  on  the  slope  of  the  hill 
above  the  town,  and  is  of  great  magnificence  and  beauty,  consisting  of  a number  of  parts 
built  at  different  dates,  but  harmonizing  extremely^  well  together.  The  town  contains 
few  notable  edifices.  It  has  two  good  bazaars,  it  is  a place  of  little  commerce.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  iron  manufactures. — The  raj  or  state  of  Bundi  has  an  area  of  2291  sq. 
miles.  A range  of  mountains  running  n.e.  and  s.w.,  divides  two  nearly  equal  level  tracts 
— that  on  the  s.e.  extending  to  the  river  Chnmbul,  and  that  on  the  n.w.  to  the  base  of 
the  mountains  towards  Ajmere.  The  climate  is  said  to  be  unhealthy.  Although  the 
rajah  and  dominant  portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  Rajpoots,  the  greater  part  of  the' 
population,  particularly  in  the  mountains,  are  Meenas,  supposed  to  be  an  aboriginal  race, 
who  are  indefatigable  freebooters.  The  military  force  of  the  state,  including  the  troops^ 
of  the  feudal  chiefs  and  the  police  force,  is  6170  men.  The  revenue  is  about  £50,000. 
Pop.  of  B.  224,000. 

BUNGALOW,  a species  of  rural  villa  or  house,  so  called  in  India.  Bungalows  which 
form  the  residence  of  Europeans  are  of  all  sizes  and  styles,  according  to  the  taste  and 
Wealth  of  the  owner.  Some  are  of  two  stories,  but  more  usually  they  consist  of  only  a 
ground  floor,  and  are  invariably  surrounded  with  a veranda,  the  roof  of  which  affords 
a shelter  from  the  sun.  In  the  chief  cities  of  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay  some  of 
the  bungalows  are  really  palatial  residences,  while  in  the  mofussil  they  are  of  more  mod- 
erate pretensions.  In  general,  they  are  provided  with  exterior  offices,  to  accommodate 
the  large  retinue  of  domestics  common  in  Indian  life.  Besides  these  private  bungalows,, 
there  are  military  bungalows  on  a large  scale  for  accommodating  soldiers  in  canton- 
ments; likewise  public  bungalows,  maintained  by  government  for  the  accommodation  of 
travelers,  and  in  which  seem  to  be  blended  the  characters  of  an  English  road-side  inn. 
and  an  eastern  caravanserai.  These  bungalows,  though  they  vary  greatly  in  actual 
comfort,  are  all  on  the  same  plan.  They  are  quadrangular  in  shape,  one  story  high, 
with  high-peaked  roofs,  thatched  or  tiled,  projecting  so  as  to  form  porticoes  and  veran- 
das. The  B.  is  divided  into  “suits”  of  two,  three,  or  four  rooms,  provided  with  bed- 
steads, tables,  and  chairs;  windows  of  glass,  and  framed  glass  doors.  Off  each  room  is 
a bath-room,  and  earthen  jars  of  cool  water.  Travelers  are  expected  to  carry  their  ser- 
vants, cooking-apparatus,  wine,  beer,  bedding,  etc.,  with  them;  but  the  khitmutgar  of 
the  better  class  of  bungalows  supplies  table-ware,  condiments,  and  even  sometimes  food, 
and  liqnors,  and  he  is  usually  skilled  in  cooking.  Government  charges  one  rupee,  or 
two  shillings  a day,  to  each  traveler  for  the  use  of  the  bungalow.  A book  is  kept,  in' 
which  travelers  enter  their  names,  the  time  of  their  arrival  and  departure,  with  the 
amount  paid,  and  any  remarks  regarding  the  state  of  the  B.  and  its  attendance  he  may 
think  proper.  Natives  seldom  stop  in  these  public  bungalows,  for  though  legally  open 
to  all,  they  are  almost  exclusively  resorted  to  by  Europeans ; and  natives  even  of  good 
condition  are  fain  to  seek  “ the  squalid  desolation  of  a tottering  caravanserai,”  or  village 
“ dhurrumsala.  ” At  every  travelers’  B.  is  stationed  a government  peon,  who  acts  as 
watchman,  and  is  bound  to  assist  travelers’  servants  in  procuring  supplies  of  fuel  and 
food  in  the  nearest  village.  The  distance  between  each  B.  on  a trunk-road  is  generally 
about  12  or  15  m. — an  Indian  day’s  journey.  The  introduction  of  railways  will  very 
soon  put  an  end  to  the  present  system  of  traveling  in  India— a fact  greatly  to  be  desired, 
as  the  annoyance  experienced  moving  slowly  on  with  baggage  and  servants  at  the  rate  of 
a stage  a day  is  almost  inconceivable. 

BUNGAY,  a market-t.  of  the  co.  of  Suffolk,  England,  30  m.  n.n.e.  from  Ipswich. 
It  occupies  the  sides  and  summit  of  a gently  rising  hill,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Wave- 
ney,  and  is  a well-built  town,  with  wide  streets,  the  principal  ones  diverging  from  the 
market-place.  The  town  grew  around  Bungay  castle,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  by  the  Bigods,  earls  of  Norfolk,  and  of  the  walls  of  which  some  ruins  still 
remain.  The  ruins  of  a Benedictine  nunnery  are  also  to  be  seen  in  the  town.  The 
church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  an  edifice  with  a round  tower,  supposed  to  be  of  the  time* 
of  Edward  the  confessor.  There  are  numerous  places  of  worship,  belonging  to  different 
denominations,  and  schools,  charitable  institutions,  assembly-rooms,  etc.  What  wa.s 
formerly  the  theater  is  now  used  as  a corn-hall.  B.  carries  on  a considerable  trade  by' 
the  river  Waveney  in  corn,  malt,  flour,  coals,  and  lime.  Pop.  ’61,  3805;  ’71,  3503. 


Buxiias. 

liunsen. 


182 


BUNIAS,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  crucifercB,  distinguished  by  incumbent 
linear  spirally  twisted  cotyledons  (q.v.),  and  a nut-like  silicule  (or  round  pod)  with  2 to 
4 cells.  Only  a few  species  are  known,  natives  of  the  Levant.  One  of  these,  B.  orien- 
talis,  is  cultivated  in  some  countries — particularly  in  France — as  a field-crop,  for  the 
sake  of  its  leaves,  which  are  used  for  feeding  cattle.  It  was  introduced  into  Britain 
more  than  100  years  since,  but  its  cultivation  has  never  become  general,  the  amount  of 
herbage  which  it  yields  being  comparatively  small.  It  is  sometimes  called  Hill  Mus- 
tard. 

BUNION  is  a painful  condition  met  with  in  the  joints  of  the  feet,  most  commonly  at 
the  junction  of  the  great  toe  with  its  metatarsal  bone.  It  is  caused  by  a gradual  dis- 
placement of  the  bones,  the  toe  itself  turning  outwards,  and  leaving  the  head  or  further 
extremity  of  the  metatarsal  bone  projecting  inwards.  Over  the  latter,  the  skin  is  gener- 
ally thin,  and  occasionally  a bursa  (sac)  is  present  between  the  skin  and  bone.  The 
pressure  of  a boot  causes  this  bursa  to  inflame,  and  this  may  go  on  to  suppuration  or 
painful  ulceration.  Rest,  poulticing,  and  such  remedies  are  generally  sufficient  to  sub- 
due any  inflammatory  attack,  and  wearing  a shoe  so  constructed  as  to  save  the  B.  from 
pressure,  will  probably  prevent  a recurrence  of  painful  symptoms;  but  amputation  and 
excision  of  the  ends  of  the  bones  have  been  resorted  to  for  the  cure  of  the  troublesome 
distortion. 

BUNION  is  a term  applied  in  surgery  to  enlarged  bursae,  or  synovial  sacs,  situated  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  foot,  and  especially  over  the  metatarsal  joint  of  the  first  or  the 
fifth  toe  (see  Foot),  and  accompanied  by  more  or  less  distortion  of  the  joint.  In  the 
great  majority  of  cases,  bunions  are  directly  produced  by  the  pressure  of  badly -fitting 
boots;  and  if  the  boots  are  constructed  of  patent  leather,  or  any  material  which  stops 
the  excreting  action  of  the  skin,  this,  too,  may  be  regarded  as  an  indirect  cause  of  their 
formation.  A bunion  begins  as  a painful  and  tender  spot  over  one  of  the  metatarso- 
phalangeal joints;  the  part  gradually  enlarges,  and  there  are  indications  of  an  effusion 
into  a natural  bursa  or  a newly-formed  sac.  The  progress  of  the  affection  may  stop 
here,  the  bursa  remaining,  and  serving  to  protect  the  subjacent  parts  from  pressure ; but 
far  more  frequently  it  undergoes  repeated  attacks  of  inflammation,  causing  its  enlarge- 
ment; or  becomes  the  seat  of  corns;  or  suppuration  of  the  contents  of  the  cyst  ensues 
The  last  accident  may  be  followed  either  by  obliteration  of  the  cyst,  and  cure,  or  by  a 
troublesome  form  of  ulcer,  especially  in  persons  of  languid  circulation. 

It  is  only  in  its  early  stage  that  there  is  any  hope  of  removing  the  disease ; subse- 
quently, the  treatment  must  be  only  palliative.  The  tender  spot  that  precedes  the 
enlargement  should  be  covered  by  night  with  wet  lint  and  oiled  silk,  while  by  day  a 
boot  or  shoe  exerting  no  pressure  on  the  part  should  be  worn.  If  the  part  is  very  ten- 
der, it  may  be  covered  during  the  day  with  soap-plaster  spread  on  wash-leather.  As 
soon  as  a cyst  can  be  detected,  the  part  should  be  occasionally  treated  with  strong 
tincture  of  iodine,  with  a view  of  promoting  absorption.  The  writer  of  the  article  on 
this  subject  in  Holmes’s  System  of  Surgei^,  recommends  an  ointment  of  biniodide  of 
mercury  (ten  grains  to  an  ounce  of  lard)  for  the  cure  of  bunions  when  uninflamed,  and 
for  such  as  have  much  fluid  within  them.  It  should  not  be  applied  so  constantly  as  to 
blister  the  skin.  When,  from  any  cause,  inflammation  takes  place  in  the  sac,  water- 
dressing,  or  a poultice,  should  be  applied ; and  as  soon  as  there  are  definite  signs  of  sup- 
puration, a free  incision  should  be  made,  which  at  once  relieves  the  pain,  and  is  often 
followed  by  a complete  cure. 

The  ulcers  resulting  from  the  bursting  of  a bunion  are  very  difficult  to  heal,  espe- 
cially in  old  persons  whose  circulation  is  languid.  Stimulating  local  applications,  such 
jis  ointment  of  resin,  should  be  applied,  while  opium  and  stimulants  should  be  prescribed 
for  internal  use,  together  with  nourishing  diet.  Such  ulcers,  under  the  best  treatment, 
not  very  unfrequently  form  the  starting-point  for  senile  gangrene. 

BUNKER'S  HILL.  See  Charlestown. 

BUNKUM,  a phrase  used  in  the  United  States  to  signify  an  oratorical  display  in  favor 
of  a sham  proposal,  in  order  to  catch  popular  applause.  A member  of  the  legislature,  for 
example,  desirous  of  standing  well  with  his  constituents,  makes  a flaming  speech  in 
favor  of  a measure  in  which  they  are  interested;  but  with  the  knowledge  that  the  meas- 
ure is  impracticable,  and  will  not  be  carried.  In  fact,  the  speaker  does  not  want  to 
cany  it ; his  sole  object  is  to  impose  on  his  supporters,  and  acquire  the  character  of  a 
meritorious  public  leader.  Such  is  speaking  for  bunkum.  In  some  instances,  the  state 
legislatures  enact  laws  brought  forward  on  these  dishonest  grounds — the  whole  mem' 
bers,  or  at  least  a large  majority  of  them,  having  no  other  object  than  bunkum.  The 
consequence  is,  that  many  laws,  agitated  for  by  popular  factions,  remain  a dead-letter, 
unless  they  happen  to  be  enforced  by  clubs  organized  for  the  purpose.  The  word  B.  is 
said  to  be  a corruption  of  Buncombe,  the  name  of  a county  in  North  Carolina,  the  rep- 
resentative of  which  informed  congress  on  one  occasion  that  he  was  merely  speaking  “for 
Buncombe.” 

BUNO'DES  GEMMA'CEA,  a species  of  the  order  actinoida.  See  Anemone,  Sea, 
■ante. 


183 


Duntas. 

Bunsen* 


BUNSEN,  Christian  Karl  Josias,  Baron,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  statesmen 
and  scholars  of  Germany,  was  b.,  25th  Aug.,  1791,  at  Korbach,  in  the  principality  of 
Waldeck,  and  studied  philology  at  Gottingen  (1809-13)  under  Heyne.  He  had  been 
appointed  teacher  in  the  gymnasium  of  Gottingen  in  1811,  but  quitted  the  position  in 
1813;  and  in  pursuance  of  a course  of  study  of  old  and  middle  high  German,  begun  in 
company  with  Lachmann,  and  to  extend  his  knowledge  of  the  Germanic  tongues,  went 
to  Holland,  and  afterwards  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  learned  Icelandic  from  Finn  Mag- 
nussen.  The  historical  works  of  Niebuhr  and  his  character  as  a politician  had  filled  B. 
with  enthusiasm,  and  he  spent  some  months  of  1815  in  Berlin,  in  order  to  become  per- 
sonally acquainted  with  the  historian.  In  1816,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  studied  Persian 
and  Arabic  under  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  and  in  the  same  year  to  Rome,  where  he  married. 
Niebuhr,  then  Prussian  ambassador,  took  the  greatest  interest  in  the  scientific  pursuits 
of  B.,  and  procured  (1818)  his  appointment  as  secretary  to  the  embassy.  The  residence 
of  the  king  of  Prussia,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  HI.,  in  Rome  in  1822,  had  a decided  influence 
on  his  subsequent  career.  In  the  course  of  a conversation  in  which  B.  had  disagreed 
with  the  king,  the  latter  asked  his  views  on  the  Prussian  ritual  {Agende)  and  hymn-book 
question,  then  much  agitated.  Though  these  views  were  very  different  from  what  the 
king  had  been  accustomed  to  hear,  he  took  them  in  good  part,  and  with  expression  of 
his  personal  regard,  requested  B.  to  continue  in  the  state  service.  On  Niebuhr’s  depart- 
ure from  Rome  (1824),  B.  conducted  the  embassy  provisionally  for  a time,  and  was  then 
appointed  resident  minister  (1827).  Living  in  intimate  intercourse  with  Niebuhr,  B.  had 
employed  the  time  in  deepening  his  investigation  into  the  philosophy  of  language  and 
religion ; and  had  made,  on  the  one  hand,  the  philosophy  of  Plato  and  the  constitutions 
of  antiquity;  on  the  other,  biblical  inquiries,  church  history,  and  liturgies — objects  of 
special  attention.  Though  not  within  the  scope  of  the  great  plan  of  his  life,  he  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  Beschreibung  der  Stadt  Bom  (Description  of  Rome),  3 vols.  (Stutt. 
1836-43) ; the  greater  part  of  the  topographical  communications  on  ancient  Rome,  and 
all  the  investigations  into  the  early  history  of  Christian  Rome,  are  by  him. — The  first 
visit  of  Champollion  to  Rome  formed  an  epoch  in  B.  ’s  antiquarian  studies.  He  was  a 
zealous  hearer  of  Champollion  himself,  and  also  encouraged  Lepsius  (q.v.)  to  the  study 
of  hieroglyphics.  The  archaeological  institute,  established  in  1829,  found  in  B.  its  most 
active  supporter.  When  he  founded  the  Protestant  hospital  on  the  Tarpeian  rock  (1835), 
he  also  built,  adjoining  his  own  house,  a place  of  meeting  for  the  institute;  and  labored 
earnestly  for  the  cause  of  Protestantism.  The  king  of  Prussia  had  often  asked  his  advice 
in  the  matter  of  the  ritual,  but  had  not  adopted  it.  B.  then,  along  with  the  chaplain, 
introduced  (1825)  into  the  chapel  of  the  embassy  at  Rome  a liturgy  modeled  after  his  own 
views,  and  sent  a report  (1828)  to  the  king  of  the  result.  The  king  had  this  liturgy 
printed,  and  wrote  the  preface  with  his  own  hand.  This  work  never  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  trade ; but  the  most  part  of  it  was  embodied  in  the  Allegemeine  evang.  Gesang-  und 
Oebetbuch,  printed  (1846)  without  the  author’s  name,  in  the  Rauhe  Haus,  Hamburg, 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  second  edition  of  the  Versuch  eines  allgemeinen  evang. 
Gesang-  und  GebetbucJis  (Attempt  at  a General  Evangelical  Hymn  and  Prayer  Book), 
Hamb.  1833. 

In  1841,  he  was  sent  on  a special  mission  to  London,  to  negotiate  the  erection  of  an 
Anglo- Prussian  bishopric  in  Jerusalem,  and  was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  ambassa- 
dor at  the  English  court.  It  is  understood  that,  on  occasion  of  a visit  to  Berlin  in  1844. 
he  was  asked  to  write  down  his  views  on  the  question  of  granting  a constitution  to 
Prussia;  and  that  in  consequence  he  presented  a series  of  memorials  representing  the 
urgency  for  a deliberative  assembly,  and  also  made  a complete  plan  of  a constitution 
closely  resembling  the  English.  In  the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  B.  strongly  advo- 
cated the  German  view,  in  opposition  to  Denmark,  and  protested  against  the  London 
protocol  of  1850.  But  in  the  midst  of  all  his  political  duties,  B.  continued  unabated  his 
literary  and  philosophical  pursuits,  the  results  of  which  have  from  time  to  time  appeared. 
His  views  regarding  the  part  that  Prussia  should  act  in  the  eastern  question  not  being, 
it  is  understood,  in  accordance  with  those  of  his  court,  he  ceased,  in  1854,  to  represent 
Prussia  at  the  court  of  England,  and  retired  to  Heidelberg.  In  the  estimation  of  Eng- 
lishmen, B.  must  ever  hold  a high  place.  No  foreigner  has  ever  shown  a deeper  apprecia- 
tion of  their  national  characteristics,  or  a heartier  love  of  their  social  and  political  lib- 
erty. It  must  also  be  acknowledged  that  he  has  done  service  to  the  cause  of  enlightened 
Christianity,  for  while  in  England,  he  was  regarded  by  those  who  knew  him  both  as 
the  most  philosophical  and  most  reverent  of  lay  theologians.  His  chief  works  are ; De 
Jure  Atheniensium  Hoereditario  {(jfOii.  \ Die  KircTie  der  Zukunft  Church  of  the 
Future-— translated  into  English,  and  published  by  Longman),  Hamb.  1845;  Ignatius  von 
Antiocjiien  und  Seine  (Ignatius  of  Antioch  and  his  Time),  Hamb.  1847;  Die  dreiecliten 

und  die  vier  unechten  Brief e des  Ignatius  von  Antiochien  (The  Three  Genuine  and  the  Four 
Spurious  Epistles  of  Ignatius  of  Antioch),  Hamb.  1847;  AEgyptens  Sielle  in  der  Welt- 
geschichte  (Egypt’s  Place  in  the  World’s  History — translated  into  English  by  Cottrell), 
Hamb.  1845-57;  Die  Basiliken  des  Christlichen  Roms  Basilicas  of  Christian  Rome), 
1843;  Hippolytus  und  seine  Zeit  his  Time),  1851;  Christianity  and  Man- 

kind, 1854;  Goit  in  der  Geschichte  {Godi  in  History),  1857;  and  the  Bibelwerk,  which  B.  hoped 
to  make  his  chief  work,  of  which  only  a part  appeared  before  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1860.  See  Memoir  by  his  widow  (1868). 


Bunsen. 

Bunzlau. 


184 


BUNSEN,  Robert  Wilhelm,  a distinguished  German  chemist,  b.  at  GSttingen,  where 
his  father  was  a professor,  on  March  31,  1811.  He  entered  the  university  of  his  native 
town  in  1828,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  especially 
to  zoology  and  chemistry.  He  afterwards  prosecuted  his  favorite  studies  at  Paris,  Ber- 
lin, and  Vienna.  After  having  held  the  post  of  professor  at  Cassel,  Marburg,  and  Bres- 
lau, successively,  B.  was,  in  1852,  appointed  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  has  since  remained.  He  has  published  numerous  papers  on  physics  and  geol- 
ogy, as  well  as  on  chemistry.  The  charcoal  pile  and  the  burner  which  bear  his  name  are 
in  extensive  use.  That  the  hydrate  of  oxide  of  iron  is  an  antidote  to  arsenic,  is  an  impor- 
tant fact  which  was  made  known  by  him,  along  with  his  friend  Berthold,  in  1837.  B. 
was  the  first  to  produce  magnesium  in  large  quantities;  and,  in  1860,  he  invented  the 
magnesium  light,  which  has  proved  so  important  to  photography.  But  the  greatest  dis- 
covery with  which  his  name  is  associated,  is  that  of  the  spectrum  analysis — made  in  con- 
junction with  iiis  friend  Kirchoff — which  has  been  the  means  of  working  so  many  won- 
ders in  chemistry,  and  revealing  so  much  to  astronomers.  Its  first  result  was  the  discov- 
ery of  two  new  metals.  B.  is  not  only  a prolific  discoverer  in  chemistry,  but  he  has 
proved  himself  also  one  of  its  most  successful  teachers.  His  manner  of  demonstration 
is  very  happy.  We  have  from  his  pen:  Descrijptio  Hygrometrorum  (Gottingen,  1830); 
Eisemxydhydrat  {2di  ed.,  1837);  GasometnscJw  Methoden  •,  English  by  Roscoe);  and 
other  papers.  The  government  of  Baden  made  him  a privy-councilor  in  1863. 

BUNT,  a disease  of  wheat  and  other  grains,  or  the  parasitic  fungus  which  causes  that 
disease.  The  name  B.  is  supposed  to  be  a corruption  of  burnt,  or  at  least  derived  from 
the  same  root,  a derivation  perhaps  suggested  by  the  analogy  of  brand  (q.v.),  B.  is  also 
called  pepper  brand,  and  sometimes  smut  ball.  It  is  one  of  the  most  common  and 
injurious  diseases  of  wheat,  often  affecting  great  part  of  a crop,  although  its  prevalence 
has  been  greatly  diminished  by  care  on  the  part  of  farmers,  and  particularly  by  the  selec- 
tion of  clean  seed,  and  the  dressing  of  the  seed,  before  sowing,  with  some  substance, 
which,  without  injuring  its  vitality,  destroys  that  of  the  spores  or  ^anules  of  the  fun- 
gus. Even  washing  with  water  has  a good  effeet,  but  greater  ben^t  is  derived  from 
dressing  with  salt,  quicklime,  chloride  of  lime,  Glauber’s  salt  (sulphate  of  soda),  and 
quicklime,  or  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper).  Even  arsenic  and  corrosive  sublimate 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  B.  is  now  believed  to  be  propagated  by  any  contact  of  sound 
with  unsound  grain;  by  thrashing,  which  causes  the  B.  dust  to  fly  about;  or  by  manure, 
in  which  the  straw  of  infected  grain  has  been  mixed.  Upon  this  knowledge,  the  means 
now  adopted  for  its  prevention  are  founded.  A considerable  mixture  of  B.  is  not  sup- 
posed to  render  flour  absolutely  unwholesome,  at  least  when  made  into  fermented  bread, 
but  the  bread  is  of  a peculiar  flavor,  and  a very  dark  color.  It  is  said  that  such  flour  is 
used  to  no  small  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  gingerbread,  the  treacle  disguising  both 
the  color  and  the  flavor. 

BUNTER  SANDSTEIN,  or  “ variegated  sandstone,”  is  the  lowest  member  of  the  tri- 
assic  period.  As  the  triass  is  more  perfectly  developed  in  Germany  than  in  Britain,  the 
German  beds  are  considered  the  typical  group  of  this  period.  The  B.  S.  consists  of  vari- 
ous colored  sandstones,  interstratitied  with  red  marls  and  thin  beds  of  limestone,  which 
occasionally,  as  in  the  Harz,  are  oolitic,  but  in  other  places  dolomitic.  They  attain  a 
maximum  thickness  of  1500  feet.  The  English  representatives  of  the  B.  S.  are  chiefly 
developed  in  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  and  consist  of  red  and  mottled  sandstones  with 
beds  of  marl,  and  thick  rather  irregular  bands  of  partially  consolidated  conglomerate 
called  “pebble  beds.”  Thirty  species  of  fossil  plants  have  been  found  in  the  B.  S.  near 
Strasburg,  consisting  chiefly  of  ferns,  cycads,  and  conifers.  But  the  most  remarkable 
fossils  in  this  formation  are  the  remains  of  huge  batrachians.  Originally,  the  footprints 
which  had  been  left  by  the  animals  on  the  moist  sand  were  alone  observed.  From  their 
resemblance  to  the  impressions  made  by  a human  hand,  the  animal  producing  them  was 
provisionally  named  cheirotheHum  (q.v.).  The  subsequent  discovery  and  examination 
of  the  remains  of  teeth  and  bones  in  the  same  beds,  have  afforded  sutficient  materials  to 
enable  Owen  to  reconstruct  an  animal  named  by  him  (q.v.),  which  undoubt- 

edly produced  the  footprints.  These  remains  have  been  detected  in  Lancashire  and 
Cheshire,  as  well  as  in  Germany. 

BUNTINE,  or  Bunting,  is  a thin  woolen  material,  of  which  the  flags  and  signals  of 
ships  are  usually  made. 

BUNTING,  Emberiza,  a genus  of  birds  closely  allied  to  finches  and  sparrows,  and 
included  with  them  by  some  ornithologists  in  the  great  idiXmlj  fririgillideB  (q.v.),  but  by 
others  made  the  type  of  a distinct  family,  emberizidoe,  of  which  the  most  marked  char- 
acteristics are  a short,  straight,  conical  bill,  a curved  form  of  the  gape,  produced  by  a 
narrowing  of  the  sides  of  the  upper  mandible,  and  a corresponding  enlargement  of  the 
under  one,  and  a hard  rounded  knob  on  the  palate  or  inner  surface  of  the  upper  man- 
dible. This  knob  probably  aids  in  crushing  the  seeds,  which  are  a principal  part  of  the 
food  of  these  birds.  The  species  of  the  B.  family  are  numerous,  and  are  arranged^  in 
several  genera.  The  true  buntings  (forming  the  restricted  genus  emberiza)  have  the  hind 
claw  moderately  short,  curved,  and  strong,  and  the  palatal  knob  large  and  bony.  The 
Com.mon  B.  or  Corn  B.  {E.  miliaria) — a bird  considerably  larger  than  a house-sparrow, 
brown,  with  darker  streaks  on  the  upper  parts,  whitish  brown,  with  spots  and  lines  of 


185 


Bunsen. 

Bunzlau. 


dark  brown  on  the  under  parts,  and  with  a slightly  forked  tail — is  frequent,  particularly 
in  low  cultivated  grounds  in  Britain,  and  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  extending  also  into 
Asia,  living  in  pairs  during  spring  and  summer,  but  in  flocks  in  winter,  and  often  visit- 
ing barn-yards  at  that  season,  along  with  chaffinches  and  sparrows.  It  is  the  largest  of 
the  British  buntings.  It  is  supposed  that  the  winter  flocks  in  Britain  are  much  increased 
by  migration  from  more  northerly  regions.  This  B.  often  passes  the  night  on  the  ground 
in  stubble-fields,  and  is  taken  in  the  nets  employed  for  catching  larks,  and  brought  with 
them  to  market.  It  usually  builds  its  nest  on  or  very  near  the  ground.  Its  notes  are 
harsh  and  unmusical. — The  Reed  B.,  or  Black-headed  B.  {E.  fshoeniclus),  is  a species 
common  in  marshy  situations,  both  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe;  a very 
pretty  little  bird,  with  black  head  and  throat,  strikingly  contrasted  with  the  white  nape 
and  sides  of  the  neck. — The  Cirl  B.  {E.  cirlus),  of  which  the  head  is  olive-green,  with 
black  streaks,  and  with  patches  of  bright  lemon-yellow  on  the  cheeks  and  over  the  eyes, 
is  a rare  British  bird,  and  belongs  chiefly  to  the  s.  of  Europe  and  the  n.  of  Africa.  To 
this  genus  belong  also  the  Ortolan  (q.v.)  and  the  Yellow-hammer  (q.v.). — The  Snow 
B.  (q.v.),  or  Snowflake  {E.  nivalis  of  many  authors),  has  been  placed  in  the  new  genus 
pleclrophanes.  The  name  B.  has  been  often  very  vaguely  used,  and  many  species  have 
been  almost  indiscriminately  called  buntings  or  finches.  The  palatal  knob  affords  the 
best  distinctive  character.  North  America  has  a number  of  species  of  bunting. — The 
Black-throated  B.  {E.  Americana)  is  extremely  plentiful  on  the  prairies  of  Texas  and 
other  south-western  parts  of  the  United  States;  extending,  however,  as  far  as  tc  Ohio, 
and  even  to  Massachusetts.  In  the  middle  and  northern  states,  it  occurs  only  as  a sum- 
mer bird  of  passage.  In  its  habits,  it  closely  resembles  the  common  B.  of  Europe ; but 
the  palatal  knob  is  less  hard. 

BUNTING,  Jabez,  an  eminent  Wesleyan  minister,  was  b.  at  Manchester  in  1779.  At 
the  age  of  20,  he  devoted  himself  to  ministerial  work,  in  which  he  was  very  successful. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  annual  conference  in  1820,  and  again  in  1828,  1836, 
1844.  In  1834,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  theological  institution  belonging  to  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  body,  and  he  acted  as  one  of  the  secretaries  to  the  missionary 
society  in  connection  with  his  denomination,  for  a period  of  more  than  twenty  years. 
He  was  the  chief  authority  in  all  matters  relating  to  the  government  and  polity  of  Wes- 
leyan Methodism.  On  his  retirement  from  official  life  in  1857,  his  friends  presented  him 
with  an  annuity  of  £200,  in  consideration  of  the  great  services  he  had  rendered  to  Meth- 
odism. He  did  not  live,  however,  to  profit  by  their  kindness  and  forethought,  having 
died  in  June,  1858. 

BUNYAN,  John,  one  of  the  most  popular  religious  writers  of  any  age,  was  b.  at 
Elstow,  near  Bedford,  in  1628.  He  was  brought  up  to  his  father’s  trade  of  tinker,  and 
spent  his  youth  in  the  practice  of  that  humble  craft,  of  which  his  name  alone  now  serves 
to  lessen  somewhat  the  disrepute.  It  has  generally  been  taken  for  granted  that  his  early 
life  was  very  loose  and  profligate,  on  the  sole  ground  of  his  terrible  self -accusations  in 
after- years,  when,  from  the  height  of  religious  fervor  and  Puritan  strictness,  he  looked 
back  on  dancing  and  bell-iinging  as  deadly  sins.  This  point  is  satisfactorily  disposed  of 
by  Macaulay  {Encycl.  Britann.,  art.  “Bunyan”).  In  his  16th  or  17th  year,  he  enlisted 
in  the  parliamentary  army,  and  in  1645,  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Leicester,  where  he 
escaped  death  by  the  substitution  of  a comrade  in  his  place  as  sentry.  Nothing  further 
is  known  of  his  military  career.  After  leaving  the  army,  he  married,  and  soon  after 
began  to  be  visited  by  those  terrible  compunctions  of  conscience,  and  fits  of  doubt, 
sometimes  passing  into  despair,  which,  with  some  quieter  intervals,  made  his  life,  for 
several  years,  a journey  through  that  valley  of  humiliation  of  which  he  afterwards  gave 
so  vivid  a picture.  Hope  and  peace  came  at  last,  and  in  1655,  B.  became  a member  of 
the  Baptist  congregation  at  Bedford.  Soon  after,  he  was  chosen  its  pastor,  and  for  five 
years  ministered  with  extraordinary  diligence  and  success,  his  preaching  generally 
attracting  great  crowds.  The  act  against  conventicles,  passed  on  the  restoration,  put  a 
stop  to  his  labors ; he  was  convicted,  and  sentenced  to  perpetual  banishment.  In  the 
mean  time,  he  was  committed  to  Bedford  jail,  where  he  spent  the  next  12  years  of  his 
life,  supporting  the  wants  of  his  wife  and  children  by  making  tagged  laces,  and  minis- 
tering to  all  posterity  by  writing  the  Pilgrim’s  Progress.  His  library  consisted  of  a Bible 
and  Fox’s  Martyrs.  The  kindly  interposition  of  a high-church  bishop.  Dr.  Barlow  of 
Lincoln,  at  length  released  him,  and  he  at  once  resumed  his  work  as  a preacher,  itiner- 
ating throughout  the  country.  After  the  issuing  of  James  II. ’s  declaration  for  liberty 
of  conscience,  he  again  settled  at  Bedford,  and  ministered  to  the  Baptist  congregation  in 
Mill  lane  till  his  death,  at  London,  of  fever,  in  1688.  B.’s  whole  works  were  published 
in  1736,  in  2 vols.  folio.  The  most  popular  of  them,  after  the  Pilgrim’s  Progress,  are  the 
Holy  War — another  allegory,  much  less  successful — and  Grace  Abounding  to  the  Chief  oj 
Sinners,  an  autobiographical  narrative.  It  is  supposed  that  no  other  book,  except  the 
Bible,  has  gone  through  so  many  editions,  and  attained  to  so  wide  a popularity,  in  all 
languages,  as  the  Pilgrim’s  Progress.  A fac-simile  reprint  of  the  original  edition  of  the 
Pilgrim’s  Progress  was  published  in  1875.  A statue  of  B.  was  unveiled  at  Bedford  in 
1874. 

BUNZLAU,  a t.  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Silesia,  is  situated  on  the  Bober,  about 
35  m.  w.n.w.  of  Liegnitz.  B.  has  manufactures  of  woolens,  linens,  hosiery,  tobacco. 


Bnnzlau. 

Burckhardt. 


186 


and  earthenware,  and  a trade  in  grain.  An  obelisk  to  the  Russian  gen.,  Kutusow,  who 
died  here  in  1813,  adorns  the  market-place.  Pop.  ’75,  9959. 

BUNZLAU,  Jung,  a t.  of  Bohemia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Iser,  about  32  m.  n.e.  of 
Prague.  B.  is  well  built,  has  an  old  castle,  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  Woolen, 
soap,  leather,  etc.  It  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  king  Boleslaf,  who  founded  it  in  the 
10th  century.  Pop.  ’69,  8695. 

BTJNZLAIT,  Jung  or  Neue  {New  Bunzlau),  a t.  of  Bohemia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Iser,  a tributary  of  the  Elbe,  31  m.  n.e.  from  Prague.  It  is  well  built  of  stone,  has  sev- 
eral churches,  a Jewish  synagogue,  barracks,  a hospital,  a Piarist  gymnasium,  etc.  It 
has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  soap,  and  leather.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  king  Boleslaf  in  973,  and  the  fort  built  by  him  still  exists.  Its  Bohe- 
mian name  is  Mlada  Boleslaw.  Pop.  5000. 

BUOL-SCHATJENSTEIN,  Karl  Ferd.,  Count,  Austrian  statesman,  was  b.  1/thMay, 
1797.  After  filling  subordinate  diplomatic  posts,  he  became  ambassador  at  Carlsruhe  in 
1828,  afterwards  at  Stuttgart  (1838)  and  at  Turin  (1844).  Leaving  Turin  on  the  out- 
break of  the  war  in  1848,  he  went  as  ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg,  and  it  fell  to  him  to 
uphold  the  interest  and  dignity  of  his  country,  on  occasion  of  the  aid  given  by  Russia 
in  the  Hungarian  war.  A not  less  difficult  task  was  assigned  him  when,  in  1851, 
he  was  sent  to  represent  Austria  in  London;  his  address  and  conciliatory  bearing  con- 
tributed not  a little  to  bring  about  a more  friendly  feeling  between  the  two  governments. 
On  Schwarzenberg’s  death,  B.  was  recalled  to  Vienna,  and  became  foreign  minister.  In 
this  position,  he  carried  out  the  new  politics  of  Austria  no  less  firmly  and  successfully, 
though  more  moderately  and  quietly,  than  his  predecessor.  In  the  negotiations  during 
and  after  the  termination  of  the  Crimean  war,  B,  showed  himself  a skillful  and  able 
statesman.  After  defending  with  zeal  and  ingenuity,  in  diplomatic  notes  and  circulars, 
the  position  which  Austria  had  taken  up  with  reference  to  Sardinia,  B.  suddenly,  on  the 
actual  commencement  of  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859,  resigned  his  place,  which  was 
immediately  filled  by  count  Rechberg.  Failing  health  was  the  cause  officially  assigned 
for  the  step,  but  the  general  belief  was,  that  it  indicated  a triumph  of  the  war-party  in 
the  council  of  Francis  Joseph.  He  died  Oct.  28,  1865. 

BUONAFE'DE,  Appiano,  1716-93;  an  Italian  philosopher  and  general  of  the  Celes- 
tines;  author  of  several  works  on  philosophical  themes. 

BUONAROT'TI,  Michael  Angelo.  See  Michael  Angelo,  ante. 

BUOY  is  a floating  body,  intended  as  a mark  for  the  guidance  of  mariners.  It  is  made 
cither  of  wood  or  metal,  and  is  mostly  hollow,  to  make  it  float  better.  Buoys  are  gen- 
erally moored  by  chains  to  the  bed  of  the  river  or  channel.  They  are  of  various  shapes 
and  sizes,  and  are  painted  of  various  colors,  partly  to  render  them  conspicuous,  and 
partly  to  distinguish  them  one  from  another.  Sometimes  floating  buoys  mark  out  the 
best  channel  for  entering  a dock;  sometimes  they  warn  the  mariner  away  from  sands, 
spits,  and  shoals;  sometimes  they  mark  out  a continuous  double  line,  as  at  Spithead, 
between  which  ships  can  alone  with  safety  enter  a harbor.  The  Trinity  house  has 
adopted  a form  of  B.,  invented  by  Mr.  Herbert,  in  which,  by  due  attention  the  center  of 
flotation,  and  to  the  point  where  the  mooring-chain  is  fixed,  the  tendency  to  pitch  and 
roll  is  much  lessened,  and  the  B.  kept  nearly  upright  in  all  weathers.  Messrs.  Brown 
and  Lenox’s  bell-buoy  is  an  ingenious  contrivance  for  rendering  a B.  audible,  whether 
it  is  visible  or  not ; so  long  as  any  stream  of  water,  whether  caused  by  a tide  or  a current, 
passes  through  the  lower  part  of  the  B.,  it  moves  an  undershot  water-wheel,  which  rings 
:a  bell. 

The  lighting  of  coast-buoys  by  means  of  compressed  gas  has  been  of  late  successfully 
attempted.  Experiment  proved  that  buoys  5 ft.  by  3 ft.  could  contain  enough  of  gas 
(made  from  shale-oil  refuse  or  the  like)  to  keep  up  a brilliant  light  for  a month  or  more 
at  a time. 

BUOYANCY,  of  ships,  is  the  amount  of  weight  which  can  be  buoyed  up  by  the  hull. 
The  B.  of  a vessel  is  proportionate  to  the  weight  of  water  displayed  by  its  presence  (see 
Hydrostatics),  and  is  found  in  this  way : The  cubic  feet  of  the  part  of  a vessel  to  be 
immersed  being  known,  multiply  it  by  the  weight  of  a cubic  foot  of  water  (62.5  lbs.), 
and  the  product  will  be  the  weight  of  water  displaced.  From  this  subtract  the  weight 
of  the  vessel,  and  the  result  will  be  the  B.  or  the  weight  a vessel  will  carry  without  sink- 
ing lower  than  the  given  line.  It  is  admitted,  however,  by  naval  architects,  that  all  the 
old  rules  concerning  B.,  displacement,  and  flotation,  must  undergo  modification  by  the 
introduction  of  iron  ships,  paddle  and  screw  propulsion,  and  the  increased  weight  of 
broadside. 

BUOY-DUES.  Buoys  are  under  very  stringent  regulations,  on  account  of  their  impor- 
tance to  the  safety  of  ships.  The  public  buoys,  for  guiding  into  channels,  and  warning 
from  shoals  and  rocks,  are  usually  marked  on  the  best  charts  relating  to  that  particular 
water-way.  The  corporation  of  the  Trinity  house  has  a peculiar  jurisdiction  over  the 
buoys  and  beacons  in  the  Thames,  and  along  the  Essex  and  Suffolk  coasts;  as  well  as  on 
other  coasts  in  England  and  Wales.  All  ships  which  enter  the  ports  within  this  juris- 
diction pay  a small  sum  as  buoy-dues.  The  payment  is  sometimes  a tonnage  rate,  vary- 
ing from  O^d.  to  2d.  per  ton;  sometimes  a rate  per  vessel,  varying  from  4d.  to  3«. ; some- 


187 


Bunzlaa. 

Burckhardt» 


times  a payment  on  entering  only,  at  others  on  departure  as  well  as  on  entering;  while 
some  kinds  of  coasting  vessels  pay  5s.  per  annum,  whatever  may  be  the  number  of 
voyages.  From  the  Thames  buoys  alone,  the  Trinity  house  receives  £14,000  per  annum 
as  dues. 

BUPALUS  AND  ATHENIS,  Greek  sculptors,  540  b.c.,  in  the  isle  of  Chios.  They 
were  brothers,  and  sons  of  Anthermus,  also  a sculptor.  As  they  produced  only  drgped 
figures,  it  is  inferred  that  the  art  had  not  advanced  so  far  as  to  attempt  nude  subjects. 
It  is  said  that  B.  made  a caricature  of  the  poet  Hipponax,  who  was  naturally  intensely 
ugly,  and  that  the  poet  retorted  by  verses  that  drove  the  sculptor  to  suicide. 

BU'Ph'agA.  See  Beefeater. 

BUPHONIA,  or  Diipolia,  a religious  festival  held  in  Athens  on  the  14th  July,  when 
the  very  old  ceremony  of  sacrificing  an  ox  to  Zeus  was  observed. 

BUPEES'TIS,  a Linnsean  genus  of  coleopterous  (q.v.)  insects,  now  divided  into  a num- 
ber of  genera,  and  forming  a tribe  or  family,  huprestidce,  of  which  some  hundreds  of 
species  are  known,  most  of  them  belonging  to  tropical  countries,  and  remarkable  for  the 
splendor  of  their  colors.  The  colors  are  generally  metallic  in  their  luster,  have  frequently 
a burnished  appearance,  and  are  often  beautifully  iridescent.  One  of  the  largest  species, 
B.  gigas,  is  a native  of  Cayenne : it  is  about  2 in.  long.  The  English  and  other  European 
species  are  all  comparatively  small.  Most  of  the  species  spend  the  night  on  trees,  shrubs, 
and  other  plants,  flying  about  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  day.  Some  of  them  are 
popularly  known  as  Golden  Beetles.  Plants  are  sometimes  seen  studded  with  them 
in  the  morning,  as  with  gorgeous  flowers.  The  golden  elytj'a  (wing-cases,  see  Elytra) 
of  some  species  are  used  to  enrich  the  embroidery  of  the  Indian  zenana;  and  the  lustrous 
joints  of  the  legs  are  strung  on  silken  threads,  and  form  necklaces  and  bracelets  of  sin- 
gular brilliancy.  The  species  of  huprestidos  found  in  England  are  few;  none  have  yet 
been  found  in  Scotland.  The  larvae  seem  sometimes  to  be  transported  from  one  country 
to  another  in  timber. 

BUR,  in  an  engraving,  is  a slight  ridge  of  metal  raised  on  the  edges  of  a line  by  the 
graver  or  the  dry  point.  As  the  B.  produces  an  effect  like  a smear,  it  is  usually  regarded 
as  a defect,  and  scraped  off.  Some  etchers,  however,  take  advantage  of  it  to  deepen 
their  shadows,  and  Rembrandt  made  use  of  it  in  this  way  with  telling  effect. 

BURANHEM,  or  Burunhem.  See  Monesia  Bark. 

BURA'NO,  an  island  and  t.  of  northern  Italy,  in  the  Adriatic,  about  5 m.  n.e.  of 
Venice.  The  island  supplies  a large  proportion  of  the  vegetables  consumed  in  Venice. 
B.  has  some  lace-manufactures,  boat-building,  and  an  extensive  ropework,  but  the 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  fishing.  Population  of  town,  5000 ; of  commune, 
7000. 

BURBAGE,  or  BURBADGE,  Richard,  d.  1619;  an  English  actor,  son  of  James,  also 
an  actor.  Richard  was  the  first  person  to  receive  license  as  a player  (1574),  and  was  for 
many  years  a business  and  professional  associate  of  Shakespeare,  acting  “Richard  III.,’' 
“Proteus,”  and  other  leading  characters. 

BUR'BOT,  Lota  vulgaris,  a fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  ling  (q.v.),  and  of  the 
same  family  with  the  cod,  haddock,  etc.,  being  the  only  British  fresh- water  species  of 
that  family,  gadidoe.  It  is  found  in  the  Cam,  the  Trent,  and  other  rivers  of  the  eastern 
and  midland  counties  of  England,  but  is  one  of  the  most  local  of  British  fresh- vrater 
fishes.  It  is  found  also  in  various  parts  of  the  n.  of  Europe,  and  at  least  as  far  s.  as 
Switzerland ; in  Siberia  and  other  parts  of  Asia,  even,  it  is  said,  in  India.  In  English  rivers, 
it  often  reaches  2 or  3 lbs.  in  weight,  but  has  been  taken  of  8 lbs.  weight;  and  in  some  parts 
of  Europe,  it  is  said  to  reach  10  or  12  lbs.  weight.  In  appearance,  the  B.  very  much  resem- 
bles the  ling,  but  is  rather  thicker  at  the  neck,  and  tapers  rather  more  rapidly,  although 
still  of  a somewhat  elongated  form.  It  has  two  dorsal  fins,  the  first  short,  the  second 
very  long,  and  a very  long  anal  fin.  It  differs  from  the  ling  in  the  form  of  the  tail-fin, 
which  is  oval  and  slightly  pointed ; but  agrees  with  it  in  having  a single  barbule  on  the 
lower  jaw.  It  is  of  a yellowish-brown  color,  clouded  and  spotted  with  darker  brown 
on  the  upper  parts,  the  under  parts  lighter ; the  scales  are  small ; and  the  whole  body  is 
covered  with  a mucous  secretion.  The  flesh  is  white,  firm,  and  of  good  flavor;  “and 
as  the  B.  is  in  its  nature  extremely  hardy,  few  diflBculties  present  themselves  in  the  way 
of  their  increase  in  quantity,  while  the  value  of  the  fish  would  amply  repay  the  trouble 
or  the  cost  of  the  experiment.” — Yarrell.  The  B.  is  capable  of  living  for  a long  time 
out  of  water.  It  is  commonly  taken  by  trimmers  and  night-lines,  as  it  feeds  principally 
during  the  night.  Its  food  consists  of  small  fishes,  worms,  mollusca,  etc.  Its  liver 
yields  an  oil  similar  to  cod-liver  oil. 

BURBRIDGE,  Stephen  Gang,  b.  Ky.,  1831 ; bred  to  the  law,  but  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile business  and  farming.  When  the  war  of  the  secession  began,  he  entered  the 
union  service,  and  was  distinguished  for  bravery  in  many  engagements.  He  resigned 
after  the  close  of  the  war,  with  the  rank  of  brevet  brig.gen. 

BURCKHARDT,  John  Lewis,  an  enterprising  African  traveler,  was  b.  at  Lausanne, 
in  Switzerland,  Nov.  24,  1784.  In  1806,  he  came  to  London,  and  was  introduced  by 
6ir  Joseph  Banks  to  the  African  association,  which  accepted  his  services  to  explore  th® 


Burdekin. 

Burdett-Coutts. 


188 


route  of  Hornemann  into  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  he  embarked  for  Malta,  Feb.  14, 
1809.  He  had  previously  qualified  himself  for  the  undertaking  by  a study  of  Arabic, 
and  also  by  inuring  himself  to  hunger,  thirst,  and  exposure.  From  Malta  he  proceeded, 
under  the  disguise  of  an  oriental  dress  and  name,  to  Aleppo,  where  he  studied  about  two 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  had  become  so  proficient  in  the  vulgar  Arabic,  that 
he  could  safely  travel  in  the  disguise  of  an  oriental  merchant.  He  visited  Palmyra, 
Damascus,  Lebanon,  and  other  remarkable  places,  and  then  went  to  Cairo,  his  object 
being  to  proceed  from  thence  to  Fezzan,  and  then  across  the  Sahara  to  Sudan.  No 
opportunity  offering  itself  at  the  time  for  that  journey,  he  went  into  Nubia.  No  Euro- 
pean traveler  had  before  passed  the  Derr.  In  1814,  he  traveled  through  the  Nubian 
desert  to  the  shore  of  the  Red  sea  and  to  Jeddah,  whence  he  proceeded  to  Mecca,  to 
study  Islamism  at  its  source.  After  staying  four  months  in  Mecca,  he  departed  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Mt.  Arafat.  So  completely  had  he  acquired  the  language  and  ideas  of 
his  fellow-pilgrims,  that,  when  some  doubt  arose  respecting  his  Mohammedan  ortho- 
doxy, he  was  thoroughly  examined  in  the  Koran,  and  was  not  only  accepted  as  a true 
believer,  but  also  highly  commended  as  a great  Moslem  scholar.  In  1815,  he  returned 
to  Cairo,  and  in  the  following  year  ascended  Mt.  Sinai.  The  Fezzan  caravan,  for  which 
he  had  waited  so  long,  was  at  last  about  to  depart,  and  B.  had  made  all  his  preparations 
for  accompanying  it,  when  he  was  seized  with  dysentery  at  Cairo,  which  terminated  his 
life  in  a few  days,  Oct.  15,  1817,  at  the  early  age  of  33.  As  a holy  sheik,  he  was 
interred  with  all  funeral  honors  by  the  Turks  in  the  Moslem  burial-ground.  His 
collection  of  oriental  MSS.,  in  350  volumes,  was  left  to  the  university  of  Cambridge. 
His  journals  of  travel,  remarkable  alike  for  their  interest  and  evident  truthfulness, 
were  published  by  the  African  association.  B.  was  a man  born  to  be  a traveler  and  dis- 
coverer; his  inherent  love  of  adventure  was  accompanied  by  an  observant  power  of 
the  highest  order.  His  personal  character  recommended  him  to  all  with  whom  he 
came  in  contact,  and  his  loss  was  greatly  deplored,  not  only  in  England,  but  m 
Europe.  His  works  are — Travels  in  Nubia,  1819;  Travels  in  By'f'ia  and  the  Holy  Land, 
1822;  Travels  in  Arabia,  1829;  Notes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Wahabis,  1830;  and  Manners 
and  Customs  of  the  Modern  Egyptians,  1830. 

BURDEKIN,  ariverinn.e.  Australia,  in  the  colony  of  Queensland,  about  350  m. 
long,  falling  into  Upstart  bay. 

BUE'DEN,  a term  of  law  in  Scotland,  used  to  signify  any  restriction,  limitation,  or 
incumbrance  affecting  either  person  or  property.  Burdens  are  said  to  be  either  per- 
sonal or  real.  Where  a party  is  taken  bound  by  acceptance  of  a right  to  pay  a certain 
sum  to  another,  but  where  there  is  no  clause  charging  the  subject  conveyed  with  the 
sum,  the  burden  is  said  to  he,  personal;  that  is,  it  will  be  binding  upon  the  receiver  and 
his  representatives,  but  will  constitute  no  real  incumbrance  on  the  lands,  or  other  sub- 
ject conveyed,  nor  amount,  indeed,  to  anything  more  than  a mere  personal  obligation 
on  the  granter.  But  where  the  right  is  expressly  granted  under  the  burden  of  a specific 
sum,  which  is  declared  a burden  or  charge  on  the  lands  themselves,  or  where  the  right 
is  declared  null  if  the  sum  be  not  paid,  the  burden  is  said  to  be  real. 

By  the  10  and  11  Viet.  c.  48,  real  burdens  need  not  be  inserted  in  full  in  conveyances, 
if  they  have  already  been  set  forth  in  an  instrument  of  title,  in  which  case  they  may  be 
referred  to  in  the  terms,  or  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the  terms,  set  forth  in  schedule  C 
annexed  to  the  act.  A similar  provision  is  made  in  regard  to  lands  held  in  burgage  ten- 
ure, by  the  10  and  11  Viet.  c.  49. 

BUE'DEN,  or  Bur'then,  of  a ship.  See  Tonnage. 

BURDEN,  Henry,  1791-1871;  b.  Scotland;  son  of  a farmer;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1819,  and  the  next  year  made  the  first  cultivator  used  in  agriculture  in  this 
country.  His  inventions  include  improvements  in  plows,  a machine  for  making  iron 
spikes,  and  one  for  fashioning  horseshoes  which  produced  60  shoes  per  minute  from 
the  bar.  He  was  agent  and  afterwards  proprietor  of  the  Troy  iron  and  nail  works,  one 
of  the  largest  manufactories  in  the  world.  .He  devoted  much  attention  to  steam  naviga- 
tion, and  built,  in  1833,  a steamboat  which  from  its  shape  was  called  the  “ cigar  boat,”  but 
it  was  lost  before  its  speed  had  been  fairly  tried. 

BUEDEN  OF  PEOOF,  in  legal  procedure,  signifies  the  obligation  to  establish  by  evi- 
dence certain  disputed  facts;  and,  as  a general  rule,  this  burden  lies  on  the  party  assert- 
ing the  affirmative  of  the  issue  to  be  tried  or  question  in  dispute,  according  to  the  maxim 
ei  incumbit  probatio  qui  dicit  non  qui  negat — that  is,  proof  is  incumbent  on  him  who 
asserts,  not  on  him  who  denies.  The  principle  of  the  law  is,  that  the  B.  of  P . is  on  the 
party  who  would  fail  if  no  evidence  were  adduced  on  either  side.  Accordingly,  it  almost 
always  rests  on  the  plaintiff  in  an  action,  or  on  the  party  asserting  the  facts  on  which  tlk 
result  of  the  litigation  must  depend.  In  one  case  tried  before  the  late  baron  Alderson,  that 
learned  judge  laid  down  that  the  proper  test  was,  which  party  would  be  successful,  if  no 
evidence  at  all  were  given?  the  B.  of  P.,  of  course,  falling  on  the  party  not  in  that  position. 
This  test  has  since  been  generally  adopted  and  applied;  but  Mr.  Best,  in  his  learned  work 
on  the  Principles  of  Evidence,  improves  on  it  by  the  suggestion,  that  in  strict  accuracy  the 
test  ought  to  be,  “ which  party  would  be  successful,  if  no  evidence  at  all,  or  no  more  evi- 
dence, as  the  case  maj"  be,  were  given?”  a consideration  on  which  the  discretion  and  judg* 


189 


Burdekin. 

Burdett-Coatts. 


ment  of  counsel  frequently  depend.  But  although  such,  in  general,  is  the  position  of 
the  plaintiff,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  B.  of  P.  is  imposed  on  the  defendant,  and  in 
consequence  of  his  having  the  affirmative  of  the  material  issue  to  be  tried. 

It  is  this  rule  as  to  the  B.  of  P.  that  demonstrates  the  real  nature  of  the  plea  of  not 
guilty  in  a criminal  prosecution,  and  which  divests  that  plea  of  the  objections  to  it  which 
are  frequently  heard  expressed  by  overscrupulous  sentimentalists;  for  the  meaning  of 
that  plea  is  not  necessarily  an  assertion  by  the  prisoner  that  he  is  absolutely  guiltless  or 
innocent,  but  that  he  wishes  to  be  tried,  and  that  as  the  B.  of  P.  is  on  the  prosecutor, 
while  he  has  meanwhile  the  presumption  of  innocence  in  his  favor. — Besides  the  work 
referred  to,  see  on  the  subject  of  this  article  Starkie  on  the  Law  of  IMdence  in  England, 
and  Dickson  on  the  same  subject  in  Scotland. 

BURDENS,  Public.  See  Public  Burdens. 

BURDEB,  Hev.  George,  an  active  and  influential  minister  of  the  Congregational 
body,  was  b.  in  London,  June,  1752.  After  studying  some  time  as  an  artist,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  ministry,  and  in  1778  was  appointed  pastor  of  an  independent  church  at 
Lancaster.  He  afterwards  removed  to  Coventry,  and  in  1803  to  London.  Here  he 
became  secretary  to  the  London  missionary  society,  and  editor 'of  the  Evangelical  Maga- 
zine, the  duties  of  which  oflSces  he  discharged  with  great  zeal,  until  failing  health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign.  B.  took  a prominent  part  in  all  the  religious  movements  of  his 
time.  He  died  May,  1832.  His  Village  Sermons  have  been  translated  into  several 
European  languages ; and  he  was  the  author  of  other  series  of  sermons  and  publications 
which  have  had  an  immense  circulation. 

BURDETT,  Sir  Francis,  Bart.,  the  most  popular  English  politician  of  his  time,  b. 
Jan.  25,  1770.  Educated  at  Westminster  school  and  Oxford  university,  he  spent  some 
years  on  the  continent,  and  was  a witness  to  the  progress  of  the  first  French  revolution. 
In  1793,  he  married  Sophia,  youngest  daughter  of  Thomas  Coutts,  esq.,  the  wealthy 
London  banker,  and  in  1796  was  elected  M.  P.  for  Boroughbridge,  Yorkshire.  In  1797, 
on  the  death  of  his  grandfather,  he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy.  In  the  house  of 
•commons,  he  made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  opposition  to  government  and  the  war, 
and  his  advocacy  of  parliamentary  reform.  Catholic  emancipation,  and  other  liberal 
measures,  most  of  which  were  afterwards  carried.  One  of  the  most  effective  political 
speakers  of  that  excited  period,  he  for  many  years  prominently  occupied  public  atten- 
tion, and  was  the  idol  of  the  London  populace.  Having  succeeded  in  obtaining  a par- 
liamentary inquiry  into  the  abuses  of  the  metropolitan  prisons,  he  became,  in  1802,  a 
■candidate  for  Middlesex.  He  was  first  returned,  then  unseated,  and  after  a second 
oontest,  defeated.  At  the  general  election  of  1806,  B.  again  became  a candidate  for 
Middlesex,  but  was  defeated.  In  May,  1807,  he  fought  a duel  with  Mr.  James  Pauli,  one 
of  the  candidates  for  Westminster  the  previous  year.  Soon  after,  he  was  returned, 
with  lord  Cochrane,  for  Westminster,  which  he  represented  for  nearly  30  years.  B.  hav- 
ing in  1810  published,  in  Cobbett’s  Political  Begister,  a letter  to  his  constituents,  declar- 
ing the  conduct  of  the  house  of  commons  illegal  in  imprisoning  John  Gale  Jones,  the 
speaker’s  warrant  was  issued  for  his  apprehension,  as  being  guilty  of  a breach  of  priv- 
ilege. Refusing  to  surrender,  he  for  two  days  barricaded  his  house;  the  populace 
supported  him  in  his  resistance,  and  in  a street  contest  between  them  and  the  mili- 
tary some  lives  were  lost;  but  on  April  9,  the  sergeant-at-arms,  aided  by  the  police  and 
military,  obtained  an  entrance,  and  conveyed  him  to  the  Tower.  The  prorogation  of 
parliament  restored  him  to  liberty.  Prosecuted  in  1819  for  a libel  contained  in  a letter 
to  his  constituents,  strongly  animadverting  on  the  proceedings  of  the  magistrates  and 
yeomanry  at  the  memorable  Manchester  meeting,  he  was  sentenced  to  three  months’ 
imprisonment  in  the  king’s  bench,  and  to  pay  a fine  of  £1000.  In  1835,  he  deserted  the 
liberal  party,  and  joined  the  conservatives.  In  1837,  he  was  returned  for  Wiltshire.  He 
died  in  1844. 

BURDETT-COUTTS,  The  Right  Hon.  Angela  Georgina,  Baroness,  daughter  of  sir 
Francis  Burdett,  was  b.  in  1814.  In  1837, -she  inherited  much  of  the  property  of  her 
grandfather,  Thomas  Coutts,  the  banker,  on  the  death  of  his  widow,  who  died  duchess 
of  St.  Albans.  The  liberal  and  public-spirited  use  she  has  made  of  this  wealth,  in  her 
efforts  to  mitigate  the  sufferings  of  her  fellow-creatures  and  the  lower  animals,  has  ren- 
dered her  name  well  known  and  deservedly  popular.  Besides  spending  large  sums  of 
money  in  building  and  endowing  several  churches  and  schools,  she  endowed  the  three 
colonial  bishoprics  of  Cape  Town,  Adelaide,  and  British  Columbia,  at  an  outlay  of  about 
£50,000,  and  founded  an  establishment  in  South  Australia  for  the  improvement  of  the 
aborigines.  In  her  zeal  for  the  good  of  her  own  sex,  she  effected  important  reforms  in 
the  teaching  of  girls  at  the  national  schools,  and  established  a shelter  and  reformatory 
for  fallen  women.  To  the  city  of  London  she  has  presented,  besides  several  handsome 
fountains,  the  Columbia  market,  Bethnal  green,  for  the  supply  of  good  and  wholesome 
food  in  a poor  district.  She  also  built  Columbia  square,  consisting  of  model  dwellings 
at  low  rents,  for  about  300  families;  and,  taking  great  interest  in  emigration,  has 
assisted  many  poor  families  in  their  passage  and  outfit.  Her  private  charities  have 
been  on  a corresponding  scale;  and  she  is  also  a liberal  patroness  of  art.  In  1871,  she 
accepted  a peerage  from  government,  with  the  above  title.  In  1872,  the  freedom  of 


Burdock. 

Burjfer. 


190 


the  city  of  London  was  conferred  upon  her  (the  first  woman  who  ever  received  it) ; and 
in  1874  she  received  the  same  honor  from  Edinburgh. 

BUB'DOCK,  Arctium,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  great  natural  order  (q.v.), 

ivihQ  cyrim'ocepTialcB.  The  heads  of  flowers  are  globose,  or  nearly  so;  and  each  of  the 
scales  of  the  involucre  runs  out  into  a long  rigid  prickle,  which  is  hooked  at  the  point. 
By  means  of  these  hooks,  the  flower-head,  popularly  called  a burr,  readily  lays  hold  of 
the  clothes  of  a passer-by,  the  wool  of  a sheep,  or  the  like,  and  thus  the  seeds  are  trans- 
ported from  one  place  to  another,  the  short  hairy  pappus  being  insuflicient  to  waft 
them  far  on  the  wind.  The  common  B.  (A.  lappa),  of  which  varieties  very  slightly  dis- 
tinguished have  sometimes  been  described  as  species  {A.  bardana^  etc.),  is  abundant  in 
waste  and  bushy  places,  by  waysides,  etc.,  in  Britain  and  throughout  Europe,  scarcely, 
however,  growing  except  in  rich  land.  Its  root  is  biennial,  large,  and  fleshy,  somewhat 
carrot-shaped ; the  root-leaves  large,  stalked,  heart-shaped ; the  stem  stiff,  upright,  some- 
what branched  and  leafy,  3 ft.  or  more  high.  The  whole  aspect  of  the  plant  is  coarse, 
and  it  is  somewhat  clammy  to  the  touch.  The  root  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine,  being 
diaphoretic  and  diuretic,  and  acting  upon  the  cutaneous  system  and  the  kidneys.  It  is 
capable  of  being  made  a -substitute  for  sarsaparilla.  When  fresh,  it  has  a disagreeable 
smell,  but  when  dry  it  is  inodorous;  it  has  a sweetish  mucilaginous  taste,  becoming 
afterwards  bitterish  and  rather  acrid,  and  contains  chiefly  inulin,  bitter  extractive, 
mucilage  sugar,  and  a little  tannin.  In  many  countries,  the  roots,  young  shoots,  and 
young  leaves  of  B.  are  used  in  soups;  and  the  plant  is  cultivated  for  this  use  in  Japan. 
The  roots  are  said  to  resemble  artichokes  in  taste.  The  leaves  and  their  expressed 
juice  are  sometimes  applied  to  burns  and  suppurations. 

BTJRDWAN',  a city  in  the  district  and  province  of  the  same  name,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Bengal,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  road  from  the  Hoogly  to  the  n.w.  provinces,  in 
lat.  23°  12'  n.,  and  long.  87°  56'  e.,  74  m.  from  Calcutta,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  In  point  of  architecture,  it  is  a miserable  place — an  aggregate,  as  it  were,  of 
second-rate  suburbs.  Pop.  ’71,  32,321. 

BTJRDWAN',  the  district  of  the  last-mentioned  city,  lying  between  Beerbhoom  on 
the  n.,  and  Hoogly  on  the  south.  It  stretches  in  n.  lat.  from  22°  52'  to  23°  40',  and  in  e. 
long,  from  87°  21'  to  88°  23'.  It  has  an  area  of  3523  sq.m.,  with  (1871)  2,034,745  inhab- 
itants, or  577  to  the  sq.m. — a proportion  which  certainly  seems  to  justify  a name  that 
signifies  productive.  The  district  is  largely  engaged  in  the  refining  of  sugar.  It  exports 
also  iron  and  coal ; chiefly,  however,  brought  from  the  mines  of  Bancoorah,  the  district 
on  the  west.  Next  to  the  capital,  Cutwa  and  Culna  are  the  chief  towns. — The  division 
of  B.  has  an  area  of  12,719  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  (1871)  of  7,286,957. 

BURE,  or  Bur,  a mythical  being  who  stands  in  Norse  mythology  as  the  grandfather 
of  Odin,  the  supreme  deity  in  that  religion.  The  larger  portion  of  Snorro  Sturleson’s 
work  known  as  the  Younger  or  Prose  Edda  (in  distinction  from  the  poetical  or  Elder 
Edda)  is  devoted  to  the  Fooling  of  Gylfi,  and  these  two  older  and  younger  Eddas  corre- 
spond in  that  old  heathen  religion  very  nearly  to  the  old  and  new  testaments  in  Chris- 
tianity. It  is  not  in  place  here  to  tell  all  the  strange  adventures  of  Gylfi  in  his  search 
for  the  origin  of  things,  but  only  so  far  as  concerns  Bure.  Gylfi  (who  was  a king  of 
Svithiod,  or  Sweden)  journeyed  to  Asgard  (the  home  of  the  gods)  in  search  of  knowl- 
edge, and  the  gods,  knowing  of  his  coming  and  his  purpose,  were  ready  to  answer  him. 
After  he  had  been  satisfied  about  the  gods,  their  number  and  attributes,  Gylfi  asked 
about  their  origin.  He  was  told  that,  many  ages  before  the  earth  was  made,  Niflheim 
(the  nebulous  or  shadowy  region)  was  formed;  that  in  the  middle  of  Niflheim  was  a spring 
called  Hvergelnur  (the  roaring  cauldron),  from  which  twelve  rivers  flowed.  When  the 
rivers  had  flowed  far  from  their  sources  the  venom  which  they  rolled  along  hardened, 
as  does  the  dross  that  runs  from  a furnace,  and  became  ice.  The  ice  stood  still,  and 
the  vapor  that  gathered  over  it  froze  into  rime,  or  f rosty-snow,  and  in  this  manner  were 
formed  in  Ginnunga-Gap  (the  yawning  abyss,  or  all  space)  many  layers  of  congealed 
vapor,  piled  one  upon  another.  But  the  southern  part  of  Ginnunga-Gap  was  filled  with 
sparks  and  flashes  of  fire  that  flew  into  it  from  Mushellheim  (the  home  of  elemental  fire). 
In  the  conflict  of  elements  the  rime  was  melted  and  the  melted  drops  took  a human 
semblance,  and  the  being  thus  formed  was  named  Ymir  (the  primordial  giant).  Another 
creature  formed  from  this  conflict  of  heat  and  cold  was  a cow  named  Audhumla  (dark- 
ness), and  from  her  teats  ran  four  streams  of  milk,  on  which  Ymir  was  fed.  “But,” 
asked  Gylfi,  “on  what  did  the  cow  feed?”  The  answer  was  that  she  supported  herself 
by  licking  the  surrounding  stones,  which  were  covered  with  hoar-frost  and  salt.  The 
first  day  she  licked  there  appeared  the  hair  of  a man ; the  second  day  the  head  came  to 
view;  and  the  third  day  the  whole  man  appeared.  This  man  was  called  Bur  or  Bure 
(“born,”  whence  old  German  “barn,”  and  Scottish  “bairn,”  a child).  This  first  crea- 
ture in  the  form  of  a man  was  the  father  of  Bbr  (also  meaning  born),  who  took  for  his 
wife  Besla,  the  daughter  of  the  giant  Bolthorn  (calamity  or  evil),  and  this  pair  were  the 
parents  of  Odin,  the  Norse  allfather,  and  his  brothers  Veli  and  Ve.  No  wife  is  named. 
for  Bure,  nor  is  anything  further  related  of  him, 

BUREAU,  a French  word  signifying  a writing  table  or  desk;  also,  an  office  for  trans- 
acting business,  a department  of  government  or  the  ofiicials  that  carry  it  on.  Bureau- 


191 


Burdock. 

Burger. 


‘CRACT  is  popularly  applied  to  signify  the  kind  of  government,  exemplified  in  many  con- 
tinental states,  where  a host  of  government  officials,  regularly  organized  and  subordi- 
nated, and  responsible  only  to  their  chiefs,  interfere  with  and  control  every  detail  of 
public  and  private  life — the  evil  which  the  Germans  call  “much-government”  {vld- 
regieren). 

BUREAU,  a CO,  in  n.w.  Illinois  on  the  Illinois  river;  800  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  33,189; 
.evel  and  fertile,  with  little  timber ; the  chief  business  is  agriculture.  It  is  intersected  by 
the  Chicago  and  Rock  Island  and  other  railroads.  Co.  seat,  Princeton. 

BUEEN,  Martin  Van,  a president  of  the  United  States  of  America  (1837-41),  was  b. 
at  Kinderhook,  in  Columbia,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  5, 1782.  Educated  for  the  bar,  he  was  elected, 
in  1812,  senator  in  the  legislative  assembly  of  New  York,  and  in  1821  took  his  seat  in 
congress,  where  he  supported  democratic  measures.  In  1829  he  was  made  secretary  of 
state,  and  in  1837  he  succeeded  gen.  Jackson  in  the  presidency,  being  elected  by  a 
majority  of  24  votes  over  his  rivals.  Clay,  Webster,  and  Harrison.  On  beginning 
the  duties  of  his  office,  he  found  himself  involved  in  such  financial  perplexities,  that  he 
immediately  summoned  congress  to  an  extraordinary  session,  and  proposed  an  entire 
separation  of  state-finance  from  the  banks  of  the  union,  a proposition  which  was  decis- 
ively rejected,  and  B.’s  popularity  was  greatly  damaged.  In  1840,  he  had  to  yield  his 
place  to  gen.  Harrison,  the  Whig  candidate;  and  in  1844,  when  he  again  stood  for  the 
presidency,  he  was  defeated  by  Polk.  The  result  of  this  vote  divided  the  democrats  into 
two  parties,  one  of  which,  at  a convention  at  Utica,  unanimously  declared  for  Van  B.  as 
president  for  1848;  but  his  election  was  prevented  by  the  military  renown  of  gen.  Taylor, 
who  left  both  Van  B.  and  Cass  with  minorities.  In  1856,  he  was  again  named  for  the 
presidency;  but  the  majority  of  the  democratic  party  preferred  Mr.  Buchanan.  He  died 
July,  1862. 

BUEG,  a t.  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Saxony,  situated  on  the  Ihle,  about  13  m. 
n.e.  of  Madgeburg.  It  is  walled,  and  has  long  been  famous  for  its  extensive  woolen 
manufactures.  It  has  also  manufactures  of  linen,  yarn,  steel,  pottery,  and  leather;  dye- 
works,  distilleries,  foundries,  etc.,  and  a large  trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Pop.  ’75, 
15,262. 

BUEGAGE  TEXUEE  is  a species  of  holding  in  the  law  of  real  property  which  pre- 
vailed both  in  England  and  Scotland,  although  somewhat  differently  regarded  in  these 
two  countries.  In  England,  it  is  a species  of  free  socage  (q.v.)  holding,  and  it  prevails 
where  the  king  or  other  person  is  lord  of  an  ancient  borough  in  which  the  tenements  are 
held  by  a certain  and  determinate  rent,  and  subject  to  a variety  of  customs,  the  principal 
and  most  remarkable  of  which  is  that  called  Borough  English  (q.v.).  Among  the  other 
customs  was  a law  that  the  wife  shall  be  endowed  with  all  her  husband’s  tenements,  and 
not  with  the  third  part  only,  as  at  common  law. 

In  Scotland,  by  this  tenure  is  meant  a peculiar  sort  of  military  holding  affecting 
property  in  royal  burghs,  the  sovereign  being  superior  or  over-lord,  and  each  individual 
proprietor  or  burgess  holding  direct  of  the  crown,  for  the  reddendo  or  service  of  watching 
-and  warding This  service  is  otherwise  termed  “service  of  burgh  used  and  wont,” 
and  is  now  merely  nominal.  Although  the  burgesses  nold  immediately  of  the  crown, 
they  do  not  receive  their  formal  entry  directly  from  the  sovereign,  but  from  the  magis- 
trates of  the  burgh,  as  the  crown’s  commissioners.  If  the  burgh,  as  such,  ceases  to 
exist,  the  crown  does  not  thereby  lose  its  rights  over  the  proprietors,  for  they  continue 
as  crown  vassals  (q.v.).  The  statutes  31  and  32  Viet.  c.  101,  and  32  and  33  Viet.  c. 
116,  abolished  many  useless  forms  in  this  tenure.  See  Tenure  op  Land. 

BUEGAS,  or  Burghaz,  a t.  of  Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  on  a 
promontory  in  the  Black  sea,  about  76  m.  n.e.  of  Adrianople.  B.,  which  is  well  built 
and  clean,  has  manufactures  of  pottery  of  %,  superior  kind,  and  a good  trade  in  agricul- 
tural produce.  Pop.  about  6000.  The  gulf  of  Burgas,  at  the  head  of  which  the  town 
is  situated,  is  about  14  m.  in  length,  and  has  a depth  varying  from  5 to  12  fathoms. 

BURGDORF  (Fr.  Berthoud),  a t.  in  Switzerland,  on  the  Emme,  14  m.  from  Bern. 
It  is  over  1800  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  consists  of  a lower  and  an  upper  part,  which  are 
connected  by  spiral  streets.  There  are  an  ancient  castle,  a town-house,  hospital,  library, 
etc. ; also  ribbon,  tobacco,  and  chocolate  manufactories,  and  a large  trade  in  dairy  prod- 
ucts. In  1384  the  town  and  countship  were  purchased  by  Berne  for  37,000  florins,  and  the 
Bernese  magistrates  held  rule  until  1798.  Pestalozzi  had  his  school  in  the  castle  for  a 
number  pf  years.  Pop.  ’70,  5078. 

BUE'GEO  ISLANDS,  belonging  to  England,  and  lying  between  Newfoundland  and  cape 
Breton,  in  lat.  47°  33'  n. , and  long.  57°  44'  west.  Besides  being  valuable  as  a fishing-station, 
they  occupy  a commanding  position  with  respect  to  British  North  America  in  general, 
and  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  in  particular.  The  group  has  700  inhabitants. 

BUEGEE,  Gottfried  August,  one  of  the  most  popular  German  poets,  was  b.  Jan. 
1,  1748,  at  Molmerswende,  near  Halberstadt,  in  Prussian  Saxony.  In  his  boyhood,  he 
displayed  no  capacity  for  hard  study,  and  was  particularly  averse  to  Latin ; but  he  at  the 
same  time  showed  a relish  for  verse,  though  destitute  of  any  other  model  than  the  Psalm- 
book. In  1764,  he  went  to  Halle,  and  applied  himself  to  theology.  In  1768,  he  aban- 
doned this  science  for  jurisprudence,  which  he  studied  at  Gottingen.  Here  his  conduct 


Burgermeister. 

Burgh. 


192 


was  careless  and  immoral,  and  he  would  probably  have  sunk  into  obscurity,  if  the  inti- 
macy which  he  happily  formed  with  Voss,  the  two  Stolbergs,  and  other  young  poets,  had 
not  stirred  up  his  better  nature,  and  inspired  him  with  an  earnest  ambition  to  excel.  He 
labored  hard  at  the  classics  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  but  the  study  of  Shakespeare 
and  Percy’s  Reliques  had  the  greatest  influence  in  deciding  the  style  of  poetry  which  he 
was  to  adopt.  With  regard  to  the  intrinsic  merits  of  his  poems,  which  consist  chiefly  of 
ballads  and  songs,  even  German  critics — such  as  Schiller,  Gervinus,  and  Vilmar — differ 
widely  in  their  opinions;  but  all  agree  in  praising  the  popular  style  and  fluent,  spirited 
versiflcation  of  his  ballads,  Leonm'a,  Lenardo  and  Blandine,  the  Pai'son’s  Daughter  of 
laubenhayn,  the  Wild  Huntsman,  etc.  B.’s  life  was  spent  in  great  poverty  and  misery, 
partly  the  result  of  misfortune,  and  partly  induced  by  his  own  errors.  He  married 
thrice,  in  two  instances  very  unhappily;  lost  his  property  by  an  unfortunate  speculation; 
and,  though  the  favorite  poet  of  the  German  people,  was  left  to  earn  his  bread  by  trans- 
lations and  similar  literary  labors.  He  died  June  8,  1794.  Though  a popular  writer,  B. 
Avas  very  careful  as  to  style,  and  was  one  of  the  first  who  wrote  good  hexameter  verse  in 
German.  Since  1798,  there  have  been  numerous  complete  and  partial  editions  of  his 
works.  See  B.’s  life  by  Doring  (1826),  and  by  Prohle  (1856). 

BUR'GERMEISTEE,  the  German  title  of  the  chief  magistrate  of  a city  or  town,  analo- 
gous to  the  French  maire,  the  English  mayor,  and  the  Scotch  prorost. 

BURGEBSDYK,  or  BURGERSDICIUS,  Francis;  a Dutch  logician,  1590-1629.  He 
was  professor  of  logic  and  moral  philosophy,  and  afterwards  of  natural  philosophy,  at 
Leyden.  His  Logic  was  a valuable  work;  Idea  Philosophm  Moralis  was  a posthumous 
publication. 

BURGES,  Tristam,  ll.d.,  1770-1853;  b.  Mass.;  a lawyer,  and  head  of  the  Rhode 
Island  bar;  in  1815,  chief  justice  of  the  state.  In  1816,  he  was  professor  of  oratory  in. 
Brown  university ; in  1825,  elected  to  congress,  where  he  served  ten  years.  He  was  a 
ready,  witty,  and  sarcastic  speaker,  and  had  many  sharp  discussions  with  the  equally 
ready  and  sarcastic  John  Randolph.  In  1839,  he  published  The  Battle  of  Lake  Erie,  with 
Notices  of  Commodore  Elliott’s  Conduct. 

BUR'GESS,  or  Burgh'er,  from  the  same  origin  as  borough,  means,  when  taken  in  a 
general  sense,  much  the  same  thing  as  the  word  citizen,  but  has  a variety  of  special 
meanings,  according  to  local  institutions.  In  French  literature,  the  word  bourgeois  is 
generally  used  to  personify  the  excess  of  plebeian  vulgarity;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  England,  the  aristocratic  member  of  parliament  for  a city  is  technically  called  a bur- 
gess. In  almost  all  parts  of  Europe,  when  used  in  a technical  sense,  the  word  means 
a person  who  holds  some  peculiar  privilege  in  a town  or  municipal  corporation.  The 
burgesses  of  the  European  towns,  indeed,  were,  and  still  nominally  are,  an  interesting 
relic  of  ancient  Roman  institutions,  existing  in  contest  and  rivalry  with  the  institutions 
of  feudality.  The  B.,  with  a different  name,  is  virtually  the  civis  or  citizen  of  the 
Roman  municipality.  It  was  a rank  always  of  some  moment,  but  especially  valuable 
when  the  citizenship  was  of  Rome,  the  metropolis.  St.  Paul,  when  he  was  to  be  scourged, 
raised  the  alarm  of  the  chief  captain  by  stating  that  he  was  a Roman.  Sueh  an  event 
might  often  have  happened  in  the  middle  ages,  when  a B.,  brought  before  the  court 
of  a feudal  lord  claimed  the  privilege  of  pleading  in  his  own  burgal  court,  or  the 
king’s  tribunal.  The  European  monarchs  found  it  their  interest  to  support  the  bur- 
gesses, as  a check  on  the  influence  of  the  feudal  aristocracy ; and  thus  was  nourished  the 
great  system  of  city  communities,  which  have  exercised  so  important  an  influence  on 
the  fate  of  the  world.  See  Municipality. 

In  the  law  of  England,  a B.  is  a member  of  the  corporation  of  a corporate  town,  or 
he  may  be  described  as  a freeman  duly  admitted  as  a member  of  the  corporate  body. 
This  privilege  was,  and,  to  some  extent,  still  is,  acquired  by  birth  or  servitude — that  is, 
by  being  born  of  a freeman,  or  by  apprenticeship  for  seven  years  within  the  borough  to 
a freeman.  It  might  also  be  obtained  by  gift  or  purchase ; and  the  municipal  corpora- 
tion act,  the  5 and  6 Will.  IV.  c.  76 — with  the  exception  of  abolishing  the  last-mentioned 
mode  of  admission  by  gift  or  purchase — expressly  reserves  the  rights  of  such  freemen 
and  their  families;  and  it  also  provides  for  the  making  up  and  preservation  of  a list  of 
burgesses  so  admitted,  to  be  called  the  freeman’s  roll  (q.v.).  In  that  act,  a burgess  is 
defined  to  be  a male  person,  who,  on  the  last  day  of  Aug.  in  any  year,  shall  have  occu- 
pied any  house,  warehouse,  counting-house,  or  shop  within  the  borough,  during  that 
year  and  the  whole  of  the  two  preceding  years ; and  during  such  occupation  shall  also 
have  been  an  inhabitant  householder  within  the  borough,  or  within  seven  miles  thereof. 
As  the  law  now  stands,  every  person  of  full  age  (and  this  includes  females)  who  on  the 
last  day  of  July  shall  have  occupied  any  house,  warehouse,  counting-house,  shop,  or 
other  building  within  the  borough  during  the  whole  of  the  preceding  twelve  months, 
and  also  shall  have  resided  within  seven  miles  of  the  borough,  shall,  if  duly  enrolled,  be 
a burgess  and  member  of  the  body  corporate  of  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  burgesses  of 
such  borough,  provided  he  shall  have  paid  his  borough  rates  up  to  the  preceding  Jan., 
and  shall  not  have  been  in  receipt  of  parochial  relief.  The  premises  occupied  need  not 
be  the  same  throughout  the  year  if  they  are  within  the  borough,  35  and  36  Viet.  c.  55. 
See  Town  Council.  The  vote  is  by  ballot. 

In  the  Scotch  laAV,  the  old  definition  of  B.  is  still  maintained.  This  is  very  similar 


193 


Bnrgermeister* 

Burg^h. 


to  the  old  English  one  above  mentioned,  with  the  addition  of  admission  to  the  privilege 
!by  election  of  the  magistrates  of  the  borough— X\iQ  burgesses  taking,  on  the  occasion  of  their 
Admission,  a quaint  form  of  oath,  in  which  they  confess  the  religion  of  the  country, 
loyalty  to  the  queen,  to  the  provost  and  bailies  of  the  burgh  and  their  officers,  and  declar- 
ing inter  alia,  that  they  will  “make  concord  where  discord  is,  to  the  utmost  of  their 
power.”  By  the  Scotch  municipal  reform  act,  3 and  4 Will.  IV.  c.  76,  s.  14,  it  was 
enacted  that  councilors  must  be  entered  burgesses  of  the  burgh  before  their  induction, 
but  now,  any  councilor  is  at  once  made  a B.  by  minute  of  council.  One  of  the  pecu- 
liar privileges  of  a B.  in  Scotland,  that  of  his  heir  having  a right  to  heirship  movables, 
was  abolished  by  the  statute  31  and  32  Viet.  c.  101,  s.  160,  titles  to  land  (Scotland)  act. 
An  act  assimilating  the  law  of  Scotland  to  that  of  England  respecting  the  creation  of 
Burgesses  was  passed  in  1876. 

BURGESS,  Daniel,  d.d.,  1645-1712;  an  English  dissenting  divine,  who  openly 
avowed  Presbyterian  principles,  and,  in  Ireland,  frequently  preached  in  defiance  of  the 
severe  laws  against  non-conformity.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  upon  release  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  soon  gathered  a large  congregation  by  ardent  zeal  and  the  witty  and 
ludicrous  illustrations  he  used  in  his  sermons.  He  was  tutor  of  Henry  St.  John,  after- 
wards lord  Bolingbroke. 

BURGESS,  George,  D.D.,  1809-66;  b.  R.  I.;  graduate  of  Brown  university  and 
tutor  therein,  afterwards  studying  in  Germany.  In  1834,  he  was  rector  of  an  Episcopal 
church  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  in  1847  became  bishop  of  Maine,  officiating  also  as 
rector  of  a church  in  Gardiner.  He  published  The  Last  Enemy  Conquering  and  Con- 
quered; Sermons  on  the  Christian  Life;  and  a metrical  version  of  a portion  of  the  Psalms. 

BURGESS  LIST  and  BURGESS  ROLL  are  lists  made  under  the  provisions  of  the  muni- 
cipal corporation  act,  5 and  6 Will.  IV.  c.  76,  amended  by  20  and  21  Viet.  c.  50,  and  32 
and  33  Viet.  c.  55.  The  overseers  of  the  poor  of  every  parish  wholly  or  in  part  within 
any  borough,  are  directed  to  make  out  an  alphabetical  list,  called  the  burgess  list,  of  all 
persons  who  may  be  entitled  or  qualified  to  be  enrolled  on  the  burgess  roll  of  that  year, 
such  list  to  be  open  for  perusal  by  any  person,  without  the  payment  of  any  fee,  at  all 
reasonable  hours,  between  the  1st  (when  the  list  must  be  signed  and  delivered)  and  15th 
days  of  Sept,  in  every  year.  This  list  is  afterwards  revised  by  the  revising  barrister, 
and  the  names  of  those  persons  allowed,  on  revision,  to  remain,  are  then  transferred  to 
the  burgess  roll,  which  is  copied  into  a general  alphabetical  list  in  a book  provided  for 
that  purpose  by  the  town-clerk  or  clerk  of  the  peace,  and  which  book  must  be  completed 
•on  or  before  the  22d  of  Oct.  in  every  year ; every  such  book  being  the  burgess  roll  of 
the  burgesses  entitled  to  vote  for  councilors,  assessors,  and  auditors  of  the  borough. 
Copies  of  such  burgess  roll,  so  completed,  shall  be  made  in  writing,  or  printed,  for 
delivery  and  sale  to  all  persons  applying  for  the  same,  on  payment  of  a reasonable  price 
for  each  copy.  There  are  other  regulations  respecting  these  lists,  and  with  respect  to 
neglect  and  informality  in  making  up  the  burgess  roll.  Every  person  of  full  age,  who 
occupies  a house,  warehouse,  counting-house,  shop,  or  other  building  within  the  bor- 
ough for  twelve  months,  and  resident  in  or  within  seven  miles,  shall,  if  duly  enrolled, 
be  a burgess,  32  and  33  Viet.  c.  55. 

In  regard  to  Scotland,  it  has  been  already  explained  (see  Burgess),  that  persons 
entitled  to  the  privileges  of  burgesses  must  be  admitted  according  to  the  old  form,  and 
councilors,  before  induction,  may,  by  a minute  of  council,  be  made  burgesses,  23  and 
24  Viet.  c.  47.  But  the  list,  which  corresponds  to  the  English  burgess  roll,  is  the 
list  of  municipal  electors  qualified  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  3 and  4 Will.  IV. 
-cc.  76,  77;  31  and  32  Viet.  c.  108;  and  33  and  34  Viet.  c.  92,  relating  to  royal  burghs  in 
Scotland. 

BURGH  is  a descriptive  name  of  towns  and  cities  in  Scotland,  corresponding  to  the 
English  word  borough  (q.  v.).  There  were  burghs  of  barony,  free  burghs,  burghs  of  regality, 
and  royal  burghs.  Since  1832,  there  have  been  what  are  called  parliamentary  burghs — 
that  is,  towns  or  burghs  not  being  royal  burghs,  but  sending  or  contributing  to  send 
representatives  to  parliament,  under  the  act  2 and  3 Will.  IV.  c.  65.  By  the  general 
police  act  for  Scotland,  the  word  B.  was  declared  to  mean  also  any  populous  place,  the 
boudaries  of  which  are  fixed  by  the  act.  Among  parliamentary  burghs  are  Paisley, 
Greenock,  Leith,  Kilmarnock,  Falkirk,  Hamilton,  Peterhead,  etc. ; and  by  the  3 and  4 
Will.  IV.  c.  77,  15  and  16  Viet.  c.  32,  16  and  17  Viet.  c.  26,  31  and  32  Viet.  c.  108,  33  and 
34  Viet.  c.  92,  35  and  36  Viet.  c.  33,  a code  is  given  for  the  election  of  their  magistrates 
and  councilors,  and  for  the  appointment  of  other  officers;  the  election  being  with  the 
persons  qualified  to  vote  for  a member  of  parliament — to  be  concluded  in  Paisley,  Green- 
ock, Leith,  and  Kilmarnock,  by  open  poll  in  one  day,  the  polling-books  to  be  summed 
up,  and  the  result  declared  by  the  provost:  in  Falkirk,  Hamilton,  Musselburgh,  Airdrie, 
Port-Glasgow,  Peterhead,  Portobello,  Cromarty,  and  Oban,  to  be  by  signed  lists:  a 
third  of  the  council  to  go  out,  and  others  to  be  elected  every  year;  and  the  provost  and 
mamstrates  to  be  chosen  by  the  council  from  their  own  number. 

The  police  of  burghs,  and  everything  regarding  their  draining,  cleaning,  lighting, 
^etc.,  are  regulated  by  the  police  (Scotland)  act,  20  and  21  Viet.  c.  72,  and  the  public 
liealth  (Scotland)  act,  30  and  31  Viet.  c.  101. 

U.  K. TlL-13 


Burgh. 

Burglary. 


194 


Burghs  of  Barony  are  corporations  consisting  of  the  inhabitants  of  determinate 
tracts  of  ground  witliin  the  barony  (q.v.),  and  municipally  governed  by  magistrates, 
whose  election  is  either  dependent  on  the  baron  or  lord  of  the  district,  or  vested  in  the 
inhabitants  themselves.  Sometimes  their  charter  of  incorporation  gave  them  power  to 
create  subordinate  corporations  and  crafts,  as  in  royal  burghs;  but  all  exclusive  privi- 
leges of  trading  in  burghs  are  abolished  by  the  9 and  10  Viet.  c.  17.  In  other  respects, 
the  general  corporate  law  of  the  country  applies  to  burghs  of  barony.  They  have 
power  to  administer  their  common  good,  to  elect  their  burgh  otlicers,  to  make  by-laws, 
and  their  burgesses  are  entitled  to  challenge  the  sale  or  other  disposition  of  the  burgh’a 
property. 

Burghs,  Free,  were  burghs  of  barony  enfranchised  by  crown  charter  with  rights  of 
trade  both  home  and  foreign,  but  subjected,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  same  class  of  pub- 
lic burdens  and  taxation  which  royal  burghs  had  to  bear  as  the  price  of  their  peculiar 
privileges.  Since  the  gradual  decay  and  ultimate  suppression  of  commercial  monopoly, 
this  class  of  burghs  has  become  extinct,  or  rather  all  burghs  may  now  be  said  to  \>e,fre6. 

Burghs  op  Regality  were  burghs  of  baronies,  spiritual  or  temporal,  enfranchised 
by  crown  charter,  with  regal  or  exclusive  criminal  jurisdiction  within  their  own  terri- 
tories, and  thence  called  regalities  (q.v.).  Some  of  these  burghs  of  regality,  especially 
those  which  were  dependent  on  the  greater  bishops  and  abbots,  were  of  high  antiquity, 
and  possessed  jurisdiction  and  privilege  of  trade  only  distinguishable  from  those  of 
royal  burghs,  by  being  more  circumscribed  in  their  limits.  Since  the  abolition  of  hered- 
itary jurisdictions  by  the  act  20  Geo.  II.  c.  43,  the  distinction  between  burghs  of  regality 
and  burghs  of  barony  have  ceased  to  be  of  any  practical  importance. 

Burghs,  Royal.  A royal  burgh  is  a corporate  body  deriving  its  existence,  consti- 
tution, and  rights,  from  a royal  charter — such  charter  being  either  actual  and  express, 
or  presumed  to  have  existed,  and  by  the  accident  of  war  and  time,  to  have  perished. 
By  a Scotch  act  passed  in  1469,  a constitution  was  given  to  royal  burghs,  by  which  the 
right  of  appointing  their  successors  belonged  to  the  old  councils,  the  act  also  containing 
the  singular  provision,  that  when  the  new  council  was  chosen,  the  members  of  it,  along 
with  those  of  the  old  council,  should  choose  all  the  office-bearers  of  the  burgh,  each  craft  or 
trade  corporation  being  represented  at  the  election  by  one  of  themselves.  But  this  simple 
plan  was  not  universally  adopted,  and  the  election  gradually  lost  its  former  free  and  popu- 
lar form — a close  and  exclusive  proceeding  being  ultimately  established  in  its  place.  This 
“ close  system,”  as  it  has  been  called,  notwithstanding  its  repugnancy  to  the  spirit  of  the 
times,  and  modern  ideas  of  public  administration,  continued  in  force  until  the  year  1833,. 
when  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed,  the  3 and  4 Will.  IV.  c.  76,  amended  by  the  4 and 
5 Will.  IV.  c.  87,  and  the  16  Viet.  c.  26,  by  which  it  was  abolished,  and  an  entirely  new 
constitution  given  to  royal  burghs,  with  the  exception  of  nine  of  them,  which,  on  account 
of  the  smallness  of  their  population,  were  left  unchanged  till  the  passing  of  the  munici- 
pal elections  amendment  act  (Scotland)  in  1868.  These  nine  burghs  were:  Dornoch,. 
New  Galloway,  Culross,  Lochmaben,  Bervie,  Wester  Anstruther,  Kilrenny,  Kinghoi'n, 
and  Kintore.  Of  the  other  royal  burghs,  being  those  to  which  the  reforming  acts  apply,, 
the  principal  are — Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  Perth,  Dunfermline,  Dum- 
fries, 2iYidi  Inverness.  The  leading  provisions  of  these  acts  are  as  follows:  All  persons 
within  the  burgh  qualified  under  the  parliamentary  reform  act,  2 and  3 Will.  IV.  c.  65,  in 
respect  of  property  or  occupancy  of  premises,  and  who  have  resided  for  six  months  next 
previous  to  the  last  day  of  June,  within  the  royalty,  or  within  7 m.  of  it,  are  entitled 
to  vote  in  the  election  of  councilors.  In  such  burghs  as  do  not  now  send  members  to 
darliament,  property  of  the  same  value  is  required  for  the  qualification,  and  claims  for 
this  privilege  must  be  lodged  with  the  town-clerk  on  or  before  the  21st  of  July,  in  a 
particular  form.  The  councilors  are  chosen  from  among  the  electors  residing,  or  per- 
sonally carrying  on  business,  within  the  royalty;  and  where  there  is  a body  of  burgessea 
in  the  burgh,  each  councilor,  before  his  induction,  must  be  entered  a burgess — a requi- 
site clearly  unnecessary  for  the  purposes  of  the  municipal  administration  contemplated 
by  the  act,  and  which,  it  is  expected,  will  be  done  away.  The  number  of  councilors  in 
each  burgh  is  such  as,  by  the  sett  or  constitution  existing  at  the  passing  of  the  act,  formed 
the  common  council,  or,  where  this  was  variable,  the  smallest  number  making  a full 
council.  The  electors  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  Perth,  Dunfermline, 
Dumfries,  and  Inverness,  are  divided  into  wards  or  districts.  At  the  election  imme- 
diately succeeding  the  passing  of  the  act,  each  ward  elected  six  councilors;  but  as  every 
)’^ear  the  third  part  of  the  council  goes  out  of  office,  in  the  order  prescribed  by  the  act, 
two  councilors  are  now  annually  chosen  by  each  ward,  there  being  no  bar,  however,  ta 
the  re-election  of  an  outgoing  councilor.  The  electors  in  other  burghs  choose  the  whole 
council  exactly  as  these  wards  do  their  proportion  of  it,  and  consequently  elect  each  year  a 
third  part  in  place  of  that  which  has  retired.  Upon  the  third  lawful  day  after  the  election 
succeeding  the  passing  of  the  act,  the  councilors  meet  and  choose,  by  a plurality  of 
voices,  a provost,  bailies,  treasurer,  and  other  oflSce-bearers,  as  existing  in  the  council 
by  the  sett  or  usage  of  the  burgh;  and  vacancies  occurring  among  such  office  bearers,  in 
consequence  of  the  annual  retirement  of  the  third  part  of  the  council,  are  directed  to  be 
supplied  from  the  councilors  in  like  manner,  as  soon  as  the  election  of  the  new'  third 
has  taken  place,  the  first  attending  magistrate  having  a casting  vote  in  cases  of  equality. 
Vacancies  taking  place  during  the  year  by  death  or  resignation  are  supplied,  ad  interim,. 


195 


Bnrgh. 

Burglary. 


by  the  remaining  members  of  the  council,  and  the  persons  so  elected  by  the  councilors 
retire  at  the  succeeding  election.  The  rights  of  the  guildry,  trades,  etc.,  to  elect  their 
own  dean  or  guild,  etc.,  are  still  preserved;  but  they  are  now  no  longer  recognized  as 
official  or  constituent  members  of  the  council,  their  functions  being  performed  by  a mem- 
ber of  the  council,  elected  by  a majority  of  the  councilors.  In  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and 
Perth,  however,  the  dean  of  guild,  and  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  the  ccmvener  of 
trades  and  the  dean  of  guild,  are,  ex  officio,  members  of  council;  and  the  electors  in  all 
the  above-named  burghs  choose  such  a number  of  councilors  as,  together  with  these 
officers,  makes  up  the  proper  number.  No  magistrate  or  councilor  can  be  town-clerk. 
The  magistrates  and  council  possess  the  same  powers  of  administration  and  jurisdiction 
as  were  enjoyed  by  the  magistrates  and  town-council  before  the  passing  of  the  act;  and 
none  of  them  is  responsible  for  the  debts  of  the  burgh,  or  the  acts  of  his  predecessors, 
otherwise  than  as  a citizen  or  burgess.  The  existing  council  in_  all  burghs  royal  must 
every  year  make  up,  on  or  before  the  15th  of  Oct.,  a state  of  their  affairs,  to  be  kept  in 
the  town-clerk’s  or  treasurer’s  office. 

The  police  of  burghs  and  other  populous  places,  and  the  paving,  draining,  cleansing, 
lighting,  and  improving  the  same,  are  regulated  by  the  25  and  26  Viet.  c.  101,  which 
repeals  several  previous  acts.  In  this  act  “burgh”  is  defined  to  mean  all  burghs  and 
populous  places  whose  boundaries  have  been  fixed ; and  it  is  provided  that  the  sheriff 
may  fix  the  boundaries  and  so  constitute  a burgh  in  this  sense,  for  purposes  of  improve- 
ment and  police,  at  the  instance  of  seven  or  more  householders. 

BUEGH  ACRES  are  acres  or  small  patches  of  land  lying  in  the  neighborhood  of 
royal  hurghs  (q.v.),  usually  feued  or  leased  out  to  burgesses  or  persons  resident  within 
the  burgh.  A Scotch  act  of  parliament,  passed  in  1695,  relating  to  the  division  or  par- 
tition of  lands  lying  runrig,  excepts  burgh  acres,  or,  as  the  act  calls  them,  “ burrow  and 
incorporat  acres,”  from  its  provisions;  but  this  is  to  be  understood  only  of  royal  burghs, 
and  not  of  burghs  of  barony  or  others. 

BURGHERS,  a name  popularly  given  to  a religious  denomination  in  Scotland.  See 
United  Presbyterian  Church. 

BURGHS,  Convention  of.  See  Convention  of  Koyal  Burghs. 

BURGKMAIR,  Hans,  a noted  old  German  painter  and  wood-engraver,  was  b.  at  Augs- 
burg, 1473.  He  was  the  father-in-law  of  the  elder  Holbein,  and  the  friend  of  Albert 
Diirer,  whose  influence  is  manifest  in  B.  ’s  works.  Several  excellent  paintings  by  B. 
are  preserved  in  the  galleries  of  Munich,  Berlin,  Augsburg,  and  Vienna.  But  he  is  best 
known  as  a wood-engraver;  his  cuts  amounting  in  all  to  nearly  700.  Among  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  is  his  “Triumph  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,”  in  135  cuts,  with  a 
description  by  the  emperor  himself.  Another  fine  series  of  237  cuts,  called  “ The  Wise 
King,”  represents  the  deeds  of.  Maximilian.  B.  is  supposed  to  have  died  about  the 
year  1559. 

BURGLARY  (through  the  old  Fr.  from  Lat.  burgi  latro,  a robber  of  a burg  of 
inclosure),  in  the  criminal  law  of  England,  is  defined  to  be  a breaking  and  entering  the 
mansion-house  of  another  im  the  night,  with  intent  to  commit  some  felony  within  the 
same,  whether  such  intent  be  executed  or  not.  It  is  peculiar  to  this  crime,  that  it  can 
only  be  committed  in  the  night-time,  which,  by  the  24  and  25  Viet.  c.  96,  s.  51,  is  consid- 
ered as  commencing  at  nine  in  the  evening,  and  concluding  at  six  in  the  morning  of  the 
next  day.  The  next  requisite  of  the  crime,  according  to  the  definition  we  have  given, 
relates  to  the  place  of  its  commission.  It  must  be  in  a mansion-honsQ,  for  such  is  the 
technical  expression ; but  this  is  construed  to  mean  any  private  dwelling,  or  any  build- 
ing temporarily  or  permanently  used  for  that  purpose.  It  cannot  be  committed  in  a 
distant  barn,  warehouse,  or  the  like,  unless  there  be  a communication  with  the  dwelling- 
house,  nor  in  a house  where  no  one  resides.  But  it  is  B.  to  break  into  a house  which  is 
used  as  an  occasional  residence,  and  which  the  owner  is  in  the  habit  of  leaving  for  a 
short  period,  with  the  intention  of  returning,  even  although  no  one  be  in  the  house  at 
the  time  of  the  offense.  A chamber  in  a college,  or  an  inn  of  court,  is  also  within  the 
meaning  of  a mansion-house ; so  likewise  is  a room  or  lodging  in  any  private  house,  if 
the  owner  and  the  lodger  enter  by  different  outer  doors;  but  if  they  both  enter  by  one 
outer  door,  then  the  house  is  described  as  that  of  the  owner.  For  the  same  reason,  a 
building  belonging  to  a corporation,  and  separately  inhabited  by  the  officers  of  the  body 
corporate,  is  the  mansion-house  of  the  corporation,  and  not  of  the  officers.  Again,  a 
shop  which  is  part  of  another  man’s  house,  and  hired  merely  for  the  purpose  of  work  or 
trade,  is  not  a dwelling-house,  but  B.  may  also  by  express  enactment  be  committed  in 
it,^though  the  punishment  is  not  quite  so  severe.  This  offense  cannot  be  committed  in 
a tent  or  booth  erected  in  a market  or  fair,  though  the  owner  may  lodge  therein,  for  his 
doing  so  makes  it  no  more  B.  to  break  open  such  an  erection,  than  it  would  be  to  uncover 
a tilted  wagon  under  the  same  circumstances.  But  it  may  be  committed  Iw  breaking 
open  a church,  which,  according  to  sir  Edward  Coke,  is  domus  mansionalis  Dei,  that  is, 
the  mansion-house  of  God,  and  is  now  expressly  protected. 

As  to  the  manner  of  committing  B.,  it  is  laid  down  by  Blackstone  that  there  must  be 
both  a breaking  and  an  entry  to  complete  it.  There  must,  in  general,  be  an  actual 
breaking,  a substantial  and  forcible  irruption — as,  at  least,  by  breaking,  or  taking  out 


Barg:len. 

Burgundy. 


196 


the  glass  of,  or  otherwise  opening  a window;  picking  a lock,  or  opening  it  with  a keyr 
nay,  by  lifting  up  the  latch  of  a door,  or  unloosening  any  other  fastening.  But  if  a 
person  leaves  his  doors  or  windows  open,  it  is  his  own  folly  and  negligence,  and  if  a man 
enters  therein,  it  is  no  B. ; yet  if  he  afterwards  unlocks  an  inner  or  chamber  door,  it  is 
so.  To  come  down  a chimney  is  held  a burglarious  entry,  for  that  is  as  much  closed  aa 
the  nature  of  things  will  admit;  so  also  to  knock  at  a door,  and  upon  its  being  opened,, 
to  rush  in  with  a felonious  intent;  or,  under  pretense  of  taking  lodgings,  to  fall  upon 
the  landlord,  and  rob  him.  If  the  servant  conspires  with  a robber,  and  lets  him  into 
the  house  by  night,  this  is  B.  in  both. 

The  intent  must  also  appear,  otherwise  the  offense  will  amount  only  to  a trespass; 
and  it  must  be  an  intent  to  commit  felony,  which  may  be  inferred  from  the  conduct  of 
the  offender  while  in  the  house. 

The  punishment  for  this  crime  is  now  regulated  by  the  act  24  and  25  Viet.  c.  96,, 
called  the  larceny  consolidation  act.  The  provisions  are  to  the  effect,  that  any  one  con- 
victed of  B.  shall  be  liable  to  penal  servitude  for  life,  or  any  term  not  less  than  five 
years,  or  to  be  imprisoned  for  any  term  not  more  than  two  years;  and  in  the  case  of 
imprisonment,  hard  labor  and  solitary  confinement  may  be  superadded.  It  is  further 
enacted,  that  whosoever  shall  burglariously  break  and  enter  into  any  dwelling-house, 
and  shall  assault  with  intent  to  murder  any  person  being  therein ; or  shall  stab,  cut, 
wound,  beat,  or  strike  any  such  person,  shall  be  guilty  of  felony,  and  suffer  penal  ser- 
vitude for  five  to  seven  years,  or  two  years’  imprisonment  and  hard  labor.  And  by  the 
same  statute,  section  58,  it  is  enacted  that  any  person  found  hy  night,  armed  with  any 
dangerous  or  offensive  weapon  or  instrument,  or  with  housebreaking  implements,  or 
with  face  blackened  or  disguised,  with  intent  to  enter  any  buildings'  and  to  commit 
felony  therein;  or  if  he  be  found  by  night  in  any  building  with  intent  to  commit  a 
felony  therein — is  liable  to  penal  servitude  for  five  years,  or  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing two  years ; and  in  case  of  a second  conviction,  is  liable  either  to  such  imprisonment 
or  to  penal  servitude  for  a period  not  less  than  five  years,  and  not  exceeding  ten  years. 

Blackstone  observes,  that  this  offense  was  anciently  called  hamesecken,  as,  he  adds, 
it  is  in  Scotland  to  this  day.  But  the  Scotch  law  on  this  subject  has  some  points  of 
difference — hamesecken,  or  hamesucken,  as  it  is  spelled  in  the  Scotch  books,  not  being 
quite  identical  with  B. : thus,  the  former  is  an  offense  exclusively  against  the  person, 
and  it  may  be  committed  in  the  daytime  as  well  as  at  night;  and  there  are  other  points 
of  dissimilarity.  The  Scotch  law  relating  to  housebreaking  and  stouthrief  affords  analo- 
gies. See  Haimsucken,  Housebreaking,  Stouthrief,  Larceny,  Robbery,  Assault. 

BUR'GLEN,  a village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  about  2 m.  from  Altorf. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  William  Tell.  The  supposed  site  of  the  patriot’s 
house  is  now  occupied  by  a chapel,  upon  the  walls  of  which  are  represented  certain 
well-known  scenes  from  his  history.  Pop.  ’71,  1391. 

BURGOMASTER.  See  Gull. 

BUR'GOS,  a city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  new  province  of  the  same  name,  and  of  the 
former  kingdom  of  Old  Castile,  is  situated  in  a fertile  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
d’Oea,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Arlanzon,  in  lat.  42°  20'  n.,  and  long.  3°  45'  w. 
Pop.  25,700.  B.  is  a very  ancient  place,  having  been  founded  in  844.  Many  of  the 
gloomy  old  houses  of  its  early  history  still  remain.  In  the  castle  of  B.,  Edward  I.  of 
England  was  married  to  Eleanor  of  Castile.  The  cathedral  of  B.,  founded  in  1221,  is 
one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in  Spain.  Its  various  chapels  are 
rich  in  fine  sculpture  and  tombs.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Cid  (q.v.).  B.  has  man- 
ufactures of  woolens,  linens,  and  hats,  but  it  depends  chiefly  on  the  traffic  which  its 
position  on  the  great  road  from  France  and  the  northern  Spanish  provinces  to  Madrid 
secures  it.  B.  has  several  charitable  and  educational  institutions.  It  formerly  had  a 
much  larger  population — as  many  as  50,000 — but  on  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Madrid 
in  the  16th  c.,  B.  began  to  decline  in  population  and  importance.  It  was  further  greatly 
injured  in  Nov.,  1808,  by  the  French,  who  sacked  it.  In  1812,  the  castle  was  four  times 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Wellington,  who,  however,  took  it  in  the  following  year, 
when  the  French  blew  it  up,  as  well  as  the  fortifications. — The  province  of  B.  has  an 
area  of  5650  sq.m.,  and  a pop.,  in  1870,  of  353,560.  The  surface  is  elevated,  the  soil  fer- 
tile, yielding  grain  and  fruits.  The  hills  afford  rich  pasturage;  and  the  minerals  gold, 
silver,  iron,  lead,  and  copper  are  found. 

BURGOYNE,  John,  a British  general  and  dramatist,  natural  son  of  lord  Bingley,  early 
entered  the  army,  and  in  Aug.,  1'759,  was  appointed  lieut.col.  commandant  of  the  16th 
light  dragoons.  In  1761,  he  served  at  Belle  isle,  and  in  1762  commanded  a force  sept 
into  Portugal  for  the  defense  of  that  kingdom  against  the  Spaniards,  when  he  surprised 
and  captured  Alcantara.  In  1776,  he  served  in  North  America,  and  in  the  summer  of 
1777  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a large  force  ordered  to  penetrate  from  Can- 
ada into  the  rebellious  districts.  The  early  part  of  the  expedition  was  marked  by  his 
capture  of  Ticonderoga;  but  neglecting  to  preserve  his  communications  with  Canada,  he 
encountered  the  greatest  difficulties,  and  was  at  last  obliged  to  surrender  with  his^  army 
to  gen.  Gates,  at  Saratoga.  Soon  after  his  return  to  England,  having  been  denied  an. 
audience  of  the  king,  and  refused  a court-martial,  he  went  over  to  the  opposition  party, 
and  voluntarily  resigned  all  his  appointments.  On  a change  of  ministry,  at  the  close  of 


197 


Burglen. 

Burgundj. 


the  American  war,  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland.  This  office  he 
resigned  two  years  after,  and  subsequently  seems  to  have  devoted  his  time  to  light  litera- 
ture. He  was  the  author  of  some  pamphlets  in  defense  of  his  conduct,  and  of  The  Maid 
of  the  Oaks  The  Heiress  (1786);  and  other  stock  dramatic  pieces.  B.  was  one  of 

the  managers  for  conducting  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings.  He  died  in  1792. 
See  Episodes  from  the  Life  and  Letters  of  B.,  by  Barrington  and  Fonblanque  (1876). 

BURGOYNE,  Sir  John  Fox,  Bart.,  an  eminent  engineer-officer,  b.  in  1782,  entered 
the  royal  engineers  in  1798.  From  1800  to  1807,  he  served  in  the  Mediterranean;  was 
with  Moore  at  Carunna  in  1809;  and  served  under  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  in  the  peninsula 
till  the  conclusion  of  the  war  in  1814,  being  present  at  all  its  sieges.  In  1814,  he  was 
commanding  engineer  of  the  expedition  to  New  Orleans,  and  in  1826  of  that  sent  to 
Portugal.  In  1851,  he  obtained  the  rank  of  .lieut.gen.,  and  in  1854  was  made  d.c.l.  of 
Oxford  university.  In  the  Crimean  war,  he  was  chief  of  the  engineering  department  of 
the  British  army  till  recalled  in  1855.  For  his  services  at  Sebastopol,  he  received  from 
the  sultan  the  order  of  the  Medjidie,  and  from  the  French  emperor  that  of  grand  officer 
of  the  legion  of  honor.  He  was  made  gen.  in  1855,  and  created  a baronet  in  1856,  He 
died  7th  Oct.,  1871, 

BURGUNDY,  the  name  of  a once  independent  kingdom  of  wide  extent,  but  most  fre- 
quently used  of  an  old  French  province  (Fr.  Bourgogne)  now  divided  between  the  depart- 
ments of  Cote-d’Or,  Saone-et-Loire,  and  Yonne.  The  ancient  Burgundians  {Burgundi  or 
Burgundiones),  originally  a German  tribe,  were  at  first  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Oder 
and  the  Vistula,  and  afterwards  extended  themselves  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Neckar,  and, 
in  407,  penetrated  into  Roman  Gaul.  Their  conversion  to  Christianity  took  place  in  the 
course  of  eight  days!  They  adopted  a brief  Arian  confession  of  faith,  and  were  bap- 
tized. From  407  to  534,  the  kingdom  of  B.  was  several  times  divided;  and  in  451, 
Gundicar,  king  of  B.,  with  10,000  men,  confronted  Attila,  but  was  defeated  and  slain. 

In  534,  B.  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Franks;  but  the  weak  government  of  the  later 
Carlovingian  kings  allowed  a part  of  it  once  more  to  assert  a separate  existence  as  a 
dependency  of  the  empire  under  Boso  of  Vienne  in  832.  Boso’s  realm,  known  as  Cis- 
juran  B.,  or  the  kingdom  of  Arelate  (Arles),  lay  mainly  in  the  basin  of  the  Rhone.  A 
second  Burgundian  state  arose  about  the  same  time  in  the  country  between  the  Saone 
and  the  Reuss,  and  was  known  as  Transjuran  or  Upper  Burgundy.  These  states,  united 
in  930,  were  for  a time  powerful  and  famous;  but  in  1038,  on  the  extinction  of  the  royal 
dynasty,  B.  became  part  of  the  German  empire.  It  was  afterwards  broken  into  several 
fragments,  which  were  gradually  absorbed  by  France. 

A similar  fate  befell  the  third  Burgundian  state,  the  dukedom  of  B.  or  Lower  B., 
which  was  formed  by  a brother  of  Boso.  Yet  the  dukes  of  B.  played  a large  part  in 
the  history  of  mediaeval  Europe,  and  were  long  the  dangerous  rivals  of  the  French  kings. 
The  nucleus  of  the  dukedom  was  in  Lower  B.,  the  region  which  afterwards  became  the 
French  province  of  B.,  to  the  n.  and  w.  of  the  other  Burgundian  realms;  but  the  second 
line  of  dukes,  beginning  in  1363  with  Philip  the  hardy,  son  of  the  French  king  John, 
held  under  their  sway  not  only  Franche  Comte  and  adjoining  portions  of  France  proper, 
but  great  part  of  the  Low  Countries.  Charles  the  bold  (q.v.)  was  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful sovereigns  of  Europe.  Louis  XI.  of  France  succeeded  in  incorporating  the  duchy 
with  the  kingdom  of  France. 

BURGUNDY,  Louis,  Duke  of,  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and  dauphin 
of  France  after  the  death  of  his  father,  was  b.  at  Versailles  in  1682.  Even  in  childhood 
he  was  ungovernable,  and  became  excessively  violent  and  haughty,  and  abandoned  to 
all  gross  and  sensual  passions.  Although  educated  under  the  care  of  the  abbe  Fenelon, 
he  used,  when  30  years  of  age,  to  divert  himself  with  drowning  flies  in  oil,  and  blowing 
up  living  frogs  with  gunpowder.  He  had  the  misfortune  to  be  deformed;  his  deport- 
ment and  manners  were  undignified,  and  his  mind  was  imbued  with  bigotry.  When 
only  about  15  years  of  age,  he  was  married  to  the  princess  Adelaide  of  Savoy,  and  spent 
his  time  wholly  in  amusements  in  the  company  of  his  spouse,  and  of  the  ladies  of  the 
court.  Nevertheless,  in  1701,  he  was  nominally  appointed  generalissimo  of  the  army, 
really  under  the  command  of  the  duke  de  Vendome,  and  is  said  to  have  shown  some 
spirit  in  a cavalry-fight  at  Nimeguen;  but  he  quarreled  with  Vendome,  chiefly  because 
he  had  once  been  compelled  to  establish  his  head-quarters  in  a nunnery.  He  lost  the 
respect  of  the  army,  and  was  exposed  to  many  humiliations,  partly  proceeding  from 
intrigues  set  on  foot  against  him  out  of  envy  by  his  father.  He  returned  to  the  court 
more  eccentric,  gloomy,  and  unsociable  than  before.  But  when  he  became,  on  his 
father’s  death,  the  second  person  in  the  kingdom,  all  his  defects  vanished  from  the 
sight  of  the  courtiers,  and  flattery  bestowed  on  him  the  title  of  the  great  dauphin.  He 
died  suddenly  in  the  year  1712.  A few  days  previously,  his  wife  and  her  son,  the  duke 
of  Bretagne,  had  died,  and  the  same  hearse  carried  father,  mother,  and  child  to  St. 
Denis.  The  duke  of  Orleans,  subsequently  regent,  and  his  daughter,  the  duchess  of 
Berri,  were  accused,  but  without  reason,  of  having  caused  them  to  be  poisoned. 

BURGUNDY  PITCH,  a resinous  substance  prepared  from  common  frankincense  (q.y.), 
the  spontaneous  exudation  of  the  Norway  spruce-fir  {abies  excelsa;  see  Fir)  by  melting 
it  in  hot  water,  by  which  means  it  is  freed  from  a considerable  part  of  the  volatile  ou 
which  it  contains.  By  straining  it  through  a coarse  cloth,  impurities  are  also  removed. 


198 

B.  P.  is  of  a yellowish-white  color,  hard  and  brittle  when  cold,  but  softening  by  the 
heat  of  the  hand,  and  readily  adhering  to  the  skin.  It  has  a not  unpleasant  resinous 
odor,  and  a slightly  bitter  taste.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  external  application  only, 
and  generally  acts  as  a mild  irritant.  A very  common  application  of  it  is  as  a plaster 
in  complaints  of  the  chest,  and  in  rheumatic  complaints.  It  enters  also  as  an  ingredient 
with  resin,  oils,  etc.,  into  a compound  plaster  of  similar  use.  The  B.  P.  of  commerce 
is  now  principally  brought  from  Hamburg;  but  the  greater  part  of  what  is  sold  under 
that  name  is  really  manufactured  of  common  resin  and  palm-oil,  or  from  American 
turpentine.  It  has  a fuller  yellow  color  than  the  genuine  B.  P.,  and  a less  agreeable 
odor. 

BURGUNDY  WINES  are  chiefly  the  produce  of  vineyards  cultivated  on  the  hilly 
lands  forming  the  Cote  d’Or,  between  Dijon  and  Chalons.  These  hills  average  about 
from  800  to  1000  ft.  in  height;  the  vineyards*  ascend  up  the  slopes  in  terraces,  and  spread 
along  the  table-land  on  the  summit.  “ In  richness  of  flavor  and  in  perfume,  and  all  the 
more  delicate  qualities  of  the  juice  of  the  grape,  the  wines  grown  here  unquestionably 
rank  as  the  finest  in  the  world.”  The  most  celebrated  of  the  red  wines  of  Burgundy  are 
the  Closvougeot  (near  Beaune),  Nuits,  Chambertin  (the  favorite  wine  of  Louis  XIV.  as 
well  as  of  Napoleon),  the  Romane-Conti,  Richebourg,  Volnay,  and  Pomard.  Of  other 
red  wines  of  Burgundy  not  grown  on  the  Cote  d’Or,  those  of  Pitoy,  Perriere,  Preaux,  and 
Auxerre  are  held  in  most  repute.  The  white  wines  of  Burgundy  are  also  the  finest  in 
France,  but  being  produced  in  less  quantity,  they  have  less  celebrity.  The  quantity  of 
wine  annually  produced  in  Burgundy  averages  3,500,000  hectoliters  (77,000,000  gallons), 
of  which  only  about  a fifth  is  consumed  in  the  district. 

BURHXNPUR,  a t.  in  British  India,  280  m.  n.e.  of  Bombay,  21°  31'  n.,  and  76°  20' 
e. ; 2 m.  from  the  railway  station  of  Lalbagh.  It  was  founded  in  1400,  and  was  the 
chief  seat  of  the  government  of  the  Deccan  provinces  of  the  Mogul  empire  until  1635. 
In  1861,  it  was  ceded  to  the  British  government.  Pop.  ’72,  29,303.  B.  is  celebrated  for 
its  muslins,  flowered  silks,  and  brocades. 

BURHAUNPUR',  a large  t.  of  India,  in  the  territory  of  Gwalior,  or  possessions  of 
Scindia’s  family,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tapti,  in  n.  lat.  21°  18',  e.  long.  76°  20',  280 
m.  n.e.  from  Bombay.  The  banks  of  the  Tapti  are  here  bold,  rising  60  or  70  ft.  above 
the  stream.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  a rampart  of  brickwork,  and  contains  a palace 
built  by  Akbar.  A few  of  the  wealthier  merchants  have  good  houses,  built  of  teak, 
and  profusely  decorated  with  carvings.  The  most  wealthy  and  influential  are  the 
Borahs,  a Mohammedan  tribe,  who  inhabit  a distinct  ward,  which  they  shut  up  at 
night,  excluding  all  other  persons.  There  are  manufactures  of  muslins,  flowered  silks, 
and  brocades,  for  which  the  place  was  formerly  famous,  so  that,  in  the  17th  c.,  they 
were  exported  in  great  quantities  to  Persia,  Egypt,  Russia,  and  Poland. 

BURIAL,  a word  of  Teut.  origin  (Ang.-Sax.  Urgan,  to  conceal),  is  applied  to  the  prev- 
alent method  among  civilized  nations  of  disposing  of  the  dead,  by  hiding  them  in  the 
earth.  As  there  is  almost  nothing  else  so  deeply  interesting  to  the  living  as  the  disposal 
of  those  whom  they  have  loved  and  lost,  so  there  is  perhaps  nothing  else  so  distinctive 
of  the  condition  and  character  of  a people  as  the  method  in  which  they  treat  their  dead. 
Hence,  funeral  customs  associate  themselves  with  a wide  variety  of  sentiments,  from 
gentle  and  rational  sorrow,  up  to  deification  of  the  departed,  accompanied  sometimes 
with  cruelty  and  ferocity  towards  the  living.  People  of  a low  and  barbarous  type  care- 
lessly permit  the  remains  of  the  dead  to  lie  in  the  way  of  the  living,  and  there  are  a few 
instances  in  which  the  object  of  artificial  arrangements  has  been  to  preserve  a decorated 
portion  of  the  body — as,  for  instance,  a gilded  skull — among  survivors.  The  general 
tendency  of  mankind,  however,  has  always  been  to  bury  the  dead  out  of  sight  of  the 
living;  and  various  as  the  methods  of  accomplishing  this  end  have  been,  they  have 
resolved  themselves  into  three  great  classifications:  1.  The  simple  closing  up  of  the 
body  in  earth  or  stone;  2.  The  burning  of  the  body,  and  the  entombing  of  the  cinders; 
and,  3.  The  embalming  of  the  body.  The  first  of  these  seems  to  be  the  earliest  form  of 
which  we  have  any  record,  and  it  is  the  form  most  amply  sanctioned  by  the  existing 
practice  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  the  method  referred  to  in  the  earliest  scriptures; 
and  all  are  familiar  with  the  touching  scene  in  which  Abraham  buries  Sarah  in  the  cave 
in  the  land  of  Canaan  which  belonged  to  Ephron,  but  was,  after  a solemn  and  courteous 
negotiation,  secured  to  Abraham  for  a possession  to  bury  his  dead  in  (Gen.  c.  23).  The 
horrible  fate  of  being  left  unburied,  either  from  scorn  or  neglect,  is  powerfully  told  in 
the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  against  Jehoiakim:  “ He  shall  be  buried  with  the  burial  of  an 
ass,  drawn  and  cast  forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem.”  There  is  frequent  allusion 
in  the  later  scriptures,  and  especially  in  the  New  Testament,  to  the  embalming  of  the 
body  in  antiseptics  and  fragrant  substances;  and  the  burning  of  the  bodies  of  Saul  and 
his  sons  is  accounted  for  by  commentators  on  the  supposition  that  they  were  too  far 
decayed  to  be  embalmed.  The  Israelites  may  have  learned  the  practice  of  embalming 
from  the  Egyptians,  among  whom  it  was  an  art  so  greatly  cultivated  and  extensively 
practiced,  that  Egyptian  corpses,  as  inoffensive  as  any  article  of  wood  or  stone,  are 
scattered  over  Europe  in  museums,  and  are  even  to  be  found  as  curiosities  in  private 
houses.  The  soil  and  climate  of  upper  Egypt  seem  to  have  afforded  facilities  for 


199 


BurgnndT, 

Burial. 


embalming  unmatched  in  any  other  part  of  the  world;  and  in  other  places  the  vestiges 
of  the  practice  are  comparatively  rare,  though  it  is  usual  even  yet  to  embalm  royal 
corpses,  and  in  some  places  to  preserve  a series  of  mummies,  as  in  the  vault  of  the  mon- 
astery of  Kreuzberg,  at  Bonn,  where  the  monks  have  been  successively  preserved  in 
their  costume  for  centuries.  The  practice  of  incremation,  or  of  the  burning  of  the  body, 
and  the  entombing  of  the  ashes,  deserves  more  inquiry  than  it  has  yet  obtained.  In 
Greece,  in  Etruria — both  before  and  after  it  came  under  the  Romans — and  in  the  n.  of 
Europe,  the  simple  burial  of  the  body,  and  its  prior  reduction  to  ashes,  were  both  prac- 
ticed, and  sometimes  contemporaneously.  The  tombs  of  Etruria  are  rich  in  art,  much 
of  it  going  to  the  adornment  of  the  urns  of  baked  clay  in  which  the  ashes  of  the  dead 
are  kept.  Vessel  of  terra-cotta,  or  cooked  earth,  containing  human  remains,  have  been 
found,  often  so  large  that  they  appear  to  have  served  as  coffins  for  containing  the  whole 
body.  Vessels  of  this  kind  were  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Scamander  by  some  British 
officers  while  spending  their  leisure  time  after  the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  upon  the  ground 
supposed  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  besiegers  of  Troy.  Smaller  cinerary  urns  have 
been  found  over  so  extensive  a portion  of  the  world,  that  it  is  difficult  to  define  the 
limits  to  which  they  belong.  The  Danish  antiquaries  say,  that  in  their  stone  period, 
when  the  use  of  metals  was  unknown,  the  dead  were  all  buried  unburned  in  stone 
chambers,  and  that  the  burning  of  the  bodies  and  the  preservation  of  the  ashes  in  urns 
came  in  with  the  age  of  bronze.  These  antiquaries  associate  with  the  older  system 
those  amorphous  mounds  of  earth  or  stone  called  barrows  or  tumuli,  which  are  to  be 
found  all  over  the  n.  of  Europe.  Mr.  Bremner,  in  traveling  among  the  steppes  of  the 
Ukraine,  saw  multitudes  of  these  small  mounds,  which  reminded  him  at  once  of  what 
he  had  seen  on  the  plain  of  Troy,  at  Upsala  in  Sweden,  in  Scotland,  and  in  Ireland. 
The  Irish  tumulus  of  New  Grange  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  all,  forming  a 
connecting  link  between  the  simple  barrow  on  the  moor  and  the  pyramids  of  Egypt, 
which  are  the  perfection  of  the  same  kind  of  structure  applied  to  the  same  purpose— 
the  burial  of  the  distinguished  dead.  These  structures  open  up  a large  field  of  curious 
inquiry.  The  simple  theory,  that  they  were  raised  over  the  dead,  has  lately  been  dis- 
turbed by  the  discovery  that  many  of  them  are  not  artificial,  but  relics  of  sheets  of 
alluvial  matter,  the  mass  of  which  has  been  carried  away;  and  even  in  these,  human 
remains  have  been  found,  the  natural  mounds  having  been  used  as  monuments. 
Even  when  human  remains  are  connected  with  barrows,  cromlechs,  or  the  large  shape- 
less pillars  commonly  called  Druidical,  it  is  often  questionable  whether  the  monu- 
ment was  made  to  receive  such  remains.  It  is  certainly  ascertained  to  have  been  a 
practice  in  ancient  times  to  bury  bodies  in  tombs  which  were  themselves  ancient 
when  they  received  their  inmates. 

Some  of  the  grandest  buildings  in  the  world  have  been  tombs;  such  are  the  pyramids, 
the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  the*  tomb  of  Caecilia  Metella,  and  many  temples  scattered  over 
Hindustan  and  other  eastern  countries.  Thus,  the  respect  paid  % the  living  to  the  dead 
has  preserved  for  the  world  many  magnificent  fruits  of  architectural  genius  and  labor. 
A notion  that  the  dead  may  require  the  things  they  have  been  fond  of  in  life,  has  also 
preserved  to  the  existing  world  many  relics  of  the  customs  of  past  ages.  The  tombs  of 
Egypt  have  supplied  an  immense  quantity  of  them,  which  have  taught  the  present  age 
more  of  the  manners  of  ancient  nations  than  all  the  learned  books  that  have  been  written. 
It  is  an  awful  remembrance,  at  the  same  time,  that  inanimate  things  were  not  all  that 
the  dead  were  expected  to  take  with  them.  Herodotus  tells  us  of  favorite  horses  and 
slaves  sacrificed  at  the  holocaust  of  the  dead  chief.  The  same  thing  has  been  done  in 
our  own  day  in  Ashantee.  In  many  countries,  the  wives  had  the  doom,  or  privilege,  as 
it  was  thought,  of  departing  with  their  husbands;  and  down  to  the  present  generation 
the  practice  has  lived  in  full  vigor  in  the  Hindu  sutti.  Among  the  Jews,  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  and  many  ancient  nations,  the  dead  were  buried  beyond  the  towns.  The 
“ stop,  traveler!”  was  a usual  memorandum  on  Roman  tombs.  In  Christian  countries, 
if  the  remains  of  the  saint  to  whom  a church  was  dedicated  could  be  obtained — or  any 
thing  passing  for  the  remains — they  were  buried  near  the  altar  in  the  choir.  It  became 
a prevalent  desire  to  be  buried  near  these  saints,  and  the  bodies  of  men  eminent  for  their 
piety,  or  high  in  rank,  came  thus  to  be  buried  in  churches.  The  extension  of  the 
practice  was  the  origin  of  churchyards.  These,  in  crowded  towns,  became  offensive 
and  unhealthy.  It  can  scarcely  be  said  that  this  practice,  so  detrimental  to  the  public 
health,  as  the  B.  within  churches,  was  checked  in  this  country  until  the  whole  system 
of  intramural  interment,  as  it  was  called,  was  attacked,  about  the  year  1844,  by  Mr. 
Chadwick  and  other  sanitary  reformers.  Measures  were  afterwards  carried  for  shutting 
graveyards  in  crowded  cities,  and  placing  interments  in  open  cemeteries  under  sanitary 
control.  The  first  great  measure  was  passed  in  1850,  when  the  board  of  health  was  made 
a B.  board  for  the  metropolis,  and  power  was  given  to  the  privy  council  to  close  the 
city  graveyards.  The  act  was  modified  two  years  afterwards,  by  transferring  the  duties 
of  managing  cemeteries  to  local  boards  appointed  by  the  vestries.  It  was  in  London 
that  the  danger  was  most  urgent  and  the  remedy  immediate.  It  was  extended  to  the 
English  provinces  in  1853,  and  to  Scotland  in  1855. 

In  England,  B.  in  some  part  of  the  parish  churchyard  is  a common  law  right, 
which  may  be  enforced  by  mandamus — that  is,  every  person  may  be  buried  in  the 
parish  where  he  dies.  But  the  body  of  a parishioner  cannot  be  interred  in  an  iron  coflln 


Burial. 

JBurke. 


200 


or  vault,  or  even  in  any  particular  part  of  a churchyard,  as,  for  instance,  the  family 
vault,  without  an  additional  fee. 

The  fact  that  the  only  religious  service  which  can  at  present  be  conducted  at  the 
grave  is  that  of  the  church  of  England,  has  led  of  late  years  to  the  repeated  proposal  in 
parliament  of  measures  to  permit  dissenters  to  have  their  own  services  performed  in  the 
churchyard — as  yet  without  results. 

By  the  canons  of  the  church  of  England,  clergymen  cannot  refuse  or  delay  to  bury 
any  corpse  that  is  brought  to  the  church  or  churchyard;  on  the  other  hand,  a conspiracy 
to  prevent  a B.  is  an  indictable  offense,  and  so  is  the  willfully  obstructing  a clergyman 
in  reading  the  B.  service  in  a parish  church.  It  is  a popular  error,  that  a creditor  can 
arrest  or  detain  the  body  of  a deceased  debtor;  and  the  doing  such  an  act  is  indictable  as 
a misdemeanor.  It  is  also  an  error,  that  permitting  a funeral  procession  to  pass  over 
private  grounds  creates  a public  right  of  way.  By  the  3 Geo.  IV.  c.  126,  s.  32,  the 
inhabitants  of  any  parish,  township,  or  place,  when  going  to  or  returning  from  attending 
funerals  of  persons  in  England  who  have  died  and  are  to  be  buried  there,  are  exempted 
from  any  toll  within  these  limits.  And  by  the  4 Geo.  IV.  c.  49,  s.  36,  the  same  regulation 
is  extended  to  Scotland;  the  only  difference  being,  that  in  the  latter  case  the  limitation  of 
the  district  is  described  by  the  word  parish  alone.  The  6 and  7 Will.  IV.  c.  86  regulates 
the  registry  of  deaths.  The  4 Geo.  IV.  c.  52  abolished  the  barbarous  mode  of  burying 
persons  found  felo  de  se,  and  directs  that  their  B.  shall  take  place,  without  any  marks 
of  ignominy,  privately  in  the  parish  churchyard,  between  the  hours  of  nine  and  twelve 
at  night,  under  the  direction  of  the  coroner.  The  B.  of  dead  bodies  cast  on  shore  is 
enforced  by  48  Geo.  III.  c.  75.  See  Wharton’s  Law  Lexicon. 

In  Scotland,  the  right  of  B.  in  a churchyard  is  an  incident  of  property  in  the  parish; 
but  it  is  a mere  right  of  B.,  and  there  is  not  necessarily  any  corresponding  ownership  in 
the  solum  or  ground  of  the  churchyard.  In  Edinburgh,  however,  the  right  to  special 
B.  places  in  churchyards  is  recognized. — For  B.  in  cemeteries  in  England  and  Scotland, 
see  Cemetery. 

BTJEIAL  ACTS.  These  are  the  15  and  16  Viet.  c.  85,  for  London;  the  16  and  17  Viet, 
c.  134,  the  17  and  18  Viet.  c.  87,  and  the  18  and  19  Viet.  cc.  79  and  128,  for  places  in 
England  beyond  the  limits  of  the  metropolis — all  as  amended  by  the  20  and  21  Viet.  c. 
81,  and  the  22  Viet.  c.  1,  23  and  24  Viet.  c.  64,  25  and  26  Viet,  c,  100,  34  and  35  Viet.  c. 
33.  These  acts  were  rendered  necessary  when  it  was  resolved  on  sanitary  grounds  to 
put  a stop  to  burials  in  populous  places,  which  could  only  be  effectually  done  by  giving 
power  to  parishes  to  acquire  other  burial-grounds  in  rural  places.  These  statutes  have 
long  been  proverbial  for  their  confusion  (e.g.,  20  and  21  Viet.,  which  proposes  in  the 
preamble  to  amend  18  and  19  Viet.  c.  78,  really  amends  c.  79),  and  relate  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  burial-boards  for  parishes — the  authorizing  new  burial-places,  proper  sanitary 
regulations,  the  control  by  the  government  and  % order  4n  council,  and  many  other 
details  too  numerous  to  specify  here.  Our  readers  must  be  content  with  our  referring 
them  to  the  acts  themselves,  or  to  their  lawyers. 

The  corresponding  acts  for  Scotland  are  the  18  and  19  Viet.  c.  68,  amended  by  the 
20  and  21  Viet.  c.  42,  and  29  and  30  Viet.  c.  50. 

BURIAL  SOCIETIES  are  friendly  societies  constituted  in  the  usual  manner,  and  with 
the  express  object  of  supplying  a fund  for  paying  the  funeral  expenses  of  the  members 
o-n  their  death.  See  Friendly  Societies.  It  became  customary  to  enter  the  names 
not  only  of  adults,  but  of  children,  in  such  societies.  The  proceedings  of  the  criminal 
courts  have  shown  that,  in  some  instances,  children  on  whose  lives  such  an  insurance 
was  effected  have  been  killed  or  allowed  to  die  of  neglect,  and  the  alarm  created  by  such 
instances  was  enhanced  by  the  discovery  that  children  were  frequently  insured  in  more 
than  one  society.  To  obviate  this  calamitous  use  of  a beneficial  arrangement,  it  was 
provided  that  no  insurance  of  a child  under  six  years  of  age  in  a burial  society  should 
be  legal.  It  was  attested  to  the  select  committee  of  the  commons  on  friendly  societies 
in  1849,  that  the  practice  of  such  insurances  continued  in  uncertified  societies;  and  at 
the  same  time  it  was  stated  on  behalf  of  the  friendly  societies:  “In  our  long  experience 
with  these  societies  in  Liverpool,  in  which  are  nearly  100,000  members,  approximating 
to  nearly  one  third  of  the  population  of  this  great  town,  we  have  not  had  one  instance 
of  death  by  violence  for  the  sake  of  the  burial  money.”  In  the  friendly  societies  act  of 
1850,  and  in  subsequent  enactments,  stringent  arrangements  for  certifying  the  cause  of 
death  have  been  adopted  as  a sutficient  protection  from  this  crime. 

BURIATS,  a Mongolian  people  in  the  vicinity  of  lake  Baikal.  They  are  scattered 
in  various  tribes  that  take  the  names  of  their  special  localities;  and  the  tribes  are  sub- 
divided according  to  kinship.  In  1857,  the  B.  numbered  about  190,000.  They  have 
high  cheek-bones,  flat  noses,  and  sparse  beard  on  the  chin ; thejr  shave  the  head,  leaving 
a cue  at  tlie  top,  like  the  Chinese.  In  summer  they  dress  in  wool  and  cotton;  in 
winter  in  sheep-skins  and  furs.  Rearing  cattle  is  their  chief  occupation,  and  some  of 
them  possess  large  herds.  A few  tribes  engage  in  agriculture,  and  in  1889  the  B.  had 
about  240,000  acres  under  cultivation.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  they  have  an  elaborate 
system  of  irrigation.  Some  activity  is  shown  in  trapping  and  fishing.  In  religion  they 
are  mainly  Buddhists;  their  chief  lama  living  at  Goose  lake.  Some  are  Shamanists,  and 
their  sacrod  spot  is  the  Shamanist  stone  at  the  mouth  of  Angar  river.  About  10,000  are 


201 


I!uria]» 

Burke* 


Christians.  Reading  and  writing  are  general  among  the  B.,  and  they  have  books  of 
their  own,  translated  from  the  Thibetan.  Their  language  is  Mongolian,  and  in  three 
distinct  dialects.  The  Russians  first  explored  the  region  in  1631,  and  after  several 
unimportant  contests  permanently  subdued  the  B.  before  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 

BUBIDAN,  Jean,  a scholastic  metaphysician  of  the  nominalist  party,  was  b.  at 
Bethune,  in  Artois,  in  the  14th  c.,  and  studied  at  Paris  under  Occam,  where  he  also 
became  a teacher  of  philosophy.  The  events  of  his  life,  as  well  as  the  manner  of  his 
death,  are  very  obscure.  One  account  states  that  he  was  thrown  into  the  Seine  by 
command  of  Marguerite  de  Bourgogne,  daughter-in-law  of  Philippe  le  Bel,  whose 
infidelities  he  had  rebuked.  Another,  later,  but  less  mythical-looking  account,  states 
that  B.  was  driven  from  France  as  a disciple  of  Occam,  and  fled  to  Austria,  where  he 
founded  a school.  His  elucidations  of  Aristotle  are  among  his  most  useful  writings. 
In  his  Logic,  his  great  endeavor  was  to  facilitate  the  discovery  of  middle  terms  for  all 
kinds  of  syllogisms.  The  celebrated  sophism  known  to  the  schoolmen  under  the  name 
of  Buridan’s  Ass,  has  been  discussed  at  superfluous  length,  and  with  needless  ingenuity, 
by  Bayle.  It  is  not  at  all  likely  that  it  was  ever  adduced  by  B.,  but  more  probably  by 
his  adversaries,  who  wished  to  ridicule  his  metaphysical  doctrine  of  Determinism — viz., 
that  in  every  mental  and  bodily  action  the  will  must  be  determined  by  something  out 
of  itself.  The  sophism  referred  to  is  that  if  a hungry  ass  be  placed  exactly  between 
two  bundles  of  hay  of  equal  size  and  attractiveness,  it  must  starve,  as  there  is  nothing 
to  determine  the  will  of  the  animal  towards  either  bundle.  His  chief  works  are 
Summula  Dialectica  1487);  Compendium  (Venice,  1489;  Oxford,  1637);  In 

Aristotelis  Metaphysica  (Paris,  1518). 

BU'RIN,  or  Graver,  the  principal  instrument  used  in  copper-engraving,  is  made  of 
tempered  steel,  and  is  of  prismatic  form,  the  graving  end  being  ground  off  obliquely  to 
a sharp  point.  The  style  of  a master  is  frequently  described  by  the  expressions  soft  B., 
graphic  B.,  brilliant  B.,  or  whatever  other  character  may  belong  to  it. 

Mauritia  rinifera;  seeMAURiTiA;  a beautiful  palm  which  grows  in 
great  abundance  in  the  swamps  of  some  parts  of  the  n.  of  Brazil.  It  is  one  of  the  loftiest 
of  palms.  Its  leaves  are  fan-shaped,  and  form  a large  globular  head  at  the  top  of  the 
stem.  It  produces  a great  number  of  nuts  about  the  size  of  a small  hen’s  egg,  covered 
with  rhomboidal  scales  arranged  in  a spiral  manner.  Between  these  scales  and  the  albu- 
minous substance  of  the  nut,  there  is  an  oily  reddish  pulp,  which  is  boiled  with  sugar, 
and  made  into  a sweetmeat.  An  emulsion  is  also  prepared  from  it,  which,  when  sweet- . 
ened  with  sugar,  is  a very  palatable  beverage,  but  if  much  used,  is  feaid  to  tinge  the  skin 
of  a yellow  color.  The  juice  of  the  stem  also  makes  a very  agreeable  drink;  but  to 
obtain  it,  the  tree  must  be  cut  down,  when  several  holes  about  6 in.  square,  3 in.  deep, 
and  6 ft.  apart,  are  cut  in  the  trunk  with  a small  axe ; and  these  in  a short  time  are  filled 
with  a reddish-colored  liquid,  having  much  the  flavor  of  sweet  wine. 

BURKE,  a co.  in  e.  Georgia,  on  the  Savannah  river  and  the  Central  Georgia  railroad ; 
1040  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  17,639 — 13,436  colored;  in  ’80,  27,130.  Surface  hilly,  with  fertile 
soil,  producing  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and  cotton.  Co.  seat,  Waynesborough. 

BURKE,  a co.  in  w.  North  Carolina,  on  the  Catawba  river  and  the  Wilmington  and 
North  Carolina  railroads;  450  sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 12,811 — 2,721  colored.  Surface  mountain- 
ous, with  fine  scenery;  productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Morgantown. 

BURKE,'  Edmund,  a philosopher  and  politician,  distinguished  over  all  the  men  of  his 
times  for  eloquence  and  political  foresight,  was  born  in  1730,  in  Dublin,  where  his  father 
had  an  extensive  practice  as  an  attorney.  As  a schoolboy,  he  displayed  those  traits  of 
character  and  the  germs  of  those  powers  which  ultimately  gave  him  greatness.  In  1744, 
B.  entered  the  university  of  Dublin,  of  which  he  became  a scholar.  His  undergraduate 
course  was  not  unmarked  by  the  ordinary  distinctions  of  successful  application ; but  it 
would  appear  that  he  mainly  devoted  himself  to  his  favorite  studies  of  poetry,  oratory, 
history,  and  metaphysics.  In  Feb.,  1748,  he  graduated  b.a.,  and  in  1751  took  his  degree 
as  master  of  arts.  In  the  interval  (1750),  being  destined  for  the  English  bar,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  London,  to  keep  his  terms  at  the  Middle  Temple.  To  legal  studies,  however, 
he  never  took  kindly,  and  ultimately  he  abandoned  the  idea  of  becoming  a barrister. 
During  the  years  1750-56,  he  would  appear  to  have  occupied  himself  in  traveling  through 
England,  enjoying  the  society  of  literary  men,  in  study,  and  finally  in  writing  for  various 
periodicals. 

B, , when  yet  at  the  university,  had  achieved  a local  reputation  for  literary  talent  and 
eloquence.  Among  the  compositions  of  his  undergraduate  life  the  most  noticeable  per- 
haps is  his  translation  of  the  conclusion  of  the  second  Georgic  of  Virgil,  which  shows 
poetic  talent  of  no  mean  order.  His  first  important  publication,  however,  was  the  cele- 
brated of  Natural  Society,  written  in  imitation  and  ridicule  of  the  style  and 

reasoning  of  lord  Bolingbroke,  in  which,  with  well-concealed  irony,  he  confutes  his 
lordship’s  views  of  society  by  a reductio  ad  absurdum.  This  work,  published  anony- 
mously in  1756,  at  the  age  of  26,  attracted  considerable  attention.  Soon  after,  in  the 
same  year,  appeared  his  well-known  essay,  A Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  our 
Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful — a work  containing  a comprehensive  induction  of  the 
various  sources  of  the  ideas  referred  to,  but  which  must  be  pronounced  a failure,  so  far 


Burlingame. 


83  it  pretends  to  analyze  into  their  primary  elements  the  emotions  of  the  sublime  and 
beautiful. 

The  essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful  attained  a rapid  popularity,  and  its  author 
soon  found  himself  courted  by  all  the  eminent  men  of  his  time.  Garrick  was  already 
one  of  his  friends;  among  them  he  soon  could  count  Reynolds,  Soame  Jenyns,  lord  Lyt- 
telton, Warburton,  llume,  and  Dr.  Johnson.  Notwithstanding  this  popularity,  how- 
ever, his  progress  continued  slow;  for  three  years  yet,  he  had  to  occupy  himself  with 
periodical  writing,  devoting  his  leisure  principally  to  political  subjects.  What  is  con- 
sidered a joint  work  of  B.  and  his  cousin,  William  Bourke,  appeared  in  1757 — viz.,  An 
Account  of  the  European  Settlements  in  America — and  shows  how  carefully  at  this  date  he 
had  studied  the  condition  of  the  colonies.  In  1761,  Mr.W.  G.  Hamilton  (“  Single-speech 
Hamilton”),  then  secretary  for  Ireland,  having  appointed  him  his  private  secretary,  he 
returned  to  Dublin,  where,  during  two  years’  service,  he  demonstrated  his  aptitude  for 
political  business,  receiving  in  1763,  in  reward  of  his  services,  a pension  on  the  Irish 
establishment  of  £300,  which,  however,  he  did  not  long  enjoy. 

Returning  to  London,  B.,  in  1764,  along  with  Reynolds,  founded  the  literary  club, 
the  history  of  which  is  associated  with  almost  every  considerable  name  in  the  literature 
of  the  period.  But  literary  society  did  not  call  off  his  attention  from  the  chances  of  a 
political  career.  He  became  private  secretary  to  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  on  his 
becoming  premier,  and  at  the  same  time  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Wendover. 
Here  his  eloquence  at  once  made  him  the  reputation  of  being  “the  first  man  in  the 
commons.”  The  Rockingham  administration,  how’ever,  lived  only  a few  months,  and 
with  it  terminated  this  his  second  political  employment.  To  trace  his  subsequent  career 
in  parliament  is  more  than  the  limits  of  this  article  will  allow;  it  must  suffice  to  state 
briefly  that  his  parliamentary  life  extended  from  1766  to  1794  without  intermission; 
that  he  was  successively  member  for  Wendover,  Bristol,  and  Malton;  twice  held  the 
post  of  paymaster  of  the  forces,  once  under  Rockingham,  and  again  under  lord  North, 
with  the  standing  of  a privy  councilor;  that  after  a career  in  parliament  remarkable 
for  the  laboriousness,  earnestness,  and  brilliancy  with  which  every  duty  was  discharged, 
and  extending  over  nearly  30  years,  he  retired  at  last,  receiving  the  thanks  of  the  com- 
mons for  his  numerous  public  services,  and  rewarded  by  government,  on  the  express 
request  of  his  sovereign,  with  pensions  amounting  in  all  to  £3700.  It  would  be  wrong, 
however,  to  omit  that,  as  paymaster  of  the  forces,  he,  with  a scrupulous  regard  to 
public  economy,  sacrificed  all  the  perquisites  of  his  office,  exhibiting  a severe  integrity 
unexampled  among  public  men;  and  that  in  his  relation  with  the  constituency  of  Bris- 
tol, which  was  alienated  from  him  by  his  advocacy  of  the  claims  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics and  of  the  opening  up  of  the  trade  of  Ireland,  he  was  the  first  to  maintain  the 
doctrine  of  the  independence  of  parliamentary  representatives — that  they  are  not 
machines  to  vote  for  measures  approved  by  their  constituencies  simply  for  that  reason, 
but  men  and  thinkers  chosen  by  them  to  calmly  consider  and  legislate  for  the  good  of 
the  commonwealth.  It  must  also  be  mentioned,  that  during  his  career  he  rendered 
more  important  service  to  the  cause  of  humanity  than  any  man  of  his  time : he  prepared 
the  way  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  a measure  which  was  destined  to  ripen  to 
success  in  the  hands  of  Wilberforce;  he  advocated  the  cause  of  humanity  in  India 
Against  the  voracious  greed  of  stockholders,  who  regarded  its  millions  simply  as  mate- 
rials for  plunder,  and  largely  contributed  to  improve  the  government  of  that  country. 
Towards  America  he  advocated  a policy  of  justice  and  conciliation,  which,  had  it  been 
adopted,  would  have  averted  the  horrors  of  the  war  of  independence,  and  retained  the 
colonies  in  amity  with  the  mother-country.  And  to  the  advocacy  of  every  cause  which 
he  espoused,  he  brought  a capacity  for  patient  research  that  was  unlimited,  and  an  elo- 
quence that  has  never  been  transcended. 

Before  proceeding  to  remark  on  the  character  and  powers  of  B.,  a very  brief  notice 
must  be  taken  of  his  leading  literary  efforts  connected  with  his  political  labors.  Little 
more  than  a catalogue  can  here  be  given  of  them.  Omitting  a variety  of  valuable  letters 
— several  on  the  condition  of  Ireland — notice  must  be  taken  of  his  Observations  on  a 
Pamphlet  on  the  Present  State  of  the  Nation,  being  his  first  political  pamphlet,  published 
in  1769,  in  answer  to  one  variously  ascribed  to  Fox  or  Grenville.  In  1770,  he  published 
a pamphlet,  On  the  Cause  of  the  Present  Discontents.  On  the  13th  Feb.,  1788,  he  com- 
menced his  celebrated  speech  opening  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings  (q.v.),  the  most 
remarkable  trial,  perhaps,  in  the  history  of  the  world.  This  speech  lasted^  over  four 
days,  and  has  been  characterized  as  “a  tempest  of  invective  and  eloquence.”  No  idea 
can  be  conveyed  of  the  effect  which  it  produced.  The  trial  lasted  seven  years,  and 
closed  with  another  great  and  splendid  oration  from  B.,  lasting  over  nine  days.  Has- 
tings, it  is  well  known,  was  acquitted.  While  this  trial  was  advancing,  B.  found  time 
to  take  part  in  all  the  current  business.  In  1790,  appeared  his  Reflections  on  the  Revolu- 
tion of  France,  which  sold  in  tens  of  thousands,  and  is  said  to  have  produced  an  effect 
never  produced  before  nor  since  by  any  political  essay.  Hereafter,  the  world  showered 
honors  on  B.,  of  which  space  forbids  even  the  enumeration.  Having,  in  1791,  with- 
drawn from  the  whigs  on  the  French  question,  he  offered  for  the  consideration  of  gov- 
ernment, 'ihoughts  on  French  Affairs,  which,  however,  was  not  published  till  after  his 
death.  Heads  for  Consideration  on  the  Present  State  of  Affairs  and  Reply  to  a NobU 
Lord  next  followed,  the  latter  being  relative  to  himself  personally.  His  last  work, 


203 


Burke. 

Burlingame 


Ihoughts  on  a Regicide.  Peace,  showed  that  he  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life  his  whole 
powers  unimpaired. 

Few  men  have  been  the  subjects  of  higher  panegyric  than  B. , and,  on  the  whole, 
few  have  better  deserved  praise.  He  was  noble-minded,  pure  in  his  life,  and  a purist 
in  politics.  Intellectually,  he  was  most  richly  endowed;  with  much  imagination,  rare 
powers  of  observation,  and  indefatigable  industry,  there  was  no  subject  which  he  could 
not  master,  and  none  which,  having  mastered,  he  could  not  expound  with  unparalleled 
richness  of  language.  But  with  these  virtues  and  powers  were  conjoined  defects,  which, 
without  bating  their  greatness,  largely  neutralized  their  influence.  He  was,  it  may  be 
said,  too  literary  to  be  a philosopher,  and  too  philosophic  to  be  a politician.  His  career 
would  seem  to  illustrate  this  position.  His  oratory  astounded  by  its  brilliancy  rather 
than  persuaded  by  its  tone  and  argument;  and  in  the  long-run,  the  eloquence  which 
failed  to  command  the  reason,  ceased  to  captivate  the  ear.  The  man  who  at  first  evoked 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  house  by  the  brilliancy  and  power  of  his  eloquence,  did  actually 
at  last  empty  it  by  persistence  in  the  monotonous  splendors  of  his  speeches.  Passionate, 
and  in  a great  degree  untractable,  he  was  unsuited  for  party  politics,  and  drifted  from 
all  his  connections,  breaking  up  slowly  all  party  ties,  and  even  the  ties  of  friendship,  till 
he  reached  at  last  a state  of  almost  political  isolation.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  how  great  an  influence  he,  half  philosopher,  half  politician,  exercised  on  the 
counsels  of  the  state;  many  of  his  views  on  politics  and  public  economy  were  anticipa- 
tions of  science,  as  many  of  his  previsions  of  the  course  of  events  were  prophecies. 

B.  died  on  the  7th  July,  1797,  in  his  68th  ^ear.  A collected  edition  of  his  works  in  quarto 
was  published  in  1827.  The  latest  edition  is  that  of  the  Clarendon  press,  begun  in  1866. 
The  best  biography  of  B.  is  Mr.  J.  Macknight’s.  See  also  Morley’s  Edmu^  Burke,  a 
Historical  Study  (1869). 

BURKE,  Sir  John  Bernard,  b.  1815;  son  of  John,  who  started  the  genealogical 
books  known  as  Burke's  Peerage,  etc.,  and  continuing  the  work  after  the  father’s  death. 
He  was  called  to  the  English  bar  in  1839,  and  was  knighted  in  1854.  He  has  published, 
besides  the  Peerage  and  Baronetage,  History  of  Dormant,  Abeyant,  Forfeited,  and  Extinct 
Peerages;  History  of  the  Landed  Gentry;  Vicissitudes  of  Families,  and  other  works. 

BURKING.  See  Anatomy  (in  law). 

BURLAMAQUI',  Jean  Jacques,  a writer  on  natural  law.  He  was  professor  and 
lecturer  in  Geneva,  and  was  elected  to  the  council  of  the  state.  His  works  are  upon  the 
principles  of  natural  and  political  rights,  and  have  passed  through  many  editions. 

BURLEIGH,  William  Cecil,  Lord.  See  Cecil. 

BURLEIGH,  William  Henry,  1812-71;  b.  Conn.;  printer  and  editor  of  several 
literary  and  religious  journals,  among  which  were  the  Christian  Witness,  Pittsburg, 
Penn. ; the  Charter  Oak,  Hartford,  Conn. ; and  the  Washington  Banner,  He  published 
a volume  of  miscellaneous  poems. 

BURLESON,  a co.  in  central  Texas,  on  Brazos  riyer;  976  sq.m. ; pop.  '80,  9242—3888 
colored.  It  has  an  uneven  but  productive  soil,  about  two  thirds  covered  with  oak  for- 
ests. Productions,  corn,  cotton,  and  wool.  Co.  seat,  Caldwell. 

BURLESQUE  (from  Ital.  lurla,  jest,  mockery),  denoting  a style  of  speaking,  acting, 
writing,  drawing,  is  a low  and  rude  grade  of  the  comic.  The  legitimate  comic  brings 
together  contrasts  with  a final  view  to  harmonizing  and  reconciling  them ; the  B.  dis- 
torts and  caricatures,  and  brings  the  incongruities  into  stronger  relief.  The  farce  is  the 
B.  of  comedy.  Deformities  and  monstrosities  that  excite  disgust  do  not  belong  to  the 
burlesque.  The  lofty  and  the  abject,  the  great  and  the  little  are  conjoined,  with  the 
sole  view  of  exciting  a laugh.  Nor  does  the  true  B.  turn  real  greatness  and  nobility  into 
laughter,  but  only  sham  greatness — false  pathos,  and  all  hollow  pretension  and  affecta- 
tion. The  B.  style  appears  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  ancients;  it  originated  among 
the  Italians,  more  particularly  with  the  poet  Berni  (q.v.).  The  genuinely  national  huf- 
fone  of  the  Italians  personates  the  burlesque.  Carlo  Gozzi,  in  his  tragi-comedies,  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  in  the  B.  vein.  Scarron  among  the  French,  and  Hudibras  in  Eng- 
lish, are  examples.  Parody  or  travesty  (q.v.)  is  a species  of  burlesque. 

BURLETTA,  a comic  operetta  or  musical  farce. 

BURLINGAME,  Anson,  ll.d.,  1820-70;  b.  N.  Y.;  educated  in  Michigan  and  Har- 
vard universities,  and  practiced  law  in  Boston.  He  was  chosen  to  the  state  legislature 
and  the  constitutional  convention.  He  was  an  early  worker  in  the  free-soil  party  when 
Van  Buren  was  the  presidential  candidate;  and  was  also  a leader  in  the  American  party 
in  1854,  and  by  them  sent  to  congress.  His  denunciation  of  Brooks’s  assault  upon  sena- 
tor Sumner  provoked  a challenge  from  the  South  Carolinian,  which  the  Massachusetts 
member  at  once  accepted,  naming  rifles  as  the  weapons.  Brooks  did  not  fight.  Bur- 
lingame was  a congressman  until  1861,  and  in  that  year  was  sent  as  minister  to  Austria, 
where  the  feeling  against  him  because  he  had  favored  Hungarian  independence  led  to  a 
positive  refusal  to  receive  him  as  a diplomatic  representative.  He  was  then  sent  to 
China,  where  he  was  successful  in  negotiating  certain  treaties  favorable  to  both  coun- 
tries, and  for  the  first  time  securing  China’s  recognition  of  international  rights  of  prop- 
erty, trade,  and  worship.  In  1869,  having  gained  the  full  confidence  of  the  Chinese 


Barllngrton. 

Burmah. 


204 


government,  lie  was  sent  as  minister  of  the  Chinese  empire  to  Russia,  and  other  European 
countries,  but  died  soon  after  entering  upon  his  duties. 

BURLINGTON,  a co.  in  central  New  Jersey,  between  the  ocean  and  the  Delaware 
river;  600  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  55,403.  It  is  level  and  in  some  parts  fertile,  but  much  of  it  is 
sandy  and  covered  with  pine  forests.  Iron  ore,  marl,  and  petrified  animal  remains  are 
found.  Chief  productions,  cereals,  potatoes,  hay,  butter,  and  wool.  The  railways  are 
the  Camden  and  Amboy,  Camden  and  Burlington  County,  Pemberton  and  Hightstown, 
and  branches  of  the  New  Jersey  Southern.  Co.  seat.  Mount  Holly. 

BUBLINGTON,  the  name  of  three  cities  of  some  note  in  the  United  States. — 1.  A port 
of  entry  in  New  Jersey,  on  the  Delaware,  about  20  m.  above  Philadelphia,  with  wdiich, 
as  well  as  with  New  York,  it  is  connected  by  the  Camden  and  Amboy  railway.  It  pos- 
sesses an  Episcopalian  college,  founded  in  1846.  Pop.  ’70,  5817,  with  about  13,000  tons 
of  shipping. — 2.  The  most  populous  city  in  Vermont.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the 
e.  shore  of  lake  Champlain.  It  communicates  with  the  St.  Lawrence  by  means  of  the 
Richelieu  river  and  the  Chambly  canal ; while  through  the  Champlain  canal  it  has  access 
to  the  Hudson.  It  has  railway  communication  with  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  Vermont  university  crowns  the  slope  on  which  the  city  stands.  Pop.  ’70, 
14,387. — 3.  A city  of  Iowa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  207  *m.  by  rail  w.s.w.  of 
Chicago.  It  occupies  a natural  amphitheater  formed  by  the  limestone  bluffs  which  slope 
backward  from  the  river.  It  carries  on  a large  commerce,  and  there  are  numerous 
foundries,  breweries,  soap-works,  pork-packing  establishments,  flour-mills,  and  saw- 
mills. The  city  is  the  center  of  considerable  railway  communications,  and  possesses 
among  its  educational  institutions,  business  college  and  Baptist  university.  Pop.  ’70, 
14,933. 

BURLINGTON  a city  in  Des  Moines  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  Mississippi;  207  m. 

w.s.w.  of  Chicago;  pop.  ’80, 19,450.  It  is  at  the  junction  of  several  railroads,  and  is  an 
important  business  point,  having  also  many  manufactories.  The  business  portion  is  of 
the  river  shore,  while  private  residences  are  on  the  high  bluffs  in  the  rear.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Burlington  university,  and  has  other  excellent  schools.  There  are  extensive  coal  and 
limestone  deposits  near  by.  From  1837  to  1840  it  was  the  state  capital. 

BURLINGTON  {ante),  a city  in  Burlington  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware  18  m.  above 
Philadelphia,  founded  by  Quakers  in  1677.  It  is  on  the  Camden  and  Amboy  rail- 
road, and  is  connected  by  steamboats  with  Philadelphia.  Among  its  educational  insti- 
tutions are  a college  and  St.  Mary’s  hall  for  young  women  (both  Episcopal).  There  is 
considerable  manufacturing  business,  and  trade  by  the  river  and  railroads.  B.  was  for 
a long  period  the  seat  of  government  of  the  colony  of  West  Jersey,  and  the  last  official 
residence  of  Win.  Franklin,  the  governor,  at  which  period  and  afterwards  it  had  a 
lucrative  West  India  trade.  Pop.  ’80,7237. 

BURLINGTON  {ante),  the  chief  city  of  Vermont,  a port  of  entry,  and  the  co.  seat 
of  Chittenden  co.,  on  lake  Champlain,  38  m.  by  rail  n.w.  of  Montpelier;  pop.  ’80, 
11,364.  The  harbor  is  commodious  and  safe,* protected  by  a breakwater  900  ft.  long; 
and  the  location  of  the  city  is  remarkably  fine,  both  for  commerce  and  charming  scenery. 
Besides  the  lake  navigation,  the  Central  Vermont,  Vermont  and  Canada,  Burlington  and 
Lamoille,  and  Rutland  and  Burlington  railroads  give  ample  means  of  communication. 
There  is  a steam  ferry  to  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.  The  lumber  trade  is  the  largest  single 
business,  but  there  are  marble  works,  manufactories,  and*a  large  local  trade.  B.  is  con- 
nected with  Winooski,  a manufacturing  suburb,  by  a bridge  over  the  Winooski  river. 
The  university  of  Vermont,  founded  in  1791,  is  on  the  highest  ground  in  the  city; 
departments  of  the  university  are  the  agricultural  college  and  a medical  school.  Another 
educational  feature  is  the  Vermont  Episcopal  institute,  organized  in  1858.  The  city  is 
supplied  with  gas  and  water;  its  notable  public  buildings  and  institutes  are:  a U.  S. 
custom  house,  a city  hall,  and  a court  house;  2 Congregational  churches;  2 Roman 
Catholic;  Unitarian,  Baptist,  Episcopal,  and  Methodist  churches;  the  Fletcher  free 
library;  the  Mary  Fletcher  hospital;  Lake  View  cemetery,  near  lake  Champlain,  and 
Green  Mount  cemetery,  overlooking  the  Winooski  valley,  the  latter  containing  a credit' 
able  monument  over  the  grave  of  Ethan  Allen. 

^ BURLINGTON.  See  Bridlington. 

BURLINGTON  LIMESTONE,  a valuable  material  for  building  found  in  abundance 
near  Burlington,  Iowa,  and  elsewhere  along  the  Mississippi,  usually  in  double  beds,  the 
upper  one  nearly  all  carbonate  of  lime,  and  the  lower  one  containing  magnesia.  This 
stone  is  peculiar  for  the  vast  abundance  of  fossils  found  in  it,  especially  of  crinoidea  and 
corals. 

BURMAH,  Empire  op,  called  also  the  Empire  op  Ava,  an  important  kingdom  of  the 
Indo-Cliinese  peninsula,  formerly  of  great  extent;  but  by  two  contests  with  the  British 
power  in  India,  it  lost  several  provinces,  and  is  now,  in  its  widest  sense  and  including 
tributary  states,  comprehended  between  19°  29'  and  28°  n.  lat.,  and  93°  and  100°  e.  long., 
having  an  area  of  about  188,000  sq.m.,  and  a scanty  population  estimated  at  from 
8,000,000  to  4,000,000.  It  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  mountains,  separating  it  from  Assam 
and  Thibet;  on  the  e.,  by  China;  on  the  s.,  by  the  British  province  of  Pegu;  and  on  the 
w.,  by  Munnipore  and  mountain-ranges  dividing  it  from  Tipperah,  Qhittagong,  and 


205 


Surlington. 

Hurmalu 


Aracan.  The  Burman  empire,  as  it  now  exists,  has  three  well-marked  divisions:  1. 

l^orthern  B.,  inhabited  chiefly  by  Singphos,  Shans,  and  other  tribes;  2.  B.  proper;  8. 
The  Eastern  Shan  tributary  states.  The  area  of  B.  proper,  from  lat.  24°  n.  to  the  fron- 
tier <ff  Pegu,  is  44,450  sq.m.,  with  a population  of  about  1,200,000. 

Physical  features. — From  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  great  transverse  mountain  barrier 
of  Northern  India,  longitudinal  ranges  strike  away  southwards,  and  between  two  of 
these  the  Burman  territories  are  situated.  The  country  slopes  from  the  highland  regions 
of  the  n.  towards  the  coast,  and  has  been  fitly  described  as  “a  varied  surface  of  rolling 
upland,  interspersed  with  alluvial  basins  and  sudden  ridges  of  hill.” 

The  principal  river,  the  Irrawaddy  (q.v.),  having  its  source  amid  the  snowy  moun- 
tains from  which  descends  the  Brahmaputra,  is  the  great  commercial  highway  of  the 
country,  through  the  heart  of  which  it  takes  its  course.  Passing  Amarapura,  Ava,  and 
other  towns,  it  enters  Pegu,  and  90  miles  below  Prome,  divides  into  an  eastern  and 
western  branch,  the  former  flowing  past  Rangoon,  the  latter  forming  the  Bassein  river. 
The  Kyen-dwen  is  its  principal  tributary.  To  the  e.  of  the  Irrawaddy,  the  Salween, 
after  an  almost  parallel  course,  enters  the  British  territories  in  nearly  the  same  latitude. 

Climate. — On  the  coast,  only  two  seasons  are  known — the  dry  and  the  rainy,  which 
are  regulated  by  the  n.e.  and  the  s.w.  monsoons;  but  in  B.  proper,  less  rain  falls,  and 
there  are  three  seasons — the  cold,  the  hot,  and  the  rainy.  Some  showers  fall  in  May 
or  June,  but  the  great  rains  last  from  the  middle  of  Aug.  to  the  end  of  Oct.  The 
cool  season  is  from  the  middle  of  Oct.  till  the  beginning  of  April,  and  from  this 
month  till  the  great  rains  is  the  hot  part  of  the  year,  the  thermometer  ranging  from  85° 
to  100°.  The  climate  is,  on  the  whole,  healthy,  but  the  jungles  are  very  pestiferous. 

Minerals. — B.  has  vast  fields  of  mineral  wealth,  but  little  enterprise  and  capital  are 
brought  to  bear  upon  them.  There  are  gold  mines  at  Bamo,  near  the  Chinese  frontier. 
Auriferous  sand  is  found  in  many  of  the  streams.  Silver  is  obtained  at  Bau-dwen,  like- 
wise on  the  confines  of  China,  and  also  in  the  Shan  country,  from  whence  comes  the 
chief  supply  of  lead.  Iron  is  quarried  at  Poukpa,  a lofty  mountain  a few  miles  e.  of 
Pagan.  The  celebrated  ruby  mines  of  B.  are  situated  60  or  70  m.  n.e.  from  the  capi- 
tal and  are  jealously  guarded.  Sapphires  of  great  size  are  found  in  the  same  stratum, 
but  are  more  rare.  The  annual  value  of  the  gems  is  estimated  at  from  £12,000  to  £15,000 
sterling,  and  they  are  the  property  of  the  king.  Wells  of  the  mineral  oil,  petroleum, 
are  worked  at  Ye-nan-gyoung,  on  the  Irrawaddy,  above  Prome.  Marble,  noble  serpen- 
tine, and  amber  are  likewise  found  in  large  quantities. 

Vegetable  productions. — A few  only  of  the  most  striking  of  these  can  be  noticed.  Of 
the  graceful  palm-tribe  {palmacece),  the  cocoa-nut,  the  betel,  the  palmyra,  and  the  nipa, 
or  water-palm,  are  the  most  prized.  The  useful  bamboo  is  widely  diffused.  The  teak, 
of  which  B.  possesses  inexhaustible  forests,  and  the  hopaea,  are  amongst  the  most  valu- 
able of  the  timber-trees.  Forests  of  pine  grow  to  the  eastward  of  Amarapura.  The 
wood-oil  tree  is  found  on  the  higher  Salween,  one  trunk  of  which  will  produce  from  30 
to  40  gallons  of  oil  every  season.  The  staple  fruit  of  the  country  is  the  plaintain  or 
banana.  The  jack  is  prized  by  the  natives.  The  mango  reaches  the  height  of  100  ft., 
and  produces  a delicious  fruit.  Rice,  wheat,  tobacco,  indigo,  and  cotton  are  cultivated. 

Animals. — The  felidm,  or  cat  family,  abound,  tigers,  leopards,  and  tiger-cats  being 
met  with  in  every  part  of  the  country.  Of  the  pachydermata,  the  elephant  and 
rhinoceros  are  the  most  noteworthy.  The  elephant,  buffalo,  and  Indian  ox  have  been 
domesticated. 

Ethnology. — The  Burmams  belong  to  that  branch  of  the  Mongolidae  characterized  by 
a monosyllabic  language ; they  are  short-headed,  broad-skulled,  and  flat-faced.  The  hair 
is  black,  and  the  skin  of  a deep  brown  color.  Their  dress  is  simple,  but  peculiar.  The 
in-gie,  a white  linen  jacket,  is  common  to  both  sexes.  Wrapped  around  the  lower  part 
of  the  body,  the  men  wear  the  put-so,  which  is  several  yards  in  length;  the  women,  the 
te-mine,  a scant  gpment  of  cotton  or  silk.  Silks,  muslins,  and  valuable  gold  ornaments 
are  worn  on  special  occnsions.  Betel-nut  chewing  and  cigar-smoking  are  greatly  prac- 
tized by  both  men  and  women.  The  Burmans  are,  generally  speaking,  fine,  well-made 
men,  and  excel  in  wrestling,  boxing,  rowing,  foot-ball,  and  other  athletic  exercises ; they 
are  clever  as  carpenters  and  smiths.  Burman  houses  are  made  of  a framework  of  bam- 
boo, thatched  with  the  leaf  of  the  water-palm,  and  are  invariably  raised  on  posts  several 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  women  are  more  industrious  than  the  men ; they  buy,  sell, 
weave,  and  attend  to  the  domestic  concerns.  Both  sexes  delight  in  merry-making,  feast- 
ing, buffoonery,  and  sight-seeing.  Kpooay,  or  theatrical  representation,  is  a very  favor- 
ite amusement,  and  a buffalo-fight  attracts  crowds  of  spectators.  The  Burman  has  little 
patriotism,  but  is  attached  to  his  home.  Without  individual  cruelty,  he  is  indifferent 
to  the  shedding  of  blood  by  his  rulers.  Though  temperate  and  hardy,  he  dislikes  disci- 
pline and  continued  employment;  and  when  in  power,  is  too  of  ten  arrogant,  arbitrary, 
and  corrupt. 

Besides  the  true  Burman,  a great  variety  of  races  inhabit  the  Burman  territories. 
The  Telaings,  or  Moans,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Peguans,  are  pretty  well  amalga- 
mated with  the  Burmans.  The  Shans,  or  Tai,  perhaps  the  most  numerous  and  widely 
diffused  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peoples,  are  scattered  over  the  peninsula,  from  Munnipore 
to  Bangkok.  Of  the  eastern  Shan  states,  some  are  tributary  to  B. , others  to  Siam,  while 
those  w.  of  the  Irrawaddy  are  wholly  under  Burman  rule.  The  Singphos  cluster  round 


Burmah. 


206 


the  mountains  of  the  n.,  and  along  the  western  mountain-houndary  of  B.,  wild  Kyhens, 
and  many  tribes  under  diiferent  names,  live  in  varying  degrees  of  civilization.  The 
Karens  are  met  with  chiefly  in  southern  Burmah. 

Religion. — Buddhism  (q.v.)  is  the  prevailing  religion  of  B.,  where  it  has  been  pre- 
served in  great  purity.  Its  monuments — temples,  shrines,  and  monasteries — are  innum- 
erable; its  festivals  are  carefully  observed,  and  its  monastic  system  is  fully  established 
in  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  While  directing  the  reader  to  the  special  article  on 
Buddhism  for  an  account  of  its  doctrines,  history,  etc.,  we  may  here  glance  at  its  devoK 
opment,  institutions,  and  edifices  among  the  Burmans. 

The  members  of  the  monastic  fraternity  are  known  in  B.  as  pon-gyees,  meaning 
“ great  glory;”  but  the  Pali  word  is  rahan,  or  holy  man.  Thepon-gyees  are  not  priests, 
in  the  usual  acceptation  of  the  term,  but  rather  monks.  Their  religious  ministrations 
are  confined  to  sermons,  and  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  worship  of  the  people. 
They  are  a very  numerous  class,  living  in  monasteries,  or  kyoungs,  and  may  ^t  once  be 
known  by  their  yellow  robes  (the  color  of  mourning),  shaven  heads,  and  bare  feet. 
They  subsist  wholly  by  the  charity  of  the  people,  which,  however,  they  well  repay  by 
instructing  the  boys  of  the  countr^r.  The  kyoungs  are  thus  converted  into  national 
schools.  The  vows  of  a pon-gyee  include  celibacy,  poverty,  and  the  renunciation  of 
the  world;  but  from  these  he  may  at  any  time  be  released,  and  return  to  a secular  life. 
Hence,  nearly  every  youth  assumes  the  yellow  robe  for  a time,  as  a meritorious  act,  or 
for  the  purpose  of  study,  and  the  ceremony  of  making  a pon-gyee  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance. The  ostensible  object  of  the  brotherhood  is  the  more  perfect  observance  of  the 
laws  of  Buddha.  The  order  is  composed  of  five  classes — viz.,  young  men  who  wear  the 
yellow  robe  and  live  in  the  kyoungs,  but  are  not  professed  members;  those  on  whom 
the  title  and  character  of  pon-gyees  have  been  solemnly  conferred  with  the  usual  cere- 
monies; the  heads  or  governors  of  the  several  communities;  provincials,  whose  juris- 
diction extends  over  their  respective  provinces;  and,  lastly,  a superior  general,  or  great 
master,  who  directs  the  affairs  of  the  order  throughout  the  empire. 

No  provision  is  made  for  religion  by  the  government,  but  it  meets  with  liberal  sup- 
port from  the  people.  A pon-gyee  is  held  in  profound  veneration ; his  person  is  sacred, 
and  he  is  addressed  by  the  lordly  title  of  'p'a  or  phra;  nor  does  this  reverence  terminate 
with  his  death.  On  the  decease  of  a distinguished  member,  his  body  is  embalmed, 
while  the  limbs  are  swathed  in  linen,  varnished,  and  even  gilded.  The  mummy  is  then 
placed  on  a highly  decorated  cenotaph,  and  preserved,  sometimes  for  months,  until  the 
grand  day  of  funeral.  The  Burman  rites  of  cremation  are  very  remarkable,  but  we 
cannot  here  enlarge  upon  them.  On  the  whole,  a favorable  opinion  may  be  passed  on 
the  monastic  fraternity  of  B. ; although  abuses  have  crept  in,  discipline  is  more  lax  thaa 
formedy,  and  many  doubtless  assume  the  yellow  robe  from  unworthy  motives. 

In  B.,  the  last  Buddha  is  worshiped  under  the  name  of  Gautama.  His  images 
crowd  the  temples,  and  many  are  of  a gigantic  size.  The  days  of  worship  are  at  the 
new  and  full  moon,  and  seven  days  after  each ; but  the  whole  time,  from  the  full  moon 
of  July,  to  the  full  moon  of  Oct.,  is  devoted  by  the  Burmans  to  a stricter  observance  of 
the  ceremonies  of  their  religion.  During  the  latter  month,  several  religious  festivals 
take  place,  which  are  so  many  social  gatherings  and  occasions  for  grand  displays  of 
dress,  dancing,  music,  and  feasting.  At  such  times,  barges  full  of  gayly-dressed  people, 
the  women  dancing  to  the  monotonous  dissonance  of  a Burman  band,  may  be  seen  glid- 
ing along  the  rivers  to  some  shrine  of  peculiar  sanctity.  The  worship  on  these  occa- 
sions has  been  described  by  an  eye-witness,  in  1857,  as  follows:  “Arrived  at  the  shrines- 
and  temples,  the  people  suddenly  turn  from  pleasure  to  devotion.  Men  bearing  orna- 
mental paper-umbrellas,  fruits,  flowers,  and  other  offerings,  crowd  the  image-houses, 
present  their  gifts  to  the  favorite  idol,  make  their  shek-ho,  and  say  their  prayers  with  all 
dispatch.  Others  are  gluing  more  gold-leaf  on  the  face  of  the  image,  or  saluting  him 
with  crackers,  the  explosion  of  which  in  nowise  interferes  with  the  serenity  of  the  wor- 
shipers. The  women  for  the  most  part  remain  outside,  kneeling  on  the  sward,  just  at 
the  entrance  of  the  temple,  where  a view  can  be  obtained  of  the  image  within.”  On 
another  occasion,  we  read:  “The  principal  temple  being  under  repair,  was  much 
crowded  by  bamboo  scaffolding,  and  new  pillars  were  being  put  up,  each  bearing  an 

inscription  with  the  name  of  the  donor The  umbrellas  brought  as  offerings  were 

so  numerous,  that  one  could  with  difficulty  thread  a passage  through  them.  Soine  were 
pure  white,  others  white  and  gold,  while  many  boasted  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow. 
They  were  made  of  paper,  beautifully  cut  into  various  patterns.  There  were  numerous 
altars  and  images,  and  numberless  little  Gautamas;  but  a deep  niche  or  cave,  at  the  far 
end  of  which  was  a fat  idol,  with  a yellow  cloth  wrapped  round  him,  seemed  a place  of 
peculiar  sanctity.  This  recess  would  have  been  quite  dark,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
numberless  tapers  of  yellow  wax  that  were  burning  before  the  image.  The  closeness  of 
the  place,  the  smoke  from  the  candles,  and  the  fumes  from  the  quantity  of  crackers 
constantly  being  let  off,  rendered  respiration  almost  impossible.  An  old  pon-gyee,  how- 
ever, the  only  one  I ever  saw  in  a temple,  seemed  quite  in  his  element;  his  shaven 
bristly  head  and  coarse  features  looking  ugly  enough  to  serve  for  some  favorite  idol, 
and  he  seemed  a fitting  embodiment  of  so  senseless  and  degrading  a worship.  Offer- 
ings of  flowers,  paper-ornaments,  flags,  and  candles  were  scattered  about  in  profusion. 
The  beating  a bell  with  a deer’s  horn,  the  explosion  of  crackers,  and  the  rapid  mutter- 


i Barmalu 

ing  of  prayers,  made  up  a din  of  sounds,  the  suitable  accompaniment  of  so  misdireeted 
-a  devotion.” 

The  rosary  is  in  general  use,  and  the  Pali  words  aneitya  ! doka  ! anatta  ! expressing 
the  transitory  nature  of  all  sublunary  things,  are  very  often  repeated.  The  Burman  is 
singularly  free  from  fanaticism  in  the  exercise  of  his  religion,  and  his  most  sacred 
temples  maybe  freely  entered  by  the  stranger  without  otfense;  indeed,  the  impartial 
observer  will  hardly  fail  to  admit  that  Buddhism,  in  the  absence  of  a purer  creed,  pos- 
sesses considerable  influence  for  good  in  the  country  under  consideration.  “It  teaches 
man  to  combat,  control,  and  master  the  passions  of  his  heart,  to  make  reason  predomi- 
nate over  sense,  mind  over  matter,  and  to  practice  the  virtues  required  for  the  attainment 
of  these  objects.” 

The  sacred  edifices  are  of  three  kinds:  1.  The  tope,  dagoba,  or  s/mne  (satfee  or  ^sa- 
dee),  a monument  erected  to  the  last  Buddha,  is  a solid,  bell-shaped  mass  of  plastered 
brickwork,  tapering  to  the  summit,  which  is  crowned  by  the  tee,  or  umbrella,  of  open 
ironwork.  2.  The  temple,  in  which  are  many  images  of  Gautama.  The  most  remark- 
able specimen  of  Burman  temple-architecture  is  the  ananda  of  Pagan.  The  ground- 
plan  takes  the  form  of  a perfect  Greek  cross;  and  a tapering  spire,  with  a gilded  tee  at 
the  height  of  168  ft.  from  the  foundation,  crowns  the  whole.  3.  The  kyoung  or  monas- 
tery {vihara)  is  generally  constructed  with  a roof  of  several  diminishing  stages,  and  is 
often  elaborately  adorned.  Burman  architecture  “ differs  essentially  from  that  of  India 
in  the  frequent  use  of  the  pointed  arch,  not  only  for  doors  and  windows,  but  also  in  the 
vaulted  coverings  of  passages.” 

Cities. — Mandalay,  the  present  capital  of  B.,  and  seat  of  royalty,  is  situated  3 m.  from 
the  Irrawaddy,  a little  to  the  n.  of  Amarapura  and  Ava.  It  is  laid  out  in  three  parallel- 
ograms, one  within  another,  of  which  the  inner  two  are  walled;  the  palace  occupies  the 
center.  Ava  and  Amarapura,  each  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  empire,  are  now  almost 
entirely  deserted.  Pagan  represents  the  past  of  B. , and  is  remarkable  for  its  magnifi- 
cent ruins  of  temple-architecture,  extending  over  8 sq.m. ; the  prevailing  type  is  the 
cruciform  vaulted  temple. 

Government. — The  government  of  B.  is  a pure  despotism,  life  and  property  being  at 
the  mercy  of  the  reigning  sovereign.  Many  instances  of  the  cruel  abuse  of  arbitrary 
power,  by  even  recent  kings,  might  be  given.  The  present  monarch  is,  however,  mild, 
approachable,  and  apparently  desires  the  welfare  and  happiness  of  his  subjects.  The 
lot-dau,  or  high  court  of  council,  is  composed  of  the  four  woon-gyees,  or  principal  minis- 
ters of  state.  The  atwen-woons,  or  household  ministers,  are  likewise  four  in  number.  They 
receive  the  royal  commands,  and  are  in  close  attendance  upon  the  king.  The  woon- 
douks  are  a third  order  of  ministers,  and  act  as  assistants  to  the  woon-gyees.  The  decis- 
ions of  the  lot-dau,  when  sanctioned  by  the  king,  become  law.  The  Dam-a-thai,  a 
Burman  translation  of  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  is  also  in  force.  White  umbrellas  and 
white  elephants  are  regarded  as  insignia  of  royalty.  The  “ lord  white  elephant,”  indeed, 
is  looked  on  as  an  estate  of  the  realm,  a mark  of  universal  sovereignty,  and  a sacred 
being.  It  has  a palace,  a minister,  and  numerous  attendants. — The  military  power  of  the 
country  is  not  great,  and  of  musketeers  it  is  probable  that  the  king  could  not  command 
more  than  18,000. 

The  civilization  of  B. , if  not  retrograde — which  the  ruins  of  Pagan  would  almost  seem 
to  indicate — is  stationary  and  stereotyped,  like  that  of  China.  All  the  wealth  of  the 
country  is  lavished  on  the  sacred  edifices,  £10,000  sterling  being  sometimes  expended  on 
the  gilding  and  beautifying  of  a single  shrine  or  temple,  whilst  roads,  bridges,  and  works 
of  public  utility  are  neglected. 

The  vernacular  tongue  of  B.  belongs  to  the  monosyllabic  class  of  languages,  and  is 
without  inflection;  the  character  is  formed  of  circles  and  segments  of  circles.  It  is 
engraved  on  prepared  strips  of  palm-leaf,  and  a number  of  these  form  a book.  Printing 
is  unknown,  except  where  introduced  by  the  missionaries.  Pali  is  the  language  of  the 
religious  literature. 

Commerce. — Since  B.  was  deprived  of  its  harbors  and  maritime  districts,  its  foreign 
commerce  has  been  very  limited.  The  principal  exports  (from  B.  proper)  consist  of 
Sesamum  oil,  teak-timber,  petroleum,  sweet-oil,  tobacco,  lackered  boxes,  gold  leaf, 
silver,  lead,  copper,  stick-lac,  indigo,  cocoa-nuts,  ponies,  wheat,  pulse,  and  cotton. 
The  imports  (into  the  Burman  empire)  are  ngapee  (a  paste  of  rank  pickled  fish,  which  is 
eaten  with  rice,  the  staple  food  of  the  Burman),  paddy,  rice,  dried  fish,  salt — all  these 
being  imported  by  thousands  of  tons  annually — cotton  piece-goods,  silk  do.,  and  wool- 
ens. B.  carries  on  an  overland  traffic  with  China,  exporting  cotton  and  importing  silk. 
A commercial  treaty  with  Britain  was  concluded  in  1867,  "but  has  remained  almost  a 
dead  letter. 

The  standard  currency  of  B.,  called  yowet-ni  (red-leaf),  is  silver,  but  there  is  no  coin- 
age. This  metal  is  used,  however,  of  varying  degrees  of  purity,  which  complicates 
mercantile  transactions,  and  assayers  are  employed  to  find  the  value  of  the  metal. 

History. — Of  the  early  and  mythical  history  of  B.,  nothing  need  here  be  said.  The 
kingdoms  of  Ava  and  Pegu  long  contended  for  mastery.  The  latter  was  in  its  zenith  in. 
about  1580  a.d.  Passing  on  to  1752,  it  appears  that  the  Peguans,  after  a period  of  sub- 
jection, obtained  the  advantage.  At  this  time,  however,  Alompra,  or  Aloung  Pra,  the 
most  celebrated  warrior-king  in  Burman  history,  rose  to  power,  founded  the  present 


Bnrmah. 

Burnet. 


208 


dynasty,  subdued  the  Peguans,  and  incorporated  their  country,  as  well  as  many  neigh- 
boring states,  with  his  own.  The  Burman  empire  attained  its  greatest  expansion  in 
1822.  The  wars  of  1822-24  and  1852,  with  the  British,  reduced  B.  to  its  present 
limits.  The  savage  excesses  of  the  king  of  B.  led  in  1879  to  the  withdrawal  of  ther 
British  ambassador  and  his  staff.  See  Yule’s  Narrative  of  the  Misdon  in  1855;  Fytche’s 
Burma  Past  and  Present  (1878);  Winter’s  Six  Months  in  B.  (1858);  Capt.  Bower’s  Bhamo 
Expedition  Vincenti’s  Land  of  the  White  Elephant  {1^1^ sBurmah  and  it* 

Inhabitants  AjadiQv&on'B  Mandalay  to  (1876);  M ‘Mahon’s  The  Karens  and 

the  Golden  Chersonese  (1876). 

BTJBMAH,  British,  includes  the  three  maritime  provinces  of  India  beyond  the 
Ganges,  which  were  united  under  one  local  administration  in  1862.  It  extends  along  the 
eastern  side  of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  from  20°  50'  to  10°  50'  n.  lat.  It  has  a coast-line  of 
fully  900  English  m.,  and  a total  area  of  88,556  sq.m.,  distributed  as  follows:  Aracan„ 
14,526,  Pegu,  27,300;  Tenasserim,  46,730. 

The  whole  of  this  territory  was  taken  from  the  king  of  Burmah  in  the  two  wars  pro- 
voked by  him. 

Akyab,  Kangoon,  and  Maulmain  are  the  principal  seaports  of  Aracan,  Pegu,  and 
Tenasserim  respectively.  Pegu  is  the  most  prosperous  of  these  three  divisions,  and  has- 
made  the  most  progress  within  recent  times.  Pop.  of  B.  ’72,  2,747,148.  The  Burmans- 
(including  Aracanese  and  Talcins,  or  Peguens)  number  about  two  millions.  Of  the  other 
races — Karens,  Shans,  Chinese,  and  Hindus — the  Karens  are  the  most  numerous  and 
interesting. — Report  by  lieut.col.  sir  A.  P.  Phayre,  etc. 

BTTKMANN,  Peter,  the  most  important  member  of  a Dutch  family  celebrated  for 
learning,  was  b.  at  Utrecht  1668,  studied  law  at  the  university  of  that  city  and  of  Ley- 
den, and,  after  taking  his  degree  in  1688,  traveled  through  Germany  and  Switzerland. 
After  practicing  as  an  advocate  for  some  years,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history 
and  rhetoric  in  the  university  of  Utrecht;  which  office  he  subsequently  exchanged  for 
the  professorship  of  Greek.  In  1715,  after  the  death  of  Perizonius,  he  removed  to  the 
university  of  Leyden,  where  he  died  31  Mar.,  1741. 

His  literary  career  was  very  active,  and  his  hot  temper  and  intolerant  spirit  involved 
him  in  many  controversies.  Among  his  most  distinguished  adversaries  were  Le  Clerc 
and  Bentley.  His  chief  works  are  editions  of  the  Latin  classics — Petronious,  Velleius 
Paterculus,  Quintilian,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Phsedrus,  Ovid,  the  Portae  Minores,  Suetonius, 
Lucan.  The  first  of  these  appeared  in  1709,  and  the  last  in  1740.  They  are  character- 
ized less  by  taste  and  critical  acumen  than  by  learning,  fullness  of  matter,  and  beauty 
of  type. 

BURMEISTER,  Hermann,  b.  1807;  a German  naturalist;  studied  medicine  and 
natural  history,  and  in  1842  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  in  the  university  of 
Halle.  In  1848,  he  was  a deputy  to  the  Frankfort  assembly,  and  afterwards  a represent- 
ative in  the  first  Prussian  chamber.  In  1850,  he  made  a survey  in  Brazil  in  the  interest 
of  science,  and  visited  other  parts  of  South  America  a few  years  later.  He  has  published 
many  elaborate  works  on  natural  history,  travels,  etc. 

BURMESE  WARE,  small  cups,  etc.,  made  of  strips  of  bamboo  woven  like  fine 
basket  work,  the  interstices  being  filled  with  paste  made  of  wood-oil  and  fine  powders, 
and  when  sufficiently  hardened  the  surface  smoothed  with  pumice-stone  and  water. 
Sometimes  they  are  ornamented  with  pictures  worked  in  with  the  varnish 

BUEN,  Richard,  was  b.  in  1720  at  the  village  of  Winton,  in  Westmoreland.  After 
being  educated  at  Queen’s  college,  Oxford,  he  received  the  living  of  Orton,  in  his  native 
county,  which  he  continued  to  hold  until  his  death  in  1785.  He  is  widely  known  as  the 
compiler  of  two  very  useful  law-books,  the  Justice  of  the  Peace  and  Ecclesiastical  Law, 
which  have  each  passed  through  many  editions.  He  also  published  a History  of  the  Poor 
Laws,  an  edition  of  Blackstone’s  Commentaries,  and  several  sermons  and  works  of  a 
religious  nature. 

BURNAP,  George  Washington,  d.d.,  1802-1859;  a graduate  of  Harvard  and 
pastor  of  the  First  Independent  church  of  Baltimore  from  1828  until  his  death.  He  was 
the  author  of  many  volumes  on  religious  themes,  lectures,  a life  of  Calvert,  governor  of 
Maryland,  etc. 

BTJENES,  Sir  Alexander,  a distinguished  traveler  in  Central  Asia,  was  b.  at  Mont- 
rose, in  Scotland,  1805,  where  his  father,  who  was  a cousin  of  Robert  Burns  the  poet, 
was  an  active  magistrate.  He  early  entered  the  Indian  army,  and  his  knowledge  of 
oriental  languages  gained  him  rapid  promotion.  After  performing  some  important 
missions  for  the  Indian  government,  he  was,  at  his  own  suggestion,  sent  on  an  expeditiou 
into  Central  Asia.  Starting  from  Lahore  on  the  11th  Feb.,  1832,  B.,  having  adopted 
the  dress  and  usage  of  the  Afghans  for  greater  safety,  passed  through  Peshawur  and 
Cabul,  and,  crossing  the  Indian  Caucasus,  reached  Balkh  on  the  9th  June.  Thence  he 

gassed  on  to  Bokhara,  Astrabad,  and  Teheran,  and  journeying  through  Ispahan  and 
hiraz,  reached  Bushire  on  the  Persian  gulf,  from  whence  he  embarked  for  India.  He 
received  the  special  thanks  of  the  governor-general  for  his  travels ; and  on  his  return  to 
England  in  1833,  he  received  a warm  welcome  from  the  India  house  and  board  of  con- 
trol, and  was  highly  honored  by  the  royal  geographical  and  other  societies.  In  Sept., 


209 


Burmah* 

Burnet. 


1839.  having  previously,  for  his  important  services,  been  knighted  and  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieut.col.,  he  was  appointed  political  resident  at  Cabul,  where  he  was  murdered 
on  the  breaking  out  of  the  insurrection  in  that  city  in  Nov.,  1841 — a tragedy  re-enacted 
in  1879,  when  sir  Louis  Cavagnari,  newly  appointed  resident  in  Cabul,  was  massacred, 
with  his  staff  and  guards.  B.  was  author  of  Travels  into  Bokhara  and  a work  on 
Cabul. 

SUBNET,  the  English  name  of  two  genera  of  plants,  sanguisorha  and  poterium,  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  sanguisorhece  — very  generally  regarded  as  a suborder  of 

rosaceoe — which  have  much. resemblance  to  one  another,  and  receive  a common  name 
also  in  other  languages.  Sanguisorha  has  hermaphrodite  flowers  with  four  stamens;  in 
poterium,  the  flowers  are  polygamous,  and  the  stamens  indefinite  in  number.  In  both, 
the  calyx  is  4-fid,  and  the  corolla  wanting.  Great  B.  {sanguisorha  officinalis)  is  common 
in  meadows  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  not  unfrequent  in  some  parts  of  England,  par- 
ticularly where  the  soil  is  calcareous.  It  has  a stem  1 to  2 ft.  high,  pinnate  leaves,  with 
about  four  pair  of  ovate  serrated  leaflets  and  an  odd  one ; the  flowers  are  crowded  in  dark 
red  spikes.  It  is  cultivated  in  Germany  for  feeding  cattle,  and  is  much  esteemed  for 
this  use,  as  it  grows  well  even  on  very  poor  soils,  and  the  produce  is  abundant.  Cattle 
are  very  fond  of  it.  The  root  is  astringent,  and  was  formerly  used  in  medicine.  Com- 
mon B.  {poterium  sanguisorha)  grows  in  sunny  places  on  hills  in  the  middle  and  south  of 
Europe,  and  is  common  in  England,  especially  in  the  chalk  districts.  In  habit  and 
foliage,  it  much  resembles  the  Great  B.,  but  the  leaflets  are  smaller  and  the  flowers  are 
in  heads  of  a dull  purplish  color.  It  has  been  much  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Eng- 
land as  a substitute  for  clover  on  chalky  soils,  and  is  relished  by  cattle.  It  forms  great 
part  of  the  natural  pasture  of  the  South  Downs,  and  of  the  excellent  sheep-walks  of 
Salisbury  plain.  It  is  regarded  as  a plant  particularly  suitable  for  poor  arid  soils.  It 
is  sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  its  leaves,  which  are  slightly  astringent,  are  used 
in  salads  or  soups.  They  are  said  to  form  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  famous  cool 
tankard,  and  the  name  poterium  is  from  Greek  word  signifying  a drinking  vessel. — 
Both  this  and  the  preceding  are  perennial  plants. — There  are  several  other  species  both 
of  sanguisorha  and  poterium,  some  of  the  latter  shrubby,  natives  chiefly  of  the  warmer 
temperate  parts  of  the  world. 

BURNET,  a co.  in  central  Texas,  on  the  Colorado  river;  995  sq.m. ; pop.  ’70,  3688 — 
358  colored ; in  ’80,  6855.  The  surface  is  hilly  and  rocky,  with  fertile  soil.  Marble  of 
various  colors,  limestone,  coal,  iron,  and  petroleum  are  found.  Agriculture  is  the  main 
business.  Co.  seat,  Burnet. 

SUBNET,  Gilbert,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  was  b.  at  Edinburgh,  on  the  18th  Sept., 
1643.  He  was  educated  at  home,  and  afterwards  at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  where 
he  pursued  his  studies  so  diligently,  that  he  took  his  degree  of  m.a.  liefore  he  was  14. 
In  the  course  of  a 5"ear  he  made  up  his  mind  to  enter  the  church,  and  read  so  hard  at 
theology,  that  in  less  than  three  years  he  had  mastered  the  chief  systems  of  divinity, 
besides  having  gone  over  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  the  original,  with  all  the  com- 
mentaries of  note  in  his  time.  In  1663,  he  visited  Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  London, 
where  he  met  with  many  of  the  leading  divines  of  England.  Next  year,  he  passed  over 
into  Holland  and  perfected  his  knowledge  of  Hebrew  under  a learned  rabbin  of  Amster- 
dam. In  1665,  he  was  presented  to  the  parish  of  Saltoun,  where  he  remained  five  years. 
In  1669,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  divinity  in  the  university  of  Glasgow,  but  having 
mixed  himself  up  in  the  politico -ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  time,  he  brought  upon  him- 
self the  enmity  of  Lauderdale,  and  found  it  prudent  to  resign  his  chair  in  1674.  He  now 
removed  to  London,  and  was  made  preacher  at  the  Rolls’  chapel  by  sir  Harbottle 
Grimston,  and  afterwards  lecturer  at  St.  Clement’s.  In  1676,  he  published  his  Memoirs 
of  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton,  and  in  1679,  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  the  Reformation, 
which  procured  him  a vote  of  thanks  from  both  houses  of  parliament.  Next  year 
appeared  Some  Passages  in  the  Life  and  Death  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester,  in  which  B. 
records  the  religious  interviews  which  he  had  with  that  profligate  nobleman  during  his 
last  illness,  and  which  led  to  the  latter’s  conviction  of  the  truth  of  Christianity.  In  1681, 
he  published  the  second  volume  of  his  History  of  the  Reformation,  and  in  1682  his  Life 
of  Sir  Matthew  Hale.  The  efforts  which  had  previously  been  made,  were  now  repeated, 
to  induce  him  to  break  with  the  liberal  and  moderate  party,  and  to  attach  himself  to  the 
king.  He  was  offered  the  bishopric  of  Chichester,  but  refused  it.  In  1683  he  narrowly 
escaped  being  brought  into  trouble  in  regard  to  the  Ryehouse  plot.  He  conducted 
the  defense,  attended  the  execution,  and  vindicated  the  memory  of  his  friend  lord 
William  Russell.  The  king  exhibited  his  unkingly  spite  by  depriving  B.  of  his  St. 
Clement’s  lectureship.  On  the  accession  of  James  II.,  he  went  to  the  continent,  and 
traveled  through  France,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  In  1684,  he  was  introduced 
to  the  prince  of  Orange,  with  whom  he  became  a great  favorite,  and  by  whom  he  was 
frequently  consulted  in  reference  to  the  great  scheme  for  the  deliverance  of  England. 
When  William  came  over,  B.  accompanied  him  in  the  capacity  of  royal  chaplain,  and 
shortly  after,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  diocese 
with  great  ardor;  but  his  first  pastoral  letter,  in  which  he  founded  the  right  of  William 
to  the  throne  on  conquest,  gave  so  much  offense  to  both  houses  of  parliament,  that  they 
ordered  it  to  be  burned  by  the  hands  of  the  common  hangman.  William,  however,  who 

. V,  K.  m.-14 


Burnet. 

Burnoof. 


210 


knew  the  excellent  qualities  of  the  bishop,  was  not  greatly  impressed  by  this  solemn 
performance,  and  continued  to  trust  B.  to  the  end  of  his  life.  In  1698,  B,  was  appointed 
preceptor  to  the  duke  of  Gloucester;  in  1699,  he  published  his  celebrated  exposition  of  the 
39  articles,  which  was  condemned  as  heterodox  by  that  not  very  competent  assembly, 
the  house  of  lords.  In  1714,  appeared  the  third  volume  of  his  History  of  the  Reformation. 
In  the  spring  of  1715,  he  was  attacked  by  a pleuritic  fever,  and  carried  off  on  the  17th 
of  Mar.,  in  the  72d  year  of  his  age.  B.  was  thrice  married:  his  first  wife  was  remarka- 
ble for  her  beauty ; the  second,  for  her  fortune ; and  the  third,  for  her  piety. 

Soon  after  B.’s  death,  appeared  Bishop  B.'s  History  of  his  Own  Time,  from  the 
Restoration  of  King  Charles  II.  to  the  Conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  at  Utrecht,  in  the 
Reign  of  Queen  Anne.  It  was  sarcastically  but  foolishly  abused  by  the  tory  writers  of 
the  day — Swift,  Pope,  Arbuthnot,  and  others.  B.  was  a man  of  strict,  almost  of  puritanic 
virtue;  yet  his  charity,  geniality,  and  moderation  of  sentiment  might  be  imitated  with 
advantage  even  in  our  own  day.  His  style  is  neither  elegant  nor  correct,  and  his  judg- 
ment is  not  always  reliable,  yet  the  honesty,  earnestness,  simplicity,  and  vigor  of  his 
writings,  as  well  as  their  fullness  of  details,  make  his  works  very  valuable  to  the  student 
of  history. 

BURNET,  Jacob,  ll.d.,  1770-1853;  a graduate  of  Princeton,  and  one  of  the  early 
settlers  of  Cincinnati;  judge  of  the  Ohio  supreme  court  in  1821,  and  U.  S.  senator  in  1828. 
He  published  Notes  on  the  Early  Settlement  of  the  North-west  Territory. 

BTTENET,  John,  a painter,  engraver,  and  author,  wash.  atFisherrow,  near  Edinburgh, 
Mar. , 1784.  He  was  first  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  public  through  his  engravings 
of  Wilkie’s  works,  which  he  executed  in  a most  admirable  manner.  Of  his  own  paintings, 
the  best  known  engraving  is  that  of  “ Greenwich  Pensioners  receiving  News  of  the  Battle 
of  Trafalgar.”  He  has  written  several  works  on  art,  illustrated  by  drawings  and  engrav- 
ings of  his  own,  the  most  important  of  which  is  a Practical  Treatise  on  Painting.  He  is 
also  the  author  of  Rembrandt  and  his  Works,  4to,  1849;  and  in  conjunction  with  Mr. 
Peter  Cunningham,  of  Life  and  Works  of  J.  M.  W.  Turner,  1852.  He  died  in  1868. 

BUKNET,  Thomas,  best  known  from  his  Theory  of  the  Earth,  was  b.  in  Yorkshire, 
1635,  and  studied  at  Cambridge.  After  acting  as  traveling  tutor  to  several  noblemen,  he 
was  elected  master  of  the  charter-house  (1685),  and  later,  succeeded  archbishop  Tillotson 
as  clerk  of  tlie  closet  to  William  HI.  But  having  (1692)  published  a work,  Archceologice 
Philosophicce,  sire  Doctrina  Antigua  de  Rerum  Originibus  (also  in  English),  displaying 
great  learning,  but  treating  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  fall  as  an  allegory,  he  was  obliged 
to  retire  from  the  clerkship,  and  lived  in  the  charter-house  till  his  death,  in  1715.  His 
Telluris  Theoria  Sacra  (first  part,  1680;  second,  1689)  was  written  in  Latin,  but  translated, 
or  rather  recomposed  in  English,  by  the  author.  It  is  an  ingenious  speculation,  written  in 
ignorance  of  the  facts  of  the  earth’s  structure,  and  is  therefore  a mere  system  of  cosmogony, 
and  not  geology.  But  it  abounds  in  sublime  and  poetical  conceptions  and  descriptions, 
conveyed  in  language  of  extraordinary  eloquence,  and  called  forth  the  highest  applause 
at  the  time. 

BURNETT,  a co.  in  n.w.  Wisconsin,  on  the  St.  Croix  river,  1100  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
3140.  Co.  seat,  Gordon. 

BURNETT,  Waldo  Irving,  1828-54;  a naturalist  and  microscopist;  b.  Mass.  He 
did  a great  amount  of  microscopical  work  within  the  five  years  preceding  his  death. 
His  chief  publication  was  a prize  essay  on  The  Cell,  its  Physiology,  Pathology,  and  Philosophy, 
deduced  from  Original  Obserrations;  to  which  is  added  its  History  and  Criticism. 

BURNETT  PRIZES,  The,  are  two  theological  premiums,  founded  by  Mr.  Burnett  of 
Dens,  Aberdeenshire.  This  gentleman  (b.  1729 — d.  1784)  was  a general  merchant  in 
Aberdeen,  and  for  many  years  during  his  lifetime  spent  £300  annually  on  the  poor.  On 
his  death,  he  bequeathed  the  fortune  he  had  made  to  found  the  above  prizes,  as  well  as  for 
the  establishmeut  of  funds  to  relieve  poor  persons  and  pauper  lunatics,  and  to  support  a 
jail  chaplain,  in  Aberdeen.  He  directed  the  prize  fund  to  be  accumulated  for  40  years 
at  a time,  and  the  prizes  (not  less  than  £1200  and  £400)  to  be  awarded  to  the  authors  of 
the  two  best  treatises  on  “ The  evidence  that  there  is  a Being  all-powerful,  wise,  and 
good,  by  whom  everything  exists;  and  particularly  to  obviate  difficulties  regarding  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Deity;  and  this  independent  of  written  revelation,  and  of 
the  revelation  of  the  Lord  Jesus;  and  from  the  whole  to  point  out  the  inferences  most 
necessary  and  useful  to  mankind.”  The  competition  is  open  to  the  whole  world,  and  the 
prizes  are  adjudicated  by  three  persons  appointed  by  the  trustees  of  the  testator,  together 
with  the  ministers  of  the  established  church  of  Aberdeen,  and  the  principals  and  professors 
of  King’s  and  Marischal  colleges,  Aberdeen.  On  the  first  competition  in  1815,  50  essays 
were  given  in;  and  the  judges  awarded  the  first  prize,  £1200,  to  Dr.  William  Lawrence 
Brown,  principal  of  Marischal  college  and  university  of  Aberdeen,  for  an  essay  entitled 
The  Existence  of  a Supreme  Creator;  and  the  second  prize,  £400,  to  the  Rev.  John  Bird 
Sumner,  afterwards  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  for  an  essay  entitled  Records  of  Creation. 
On  the  second  competition,  in  1855,  208  essays  were  given  in;  and  the  judges.  Rev.  Baden 
Powell,  Mr.  Henry  Rogers,  and  Mr.  Isaac  Taylor,  awarded  the  first  prize,  £1800,  to  the  Rev. 
R.  A.  Thompson,  Lincolnshire, for  an  essay  entitled  Christian  Theism;  and  the  second  prize, 
£600,  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Tulloch,  principal  of  St.  Mary’s  college,  St.  Andrews,  for  an 


211 


Burnet. 

Burnouf. 


essay  on  Theism.  The  above  four  essays  have  been  published  in  accordance  with  Mr. 
Burnett’s  deed.  It  is  expected  that  £10,000  will  be  available  in  1895. 

BUENETT’S  DISINFECTING  LIQUID  and  ANTISEPTIC  FLUID  is  a liquid  intro- 
duced by  sir  W.  Burnett  for  the  purpose  of  deodorizing  the  bilge-water  of  ships,  sew- 
erage-water, etc.  It  is  a strong  solution  (sp.gr.  2)  of  chloride  of  zinc,  accompanied  by 
a small  amount  of  chloride  of  iron ; and  when  intended  to  be  used,  it  is  mixed  with  water 
in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  to  five  gallons  of  water.  The  liquid  acts  only  as  a deodo- 
rizer and  antiseptic  (see  Antiseptics),  and  does  not  yield  any  vapor  which  can  exhibit 
the  properties  of  a disinfectant  (q.v.).  It  is  of  service  in  preserving  dead  animal  tis- 
sues, as  in  the  dissecting-room,  and  in  jars  containing  anatomical  specimens.  It  has 
little  action  on  knives  or  steel  instruments.  When  added  to  bilge  or  sewerage  water, 
the  chloride  of  zinc  (ZnCl)  mainly  acts  by  decomposing  the  offensive  sulphide  of  ammo- 
nium (NH4S),  which  it  does  by  forming  the  sulphide  of  zinc  (ZnS)  and  chloride  of 
ammonium  (NH4CI),  both  of  which  are  odorless.  The  strong  solution  of  chloride  of 
zinc  has  also  been  applied  to  the  preservation  of  timber,  and  the  process  of  so  treating 
wood  is  called,  after  its  inventor,  Burnettizing.  Crewe's  disinfectant  liquid  is  chemically 
the  same  as  the  above. 

BUENEY,  Dr.  Charles,  a musical  composer,  celebrated  as  the  author  of  the  General 
History  of  Music,  was  b.  at  Shrewsbury,  1726.  Having  studied  music  in  his  native  city,  in 
Chester,  and  under  Dr.  Arne  in  London,  he  commenced  giving  lessons  in  music  himself. 
After  composing  three  pieces — Robin  Hood,  Alfi'ed,  and  Queen  Mah — for  Drury  Lane,  B. 
London,  and  settled  at  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  where  he  designed  his  work  on  the  Histoi'y  of 
Music.  In  1770-72,  he  traveled  in  France,  Italy,  the  Netherlands,  and  Germany,  col- 
lecting materials  for  his  proposed  work,  and  published  an  essay  on  the  Present  State  of 
Mumc  in  France  and  Italy,  etc.  (2  vols.,  Lond.  1772).  This  was  followed  by  his  Gen- 
eral History  of  Music  from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Present  Period  (4  vols.,  Lond.  1776-89.) 
Besides  other  minor  works,  B.  wrote  a Life  of  Handel,  and  nearly  all  the  musical 
articles  in  Rees’s  Cyclopaedia.  He  was  appointed  organist  to  the  hospital  at  Chelsea  in 
1789.  He  died  in  1815.  He  was  intimately  acquainted  with  many  of  the  most  eminent 
men  of  the  day,  including  Edmund  Burke  and  Dr.  Johnston. — His  second  daughter, 
Francisca  B.  (afterwards  Madame  D’Arblay),  became  distinguished  as  authoress  of 
Emelina,  Cecilia,  Georgina,  and  Camilla — novels  formerly  very  popular,  and  still  retaining 
some  interest. 

BURNEY,  Frances  (Madame  D’Arblay).  See  Burney,  Dr.  Charles,  ante. 

BUENING  GLASSES  and  MIEEOES.  See  Heat,  Lens,  and  Mirror. 

BUENLEY,  a thriving  t.  and  parliamentary  borough  in  Lancashire,  situated  in  a nar- 
row vale  on  the  banks  oif  the  Brun,  a mile  and  a half  above  its  junction  with  the  North 
Calder,  and  24  m.  n.  of  Manchester.  Pop.  ’71,  of  p.  b.,  44,320.  It  has  manufactures 
of  cottons  and  woolens,  calico-printing  works,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  machine- 
making works,  breweries,  tanneries,  and  rope-works.  There  are  collieries  in  the  vicin- 
ity, and  traffic  is  faciliated  by  railways  and  canals,  which  unite  it  with  the  principal 
centers  of  trade  in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire.  B.  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 

A Roman  vicinal  way  passed  through  the  town,  part  of  which  is  still  known  and 
used  as  the  “Long  Causeway.”  Roman  coins,  pottery,  urns,  etc.,  have  been  found 
near  the  town,  and  an  extensive  series  of  beacons,  encampments,  dikes,  etc.,  occupy 
the  slopes  of  the  hills  in  the  neighborhood  for  a linear  distance  of  more  than  10  miles. 
From  the  name  of  the  river,  Brun,  and  other  circumstances,  these  slopes  are  supposed 
to  furnish  a very  probable  site  for  the  battle  of  Brunnanburh,  so  celebrated  in  Saxon 
history. 

BUENOUF,  Eugene,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  orientalists  of  modern  times,  was 
b.  at  Paris,  April  1,  1801,  and  after  entering  on  the  study  of  law,  betook  himself  to  the 
oriental  languages,  especially  those  of  India  and  Persia.  In  conjunction  with  prof. 
Lassen  of  Bonn,  he  published,  in  1826,  Essai  sur  le  Pali,  which  was  followed,  in  1827, 
by  Observations  Gh'ammaticales  sur  quelques  Passages  de  V Essai  sur  le  Pali.  His  great 
aim,  however,  at  this  time,  was  to  obtain  a complete  knowledge  of  the  remains  of  the 
religious  literature  in  the  Zend,  or  old  Persic  language,  which  had  been  neglected  since 
the  time  of  Anquetil  du  Perron,  or,  at  least,  not  philologically  and  critically 
examined.  B.  undertook  to  decipher  those  curious  MSS.  which  Anquetil  du  Perron 
had  brought  home  with  him,  and  wffiich  lay  unregarded  in  the  Bibliotheque  Imperiale. 
He  commenced  by  causing  the  chef-d'oeuvre  of  old  Persic  literature,  the  Vendidad-Sade 
(one  of  the  books  of  Zoroaster),  to  be  lithographed  with  great  care,  and  published 
from  time  to  time  in  the  Journal  Asiatique  the  brilliant  results  of  his  laborious 
studies,  which  drew  upon  him  the  regard  of  the  learned  world.  In  1834,  he  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  his  Commentaires  sur  le  Tagna  I'un  des  Livres  Liturgiques  des 
Parses,  a work  which,  for  the  first  time,  rendered  possible  a knowledge  not  only  of  the 
dogmas,  but  also  of  the  language  of  Zoroaster.  It  is  a masterpiece  of  conscientious 
industry,  united  with  copious  lingual  and  antiquarian  lore.  His  studies  in  the  Zend 
language  induced  him  to  make  an  attempt  to  decipher  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
Persepolis,  in  his  Memoire  sur  deux  Inscriptions  Cuneiformes  (Par.  1836).  In  1840,  he 
published  the  text  along  with  a translation  of  the  Bhdgavat  Purdna,  a system  of  Indian 


Burns. 

Burnt. 


212 


mythology  and  tradition.  As  the  fruit  of  his  study  of  the  Sanscrit  books  of  the  Bud- 
dhists, appeared  in  1845  the  Introduction  d VHistoire  du  Boudhisme.  See  Buddhism. 
This  great  work  absorbed  for  six  years  the  whole  energies  of  B.,  who  was  now  the 
recognized  successor  of  Silvestre  de  Sacy.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  death  did  not  per- 
mit him  to  continue  his  labors  further.  He  died  May  28,  1852. 

BURNS,  Francis,  d.d.,  1809-63;  b.  in  New  York;  a colored  preacher  who  became 
a bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  In  1834,  he  was  a missionary  in  Liberia, 
where,  in  1851,  he  founded  the  Monrovia  academy. 

BTJKNS,  Rev.  Jabez,  d.d.,  a Baptist  minister,  and  one  of  the  most  prolific  religious 
writers  of  the  19th  c.,  was  b,  at  Oldham,  near  Manchester,  in  1805,  and  was  educated  at 
Chester,  and  afterwards  at  Oldham  grammar-school.  After  helping  his  father  as  a 
medical  practitioner,  and  acting  as  assistant  in  a drapery  establishment,  he  joined  the 
Methodist  New  Connection,  and  removed  at  the  age  of  21  to  London,  In  1828  and  1829, 
he  published  his  first  two  works.  The  GhHstian  Bketch-hook  and  The  Spiritual  Cabinet, 
which  gained  him  much  popularity  among  the  religious  public.  After  having  exercised 
the  functions  of  the  ministry  at  Perth,  in  Scotland,  for  a few  years,  he  returned  to 
London  in  1835,  to  become  minister  of  the  General  Baptist  congregation  assembling  in 
New  Church  street  chapel,  Marylebone.  Here  his  fame  increased  so  much,  that  it  was 
found  necessary  twice  to  enlarge  his  chapel  during  the  first  25  years  of  his  ministry,  in 
order  to  afford  room  for  the  large  numbers  who  flocked  to  hear  him.  He  was  elected 
by  the  body  to  which  he  belonged  to  fill  various  posts  of  honor,  and  lectured  in  all  parts 
of  the  United  Kingdom  on  temperance,  peace,  abolition  of  capital  punishment,  etc.  In 
1839,  Dr.  B.  became  editor  of  the  Temperance  Journal.  About  1846,  he  received  the 
degree  of  d.d.  from  the  Wesleyan  university  of  Middleton,  Conn.  Meantime  his 
pen  had  not  been  idle,  the  number  of  his  separate  works  being  upwards  of  30,  some  of 
them  consisting  of  a number  of  volumes,  and  one  of  them.  Sketches  and  Skeletons  of  Ser- 
mons, of  15  yo\s.  , having  reached  the  14th  edition.  The  following  are  the  names  of  a 
few:  Christian  Exercises  for  every  Loris  Day  (1858);  Christian  Philosophy  (1849);  Death- 
bed Triumphs  of  Eminent  Christians;  Light  for  the  House  of  Mourning  (1850);  Pulpit 
Cyclopaedia,  4 vols.  (1846-60);  Marriage  Gift-book  and  Bridal  Token  (1862);  etc,,  which 
are  all  highly  popular  among  a large  section  of  the  English  and  American  evangelical 
religious  world.  Dr.  B.  died  in  1876. 

BURNS,  Robert,  the  great  lyric  poet  of  Scotland,  was  b.  25th  Jan.,  1759,  in  a small 
-cottage  near  Ayr.  His  father,  then  a nursery-gardener,  and  afterwards  the  occupant  of 
a small  farm,  had  to  struggle  all  his  life  with  poverty  and  misfortune,  but  made  every 
•exertion  to  give  his  children  a good  education ; and  the  young  poet  enjoyed  an  amount 
of  instruction  and  miscellaneous  reading  which,  to  those  unacquainted  with  the  habits  of 
the  Scottish  peasantry,  would  seem  incompatible  with  the  straitened  circumstances  and 
■early  toil  which  were  his  lot.  About  his  16th  year,  he  began  composing  verses  in  the 
Scottish  dialect,  which  attracted  notice  in  the  vicinity,  and  extended  the  circle  of  his 
acquaintance;  and  thus  he  became  exposed  to  temptations  which,  acting  on  an  extremely 
sociable  and  passionate  disposition,  broke  in  upon  the  previous  sobriety  and  correctness 
of  his  life.  A small  farm,  on  which  he  had  entered  with  his  brother  in  1781,  proved 
far  from  a prosperous  undertaking;  and  being  harassed  and  imbittered  by  other  misfor- 
tunes— the  results  of  imprudence — he  resolved  to  leave  his  native  land,  and  go  to 
Jamaica.  Partly  to  procure  the  means  of  paying  his  passage,  he  published  a collection 
of  his  poems  at  Kilmarnock  in  1786.  The  reception  these  met  with  was  highly  favor- 
able, and  his  genius  was  recognized  in  quarters  where  he  had  not  looked  for  notice. 
While  preparing  to  embark,  he  received  a letter  encouraging  him  to  go  to  Edinburgh, 
and  issue  a new  edition.  This  was  the  turning-point  of  his  life.  During  his  stay  in  the 
Scottish  metropolis,  he  associated  with  all  that  was  eminent  in  letters,  rank,  and  fashion, 
and  his  conversational  powers  excited  little  less  admiration  than  his  poetry.  The  profits 
of  the  publication  were  considerable,  and  enabled  him  to  take  the  farm  of  Ellisland, 
near  Dumfries,  where  he  settled  in  1788,  having  publicly  ratified  his  marriage  with 
Jean  Armour.  With  his  farm  he  conjoined  the  office  of  an  exciseman ; but  after  3 or  4 
years,  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  farming,  and  from  that  time  lived  in  Dumfries,  depen- 
dent on  his  salary  from  the  excise,  which,  at  first,  only  £50,  never  rose  above  £70.  The 
striking  contrasts  in  the  lot  of  the  rich  and  the  poor  with  which  his  residence  in  Edin- 
burgh had  impressed  him,  made  him  hail  the  French  revolution  with  enthusiasm ; and 
some  imprudent  expressions  of  his  having  been  reported  to  the  authorities,  destroyed 
his  prospects  of  promotion  in  the  service,  and  only  the  interference  of  an  influential 
friend  prevented  him  from  losing  his  office.  Such  was  then  the  terror  of  innovation, 
and  the  hatred  of  everything  like  liberal  opinions,  that  many  of  the  better  classes,  who 
had  fSted  the  poet,  now  shunned  the  “ Jacobin,”  as  they  stigmatized  him.  Imbittered 
by  what  he  felt  to  be  injustice,  he  recklessly  allowed  those  habits  of  dissipation  to 
grow  upon  him  which  made  the  more  respectable  of  all  classes  look  coldly  on  him; 
and  the  remorse  thus  occasioned  in  his  calmer  moments  aggravated  that  tendency  to 
melancholy  which  the  gloom  and  toil  of  his  early  years  had  probably  implanted  in  his 
constitution.  Broken  in  health,  he  died  21st  July,  1796, 

The  poetry  of  B.  is  purely  the  outpouring  of  the  moment — the  response  of  the  feel- 
ings to  the  immediate  circumstances  of  life.  Its  charm  and  power  lie  in  the  justness 


213 


Bumji* 

Burnt* 


of  the  feelings  expressed,  and  in  the  truthfulness  and  freshness  which  it  derives  direct 
from  life.  Seldom  have  such  manliness,  tenderness,  and  passion  been  united  as  in  the 
songs  of  Burns.  They  formed  the  first  awakening  of  the  spirit  of  true  poetry  in  Britain 
after  a long  slumber.  The  popularity  that  B.  instantly  acquired  has  continued  unabated, 
not  only  in  his  native  Scotland,  but  wherever  English  is  spoken;  his  poems  have  also 
been  translated  into  almost  every  European  tongue.  Dr.  Currie,  of  Liverpool,  pub- 
lished the  first  collected  edition  of  his  poems  and  letters,  with  a life  (4  vols.,  Lond., 
1800).  Several  more  complete  collections  have  appeared  since,  such  as  that  by  Allan 
Cunningham  (8  vols.,  Lond.  1834),  and  that  by  Mr.  Scott  Douglas,  of  which  the  first 
volumes  appeared  in  1877.  A life  of  B.,  by  Lockhart,  appeared,  Edin.  1828.  In  The 
Life  and  Works  of  Burns  (Edin.  1851-62),  by  R.  Chambers,  the  poems  are  incorporated 
in  the  narrative  in  chronological  order. 

In  1859,  the  centenary  of  B.’s  birth  was  celebrated  with  unparalleled  enthusiasm, 
not  only  in  every  city  and  almost  in  every  village  of  Scotland,  but  in  the  chief  cities 
of  England,  and  throughout  America,  the  British  colonies,*  and  India. 

BURNSIDE,  Ambkosb  Eyerett,  b.  Ind.,  1824;  a graduate  of  West  Point, 
serving  in  the  army  until  1853,  when  he  resigned  and  established  in  Rhode  Island  a 
factory  for  making  a breech- loading  rifle  of  his  own  invention.  In  the  civil  war  he 
served  as  colonel,  and  brig,  and  maj.gen.  of  volunteers,  and  was  in  many  important 
engagements.  He  resigned  at  the  close  of  the  war,  and  in  1866  was  chosen  governor  of 
Rhode  Island;  was  re-elected  twice  afterwards;  in  1875  became  U.  S.  senator. 

BURNS  and  SCALDS  are  injuries  to  the  surface  of  the  living  body  arising  from  exces- 
sive heat — a scald  implying  that  the  heat  proceeded  from  a fluid  medium,  as  boiling 
water;  a burn,  from  a solid.  The  injury  is  much  the  same  in  both  cases;  therefore  the 
directions  for  the  treatment  of  burns  will  be  applicable  also  to  scalds.  These  injuries 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  1.  Burns  resulting  in  simple  redness  of  the  skin;  2. 
Burns  resulting  in  vesication  or  blistering;  3.  Burns  resulting  in  sloughing,  or  death  of 
the  part.  The  first  object,  after  the  accident  has  occurred,  is  to  relieve  the  suffering; 
and  cold  applied  either  in  the  form  of  ice  or  water  seems  in  most  cases  to  have  almost  a 
specific  power  in  allaying  pain  and  checking  the  advance  of  inflammation.  In  other 
cases,  moderate  warmth  is  found  more  efficacious,  and  we  must  be  guided  mainly  by  the 
sensations  of  the  sufferer  as  to  which  of  these  remedies  we  make  use  of.  In  very  severe 
cases,  opium  or  chloroform  may  be  employed.  But  if  the  injury  the  body  has  received 
be  very  serious,  the  patient  complains  less  of,  pain  than  of  cold;  he  shivers,  is  much 
depressed,  and  must  be  well  supplied  with  stimulants,  to  prevent  his  dying  from  the 
shock. 

The  best  local  application  is  the  Carron-oil,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  famous 
ironworks,  where  it  has  been  used  for  many  years.  It  consists  of  equal  parts  of  olive- 
oil  and  lime-water,  and  should  be  applied  on  linen  rags  or  cotton-wool.  Blisters  may  be 
pricked,  and  the  contained  serum  allowed  to  trickle  away,  but  on  no  account  is  the 
raised  skin  to  be  removed.  The  dressings  should  not  be  changed  oftener  than  cleanli- 
ness requires;  and  as  each  portion  of  the  old  dressing  is  removed,  it  must  at  once  be  re- 
placed with  fresh,  so  that  as  little  exposure  as  possible  of  the  burnt  surface  may  take 
place.  The  main  principle  of  treatment  is  exclusion  of  the  air  from  the  injured  part ; 
and  so  long  as  this  is  effected,  it  matters  but  little  what  remedial  agent  is  employed. 
•Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  treatment  of  a sore  resulting  from  a burn,  that  the  con- 
traction of  the  scar  does  not  cause  distortion  of  the  neighboring  parts. 

When  the  clothes  catch  fire,  the  person  should  lie  down  on  the  floor,  and  roll  herself, 
or  be  rolled,  in  the  rug,  table-cover,  or  anything  sufficiently  voluminous  to  stifle  the 
flames;  and  afterwards  the  clothes,  especially  stockings,  should  be  removed  with  great 
care,  lest  the  cuticle  should  separate  with  them,  which  would  materially  increase  the 
sufferings  of  the  patient. 

Extensive  scalds  or  burns  are  very  fatal  to  young  children ; and  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  their  skin  is  more  susceptible  to  external  impressions,  and  will  suffer  from  a 
degree  of  heat  innocuous  to  an  adult.  Infants  have  frequently  been  scalded  to  death  in 
too  hot  baths,  or  by  too  hot  fomentations.  The  principles  of  treatment  for  burns  pro- 
duced by  the  contact  of  chemical  agents  to  the  skin,  are  the  same  as  those  for  burns  by 
fire. 

BURNTIS'LAND,  a seaport  t.  of  Fifeshire,  on  the  n.  shore  of  the  firth  of  Forth,  about 
8 m.  n.n.w.  of  Edinburgh.  It  consists  of  one  long  street,  clean  and  well  kept,  with  a 
back  street  running  parallel,  and  some  diverging  lanes.  B.  is  an  important  station  of 
the  North  British  railway,  having  a steamboat  ferry  connecting  it  with  Granton,  the 
station  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Forth.  It  has  a commodious  harbor,  which  was  greatly 
improved  in  1876,  and  dock.  Its  trade  consists  principally  of  distilling,  and  the  ship- 
ping of  coal  and  iron;  and  in  summer  it  is  considerably  resorted  to  as  a convenient 
watering-place.  It  unites  with  Kinghorn,  Dysart,  and  Kirkcaldy  to  send  one  member 
to  parliament.  Pop.  ’71,  3422. 

BURNT  OFFERING.  See  Sacrifice. 

^ BURNT  SIENNA,  a fine  orange-red  pigment,  transparent  and  permanent,  used  both 
Jn  oil  and  water-color  painting.  It  is  obtained  by  simply  burning  the  ferruginous 


Burnt. 

Bursary. 


214 


ochreous  earth  known  as  Terra,  di  Sienna,  Excellent  greens  are  produced  by  mixing  it 
with  Prussian  blue.  It  mixes  well  with  other  pigments  generally,  and  dries  quickly. 

BUENT  STONES,  antique  carnelians  found  in  ruins,  and  seeming  to  have  been  acted 
upon  by  tire,  having  a dull  appearance  externally,  but  exhibiting  a beautiful  red  color 
when  held  up  to  the  light.  They  are  sold  at  a very  high  price,  particularly  if  to  the 
natural  beauty  of  the  stone  is  added  the  merit  of  tine  workmanship.  They  were  once, 
however,  more  esteemed  than  now,  and  an  imitation  of  them,  by  burning  the  upper  sur- 
face of  carnelians  with  a hot  iron,  was  very  fashionable. 

BUENT  UMBEE,  a pigment  of  a russet-brown  color,  is  semi-transparent,  mixes  well 
with  other  pigments,  and  dries  quickly.  It  is  obtained  by  burning  umber,  an  ochreous 
earth  containing  manganese,  and  deriving  its  name  from  the  place  where  it  was  first 
discovered — Umbria,  in  Italy. 

BUENUG'GUE,  a t.  of  India,  in  Guzerat,  the  territory  of  the  Guicowar,  52  m.  n.  from 
Ahmedabad,  in  n.  lat.  23°  48',  e.  long.  72°  38'.  It  is  a place  of  considerable  trade,  which 
is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  wealthy  Brahmans.  Pop.  12,000. 

BUR  OAK,  Quercus  macrocarpa  (Michx.),  a valuable  tree  for  timber,  found  in  the 
Atlantic  and  western  states ; sometimes  called  the  mossy-cup  oak. 

BURR,  Aaron,  1716-57;  a Connecticut  teacher  and  clergyman;  in  1738,  pastor  of 
the  Presbyterian  church  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  in  1748  second  president  of  the  college 
of  New  Jersey.  He  published  a Latin  grammar,  several  sermons,  and  The  Supreme 
Deity  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Maintained.  His  wife  was  a daughter  of  Jonathan 
Edwards. 

BURR,  Aaron,  son  of  the  clergyman  Aaron  Burr;  b.  N.  J.,  Feb.  6,  1756;  d. 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  14,  1836.  He  was  left  an  orphan  before  the  age  of  three;  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1772;  in  1775,  went  into  the  army  as  a private;  at  Arnold’s  attack  on 
Quebec,  acted  as  aid  to  gen.  Montgomery,  and  endeavored  to  bring  off  the  body  of  that 
officer,  who  fell  at  his  side.  He  acted  as  brigade-major  to  Arnold,  and  in  May,  1776,  he 
became  a member  of  Washington’s  military  family,  which  he  left  after  a few  weeks 
to  become  aid  to  gen.  Putnam.  In  1777,  he  was  made  lieut.col.,  and  won  distinction 
at  Monmouth  in  command  of  a brigade.  In  1778-79,  he  was  stationed  near  New  York, 
and  was  for  a short  time  in  command  of  West  Point.  He  was  always  opposed  to  Wash- 
ington, whose  military  talents  he  esteemed  very  lightly.  B.  resigned  in  consequence 
of  ill  health  in  the  spring  of  1779,  and  three  years  later  married  Mrs.  Prevost,  the  widow 
of  a British  officer,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  began  the  practice  of  law  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.  In  1784,  and  again  in  1798-99,  he  was  elected  to  the  state  assembly.  In  1789, 
he  was  appointed  attorney-general  of  the  state,  and  in  1791  was  chosen  U.  S. 
senator.  He  was  an  early,  zealous,  and  unscrupulous  partisan  leader  among  the 
‘•'republicans”  (afterwards  “democrats”),  and  the  especial  rival  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
the  prominent  leader  of  the  federalists.  In  the  presidential  struggle  of  1800,  John 
Adams  (then  president),  Thomas  Jefferson,  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  and  B.  were  the 
candidates,  and  the  votes  for  Jefferson  and  B.  were  equal — 73  for  each.  As  the  con- 
stitution then  provided,  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  electoral  votes  was  to 
be  president,  and  the  next  highest  was  to  be  vice-president.  This  equal  division 
devolved  upon  the  house  of  representatives  the  settlement  of  the  matter,  and  there 
each  state  had  one  vote  only,  a majority  of  all  the  states  being  necessary  to  elect. 
After  a week  of  balloting,  Jefferson  was  selected  the  president,  B.  being  vice-presi- 
dent. He  had  been  favored  by  Jefferson  for  that  place  from  the  first,  but  his  ambition 
was  higher,  and  he  did  his  utmost  to  defeat  Jefferson,  who  was  the  regular  candidate  of 
the  party.  This  course  politically  ruined  B. ; he  was  thereafter  trusted  by  no  party, 
though  in  1804  the  federalists  nominated  him  for  governor  of  New  York,  the  result 
being  his  defeat  by  Morgan  Lewis.  These  disappointments  and  defeats,  added  to  the 
intensely  bitter  character  of  the  partisan  warfare  of  the  time,  led  to  the  duel  (July  11, 
1804)  in  which  Hamilton  was  killed  by  Burr.  For  this  act,  which  was  then  deemed 
little  less  than  murder,  B.  was  legally  disfranchised  in  New  York,  and  covered  with 
the  heavier  curse  of  popular  indignation.  In  the  spring  of  1805,  he  started  for  the 
western  part  of  the  country,  bent,  as  was  generally  believed,  upon  establishing  a govern- 
ment in  the  Mexican  territories,  and  possibly  comprising  a portion  of  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase. He  bought  a large  tract  of  land  on  Red  river,  and  intimated  that  the  conquest  of 
Mexican  states  was  a part  of  the  plan.  It  was  in  the  course  of  these  operations  that  he 
plundered  the  famous  Blennerhassett  (q.v.).  President  Jefferson  caused  him  to  be 
arrested  (Feb.  19.  1807,  in  Alabama)  on  a charge  of  treason,  for  which  he  was  tried  the 
next  month  at  Richmond,  Va.  The  jury  gave  a verdict  of  acquittal,  and  the  next  year 
he  visited  Europe  to  raise  the  means  for  an  attempt  upon  Mexico.  Four  years  of  effort 
amounted  to  nothing,  and  in  1812  he  returned  in  extreme  poverty,  and  began  to  practice 
law  in  New  York;  but  his  course  had  alienated  the  people,  and  he  could  never  regain 
his  position  in  the  courts.  At  the  age  of  78  he  married  Madame  Jumel,  a widow,  who 
had  a large  estate  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city  of  New  York;  but  they  were  soon  after- 
ward divorced,  and  B.  died  in  1836  on  Staten  island  in  poverty  and  utter  abandon- 
ment, not  onW  because  of  his  political  course,  but  more  in  consequence  of  his  social 
character,  tfe  had  but  one  legitimate  child,  a daughter  named  Theodosia,  who  became 


215 


Burnt. 

Bursary. 


tne  wife  of  Josepli  Allston,  governor  of  South  Carolina.  This  daughter  was  probably 
the  only  human  being  except  himself  whom  B.  ever  really  loved;  and  she  sailed  from 
Charleston  in  the  spring  of  1812  on  a visit  to  her  father  (who  had  just  arrived  from 
Europe),  but  the  schooner  on  which  she  was  a passenger  was  never  afterwards  heard  of. 
There  have  been  many  stories  told  of  its  fate,  and  three  or  more  dying  prisoners  have 
given  relations  of  their  part  in  the  robbery  and  destruction  of  the  vessel,  but  none  have 
proved  trustworthy.  The  most  probable  theory  is  that  the  schooner  foundered  off  cape 
Hatteras  in  a furious  storm  that  came  soon  after  she  sailed. 

BURRANPOOTER.  See  Brahmaputra,  ante. 

BURRHUS,  or  BURRUS,  Afranius,  d.  62  a.d.  ; a Roman  praetor  who  promoted 
Hero’s  advancement  to  the  throne.  With  Seneca’s  assistance,  B.  successfully  resisted 
many  of  Nero’s  tyrannous  acts;  he  opposed  the  murders  planned  by  Agrippina,  but 
would  not  become  Nero’s  accomplice  in  her  assassination  or  in  that  of  Octavia.  This  is 
one  story;  but  another  is  that  he  congratulated  the  royal  monster  upon  the  murder  of 
his  mother,  and  had  his  share  of  the  spoils  of  Britannicus. 

BURRIA'NA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Castellon-de-la-Plana,  about  8 m.  s. 
from  the  town  of  that  name,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Seco,  about  1 m. 
from  its  mouth  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  has  a pop.  of  6200,  who  are  chiefly  engaged 
in  agriculture  and  Ashing;  and  exports  wine,  oil,  and  fruit. 

BURRILL,  James,  ll.d.,  1772-1820;  b.  R.  I.;  graduated  at  Brown  university,  and 
in  1791  began  practicing  law.  From  1797  to  1813,  he  was  attorney-general  of  Rhode 
Island;  in  1816,  chief-justice;  and  in  1817,  senator  in  congress,  where  he  was  an  able 
opponent  of  the  Missouri  compromise. 

EURRITT,  Elihu,  a distinguished  advocate  of  the  doctrines  of  the  peace  society,  and 
widely  known  as  “the  learned  blacksmith,”  was  born  at  New  Britain  in  Conn.,  United 
States,  in  1811.  He  was  brought  up  to  the  trade  of  a blacksmith,  but  devoted  all  his 
leisure  to  study,  especially  to  mathematics  and  languages.  In  the  latter  field  of  study, 
his  range  has  been  very  wide,  embracing  more  or  less  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and 
other  oriental  tongues,  and  almost  all  modern  European  and  Slavonic  languages.  He 
is,  however,  much  better  known  to  the  world  as  an  earnest  apostle  of  peace  than  as  a 
scholar.  To  preach  the  doctrine  of  “universal  brotherhood,”  he  has  travekd  through 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  His  chief  works  are  Sparks  from  the  Anvil,  Olive  Leaves, 
Peace  Papers,  and  Lectures  and  Speeches.  He  has  taken  a prominent  part  in  the  peace 
oongresses  of  Brussels,  Paris,  Frankfort,  London,  and  Edinburgh;  and  in  advocating  an 
ocean  penny-postage.  For  many  years  he  resided  in  England,  part  of  the  time  as  U.  S. 
uonsui  at  Birmingham.  He  d.  7th  Mar.,  1879. 

BURROUGHS,  George,  a graduate  of  Harvard,  and  preacher  in  Falmouth,  Mass., 
in  1676,  and  in  Salem  in  1680.  He  was  accused  of  witchcraft  in  having  “tortured, 
afflicted,  pined,  consumed,  wasted,  and  tormented”  one  Mary  Wolcott.  Though  a 
man  of  the  most  unblemished  character,  he  was  condemned  and  hung  at  Salem,  Aug. 
19, 1692. 

BURROUGHS,  Stephen,  1765-1860;  a native  of  New  Hampshire,  who  ran  away 
from  home  when  but  14  years  of  age  and  joined  the  army;  deserted;  became  a student 
at  Dartmouth  college,  where  he  committed  various  offenses  and  escaped;  served  for  a 
time  on  a privateer ; practiced  medicine;  taught  school;  officiated  as  pastor  of  a Con- 
gregational church  until  he  was  convicted  of  passing  counterfeit  money  and  imprisoned 
at  Northampton.  He  set  fire  to  the  jail  in  hope  of  escaping,  but  did  not  succeed,  and 
was  sent  to  Castle  island  in  Boston  harbor,  to  a prison  from  which  he  escaped,  with  seven 
others,  only  to  be  recaptured.  When  finally  released,  he  went  to  Canada,  and  was  for 
years  the  chief  of  a band  of  counterfeiters,  Late  in  life  he  was  converted  and  became 
a member  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  and  a private,  teacher  for  the  sons  of  wealthy 
citizens;  and,  it  is  said,  “ was  esteemed  and  respected  by  all.”  His  Memoirs  of  My  Own 
Life  was  once  as  popular  as  the  life  of  Jack  Sheppard. 

BURROWING  OWL,  or  Coqutmbo  Owl,  Athene  cunicularia,  a species  of  owl  that 
lives  in  the  burrows  of  the  prairie  dog,  or  digs  a home  for  itself;  and  seeks  its  prey 
(chiefly  small  insects)  in  daylight  rather  than  like  other  owls  in  the  night. 

BURROWS,  William,  1785-1813;  entered  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1779,  and  served  on  the 
Barbary  station.  In  the  war  with  England  he  commanded  the  Enterprise  in  the  engage- 
ment with  XhQ  Boxer  off  Portland,  Me.,  Sept.  5,  1813.  The  Boxer  w^as  taken;  but  B. 
was  mortally  wounded,  living  only  long  enough  to  receive  the  surrender.  The 
English  commander  was  also  killed,  and  both  offleers  were  buried  near  each  other  at 
Portland. 

BURRSTONE.  See  Buhrstone,  ante. 

BURSARY  (Fr.  bourse,  Lat.  bursa,  a purse),  the  annual  proceed  of  a sum  permanently 
invested  for  the  maintenance  of  a student  at  a university.  A number  of  small  bur- 
saries were  till  lately  the  only  equivalents  at  the  Scotch  universities  for  the  scholarships 
of  the  English.  Their  large  number  and  the  small  amount  of  each  was,  in  course  of 
time,  found  to  have  a prejudicial  effect,  more  particularly  at  Aberdeen,  which  possessed 
the  largest  number,  and  where  a practice  had  obtained  of  multiplying  bursars  on  the 


Burscbenschaft. 

Burton. 


216 


foundation,  at  the  discretion  of  the  senatus  or  patrons.  Both  the  university  commission- 
ers of  1831  and  those  of  1863  expressed  their  opinion  that  it  was  less  provision  for 
encouraging  learning  in  its  earlier  stages  than  adequate  inducements  to  persons  who- 
have  passed  the  preliminary  class  to  make  learning  the  business  of  their  lives,  that  was- 
wanted  in  Scotland.  The  general  effect  of  the  ordinances  issued  by  the  commissioners  of 
1863,  in  carrying  out  the  directions  of  act  21  and  22  Viet.  c.  83,  was  to  consolidate  somo 
of  the  smallest  bursaries  into  others  of  greater  value,  and  in  some  instances  to  remove 
restrictions  that  had  proved  injurious,  while  a large  number  was  thrown  open  to  com- 
petition. There  are,  however,  still  a large  proportion  of  purely  presentation  bursaries, 
and  in  some  there  is  a preference  given  to  a particular  -name,  or  to  natives  of  a par- 
ticular district.  At  Aberdeen,  the  commissioners  founded  eight  scholarships  of  £65' 
annual  value;  at  St.  Andrews  they  so  modified  the  Ramsay  foundation  as  to  found  two 
scholarships  of  £60;  and  in  Edinburgh  they  acquired  funds  sufficient  to  establish  the 
Pitt  and  Mackenzie  scholarships  of  £60  and  £120  annual  value.  Since  1863,  a large  num- 
ber of  scholarships,  tenable  by  graduates,  and  fellowships,  have  been  founded  by  private 
individuals  on  a more  liberal  scale  than  the  old  bursaries,  particularly  in  Edinburgh, 
and  Glasgow.  At  Edinburgh  there  are  at  present  about  200  bursaries,  of  which  above 
100  are  in  arts,  and  30  in  theology;  they  vary  in  amount  from  £2  15s.  6d.  to  £100. 
Among  the  most  considerable  of  them  are  two  of  £90,  founded  in  1809  by  Dr.  Donald 
Grant,  for  students  of  his  own  surname;  one  founded  by  sir  John  Maepherson  in  1821, 
worth  £88,  for  Highland  students;  the  Jardine  competition  bursary  of  £40,  four  Lennie 
bursaries  of  £48,  four  Bruce  bursaries  of  £30,  and  three  of  £40;  two  competition  bur- 
saries of  £100  and  £50  respectively,  founded  in  1860  by  Mr.  Patrick  of  Roughwood,  for 
young  men  educated  in  Ayrshire;  two  bursaries  founded  in  1865  by  Miss  Scott  of  Horse- 
liehill,  and  one  by  Miss  Harrison  in  1867,  for  £40  each;  and  two  founded  by  the  Rev. 
John  Spence  in  1867,  for  £50.  The  scholarships  for  graduates  are  about  30,  varying  in 
amount  from  £60  to  £120;  and  there  are  about  eight  fellowships  varying  from  £100  ta 
£160.  Of  190  bursaries  at  Glasgow,  many  of  them  small,  the  most  considerable  are  six 
founded  by  lord  Dundonald  in  1672,  four  in  philosophy  and  two  in  divinity,  of  £40; 
two  by  Mr.  Patrick,  of  £100  and  £50  respectively;  and  the  Brisbane  medical  bursary  of 
£50,  founded  in  1877.  Glasgow  has  also  14  exhibitions  to  Balliol  college,  Oxford,  on 
the  Snell  f^jundation  (q.v.),  and  about  30  scholarships  of  from  £50  to  £200,  the  highest, 
being  the  four  founded  by  George  A.  Clark,  in  1872.  At  St.  Andrews  there  are  81  bur- 
saries belonging  to  the  United  college,  varying  in  amount  from  £5  to  £50;  20  belonging 
to  St.  Mary’s,  varying  from  £6  to  £50;  and  20  of  the  same  value  transferable  from  the 
United  college,  when  the  bursars  proceed  to  the  study  of  divinity;  two  Ramsay  scholar- 
ships of  £50;  one  Guthrie  scholarship  worth  £100  the  first  year,  and  afterwards  £50; 
one  Patrick  Kidd  scholarship,  worth  about  £40;  and  two  scholarships  of  £50,  founded 
by  Mrs  Tyndal  Bruce.  At  Aberdeen  there  are  about  250  bursaries,  varying  from  £5  to 
£50;  and  11  scholarships  of  £65  to  £70,  tenable  for  4 years,  also  some  valuable  exhi- 
bitions to  Cambridge. 

BURSCHENSCHAFT,  an  association  organized  by  German  students  for  the  pur- 
pose, originally,  of  reforming  the  excesses  and  outrages  customary  at  the  universities  of 
Germany,  and  to  arouse  a spirit  of  nationality  by  uniting  the  students  of  different  uni- 
versities. The  first  organization  of  the  B.  took  place  at  Jena  in  1815,  and  most  of 
the  students  who  became  members  had  fought  in  the  German  war  of  independence; 
during  1815-17  it  spread  to  Tubingen,  Heidelberg,  Halle,  and  Giessen.  As  it  wa» 
evident  that  the  students  were  to  be  disappointed  in  the  hope  that  the  war  would  be  fol- 
lowed by  political  reforms,  the  B.  of  Jena  decided  to  have  a general  gathering  of  tho 
associations,  which  took  place  at  the  Wartburg,  Oct.,  1817.  At  this  festival  all  the 
universities  were  represented,  and  in  Oct.  of  the  following  year,  delegates  from  14 
universities  adopted  a constitution,  which  was  agreed  to  by  all  except  the  universities 
of  Austria,  Gottingen,  and  Landshut;  they  adopted  the  colors  of  the  German  empire, 
black,  red,  and  gold,  and  resolved  to  hold  annual  conventions.  In  1819,  Kotzebue,  the 
German  dramatist,  who  had  been  declared  by  the  B.  a traitor  to  his  country,  was 
assassinated  by  Sand.  After  a conference  at  Carlsbad,  the  German  government  took 
steps  to  suppress  the  B.,  but  without  avail;  it  resulted  only  in  their  holding  secret 
instead  of  public  meetings.  The  original  plan  of  a national  B.  was  revived  in  1827; 
the  chief  obstacle  was  the  difference  of  view  held  by  the  Germanen,  who  desired  to 
bring  about  the  unity  of  Germany  by  practical  and  political  means,  and  the  Arminen, 
who  laid  more  stress  on  the  ideal  unity  of  their  country  and  the  cultivation  of  indi- 
vidual powers.  The  views  of  these  two  parties  were  discussed  at  the  convention  of 
Bamberg  in  1827,  and  in  Frankfort  in  1831 ; and,  although  the  Arminen  had  the  larger 
number  of  followers,  they  were  obliged  to  give  way  to  the  more  energetic  Germanen. 
On  the  25th  of  Dec. , 1832,  the  B.  resolved  to  attain  the  freedom  and  unity  of  Ger- 
many by  a revolution;  all  the  students  were  called  upon  to  support  the  B.,  whose  head- 
quarters were  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  The  attempt  was  made  at  Frankfort  in  June, 
1833,  in  which  nearly  2000  students  were  implicated.  It  resulted  in  the  arrest  and  pros- 
ecution of  students  at  all  the  German  universities,  and  many  of  them  were  impris- 
oned and  disfranchised.  The  students  of  Vienna,  who  nad  never  before  been  connected 
with  the  B. , took  a prominent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848. 


217 


Burschenschaft. 

Burton. 


BXJESLEM,  a t.  of  Staffordshire,  on  the  Trent  and  Mersey  cana.,  in  the  pottery  dis- 
trict, is  a station  on  a branch  of  the  North  Staffordshire  railway.  It  forms  part  of  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Stoke-upon-Trent.  Pop.  71,  25,562.  The  abundance  of  coal 
iind  the  variety  of  clays  have  made  B.,  since  the  I7th  c.,  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the 
fictile  manufacture.  Porcelain  and  pottery  of  all  kinds — Parian,  iron  and  stone  ware, 
■etc. — are  produced  on  a large  scale,  as  well  as  encaustic  tiles.  There  is  also  a glass 
manufactory  here.  The  affairs  of  the  town  are  managed  by  a “ local  board  of  health.” 
At  Birche’s  Head,  a mile  and  a half  from  B.,  stands  a large  service  reservoir  of  the  Staf- 
fordshire waterworks  company,  from  which  the  town  and  neighborhood  are  supplied 
with  excellent  water.  A fine  new  town-hall  was  erected  in  1865,  which,  besides  the 
usual  municipal  offices,  contains  lecture  rooms  and  news  rooms.  B.  was  the  native 
place  of  Josiah  Wedgwood,  who  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  c.  greatly  improved  the 
manufacture  of  pottery.  A Wedgwood  memorial  institute  has  recently  been  erected,  to 
serve  as  a school  of  art,  a free  library,  and  a museum.  An  appropriate  character  is  given 
to  it  by  introducing  into  the  ornamentation  of  the  fa9ade  terra  cotta  moldings,  Wedg- 
wood’s jasper  ware,  etc. 

BURT,  a CO.  in  e.  Nebraska,  on  the  Missouri  river;  500  sq.m. ; pop.  ’76,  4354;  in  ’80, 
'6937.  The  Omaha  and  Northwestern  railroad  passes  through  it.  Agriculture  is  the 
■chief  business.  Co.  seat,  Tekama, 

BURTON,  Asa,  d.d.,  1752-1836;  a graduate  of  Yale  in  1777;  in  1779  settled  as  pastor 
of  a Congregational  church  in  Thetford,  Vt.,  where  he  remained  all  his  life.  He  pub- 
lished many  sermons,  and  Essays  on  Some  of  the  First  Princiyles  of  Metaphysics,  Ethics, 
and  Theology. 

BUKTON,  John  Hill,  advocate  (member  of  the  Scottish  bar),  has  achieved  for  him- 
self a place  in  the  world  of  letters  by  a variety  of  works,  all  remarkable  for  ability,  and 
several  for  original  thought.  B.  was  born  at  Aberdeen  on  the  22d  of  Aug.,  1809;  his 
father  was  an  oflacer  in  the  army,  and  his  mother  the  daughter  of  an  Aberdeenshire 
laird.  Having  graduated  at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  he  became  an  apprentice  to 
the  profession  of  law  in  his  native  city;  which,  however,  he  afterwards  abandoned 
for  the  higher  sphere  of  the  Edinburgh  bar.  Here,  wdth  time  on  his  hands,  he  devoted 
himself  to  study  and  letters.  For  a long  series  of  years,  from  1833  downwards,  he  was 
a contributor  to  the  Westminster  Beriew  of  articles  on  law,  history,  and  political  economy; 
and  for  several  years  he  contributed  to  Blackwood’s  Magazine  literary  sketches.  Among 
his  original  works  may  be  mentioned.  The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  David  Hume,  2 
vols.  (1846);  Lives  of  Simon  Lord  Lovat  and  Duncan  Forbes  of  Culloden  (1847),  both  excel- 
lent biographies;  Political  and  Social  Economy  (1849),  which  is  a valuable,  condensed, 
and  lucid  contribution  to  the  literature  of  social  science ; Narratives  from  Criminal  Trials 
in  Scotland;  A Manual  oj  Scottish  Law;  A Treatise  on  the  Law  (Scottish)  of  Bankruptcy; 
The  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Revolution  to  the  Extinction  of  the  Last  Jacobite  Insur- 
rection, 2 vols.  (1853);  The  History  of  Scotland  from  Agricolds  Invasion  to  the  Revolution 
ofim,  7 vols.  (1867-70);  The  Book-Hu7iter  Ihe  Scot  Abroad,  2 vols.  (1864);  The 

Cairngorum  Mountains  (1864).  A new  edition  of  the  History  of  Scotland,  enlarged  and 
partly  rewritten,  appeared  in  8 vols.,  1873.  He  has  edited  vols.  i.  and  ii.  of  the  Register 
of  Privy  Council  (Scotland)  for  1545-78;  and  is  about  to  bring  out  a history  of  the  reign 
of  queen  Anne.  The  high  merits  of  B.  ’s  historical  works  have  been  universally  admitted. 
He  has  further  edited  the  works  of  Jeremy  Bentham  (nominally  in  conjunction  with  the 
late  sir  John  Bowring),  with  an  able  introduction ; and  has  published  a volume  of  Ben- 
thamiana.  B.  was,  in  1854,  appointed  secretary  to  the  prison  board  of  Scotland;  and 
on  the  abolition  of  that  board  in  1860,  he  remained  as  stipendiary  manager  and  secretary 
in  connection  with  the  Home  office.  On  the  passing  of  the  prisons  (Scotland)  act,  1877, 
B.  was  appoined  one  of  the  prison  commissioners  for  Scotland.  He  holds  the  old 
office  of  historiographer  royal  for  Scotland,  is  ll.d.  of  Edinburgh  university,  and  d.c.l. 
of  Oxford. 

BURTON,  Richard  Francis,  one  of  the  most  daring  and  successful  of  modem 
travelers,  was  b.  in  1821  in  Norfolk.  He  is  the  son  of  col.  J.  N.  Burton,  and  was 
educated  in  France  and  England.  In  1842,  he  entered  the  Indian  army,  and  served 
many  years  in  Sindh.  While  in  this  employment,  he  exhibited  a remarkable  facility  in 
acquiring  the  eastern  languages,  and  a still  more  remarkable  dexterity  in  imatating  the 
appearance  and  habits  of  the  natives  of  India.  In  1851,  he  published  his  first  important 
work — Sindh,  and  the  Races  that  inhabit  the  Yalley  of  ihe  Indus — full  of  graphic  descrip- 
tion, and  interesting  to  all  readers.  B.  had  acquired  a very  familiar  acquaintance 
with  Hindustani,  Persian,  and  Moultani.  He  had  devoted  special  attention  to  Arabic, 
and  had  made  such  progress  as  to  be  able  to  speak  it  like  a native.  Possessed  of  these 
qualifications,  he  resolved  to  explore  Arabia  in  the  disguise  of  an  Afghan  pilgrim;  and 
after  a visit  to  England,  he  set  out  on  his  journey.  Political  commotions  prevented 
him  from  traversing  the  whole  country,  as  he  intended;  but  his  Personal  Narrative  of  a 
Pilgrimage  to  El  Medinah  and  Meccah  (1855)  records  one  of  the  most  daring  feats  on 
record.  A perpetual  strain  on  the  ingenuity  was  necessary  to  keep  up  his  assumed 
character,  most  difiBcult  in  moments  of  fatigue,  and  in  the  midst  of  shrewd  and  observant 
fellow-travelers.  The  next  journey  undertaken  by  B.  was  into  the  country  of  the 
Somaulis,  in  eastern  Africa.  It  proved  less  successful  than  was  anticipated.  B.’s  comv 


IJurton. 

Bury. 


218 


panion,  lieut.  Stroyan,  was  killed,  and  B.  himself  was  wounded.  He  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  reaching  Harar  (q.v.),  a most  important  town  in  eastern  Africa,  not  before 
visited  by  any  European,  and  in  penetrating  a vast  and  populous  region  scarcely 
known  to  geographers.  The  journey  led  to  a still  more  important  series  of  expeditions — 
those  to  the  country  of  the  upper  Nile.  Towards  the  end  of  1856,  B.  set  out  in  com- 
pany with  lieut.  Speke,  also  of  the  Indian  army,  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  the  reports 
collected  by  the  missionaries,  that  a vast  sea  existed  in  the  heart  of  the  continent. 
The  journey  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  of  our  time.  It  led  to  the  discovery  and 
exploration  of  the  great  lake  of  Tanganyika,  and  the  opening  up  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the  continent.  B.  was  rewarded  with  the  medal  of  the  geographical  society.  His  health 
had  been  affected  by  his  African  journeys,  and  he  sought  to  recover  it  by  a journey  in 
North  America,  from  which  he  brought  the  first  reliable  account  of  the  Mormons.  In 
1861,  B.  was  appointed  consul  at  Fernando  Po,  on  the  w.  coast  of  Africa,  and  while 
holding  this  appointment,  he  visited  the  Cameroon  mountains,  and  went  on  a mission 
to  the  king  of  Dahomey,  the  incidents  of  both  journeys  being  recorded  in  two  of  his 
most  interesting  works.  B.  has  subsequently  been  consul  at  Santos  in  Brazil,  and  at 
Damascus;  and  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Charles  Lever  in  1872,  B.  succeeded  him  in  the  post 
of  British  consul  at  Trieste. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  principal  works  of  capt.  B.  not  mentioned  above: 
Sindh,  or  the  Unhappy  Valley  (1851) ; Ooa  and  the  Bue  Mountains,  or  Six  Months  of  Sick  Learn 
(1851);  Falconry  in  the  Valley  of  the  Indus  (1852);  First  Footsteps  in  East  Africa,  or  an 
Exploration  of  Harar  (1856);  The  Lake  Regions  of  Central  Af  rica,  or  a Picture  of  Explor- 
ation (1860);  The  City  of  the  Saints,  and  Across  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  California  (1861); 
Abeokuta,  or  the  Cameroon  Mountains  (1863);  The  Nile  Basin;  A Mission  to  Gelele,  King 
of  Dahomey,  with  Notices  of  the  so-called  Amazons,  etc. ; Explorations  in  the  Highlands  of 
Brazil;  Vikram  and  the  Vampire;  Zanzibar;  Two  Trips  to  Gorilla  Land;  Ultima  Thule, 
or  a Summer  in  Iceland;  Etruscan  Bologna  (1876);  Sindh  Revisited  (1877);  The  Gold  Mines 
of  Midian  and  the  Ruined  Midianite  Cities  (1878),  giving  an  account  of  B.’s  investigations 
in  that  region  during  journeys  in  1876  and  1877. 

BURTON,  Robert,  author  of  the  Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  was  b.  at  Bindley,  iu 
Leicestershire,  in  1576,  and  studied  at  Brasenose  and  Christ  church,  Oxford.  In  1616, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Thomas,  and  in  1628,  to  the  rectory  of  Segrave 
in  his  native  county.  He  appears,  however,  to  have  continued  all  his  life  at  Chirst 
church,  where  he  died  in  1640,  leaving  legacies  of  £100  each  to  the  Bodleian  and  Christ 
church  libraries,  and  as  many  of  his  books  as  they  did  not  already  possess.  A monu- 
ment was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Christ  church  cathedral.  B.  is  described  by  Anthony 
Wood  as  a good  mathematician,  a dabbler  in  nativities,  a well-read  scholar,  and  a 
thorough-paced  philologist.  “As  he  was  by  many  accounted  a severe  student,  and  a 
melancholy  and  humorous  person,  so  by  others  who  knew  him  well,  a person  of  great 
honesty,  plain-dealing,  and  charity.  I have  heard  some  of  the  ancients  of  Christ  church 
often  say  that  his  company  was  very  merry,  facete,  and  juvenile.”  His  Anatomy  of 
Melancholy,  in  which  he  appears  under  the  title  of  Democritus  Junior,  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  melanges  of  heterogeneous  elements  ever  put  together.  It  consists  mainly  of  an 
extraordinary  mass  of  quotations  from  old  and  obscure  writers,  stung  on.  a thread 
of  rambling  reflection;  often  tiresomely  pedantic,  but  relieved  by  quaint  touches  of 
humor  and  feeling.  In  his  own  life-time,  it  was  highly  popular,  and  went  through  five 
editions;  after  that,  it  fell  into  comparative  oblivion, but  is  now  again  popular  among 
lovers  of  quaint  literature.  Dr.  Johnson  said  it  was  the  only  book  that  ever  took  him 
out  of  bed  two  hours  before  his  usual  cime. 

BURTON,  William  Evans,  1804-60;  b.  London;  son  of  William  George  B.,  author 
of  Biblical  Researches.  He  was  intended  for  the  church,  and  received  a classical  educa- 
tion; at  18  took  charge  of  his  father’s  printing  establishment  and  edited  a magazine. 
From  amateur  acting  he  drifted  towards  the  regular  stage,  and  made  a successful  debut 
at  the  Haymarket,  in  1832.  He  began  also  to  write  dramas,  one  of  which  was  played 
simultaneously  at  five  London  theaters.  In  1834,  he  came  to  the  United  States,  where 
he  was  always  prominent  as  actor  or  manager,  chiefly  in  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and 
New  York.  In  Philadelphia.he  established  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  a literary  monthly. 
His  greatest  success  was  in  the  management  of  the  Chambers  street  theater.  New  York, 
where,  with  Brougham  and  others,  he  produced  dramas  from  several  of  Dickens’s  novels. 
His  own  forte  was  low  comedy,  and  some  of  his  characters  were  so  established  in  public 
favor  that  no  actor  has  satisfied  an  audience  in  them  since  his  death.  Such  were  “Captain 
Cuttle,”  “Toodles,”  “Micawber,”  “ Aminadab  Sleek,”  “Paul  Pry, ” and  others.  He  was 
a fine  scholar,  and  had  a superior  library,  particularly  of  Shakespearian  literature.  He 
was  for  several  years  the  editor  of  the  Literary  Souvenir,  and  published  in  two  vols.  a 
Cyclopaedia  of  Wit  and  Humor. 

BURTON-ON-TRENT,  a market  t.  in  Staffordshire,  on  the  river  Trent  and  the  Mid- 
land railway.  The  Grand  Trunk  canal  also  passes  the  town,  and  enters  the  Trent 
below.  Abridge  of  34  arches,  built  before  the  Norman  conquest,  here  crossed  the  river, 
but  was  replaced  in  1864  by  a new  one  of  29  arches.  The  population  of  B.  has  been 
nearly  trebled  within  the  last  20  years,  being,  in  1871,  20,378.  This  is  owing  to  the 
wpid  extension  of  the  brewing  of  ale,  which  is  the  staple  product  of  the  place.  There 


219 


Bnrtoiu 

Burj. 


are  upwards  of  30  breweries  in  B.,  some  of  them  on  a scale  of  unparalleled  magnitude. 
The  two  establishments  of  Bass  and  Allsopp  cover  together  more  than  250  acres  of 
ground,  and  can  produce  yearly  about  two  million  barrels  of  ale.  There  are,  of  course, 
extensive  cooperages,  and  also  iron-foundries.  The  public  edifices  are  not  particularly 
noticeable. 

BURTSCHEID,  or  Boecette,  a t.  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  about  half  a mile  distant  from 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  an  avenue  of  trees.  It  has  manufactures 
of  woolen  cloths  and  cassimeres,  and  celebrated  sulphur  springs  and  baths,  with  a tem- 
perature of  106“  to  155“  F.  Pop.  ’75,  10,220. 

BUR'WHA,  or,  as  Dr.  Barth  spells  it,  Bakuwa,  a t.  of  Bornu,  central  Africa,  situated 
on  the  w.  bank  of  lake  Tchad,  about  80  m.  n.n.w.  of  Kuka.  The  town,  which  consists 
of  closely  pack^  huts,  is  surrounded  by  high  clay  walls,  which,  however,  “owing  to 
the  high  mounds  of  rubbish  imbedding  them  on  all  sides,”  afford  no  protection  whatever 
from  the  attacks  of  the  Tawarek,  to  whom  the  inhabitants  have  to  pay  tribute.  Fish  in 
great  quantities  are  caught  in  the  adjoining  lake,  and  form  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabit- 
ants, as  well  as  their  only  article  of  commerce.  Pop.  about  6000. 

BURY,  a flourishing  manufacturing  t.  in  the  s.e.  of  Lancashire,  on  a rising  ground 
backed  by  hills  on  the  n.  and  e.,  between  the  Irwell  and  the  Roche,  9 m.  n.w.  of  Man- 
chester. It  was  early  a seat  of  the  woolen  manufactures,  carried  on  by  Flemings,  but 
these,  though  still  considerable,  now  yield  in  importance  to  those  of  cotton.  Besides 
spinning  and  weaving  factories,  there  are  important  print,  bleach,  paper,  and  dye  works, 
and  some  large  foundries  and  engine  manufactories.  In  the  vicinity  are  excellent  free- 
stone quarries,  and  abundant  coal-mines.  The  town  has  recently  been  much  improved 
in  drainage,  and  an  ample  supply  of  water  has  been  secured  from  hills  at  a distance. 
Pop.  ’71,  41,344.  B.  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  Some  improvements  in  the 
cotton  manufacture  arose  here — notably,  the  invention  by  John  Kay  of  the  fly-shuttle. 
The  late  sir  Robert  Peel  was  born  in  B.,  where  his  father  established  his  great  print- 
works. A bronze  statue  of  sir  Robert  has  been  erected  in  the  old  market-place. 

BURYING  BEETLE,  Necropho7'us,  a genus  of  coleopterous  (q.v.)  insects,  of  the  tribe 
or  family  silphales,  with  short  cub-shaped  antennae,  remarkable  for  their  habit  of  bury- 
ing the  bodies  of  mice,  moles,  and  other  small  animals,  in  order  to  deposit  their  eggs  in 
them,  and  to  provide  a supply  of  food  for  their  larvae.  Some  of  the  species  are  natives 
of  Britain,  among  which  is  N.  vespillo,  the  species  of  which  the  habits  were  first  observed, 
which  is,  however,  more  common  in  some  parts  of  continental  Europe.  It  is  a black 
beetle,  about  an  inch  long,  with  two  bright  orange  bands  across  its  back,  and  having  an 
excessively  fetid  smell,  which  long  adheres  to  whatever  it  touches.  Its  sense  of  smell 
would  seem  to  be  extremely  acute,  and  a dead  animal  soon  attracts  it,  a pair  generally 
arriving  together,  male  and  female,  to  feed  upon  the  body,  and  the  male  to  proceed  to 
its  interment,  if  sufficiently  small,  previous  to  which,  however,  they  have  sometimes  to 
drag  it  to  some  distance  to  a ptace  suitable  for  their  purpose.  The  head  of  the  insect  is 
the  only  tool  employed  in  the  operation,  and  is  held  sloping  outwards,  and  employed  in 
a manner  which  exhibits  great  muscular  power.  A furrow  is  first  made  around  the 
body,  then  another  within  the  first,  and  so  on  till  the  earth  is  so  excavated  from  beneath, 
that  the  body  begins  to  sink,  when  the  insects,  by  great  efforts,  drag  it  down  into  the 
hole,  and  when  it  is  fairly  in,  the  excavated  earth  is  thrown  back  over  it.  The  female 
then  lays  her  eggs  in  it;  and  when  this  is  accomplished,  and  the  cravings  of  appetite  are 
satisfied,  it  is  left  for  the  larvae,  which  are  of  a lengthened  form,  with  six  feet,  whitish, 
and  a brown  head. — The  known  species  of  B.  B.  are  mostly  native  of  Europe  and  of 
North  America. 

BURY  ST.  EDMUNDS,  or  St.  Edmundsbuky,  an  ancient  borough  in  Suffolkshire,  on 
the  Upper  Larke,  26  m.  n.w.  of  Ipswich.  It  is  -well  built,  and  delightfully  situated. 
Pop.  ’71,  14,928.  It  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  It  has  a trade  in  wool,  but- 
ter, corn,  and  cheese,  but  no  manufactures.  A very  complete  system  of  drainage  has 
been  carried  out,  the  sewage  being  conveyed  to  a distance,  and,  by  means  of  pumps, 
applied  to  irrigation.  A new  corn  exchange  was  erected  in  1862;  in  1864,  the  Suffolk 
general  hospital  was  rebuilt.  B.  received  its  name  from  Edmund,  the  Saxon  king  and 
martyr,  who  was  crowned  here  on  Christmas  day,  856;  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death 
by  the  Danes.  On  the  site  of  his  tomb,  six  priests  founded  a monastery:  and  here 
Canute  raised  a Benedictine  abbey,  which  in  time  became  the  richest  and  most  important 
in  England,  save  that  of  Glastonbury.  From  1020  to  its  dissolution  by  Henry  VIII.,  it 
was  ruled  over  by  a line  of  33  abbots.  The  abbot  was  a spiritual  baron  of  parliament, 
had  judicial  authority  in  all  causes  within  the  liberty  of  B.,  had  the  power  of  inflicting 
capital  punishment,  and  the  privilege  of  coining.  At  the  dissolution,  the  annual  income 
was  equivalent  to  £50,000  of  our  money.  Of  this  magnificent  establishment,  little  now 
remains  but  the  western  gate,  erected  in  1327,  a noble  relic  of  the  decorated  Gothic 
style;  and  the  “church-gate,”  a quadrangular  tower  of  massive  simplicity,  86  ft.  high. 
The  churchyard,  to  which  this  tower  formed  the  portal,  includes,  besides  the  abbey 
ruins  and  some  other  buildings,  the  fine  old  churches  of  St.  Mary  and  St.  James.  The 
celebrated  grammar-school  of  B.  was  founded  by  king  Edward  VI.  in  1550,  and  is 
free  to  sons  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town.  It  has  2 scholarships  at  Cambridge,  and  6 


Busaebino. 

Bushmen. 


220 


exhibitions  to  each  university,  and  has  produced  many  eminent  scholars.  Among  th« 
many  religious  and  charitable  institutions  connected  with  the  abbey,  of  which  portions 
still  exist,  is  St.  Saviour’s  hospital,  founded  by  that  notable  abbot,  Samson,  whose  life 
and  actions,  as  recorded  by  Jocelyn  of  Brakelond,  Mr,  Carlyle  has  so  vividly  recalled  in 
\\\s  Past  and  Present.  The  poet  Lydgate  was  a monk  in  this  abbey;  and  sir  Nicholas 
Bacon  was  born  here.  At  B.,  king  John  first  met  his  indomitable  barons  before  he 
signed  Magna  Charta.  Parliaments  were  held  here  in  1272,  1296,  and  1446,  the  last  of 
which  ordered  the  arrest  of  Humphrey,  the  good  duke  of  Gloucester,  who  was  found 
dead  in  his  bed  the  morning  after  his  arrest;  and  sovereigns,  as  late  as  Elizabeth’s  time, 
were  often  nobly  entertained  at  St.  Edmund’s  town.  Three  m.  s.w.  of  B.,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Bristol  has  a splendid  seat,  Ickworth  park,  a circular  pile  90  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
140  ft.  high. 

BUSACHI'NO,  or  Bisaqui'no,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  about  29  m. 
s.s.w.  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  and  a population  of 
9100. 

BUSA'CO,  a ridge  or  serra  on  the  n.  side  of  the  river  Mondego,  in  the  province  of 
Beira,  Portugal,  about  20  m.  n.n.e.  of  Coimbra.  Here  Wellington,  with  about  40,000 
British  and  Portuguese  troops,  repulsed  the  attack  of  Massena  with  65,000  French,  26th 
Sept.,  1810.  Unable  to  force  the  position,  Massena  turned  it  by  a pass  over  an  adjoin- 
ing ridge,  and  Wellington  retired  behind  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  which  indeed  it 
was  his  intention  to  do,  even  if  there  had  been  no  battle. 

BUSBECQ,  Augier  Ghislen  de,  a Flemish  diplomat,  1532-92.  He  was  engaged  in 
many  important  negotiations,  and  twice  sent  by  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  to  the  court 
of  Constantinople.  In  1562,  he  was  made  tutor  to  Maximilian  II.  in  Vienna.  He 
wrote  Discourse  of  the  State  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  and  a Relation  of  My  Two  Journeys  to 
Turkey. 

BUSBY,  Richard,  the  most  famous  of  English  schoolmasters,  was  b.  at  Button, 
Northamptonshire,  Sept.  22,  1606.  Educated  at  Westminster  school,  and  Oxford,  he 
was,  in  1640,  appointed  headmaster  of  Westminster  school,  the  duties  of  which  ofiicehe 
continued  to  discharge  until  his  death  in  1695.  He  is  the  type  of  pedagogues  alike  for 
learning,  assiduity,  and  the  application  of  the  birch.  He  was  a most  successful  teacher, 
and  at  one  time  could  point  to  no  less  than  sixteen  occupants  of  the  bench  of  bishops- 
who  had  been  educated  in  his  school ; and  altogether,  he  has  the  reputation  of  having 
“ bred  up  the  greatest  number  of  learned  scholars  that  ever  adorne’d  any  age  or  nation.” 
He  published  several  works,  but  they  were  chiefly  for  school  use. 

BUS'CA,  a t.  of  Piedmont,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Maira,  an  atfluent  of 
the  Po,  about  9 m.  n.w.  of  Coni.  Excellent  wine  is  produced  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
9375. 

BUSCH,  Johann  Georg,  1728-1800;  a German  philanthropist  and  statistician,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  the  Hamburg  gymnasium.  He  established  an  association 
for  the  promotion  of  art  and  industry,  and  a school  of  trade,  the  latter  becoming  especi- 
ally famous.  He  wrote  largely  upon  the  history  and  theory  of  trade  and  commerce,  and 
on  questions  of  political  economy. 

BUSCHING,  Ant.  Friedr  , a celebrated  geographer,  was  b.  27th  Sept.,  1724,  at  Stadtha- 
gen,  in  the  principality  of  Schaumburg-Lippe,  Germany.  He  studied  theology  at  Halle, 
where  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Baumgarten.  In  1754,  he  was  appointed  extraordinary 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Gottingen,  but  soon  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Hanoverian 
government  by  his  religious  heterodoxy.  Gottingen  thus  becoming  an  unpleasant  resi- 
dence to  him,  he  accepted  an  invitation,  in  1761,  to  St.  Petersburg  as  preacher  to  a Prot- 
estant congregation  there.  In  1765  he  returned  to  Germany,  and  in  1766  was  called  to 
Berlin  as  upper  consistorial  councilor  and  director  of  a gymnasium  in  Berlin,  where  he 
died,  28th  May,  1793.  Until  the  appearance  of  B.’s  Erdheschreibung,  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  published  at  Hamburg  in  1754,  neither  Germany  nor  any  other  natiqji  pos- 
sessed a geographical  work  which  made  any  pretension  to  scientific  treatment  or  com- 
pleteness of  execution.  The  changes  in  the  political  arrangements  of  the  world  have, 
however,  deprived  the  work  of  its  original  value,  but  it  has  been  corrected  and  edited 
by  subsequent  writers.  Of  his  other  numerous  publications,  the  most  important  is  the 
Magazinfur  Historie  und  Oeographie  (25  vols.  Hamburg,  1767-93). 

BUSEMBAUM,  Hermann,  a theologian  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  b.  in  1600  at  Nottelen 
In  Westphalia.  About  1640,  he  taught  ethical  philosophy  at  Cologne,  and  later  was- 
appointed  rector  of  the  college  of  Jesuits  at  Mfinster.  He  died  31st  Jan.,  1668.  His 
work  entitled  Medulla  Theologies  Moralis  (1645),  was  celebrated  as  a standard  authority  in 
the  seminaries  of  the  Jesuits,  though  several  of  its  propositions  were  condemned  by  the 
pope.  It  has  gone  through  more  than  fifty  editions.  It  was  enlarged  by  the  Jesuit 
Lacroix  (1707),  and  re-edited,  with  improvements  and  additions,  by  the  Jesuit  Mon- 
tausan  in  1729,  and  again  by  Alfonso  de  Ligorio  in  1757.  As  it  was  found  that  the 
work  contained  doctrine  in  favor  of  regicide,  it  was  burned,  by  order  of  the  parliament 
of  Toulouse,  on  the  occasion  of  an  attempt  made  on  the  life  of  Louis  XV.  by 
Damiens  in  1757.  Subsequently,  the  Jesuits  Zachariah  and  Franzoja  of  Padua  wrote  in 
defense  of  B.  ’s  work. 


221 


Bushachino. 

Bushmen. 


BUSENTO,  a river  of  Salerno,  Italy,  emptying  into  the  bay  of  Busento.  This, 
is  the  stream  that  was  turned  from  its  channel  by  the  followers  of  Ahiric,  wha 
buried  that  great  leader  in  the  original  bed  of  the  stream  and  then  restored  the 
water  to  its  natural  course  so  that  no  enemy  could  find  the  grave. 

BUSH,  George,  d.d.,  1796-1859;  b.  Vt. ; a graduate  of  Dartmouth  college  and 
Princeton  seminary;  ordained  in  the  Presbyterian  church,  and  four  years  a missionary 
in  Indiana.  In  1831,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  oriental  literature  in 
New  York  university.  In  1832,  he  published  a Life  of  Mohammed,  and  the  next  year 
a work  on  the  millennium,  in  which  he  held  that  the  beginning  of  the  millennial  age  was 
marked  by  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  Roman  paganism.  He  also  wrote  a Hebrew 
grammar,  and  seven  volumes  of  commentary  on  the  Old  Testament.  In  1844,  he  con- 
ducted The  Hierophant,  devoted  to  the  explanation  of  prophetic  symbols,  and  published 
a work  in  which  he  opposed  the  idea  of  a physical  resurrection  of  the  body.  In  1845, 
he  united  with  the  New  Jerusalem  church,  and  began  to  translate  Swedenborg’s  works. 
In  support  of  these  doctrines,  he  edited  the  New  Church  Repository.  His  latest  work 
was  Priesthood  and  Clergy  unknown  to  Christianity. 

BUSH  ANTELOPE,  Bush  Buck,  and  Bush  Goat,  names  common  to  a number  of 
species  of  antelope  (q.v.),  natives  chiefly  of  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  Africa, 
forming  a section  of  the  genus  antilope,  which  some  naturalists  have  attempted  to  erect 
into  a distinct  genus  {'uhilatomha  or  cephalopus).  They  are  animals  of  more  compact 
form,  shorter  limbs,  and  greater  strength,  but  much  less  agility,  than  the  true  or  typical 
antelopes.  They  are  remarkable  for  the  arched  form  of  the  back.  They  have  short, 
straight,  or  slightly  curved  horns,  situated  far  back,  and  generally  peculiar  to  the  male' 
sex,  with  usually  a long  tuft  of  hair  between  them.  They  have  no  tear-pits,  but  instead 
of  them,  a naked  glandular  line,  formed  of  two  series  of  pores,  on  each  cheek.  They 
frequent  jungles,  thick  forests,  and  beds  of  reeds,  and  when  pursued,  seek  to  escape 
by  diving  into  a thicket.  The  common  or  white-backed  B.  A.  of  Sierra  Leone  {anti- 
l^e  sylricultrix)  is  about  3 ft.  high  at  the  shoulder;  it  is  a dull,  heavy,  awkward-looking 
animal ; keeps  concealed  in  the  thickets  during  the  day,  living  singly  or  in  pairs,  and 
feeds  in  the  open  spaces  in  the  early  mornings  only.  To  shoot  it,  sportsmen  place  them- 
selves on  the  margin  of  the  woods,  and  -watch  their  opportunity  as  it  comes  out  to  graze. 
Its  flesh  is  more  esteemed  than  that  of  the  more  agile  antelopes.  Nearly  20  other  species- 
are  usually  ranked  in  this  section  of  antelopes,  among  which  is  the  kleene  boc  {antilope 
pygrram)  of  s.  Africa,  a species  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Cape  Colony,  of  very  small 
size,  not  more  than  one  foot  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  with  horns  only  about  in. 
in  length.  It  is  a timid,  gentle  animal,  easily  domesticated.  It  differs  from  the  typical 
bush  antelopes  in  the  great  activity  which  it  displays. 

BUSHEAB',  a lo\\%  flat  island  in  the  Persian  gulf,  about  11  m.  from  the  Persian  coast, 
in  lat.  26°  50'  n.,  long.  53°  12'  east.  It  is  about  18  m.  long,  narrow,  and  well-peopled^ 
with  a town  and  harbor  at  its  western  extremity.  Its  proper  name  is  Khoshamh,  signify- 
ing “good  water.” 

BUSHEL  [Fr.  hoisseau,  allied  to  boi(s)te,  box,  butt;  Lat.  butta,  a measure  in  general],, 
a dry  measure  used  in  Britain  for  grain,  fruit,  etc.  The  quarter  contains  8 bushs.,  and 
the  bushel  8 gals.,  the  gallon  measuring  277.274  cub.  in.,  and  holding  10  lbs.  avoirdupois- 
of  distilled  water.  Hence  the  imperial  bushel  contains  80  lbs.  of  water,  and  measures- 
2218.2  cub.  inches.  The  old  Winchester  bushel  measured  2150  cub.  in. ; hence  33  Win- 
chester bushs.  = 32  imperial  bushs.  nearly. 

BUSHIBE.  See  Abushehr. 

BUSHMAN'S  RIVER,  or  Bos'jesman’s  River,  in  the  e.  part  of  the  Cape  Colony,, 
s.  Africa,  is  about  200  m.  long,  and  forms  on  its  lower  course  the  w.  boundary  of  Albany, 
whose  capital  is  Graham’s  Town.  Its  general  direction  is  from  n.  to  s.,  its  mouth  being 
about  33|°  s.,  and  about  long.  26-^^°  east. 

BUSHMEN,  or  Bosjesmans;  so  named  by  the  Dutch  colonists,  but  calling  themselves- 
Saab,  or  Saan;  an  aboriginal  race  of  s.  Africa,  somewhat  like,  and  yet  differing  from, 
the  Hottentot,  but  like  them  having  nothing  in  common  with  the  Kaffer  or  negro. 
They  rank  with  the  savage  of  Australia  among  the  lowest  existing  types  of  mankind, 
and  are  in  a most  degrad^ed  and  destitute  condition.  They  are  of  small  stature,  of 
dirty  yellow  color,  and  very  repulsive  features.  The  cheek-bones  are  large  and  promi- 
nent, the  eyes  deep  set  and  crafty  in  expression,  nose  small  and  depressed,  and  the  hair 
in  small  woolly  tufts  with  bald  spaces  between.  Of  150  measured  by  a traveler,  the- 
tallest  man  was  4 ft.  9 in.,  and  woman  4 ft.  4 in.  Some  are  well  proportioned,  active, 
and  capable  of  enduring  great  privations  and  fatigue.  Those  furthest  n.,  near  lake 
Ngami.  are  considerably  larger  in  body.  They  clothe  in  skins  and  are  fond  of  orna- 
ments, decorating  their  arms  and  legs  with  beads  and  rings,  and  the  women  sometimes 
paint  their  faces  red.  They  dwell  in  huts  of  reed  or  in  holes  in  the  ground;  in  the 
mountain  districts  they  live  among  the  rocks  with  mats  for  shelter.  They  have  no- 
cattle,  nor  any  animals  except  a few  half-wild  dogs,  nor  have  they  the  least  signs  of 
agriculture;  but  as  they  live  by  hunting  they  are  well  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  ani- 
mals, and  follow  the  herds  of  antelope  in  their  migrations.  Their  weapons  are  bows- 
and  arrows,  the  latter  tipped  with  bone  or  iron,  and  poisoned  with  vegetable  matter 


Snshnell. 

]Bust. 


222 


mixed  with  the  venom  of  snakes  or  spiders,  or  the  entrails  of  an  extremely  poisonous 
caterpillar  are  used  alone.  On  account  of  the  use  of  these  fatal  poisons  the  B.  are 
held  in  dread  by  neighboring  tribes.  The  discovery  of  their  rude  tools  for  digging 
tubers,  scattered  over  wide  regions  not  now  occupied  by  them,  indicates  the  existence 
of  greater  numbers  of  B.  in  earlier  times.  They  have  no  approach  to  tribal  organiza- 
tion, nor  any  chiefs;  bodily  strength  forming  the  only  distinction  of  superiority.  Their 
various  dialects  are  not  understood  by  the  Hottentots,  the  tongue  of  the  latter  being 
more  agglutinative,  that  of  the  B.  more  monosyllabic;  the  Hottentots  use  gender  in 
names,  while  the  B.  do  not.  The  Hottentots  can  count  20;  the  B.  only  2 — calling  all 
above  that  “many.”  The  B.  possess  a pictorial  faculty  not  known  in  any  other  south 
African  tribe,  and  the  rocks  of  the  Cape  Colony  and  Drakenberg  mountains  show  many 
examples  of  Bushman  drawings  of  men,  women,  children,  and  animals.  Rings,  crosses, 
and  other  signs,  drawn  in  blue  on  rocks  and  stones,  and  believed  to  be  centuries  old,  have 
given  rise  to  the  suggestion  that  these  may  be  the  remains  of  hieroglyphic  writing; 
and  the  discovery  of  drawings  of  men  and  women  with  antelope  heads,  also  very 
ancient,  recalls  the  mythological  figures  of  Egypt.  The  B.  have  a kind  of  intelligence, 
and  are  valued  as  servants  by  the  Boers,  being  much  more  energetic  than  the  Hotten- 
tots. A wholesale  destruction  of  B.  on  the  borders  of  the  colony  in  earlier  years, 
reduced  their  numbers  greatly;  and  though  this  hunting  of  them  has  ceased,  their 
children  are  still  captured  by  the  Boers  for  servants.  The  B.  retaliate  by  ravaging  the 
farms  on  the  border  and  driving  off  cattle.  As  they  once  occupied  a much  larger  area,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  B.  are  the  remains  of  the  earliest  aborigines  of  s.  Africa,  and 
that  they  existed  there  before  the  Kaffers,  and  perhaps  before  the  Hottentots.  A 
former  and  more  general  distribution  of  the  race  is  indicated  by  the  discovery  in  late 
years  of  undersized  people  near  the  upper  Nile  basin  and  on  the  western  equatorial 
coast  land  by  Dr.  Schweinfurth  and  Du  Chaillu. 

BUSHNELL,  Horace,  d.d.,  1802-76;  b.  Conn.,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1827,  where 
he  studied  law  and  theology;  in  1833,  became  pastor  of  the  North  Congregational 
church  in  Hartford.  He  was  a voluminous  writer  on  theological  subjects;  some  of  his 
works  being  Principles  of  National  Greatness;  Christian  Nurture;  God  in  Christ;  Chris- 
tian Theology;  Sermons  for  the  Neic  Life;  Nature  and  the  Supernatural;  Work  and  Play; 
Christ  and  His  Salvation;  Woman's  Suffrage,  the  Reform  Against  Nature;  '1  he  Yica'rious 
Sacrifice.  He  was  also  a writer  for  various  periodicals  and  newspapers.  He  was  a bold 
and  original  thinker,  with  peculiar  eloquence  of  style.  Though  strongly  evangelical  in 
belief,  h^e  denied  the  Calvinistic  theory  of  the  atonement  (known  as  the  “satisfaction 
theory”),  and  gave  less  than  the  ordinary  emphasis  to  the  distinction  between  the  per- 
sons in  the  Trinity.  These,  with  other  divergences,  led  to  his  being  accused  of  heresy; 
but  ultimately  the  fellowship  of  the  Congregational  churches  was  found  broad  enough 
to  include  him,  and  he  kept  his  standing  therein  with  growing  influence  until  his  death. 
During  his  later  years  his  health  compelled  his  relinquishment  of  the  active  pastorate, 
but  his  labors  in  authorship  were  unintermitted.  While  his  theory  of  the  atonement 
has  not  commended  itself  in  its  exact  form  to  the  majority  of  evangelical  Christians,  and 
is  adhered  to  by  no  organized  sect  or  party,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  his  moral  earnest- 
ness, his  spiritual  power,  his  wondrous  suggestiveness,  his  brilliancy  of  thought  and 
style,  and  his  broad  mental  scope,  have  profoundly  modified  the  thinking  of  the  present 
age  through  almost  the  whole  circle  of  Protestant  denominations.  Indeed,  with  his 
detestation  of  all  provincialism  and  sectarianism,  he  would  have  chosen  any  other  form 
of  influence  rather  than  that  which  is  exercised  by  the  leader  of  a party  in  the  church. 

BUSHWHACKERS,  a term  much  in  use  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion  (though  well 
known  before)  to  indicate  men  who  pretended  peace  or  neutrality,  but  who  were  ready 
to  make  secret  attacks  whenever  opportunity  offered.  They  were  numerous  in  some 
western  states,  where  many  of  them  were  summarily  shot  as  outlaws. 

BUSI'RIS,  an  Egyptian  t.,  capital  of  the  B.  nomos,  in  the  hieroglyphic  language, 
the  “ Place  of  Osiris,”  believed  to  correspond  to  the  modern  Abusir,  and  situated  about 
the  middle  of  the  delta.  It  was  supposed  to  be  near  the  entrance  of  the  gates  of  Elysium. 
Close  to  B.  was  the  pyramid  of  king  Sahura,  of  the  4th  dynasty,  known  as  the  Sa-ba,  or 
“ pyramid  of  the  rising  soul.”  The  shrine  of  the  goddess  Isis  was  in  B.  and  a great 
annual  festival  and  lamentation  for  Osiris  was  held  there.  The  place  was  destroyed  by 
Diocletian,  but  the  Copts  and  Arabs  have  preserved  the  name  in  Bousiri  and  Abusir. 

BUSI'RIS,  a mythical  king  of  Egypt  mentioned  by  the  later  Greek  writers.  After 
Egypt  had  been  afflicted  for  nine  years  with  famine,  Phrasius,  a seer  from  Cyprus, 
announced  that  the  famine  would  not  cease  until  a foreigner  was  annually  sacrificed  to 
Zeus.  B.  began  by  sacrificing  Phrasius,  and  continued  the  custom  yearly;  but  when  he 
undertook  to  make  a victim  of  Hercules  the  latter  burst  his  bonds  and  with  his  club 
slew  B.  and  his  son  Amphidamas.  Attempts  to  find  the  place  of  B.  as  an  actual  king 
have  not  succeeded.  There  is  no  good  reason  to  believe  that  human  sacrifices  were  ever 
offered  in  Egypt. 

BUSKIN’,  a kind  of  half-boot,  lacing  tight  to  the  leg.  The  ancient  tragedians  wore 
buskins  {cothurni),  often  with  thick  soles,  to  add  to  their  stature.  Hence  the  B.  is  often 
put  for  tragedy,  as  the  sock  {soccus,  a flat  soled  shoe)  for  comedy.  In  ancient  sculpture. 


223 


SushnelL. 

Dust. 


Diana,  and  hunters  in  general,  as  well  as  men  of  rank  and  authority,  are  represented  in 
buskins  often  highly  ornamented. 

BUSS  is  the  name  of  a small  vessel,  usually  from  50  to  60  tons’  burden,  much  used  in 
the  herring-fishery,  especially  by  the  Dutch.  The  B.  has  two  small  sheds  or  cabins — 
one  at  the  prow,  to  serve  as  a kitchen,  and  the  other  at  the  stern.  The  remaining  space 
is  a receptacle  for  fish. 

BUSSAHIR',  a hill-state  of  Northern  India,  on  the  border  of  Chinese  Tartary,  in  n. 
lat.  30°  56'  to  32°  8',  and  e.  long.  77°  34'  to  78°  52'.  It  is  one  of  the  most  elevated  and 
mountainous  countries  in  the  world,  the  lowest  part  being  more  than  3000  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  much  of  it  from  7000  to  12,000  feet.  The  Sutlej  flows  through  the  country 
from  e.  to  west.  The  district  on  the  n.  of  the  Sutlej  is  called  Kunawur,  that  on  the  s. 
is  B.  proper.  The  climate  in  the  lower  parts  on  the  southern  frontier  is  almost  tropical, 
and  there  are  many  genial  and  fertile  districts  of  mild  temperate  climate;  other  districts 
are  near,  and  within  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  _ The  vine  succeeds  admirably  in 
many  places,  and  it  is  supposed  that  some  parts  of  this  state  are  extremely  suitable  for 
the  culture  of  tea,  which,  indeed,  is  cultivated  to  some  extent.  Very  rich  deposits  of  cop- 
per ore  have  been  discovered  in  Kunawur,  and  copper-mining  is  prosecuted  near  the  s.w. 
frontier.  The  inhabitants  are  little  advanced  in  civilization;  many  of  those  in  the 
more  northern  parts  have  strongly  marked  Mongolian  features.  Polyandry  prevails 
among  them,  and  the  females  left  unmarried  take  refuge  in  Lamaic  convents.  The 
rajah  and  upper  classes  in  the  southern  parts  are  Rajpoots,  and  the  people  generally  are 
of  Hindu  race.  Their  observance  of  Hinduism,  however,  is  very  partial.  The  rajah 
of  B.  holds  his  dignity  by  a grant  from  the  East  India  company,  made  on  the  expulsion 
of  the  Ghoorkas  in  1815.  The  tribute  paid  is  £340.  The  pop.  is  estimated  at  90,000. 
Principal  productions  are  opium,  grain,  and  woolen  manufactures. 

BUSSEY,  Benjamin,  1757-1842;  served  as  a private  soldier  in  the  revolutionary 
army;  after  the  war,  began  business  in  Boston  and  accumulated  a fortune,  most  of  which, 
after  the  death  of  certain  relatives,  went  to  the  support  of  the  law  and  divinity  schools 
in  Harvard  college,  and  the  founding  of  a school  of  agriculture,  for  which  special  object 
he  gave  a large  farm  near  Boston. 

BUSSORA.  See  Bassora,  ante. 

BUSSU  PALM,  Manicaria  saccifera,  a South  American  palm,  growing  in  the  tidal 
swamps  of  the  Amazon,  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus.  The  stem  is  only  10  to  15 
ft.  high,  curved  or  crooked,  and  deeply  ringed.  The  leaves  are  simple  or  undivided, 
and  are  the  largest  of  the  kind  produced  by  any  known  palm,  being  often  30  ft.  long, 
and  4 or  5 ft.  wide.  They  are  simply  branched,  drooping,  and  the  fruit  is  of  an  olive 
color,  large,  hard,  and  three-seeded.  The  leaves  make  excellent  and  durable  thatch, 
being  split  down  the  midrib,  and  laid  obliquely  on  the  rafters,  so  that  the  furrows 
formed  by  the  veins  lie  in  a nearly  vertical  direction,  and  serve  as  so  many  little  gutters 
to  carry  off  the  water.  The  spathe,  taken  off  entire,  is  used  by  the  Indians  as  a bag,  or 
the  larger  ones  are  stretched  out  to  make  caps. 

BUST  (Ital.  husto;  Fr.  huste),  in  plastic  art,  the  name  given  to  a sculptural  representa- 
tion of  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  human  body.  The  earliest  busts  formed  by 
the  ancients  were  probably  those  heads  of  Mercury  which,  when  elevated  on  tall  square 
blocks  of  stone,  received  the  name  of  hermaB  (q.v.).  These  hermae  were  afterwards  fre- 
quently surmounted  by  representations  of  other  divinities,  such  as  Minerva;  and  as  they 
gradually  assumed  more  and  more  of  the  human  form,  they  passed  into  busts,  which 
were  made  of  marble,  bronze,  etc.  But  it  was  not  till  very  late  in  the  history  of  art 
that  busts,  in  the  sense  of  portraits  of  individuals,  came  to  be  used,  either  in  Greece  or 
Rome;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  neither  Greeks  nor  Romans  designated  them  by  any 
special  name,  for  the  Latin  word  hustum  had  a quite  different  meaning.  It  was  not  till 
Alexander’s  time  that  busts  were  used  for  purposes  of  portraiture  in  Greece;  and  most 
of  the  Roman  busts  which  we  possess  belong  to  the  period  of  the  emperors.  During  the 
learned  period  of  Greece,  which  commenced  with  Aristotle,  portraits  of  men  of  letters 
formed  an  important  department  of  art;  and  it  became  an  object  with  the  founders  of 
museums  and  libraries  to  procure  complete  sets  of  them.  The  artists  of  this  period  exhib- 
ited remarkable  ability  in  expressing  the  characters  of  the  individuals  whom  they  repre- 
sented. In  this  way  we  have  well-authenticated  busts  of  Socrates,  Plato,  Zeno  the  Stoic, 
and  other  philosophers;  of  poets  and  orators,  such  as  Isocrates  and  Demosthenes;  of 
Athenian  statesmen  and  distinguished  women.  In  Rome,  representations  of  the  kings, 
and  persons  of  distinction  belonging  to  the  earlier  period,  were  probably  made  from  the 
imagines  majorum  which  every  patrician  preserved  in  his  atrium,  and  which  were  com- 
monly made  of  wax.  These,  no  doubt,  were  often  merely  fanciful  representations,, 
partly  taken,  it  may  be,  from  the  more  prominent  features  which  belonged  to  the  existing 
members  of  the  family.  The  earliest  well -authenticated  Roman  B.  which  we  possess,  is 
probably  that  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder.  During  the  empire,  busts  for  the  most 
part  were  accurate  portraits,  and  still  furnish  us  with  the  means  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  the  features,  not  only  of  the  emperors  themselves,  but  of  most  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction. Busts  of  poets  and  men  of  letters  are  far  less  frequently  met  with  amongst 
the  Romans  than  amongst  the  Greeks.  The  chief  marks  of  the  authenticity  in  these  busts 


Bustament*. 

Butera. 


224 


are  the  names  which  very  frequently  are  inscribed  on  them,  and,  where  these  are  not 
found,  the  comparison  which  we  are  enabled  to  make  between  them  and  coins.  Private 
<;ollectors  of  busts  were  not  unknown  in  antiquity,  as,  for  example,  M.  Terentius  Varro 
and  Pomponius  Atticus.  In  our  own  time,  king  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria  made,  in  his  cele- 
brated Valhalla,  the  most  remarkable  collection  of  busts  which  perhaps  anywhere  exists. 
The  first  complete  collection  of  engravings  from  antique  busts  was  made  by  Fulvius 
Ursinius  in  his  lllustrium^  Imagines  (Rome,  1569,  and  Antwerp,  1606).  Recently,  we 
have  been  indebted  to  Visconti’s  Iconogra'pMe  Orecque  (Paris,  1811)  and  Iconographie 
Bomaine  (Paris,  1817)  for  a similar  collection. 

BUSTAMEN'TE,  Anastasio,  1782-1851;  a physician  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico. 
He  was  among  the  earliest  supporters  of  Iturbide  when  the  revolt  against  Spain  began 
in  1821.  In  1830,  he  became  vice-president  of  the  republic,  exercising  the  full  power  of 
president.  He  resigned  when  Santa  Anna’s  revolution  of  1832  became  successful,  and 
the  next  year  was  exiled,  living  in  Europe  until  1836,  but  recalled  aRer  the  downfall  of 
Banta  Anna,  and  in  1837  elected  president.  In  1846,  he  was  president  of  the  Mexican 
•congress. 

BUSTAKD,  Otis,  a genus  of  birds,  sometimes  made  the  type  of  a family,  otidm,  usually 
ranked  in  the  order  grallm  (q.v.).  The  general  structure  seems  to  agree  best  with  that 
of  the  grallm;  but  there  are  points  of  strong  resemblance  to  gallinaceous  birds,  both  in 
the  appearance  and  habits  of  the  bustards;  while  their  power  of  running,  and  the  use 
which  they  make  of  their  wings  to  aid  in  running,  are  indicative  of  a relation  to  the 
■struthionidm,  or  ostrich  tribe.  They  differ,  however,  from  these  birds  in  possessing 
wings  quite  capable  of  flight,  although  even  when  pressed  by  danger  they  often  seek  to 
•escape  by  running,  and  the  great  B.  of  Europe  has  been  pursued  and  taken  by  grey- 
hounds.— Bustards  are  birds  of  bulky  form,  with  long  neck  and  long  naked  legs;  the 
toes,  three  in  number,  all  directed  forward,  short,  united  at  the  base,  and  edged  with 
membrane;  the  wings  rather  rounded;  the  bill  of  moderate  length,  straight,  or  nearly  so. 
They  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  open  plains,  to  which  all  their  habits  are  adapted. — The 
-Great  B.  {otis  tarda)  was  at  one  time  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  England,  and  was  also 
an  inhabitant  of  the  s.e.  of  Scotland;  but  extending  cultivation,  and  the  persecution  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected,  have  now  rendered  it  a very  rare  British  bird.  It  is  com- 
mon in  the  s.  and  e.  of  Europe,  and  abounds  in  the  wide  steppes  of  Tartary.  It  is  the 
largest  of  European  birds,  the  male  sometimes  weighing  nearly  30  pounds.  The  female 
is  much  smaller  than  the  male.  The  plumage  is  of  a pale  chestnut  color  on  the  upper 
parts,  beautifully  varied  with  black — much  white  and  black  on  the  wings,  the  tail  tipped 
with  white.  The  tail  is  short,  spreading,  and  rounded.  A tuft  or  plume  about  7 in. 
long,  springing  from  the  chin,  passes  backwards  and  downwards  on  each  side,  in  the 
summer  dress  of  the  male,  partly  concealing  a long  stripe  of  bare  skin  on  each  side 
of  the  neck.  The  anatomy  of  the  male  exhibits  a remarkable  peculiarity  in  a large  bag 
or  pouch,  capable  of  holding  several  pints,  the  entrance  to  which  is  between  the  under- 
side of  the  tongue  and  the  lower  mandible.  The  use  of  this  bag  is  unknown;  but  it  has 
been  conjectured  to  be  for  conveying  water  to  the  females  and  young,  in  wide,  arid 
plains.  The  great  B.  feeds  indiscriminately  on  animal  and  vegetable  food,  swallows 
frogs,  mice,  worms,  etc.,  and  is  very  fond  of  turnip-tops.  Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed 
for  its  flavor.  It  is  polygamous.  No  difficulty  is  found  in  taming  it,  but  all  attempts 
to  reduce  it  to  a state  of  true  domestication  have  hitherto  failed,  from  its  not  breeding 
in  the  poultry-yard. — The  Little  B.  (0.  tetrax),  frequently  in  the  s.  of  Europe  and  n. 
■of  Africa,  is  only  an  accidental  visitant  in  Britain.  It  is  not  half  the  size  of  the  great 
B. — The  Black-headed  B.  (0.  nigriceps)  is  found  in  large  flocks  in  the  open  plains  of 
the  Mahratta  country.  Its  flesh  is  esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  delicacies  which  India 
produces. — The  Kori  B.  (0.  kori)  of  s.  Africa,  a magnificent  bird,  standing  upwards 
of  five  ft.  in  height,  has  a similar  reputation  as  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  game. — Australia 
possesses  a B.  {0.  Australasianus)  somewhat  exceeding  the  great  B.  of  Europe  in  stature. 
It  is  called  wild  turkey  by  the  colonists  of  New  South  Wales.  Its  plumage  is  finely 
freckled  or  spotted ; the  prevailing  color  is  brown.  It  has  become  comparatively  rare  in 
the  more  settled  districts,  its  flesh  being  particularly  delicate  and  well  flavored,  but  may 
be  seen  stalking  majestically  in  the  grassy  plains,  wherever  human  footsteps  are  still 
rare. 

BTJSTO-ARSI'ZIO,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Milan,  and  20  m.  n.w. 
from  Milan.  It  stands  in  a fertile  plain,  which  produces  much  wine.  In  one  of  the 
churches  are  numerous  statues  and  fine  paintings  by  Daniel  Crespi,  a native  of  the  town. 
Remains  of  ancient  buildings  show  that  Busto-Arsizio  was  in  ancient  times  of  consider- 
able importance.  It  is  a place  of  active  trade,  and  has  a cotton-thread  factory.  Pop. 
of  town  and  suburbs,  12,909. 

BUTADES  (wrongly  called  Dibutades),  a Greek  modeler  in  clay,  described  as  the 
first  who  copied  the  human  face  in  that  material.  Seeing  on  a wall  a drawing  in  outline 
-of  his  daughter’s  lover,  B.  molded  the  face  of  it  in  clay,  and  baked  it  with  the  tiles 
which  it  w^s  his  business  to  make.  The  incident  led  B.  to  ornament  the  ends  of  roof- 
liles  with  faces,  a practice  largely  imitated  in  after  years.  He  lived  about  600  B.C. 

BUTCHEE-BIBI).  See  Shrike. 


225 


Bustamente* 

Butera« 


BUTCHER’S-BEOOM,  Buscus,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  liliacem^  with  male 
and  female  flowers  on  separate  plants,  a perianth  of  six  leaves,  fllaments  united,  one 
style,  and  the  fruit  a berry.  The  common  butcher’s-broom  (i?,  aculeatus)  is  a shrubby 
or  almost  shrubby  evergreen  plant,  with  a biennial  stem,  1 to  3 ft.  high,  sending  out  many 
short  branches  and  ovate  alternate  sliarp-pointed  false  leaves  of  the  same  substance  as 
the  branches,  the  flowers  minute  and  arising  from  the  disk  of  the  false  leaves,  solitary; 
the  berries  red,  almost  as  large  as  wild-cherries,  and  of  a sweetish  taste.  It  is  common 
in  many  parts  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  in  the  s.  of  England  in  woods  and  hedges. 
The  English  name  is  derived  from  the  use  made  of  the  plant  by  butchers,  to  sweep  their 
blocks.  It  grows  well  under  trees  or  shrubs,  and  can  often  be  advantageously  introduced 
for  ornamental  purposes.  The  root  was  formerly  much  used  in  medicine.  It  is  aperient 
and  diuretic. — E.  hypophyllum,  a native  of  Italy,  had  once  a considerable  reputation  as 
a stimulant  of  the  uterus. 

BUTE,  an  island  in  the  flrth  of  Clyde,  Scotland,  separated  from  the  coast  of  Argyle 
by  a narrow  winding  strait,  called  the  kyles  of  Bute,  mostly  under  a mile  wide,  about 
6 m.  distant  from  the  w.  coast  of  Ayrshire,  and  8 m.  n.  of  Arran.  It  is  about  16  m. 
long,  of  irregular  breadth,  and  with  an  area  of  60  sq.  miles.  The  surface  to  the  n.  is 
high,  rugged,  and  barren;  in  the  center  and  s. , it  is  low  and  undulating,  and  compara- 
tively fertile.  The  highest  point  rises  875  feet.  The  coast  is  rocky  and  has  some  bays. 
The  island  has  several  small  lakes.  The  climate  is  milder  than  in  any  other  part  of 
Scotland,  and,  though  moist,  less  so  than  on  the  w.  coast  generally;  hence,  it  is  much 
resorted  to  by  invalids.  In  the  s.  the  soil  is  sandy ; towards  the  n.  clay  predominates. 
Most  of  the  arable  land  is  under  tillage,  and  agriculture  is  in  a good  state.  The  chief 
'Crops  are  oats,  turnips,  and  potatoes.  Pop.  ’71,  10,064.  The  principal  town  is 
Rothesay.  Most  of  the  island  belongs  to  the  marquis  of  Bute,  whose  beautiful  seat. 
Mount  Stuart,  is  about  4 m.  s.  from  Rothesay.  Among  the  antiquities  of  B. 
Rothesay  castle,  Karnes  castle,  Kilmorie  castle,  St.  Blaine’s  chapel,  Dungyle,  a remark- 
able vitrified  fort  on  a high  crag  on  the  s.w.  coast,  and  the  Devil’s  caldron,  a circular 
erection,  the  original  purpose  of  which  is  not  well  known.  B.  and  the  neighboring  isles 
were  for  many  centuries  subject  to  the  Norwegians. 

Buteshire,  a county  in  the  s.w.  of  Scotland,  comprising  the  isles  of  Bute  (q.  v.)and 
Arran  (q.  v.),  and  the  Cumbraes,  Holy  isle,  Pladda,  Inchmarnoch,  and  other  smaller 
islands.  The  area  of  the  whole,  according  to  the  ordnance  survey,  is  225  sq.m,,  or 
143,977  statute  acres.  The  pop.  in  1871  was  16,977.  B.  returns  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. The  county  town  is  Rothesay,  in  the  island  of  Bute. 

BUTE,  John  Patrick  Crichton  Stuart,  third  marquis,  and  reputed  hero  of  Dis- 
raeli’s Lothair.  He  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  1868,  and  took  great  interest 
in  furthering  religious  education,  in  pursuance  of  which  he,  among  other  enterprises, 
purchased  land,  and  established  near  Jerusalem  an  asylum  for  pilgrims. 

BUTE,  John  Stuart,  third  earl  of,  was  b.  in  1713,  and  d.  in  1792.  About  1737, 
he  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of  Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  who  made  him  one  of 
his  lords  of  the  bedchamber.  After  the  death  of  the  prince,  he  became  groom  of  the 
stole  to  his  son,  afterwards  George  III.,  over  whose  mind  he  obtained  a strong  influence. 
In  Mar. , 1761,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state ; and  from  the  29th 
May,  1762,  to  the  8th  April,  1763,  he  was  prime  minister.  His  government  is  memora- 
ble only  as  one  of  the  most  unpopular  that  ever  held  office  in  Britain,  its  fundamental 
principle  being  the  supremacy  of  the  royal  prerogative,  of  which  the  executive  govern- 
ment were  merely  the  humble  servants.  Lord  Bute  was  given  to  scientific  pursuits, 
especially  botany,  and  showed  himself  a liberal  patron  of  literature  and  art.  He  mar- 
ried the  only  daughter  of  lady  Mary  W ortley  Montagu, 

BU'TEA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  leguminosm,  suborder  papilion^ 
ace(e,  remarkable  for  the  great  length  of  the  standard  of  the  flower,  and  having 
compressed,  one-seeded  pod,  membranaceous  at  the  apex.  The  best  known  spe- 
cies Bxe' B.  frondosa  and  B.  superha,  natives  of  India;  and  the  former  very  widely 
diffused  throughout  that  country,  generally  appearing  as  a sort  of  shrub  in  the 
neighborhood  of  villages,  but  in  the  jungles  growing  into  a small  tree.  These  trees 
present  a gorgeous  sight  when  covered  with  racemes  of  large  deep  scarlet  flowers. 
They  have  trifoliate  leaves,  with  roundish  leaflets,  velvety  beneath.  They  yield  a 
resinous  exudation,  which  occurs  in  the  form  of  lurid  red  tears,  often  covering  - 
the  twigs,  and  is  one  of  the  kinds  of  lac  (q.  v.)  brought  to  the  market  in  India. 
The  juice  of  the  tree  is  not  red,  and  the  lac  is  supposed  to  be  elaborated  by  insects,  but  v 
of  what  species  is  unknown.  B.  frondosa  is  called  the  dhak  tree  in  India.  The  bark 
and  roots  are  very  fibrous,  and  the  fiber  is  used  for  calking  boats.  The  flowers,  called 
teesoo  or  keesoo,  yield  a beautiful  yellow  or  orange  dye. 

BUTERA,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta,  and  8 m.  n.n.w.  from 
Terranova.  It  stands  on  a height  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Manfria.  Ruins  of  great 
antiquity  exist  in  the  neighborhood,  but  the  ancient  name  is  unknown.  In  853,  B.  was 
besieged  for  five  months  by  the  Saracens,  who  raised  the  siege  on  the  surrender  of  6000 
persons  as  slaves.  B.  was  almost  the  last  town  in  Sicily  taken  by  the  Normans,  having 
U.  K.  III.~15 


Butler. 


226 


held  out  against  count  Roger  till  1089.  The  present  castle  is  of  Norman  erection,  and 
contains  a number  of  medieval  antiquities.  Pop,  5150, 

BUTLER,  a co,  in  s.  Alabama;  875  sq.m, ; pop,  ’80,  19,685 — 8983  colored;  hilly,  and 
mostly  covered  with  pine  woods;  produces  corn,  cotton,  etc.  The  Mobile  and  Mont- 
gomery railroad  passes  through.  Co.  seat,  Greenville. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  n.e.  Iowa,  on  Cedar  river  and  the  Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  rail- 
road; 576  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  14,293;  an  agricultural  region,  mostly  prairie.  Co.  seat, 
Butler  Centre. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  s,  Kansas,  on  the  White  and  Walnut  rivers;  1519  sq.m.;  pop. 
’80,  18,587.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat,  El  Dorado. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  s.w.  Kentucky,  on  Green  river;  500  sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 12,181 — 820 
colored.  Surface  uneven,  with  moderately  fertile  soil;  agriculture  the  main  business. 
Co.  seat,  Morgantown. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  s.e.  Missouri,  on  the  Arkansas  border,  w.  of  St.  Francis  river; 
560  sq.m.;  pop. ’80,  6011 — 140  colored.  It  has  a level  surface  and  fruitful  soil,  pro- 
ducing corn,  tobacco,  etc.  Co.  seat.  Poplar  Bluff. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  e.  Nebraska,  s.  of  Platte  river;  576  sq.m.;  pop.  ’76,  4730;  in  ’80, 
9194;  productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  David  city. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  s.w.  Ohio,  on  the  Indiana  border,  intersected  by  Miami  river, 
the  Miami  canal,  and  three  railroads;  455  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  42,580.  Productions  agricul- 
tural. Co.  seat,  Hamilton.  There  are  in  the  co.  many  interesting  monuments  of 
aboriginal  inhabitants. 

BUTLER,  a co.  in  w.  Pennsylvania,  near  the  Alleghany  river,  drained  by  the  waters 
of  the  Beaver;  800  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  52,536.  The  surface  is  diversified,  and  the  soil 
sandy  but  tolerably  good,  producing  the  usual  crops.  Coal,  iron,  and  limestone  are 
plentiful.  Co.  seat,  Butler. 

BUTLER,  Alban;  an  English  hagiologist,  1710-73.  He  was  educated  attheDouay 
Roman  Catholic  college,  where  he  was  professor  of  philosophy,  and  afterwards  of  divin- 
ity. He  traveled  on  the  continent,  was  chaplain  to  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  president 
of  the  English  college  at  St.  Onier’s,  where  he  died.  The  Lives  of  the  Saints  was  his 
great  v/ork.  It  has  passed  through  many  editions. 

BUTLER,  Andrew  Pickens,  1796-1857;  a graduate  of  South  Carolina  college,  and 
lawyer  of  South  Carolina.  He  was  in  the  legislature  in  1824,  and  in  1833  was  appointed 
judge  of  sessions  and  afterwards  of  the  supreme  court.  In  1846,  he  was  chosen  U.  S. 
senator.  It  was  Mr.  Sumner’s  reply  to  B.  ’s  last  speech  in  the  senate  that  led  to  the 
assault  upon  the  Massachusetts  senator  by  Preston  S.  Brooks. 

BUTLER,  Benjamin  Franklin,  1795-1858;  a native  of  New  York,  and  law  part- 
ner of  Martin  Van  Buren.  He  served  in  the  legislature,  and  was  a member  of  the  com- 
mission to  revise  the  statutes.  In  Jackson’s  cabinet  he  was  attorney-general,  1831-34, 
and  acting  secretary  of  war,  1836-37.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  law  in  the 
university  of  New  York.  He  was  a leading  member  of  the  Democratic  party  up  to  the 
time  of  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  after  which  he  acted  with  the  other 
party. 

BUTLEE,  Benjamin  Franklin,  general  of  volunteers,  U.  S.  army,  was  b.  at  Deer- 
field, N.  H.,  Nov.  5,  1818.  He  graduated  at  Waterville  college,  Maine,  in  1838,  studied 
law  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1841,  and  became  distin- 
guished as  a criminal  lawyer  and  Democratic  politician.  He  was  a member  of  the 
state  legislature  in  1853,  of  the  state  senate  in  1859-60,  and  a delegate  to  the  Demo- 
cratic national  conventions  at  Charleston  and  Baltimore  in  1860,  where  he  supported 
the  nomination  of  Jefferson  Davis  and  John  C.  Breckenridge,  and  was  nominated  as 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  governor  of  Massachusetts.  B.  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
brig. gen.  of  militia;  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  secession,  April  17,  1861,  he 
marched  with  the  8th  Massachusetts  brigade,  and  after  a check  at  Great  Bethel,  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  Baltimore,  and  subsequently  of  eastern  Virginia,  with 
his  head-quarters  at  fortress  Monroe.  In  Feb.,  1862,  he  commanded  the  military  forces 
sent  from  Boston  to  Ship  island,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi;  and  after  New 
Orleans  had  surrendered  to  the  naval  forces  under  commander  Farragut,  he  held  mili- 
tary possession  of  the  city,  and  by  his  severity,  and  especially  by  an,  at  least  apparently, 
atrocious  order  respecting  the  treatment  of  women,  brought  upon  himself  the  intense 
detestation  of  the  southern  people,  and  a very  general  feeling  of  reprobation.  Relieved 
of  his  command,  he  returned  to  fortress  Monroe,  acted  under  gen.  Grant  in  his  opera- 
tions against  Petersburg  and  Richmond,  and,  June  13,  1865,  by  his  refusal  to  co-oper- 
ate with  the  naval  forces,  caused  the  failure  of  the  first  attempt  to  take  fort  Fisher,  the 
chief  defense  of  Wilmington.  Returning  to  Massachusetts  at  the  end  of  the  war,  he 
took  an  active  part  in  politics  as  an  extreme  radical,  advocated  the  impeachment  of 
president  Johnson;  in  1866,  he  was  elected  member  of  the  house  of  representatives,  and 
has  been  repeatedly  elected  until  1878. 


227 


Butler. 


BUTLER,  Benjamin  Franklin  (<x7ifo),  b.  N.  II.,  1819,-  « graduate  of  Waterville 
(Me.)  college;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Massachusetts,  and  acquired  a large  practice 
in  Lowell  and  other  cities.  He  was  early  in  politics  as  a member  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  and  by  them  was  chosen  to  the  legislature  in  1853.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  a member  of  the  constitutional  convention,  and  in  1859  was  elected  to  the  state 
senate.  On  the  first  call  for  troops  in  the  secession  confiict  (April  15,  1861),  B.,  who 
was  a brig.  gen.  of  militia,  called  out  his  brigade.  On  the  next  day,  the  6th  regiment 
left  Boston;  and  on  the  I8th,  B.  at  the  head  of  the  8th  regiment  started  for  Washington 
by  way  of  Baltimore.  Two  regiments  of  his  brigade  had  in  the  mean  time  sailed  for 
fortress  Monroe,  of  which  they  took  possession.  The  burning  of  railroad  bridges  pre- 
vented B.  from  reaching  Washington  directly,  and  he  took  possession  of  Annapolis  and 
repaired  the  railroad  from  that  city  to  Washington  so  speedily,  that  the  7th  New  York 
and  the  8th  Massachusetts  regiments  reached  the  capital  in  season  to  prevent  any 
attempt  at  seizure.  In  May,  he  took  possession  of  Baltimore  without  opposition,  and 
the  same  month  was  appointed  maj.gen.  and  given  command  of  fortress  Monroe.  Here 
he  made  the  declaration,  when  requested  to  return  runaway  negroes,  that  the  slaves  were 
“ contraband  of  war” — a doctrine  that  greatly  discouraged  the  secessionists  and  corre- 
spondingly elated  the  union  side,  for  up  to  that  period  there  had  been  no  hesitation  on 
the  part  of  the  civil  or  military  authorities  in  doing  their  utmost  to  arrest  and  return 
fugitive  slaves.  In  the  spring  of  1862,  he  commanded  the  land  force  of  18,000  men 
designed  to  co-operate  with  Farragut  in  command  of  the  fleet  to  operate  in  the  lower 
Mississippi,  and  on  the  1st  of  May  he  took  possession  of  New  Orleans,  where  he 
remained  until  relieved  by  gen.  Banks  in  December.  His  administration  in  New 
Orleans  was  violently  denounced:  but  he  kept  order;  forced  the  people  to  keep  reason- 
ably clean  streets  and  so  avoided  the  yellow-fever  for  one  season ; compelled  the  rich 
secessionists  to  contribute  to  the  support  of  those  whom  their  rebellion  had  reduced  to 
want;  and  enforced  due  respect  for  the  flag  of  the  nation.  Near  the  close  of  1863,  he  was 
put  in  command  of  the  department  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  in  May,  1864, 
occupied  City  Point  and  Bermuda  Hundred  in  support  of  Grant’s  movement  upon 
Petersburg.  In  October  he  was  sent  to  New  York  to  assure  peace  during  the  election, 
there  being  danger  of  serious  trouble.  In  1864,  he  was  sent  against  fort  Fisher,  but  the 
enterprise  failed^,  in  consequence  of  a storm,  and  he  returned,  contrary  to  orders,  for 
which  he  was  relieved  from  command.  In  1866,  he  was  chosen  member  of  congress 
from  the  Boston  district,  and  in  1868,  was  one  of  the  managers  in  the  impeachment  of 
president  Johnson,  From  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  until  1876-77,  Butler  acted 
with  the  Republican  party;  but  when  the  greenback  and  labor  movement  began  to  take 
shape  he  favored  it,  and  in  1878  was  the  candidate  of  those  parties,  and  of  a large  por- 
tion of  the  Democratic  party,  for  governor  of  Massachusetts,  receiving  109,435  votes  to 
134,725  for  the  successful  Republican  candidate.  He  was  again  a candidate  of  “green- 
backers,”  labor  men,  and  Democrats,  in  1879,  but  was  again  unsuccessful. 

BUTLER,  Charles,  1750-1832;  a prolific  English  writer,  nephew  of  Alban.  He 
was  educated  at  Douay,  and  entered  at  Lincoln  inn  in  1775,  coming  to  the  bar  in  1791. 
His  literary  activity  was  enormous.  Among  his  works  were  Reminiscences;  Horoe  Bihlicm; 
Hoi'ob  JuridiccB  Subsecwce;  Book  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Uiurch;  and  lives  of  Erasmus,  Gro- 
tius,  and  others.  He  also  edited  his  uncle’s  Lims  of  the  Saints,  and  completed  an  edition 
of  Coke  upon  Littleton. 

BUTLER  Clement  M.,  d.d.,  b.  N.  Y.,  1810;  a Protestant  Episcopal  minister 
in  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  Boston,  and  Washington;  rector  of  Grace  church,  Rome,  Italy, 
1862-64;  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  divinity  school  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church  in  West  Philadelphia.  He  has  published  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
Interpi'eted  hy  its  History;  Old  Truths  and  New  Errors;  St.  Paul  in  Rome;  Inner  Rome; 
Manual  of  Ecclesiastical  History  from  the  Is^  to  the  l^th  Century;  Sermons,  etc. 

BUTLER,  John,  a native  of  Conn.;  d.  Canada,  1794;  a tory leader  in  the  revolu- 
tion, commanding  a regiment  of  militia.  In  1776,  he  organized  a band  of  guerillas  dis- 
guised as  Indians,  who  committed  many  outrages.  He  also  commanded  the  men  who 
destroyed  Wyoming,  Penn.,  in  1778.  After  peace  he  settled  in  Canada,  where  he  was 
agent  for  Indian  affairs. 

BUTLER,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  English  divines,  was  b.  in  1692  at 
Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  where  his  father  kept  a shop.  With  a view  to  the  ministry  of  the 
Presbyterian  church,  he  attended  a dissenting  academy  at  Tewkesbury,  in  Gloucester- 
shire. " At  the  age  of  22,  he  gave  proof  of  high  metaphysical  ability  in  a letter  to  Dr.  " 
Samuel  Clarke,  usually  appended  to  that  celebrated  writer’s  a-priori  demonstration,  to 
which  it  offers  some  objections.  About  this  time,  he  made  up  his  mind  to  join  the  '' 
church  of  England,  and  in  Mar.,  1714,  entered  Oriel  college,  Oxford.  Soon  after,  he 
took  orders.  In  1718,  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  the  Rolls  chapel,  where  he  preached 
those  remarkable  sermons  which  he  published  in  1726.  The  first  three,  O71  Human 
Nature,  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  contributions  ever  made  to  moral  science. 
The  scope  of  the  reasoning  is  briefl}'-,  that  virtue  is  consonant  with,  and  vice  a violation 
of,  man’s  nature.  In  1725,  B.  was  presented  to  the  rich  benefice  of  Stanhope,  in  the 
CO.  of  Durham,  to  which  he  removed  in  the  following  year.  Here  he  resided  in 
great  retirement  till  1733.  His  friend  Seeker,  the  archbishop,  desired  to  see  him  pro- 


Kntler. 

Butter. 


228 


moted  to  some  more  important  position,  and  mentioned  his  name  once  to  queen  Caro- 
line. The  queen  thought  he  had  been  dead,  and  asked  archbishop  Blackburne  if  it  were 
not  so.  “ No,  madam,”  said  the  archbishop;  ‘‘  but  he  is  buried.”  In  1733,  B.  became 
chaplain  to  his  friend  lord  chancellor  Talbot,  and  at  the  same  time  a prebendary  of 
Rochester.  In  1736,  he  published  the  great  work  of  which  the  germs  were  contained 
in  his  three  sermons,  and  which  has  entitled  him,  in  the  eyes  of  his  eloquent  disciple 
Chalmers,  to  be  called  “the  Bacon  of  theology.”  The  leading^im  of  the  Analogy  is  to 
show,  that  all  the  objections  to  revealed  religion  are  equally  applicable  to  the  whole  con- 
stitution of  nature,  and  that  the  general  analogy  between  the  principles  of  divine  gov- 
ernment, as  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  and  those  manifested  in  the  course  of  nature, 
warrants  the  conclusion  that  they  have  one  Author.  Soon  after  the  publication  of  this 
work,  B.  was  appointed  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  queen,  who  greatly  prized  his  conver- 
sation. In  1738,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Bristol;  in  1740,  dean  of  St.  Paul’s;  and  in 
1750,  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Durham.  He  lived  only  to  make  one  visitation  of 
his  diocese.  His  “ charge”  on  the  occasion,  in  which  he  pointed  out,  with  character- 
istic depth  of  insight,  the  importance  of  a due  maintenance  of  the  externals  of  religion, 
as  a means  of  keeping  alive  the  thought  of  it  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  subjected  him 
to  much  censure  as  betraying  a tendency  to  Roman  Catholicism — a charge  unworthy 
BOW  of  serious  notice.  B.’s  private  character  was  such  as  became  a Christian  prelate: 
grave  and  judicious,  he  was  at  the  same  time  meek  and  generous.  His  intercourse  with 
his  clergy  and  people  was  frank  and  humane;  his  episcopal  treasures  were  wisely  and 
munificently  distributed,  as  not  his  own;  and  no  anxious  legatee  looked  with  hope  to 
his  death.  That  event  took  place  at  Bath,  June  16,  1752,  and  the  good  bishop’s  remains 
were  buried  in  Bristol  cathedral.  His  works,  notwithstanding  a dry  and  uninteresting 
style,  have  gone  through  numerous  editions.  The  best  is  that  edited,  with  a life,  etc., 
by  Fitzgerald. 

BUTLER,  Samuel,  poet,  was  b.  at  Strensham,  Worcestershire,  in  1612.  His  father 
was  a farmer  in  that  place,  and  said  to  be  a person  of  some  education.  Young  B., 
after  acquiring  the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  home,  was  placed  at  the  college  school 
at  Worcester.  His  progress  there  was  rapid,  and  on  leaving  it  he  proceeded  to  one  of 
the  universities.  After  finishing  his  education,  he  was  appointed  clerk  to  T.  Jeffreys, 
esq.,  justice  of  the  peace,  and  in  his  leisure  hours  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  music 
and  poetry.  He  aherwards  entered  the  household  of  the  countess  of  Kent,  which  he 
left,  and  went  to  live  with  sir  Samuel  Luke,  who  resided  in  the  same  county.  After 
the  king’s  restoration,  he  was  made  secretary  to  the  earl  of  Carberry,  which  office  he 
held  till  1661.  About  this  time,  B.  married  a Mrs.  Herbert,  a lady  of  good  family  and 
some  property,  which,  however,  was  afterwards  lost  by  being  invested  in  bad  securities. 
He  published  the  first  part  of  Hadibras  in  1663,  and  its  reception  at  court  was  immedi- 
ate and  triumphant.  It  received  all  the  favor  Charles  could  spare  from  his  spaniels  and 
his  mistresses,  and  he  deigned  even  to  garnish  his  royal  conversation  with  its  wit.  The 
courtiers  took  up  the  fashion,  the  coffee-houses  and  taverns  followed  suit,  and  finally 
the  mob  went  into  raptures,  in  imitation  of  its  betters.  Hadihras  was  pirated  within 
four  weeks  of  its  publication.  The  king  had  wit  enough  to  see  the  merit  of  the  work, 
but  he  lacked  generosity  to  relieve  the  necessities  of  the  writer.  There  seems  to  be  no 
good  reason  to  believe  that  B.’s  palm  ever  tingled  to  the  touch  of  royal  pension  or  gra- 
tuity. Poverty  is  almost  the  only  thing  in  B.’s  life  that  one  is  certain  of.  In  1664,  he 
published  the  second  part  of  his  book,  and  a third  part  appeared  in  1678.  He  died  in 
Rose  street,  Co  vent  garden,  in  1680;  and  while  some  say  that  he  starved  from  pride, 
all  agree  that  at  his  death  he  was  very  poor. 

Hudihras  is  a kind  of  metrical  Don  Quixote;  and  if  the  work  of  Cervantes  stands  at 
the  head  of  its  class  in  the  literature  of  Spain,  Hudihras  occupies  the  same  place  in 
the  literature  of  England.  The  Puritans  are  the  subjects  of  B.’s  derision,  and  king 
Charles  must  have  felt  that  the  poet  avenged  for  him  the  battle  of  Worcester.  The 
weight,  compression,  and  plenteousness  of  the  wit  is  wonderful.  Hudihras  is  like  a 
mass  of  crystals,  every  point  flashes.  It  is,  beyond  any  other  book,  of  wit  “all  com- 
pact.” B.  thinks  in  witty  couplets,  he  argues  in  them,  he  spears  his  foes  with  a jest, 
he  routs  and  chases  them  into  oblivion  with  unextinguishable  laughter.  His  best 
things  have  become  proverbs.  His  mass  of  wit  has  been  grated  down  into  common 
speech,  and  particles  of  it  may  be  found  any  day  glittering  in  the  talk  of  English 
plowmen  and  artisans. 

BUTLER,  William  Allen,  ll.d.;  b.  N.  Y.,  1825;  a graduate  of  the  university  of 
New  York,  studied  law  with  his  father  (Benjamin  F.  of  New  York),  and  traveled  exten- 
sively abroad  before  commencing  practice.  He  is  the  author  of  several  popular  satirical 
poems,  among  which  are  Nothing  to  Wear;  Barnum's  Parnassus;  and  Two  Millions.  He 
has  also  published  Lawyer  and  Client,  and  a biographical  sketch  of  Martin  Van  Buren. 

BUTLER,  William  Archer,  a religious  and  philosophical  writer  of  singularly  high 
promise,  was  born  in  1814,  at  Annerville,  near  Clonmel,  Ireland.  He  was  originally  a 
Roman  Catholic,  but  subsequently  became  a Protestant,  and  studied  at  Trinity  college, 
Dublin,  where  he  was  appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy  in  1837.  He  died  in 
1848.  The  principal  work  on  which  his  reputation  is  based,  is  the  Lectures  on  the  HisPn'y 
of  Ancient  Philosophy,  edited  with  notes  by  W.  Hepworth  Thomson  (Cambridge,  1856,  2 


229 


Butler. 

Butter. 


'fols,').  These  lectures  are  remarkable  for  their  great  learniog,  eloquence,  and  depth  of 
^dgment.  Besides  his  lectures,  there  have  appeared,  Sermons,  with  a memoir  by  the 
Kev.  Thomas  Woodward  (Dublin,  1849);  Letters  on  the  Demlopment  of  Christian  Doctrine 
(Dublin,  1850);  Letters  on  Romanism  (Lond.  1854). 

BUTLER,  William  Orlando,  1793-1880;  b.  Ky. ; served  in  the  Indian  battles  of 
1812,  and  under  Jackson  at  New  Orleans,  and  after  the  war  practiced  law  in  Kentucky. 
He  was  a member  of  congress,  1839-43,  and  next  year  democratic  candidate  for  governor; 
in  1848  the  democratic  E|pninee  for  vice-president,  but  not  successful.  He  served  as  maj. 
gen.  of  volunteers  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  was  wounded  at  Monterey.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  peace  congress  of  1861. 

BUTLEEAGE  of  wine,  as  described  by  Blackstone  and  Stephen,  is  a very  ancient 
hereditary  duty  belonging  to  t'he  crown,  and  is  otherwise  called  the  jn'isage  of  wines. 
This  duty  is  taken  notice  of  in  the  great  roll  of  the  exchequer,  8 Richard  I.,  still  extant. 
Under  the  right  to  levy  it,  the  crown  could  take  two  tuns  of  wine  from  every  ship 
(English  or  foreign)  importing  into  England  20  tuns  or  more,  one  before  and  one  behind 
the  mast;  which,  by  charter  of  Edward  I.,  was  exchanged  into  a duty  of  two  shillings 
for  every  tun  imported  by  merchant  strangers,  and  called  butlerage,  because  paid  to  the 
king’s  butler. 

BUTO,  an  Egyptian  goddess,  deity  of  the  town  Buto  in  northern  Egypt.  She  per- 
sonified lower  Egypt;  and,  it  was  believed,  presided  over  fire,  and  resided  in  the  sun.  B. 
was  considered  to  represent  the  Greek  Latona,  and  to  be  the  regent  of  certain  districts 
and  cities  in  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

BU'TOMUS,  a genus  of  aquatic  plants,  of  which  one  species,  B.  umbellatus,  is  frequent 
in  ditches  and  ponds  in  England,  Ireland,  and  many  parts  of  Europe,  but  is  very  rare 
in  Scotland.  It  is  popularly  called  flowering  rush,  and  is  one  of  the  plants  to  which  the 
praise  has  been  assigned  of  being  the  most  beautiful  in  the  British  flora.  The  leaves  are 
all  radical,  2 to  3 ft.  long,  linear,  triangular,  their  sharp  edges  sometimes  cutting  the 
mouths  of  cattle,  whence  the  generic  name  (Gr.  ox-cutting).  The  scape,  or  flowering  stem, 
is  longer  than  the  leaves,  terminating  in  a large  umbel  of  rose-colored  flowers,  readily 
distinguished  from  those  of  all  other  British  plants  by  having  nine  stamens,  six  in  an 
outer,  and  three  in  an  inner  row. 

BUTT,  Isaac,  b.  1813 ; graduate  of  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  a member  of  the 
Irish  bar.  He  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  Smith  O’Brien  and  others  tried  in  1848  for 
treason,  and  also  for  the  Fenians  tried  in  1865.  In  1852,  he  was  chosen  to  parliament 
from  Younghallas  a liberal  conservative;  and  in  1871  he  was  returned  from  Limerick 
as  a “ home  ruler,”  and  has  been  to  the  present  time  the  chief  leader  and  support  of  the 
idea  which  that  name  involves.  He  was  one  of  the  projectors,  and  for  a time  the  editor, 
of  the  Dublin  University  Magazine.  He  has  also  published  Literature  of  Political 
Economy;  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  and  works  on  the  relations  of  landlord  and 
tenant.  He  died  in  1880. 

BUTTE,  a small  hill  or  knoll,  or  rising  ground ; in  some  places  applied  to  mountains, 
as  the  Downieville  Buttes  in  California,  which  are  nearly  9000  ft.  high. 

BUTTE,  a co.  in.  n.  California,  on  the  Sacramento  and  Feather  rivers;  1458  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  18,721.  The  surface  is  rough  and  well  wooded,  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  co. 
is  rich  in  gold,  silver,  platinum,  cinnabar,  lead,  and  iron.  The  Marysville  branch  of 
the  Pacific  railroad  crosses  the  w.  portion.  Wheat,  barley,  wine,  and  wool  are  the  chief 
agricultural  productions.  Co.  seat,  Oroville. 

BUTTEK  (Ger.  butter;  Fr.  heurre;  Lat.  butyrum)  is  the  fatty  substance  present  in  the 
milk  of  the  mammalia,  and  capable  of  being  extracted  from  it.  In  ancient  times 
the  Hebrews  seem  to  have  made  copious  use  of  butter  as  food;  but  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  used  it  only  as  an  ointment  in  their  baths,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Greeks 
obtained  their  knowledge  of  the  substance  from  the  Scythians,  Thracians,  and  Phrygians, 
whilst  the  Romans  obtained  it  from  Germany.  In  southern  Europe,  at  the  present  time, 
B.  is  very  sparingly  used;  and  in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  southern  France,  it  is  sold 
by  apothecaries  as  a medicinal  agent  for  external  application.  The  amount  of  B.  in 
cows’  milk  (q.y.)  is  about  4 per  cent,  though  the  kind  of  pasture,  quantity  of  milk,  and 
general  condition,  influence  the  relative  quantity  of  the  several  ingredients  of  milk.  In 
the  extraction  of  B.,  the  milk  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  cream  which  rises  to  the  sur- 
face is  skimmed  ofE,  and  put  into  a large,  deep,  earthenware  vessel,  where  it  lies  for 
several  days  till  enough  has  been  collected  for  a churning.  Any  difference  in  the  exact 
mode  of  treatment  of  the  milk  yields  a B.  with  some  peculiarity  or  other.  Thus,  the  B. 
and  cream  of  Devonshire,  which  are  famed  for  their  superior  richness,  owe  this  in 
greater  part  to  the  mode  of  manipulating  the  milk,  and  not  to  the  special  character  of 
that  fluid,  or  to  the  richness  of  the  pastures  in  those  districts.  The  milk  in  Devonshire 
is  not  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  as  elsewhere,  but  is  at  once  placed  in  large  deep  pans,  and 
^carefully  heated.  A scum  quickly  rises,  which  is  pushed  to  the  side;  and  whenever  the 
bubbles  of  steam  appear,  the  milk  is  removed,  and  allowed  to  cool  in  the  ordinary  way, 
when  a good  deal  of  the  milk  thickens  to  the  consistence  of  B.,  and  is  skimmed  off  as 
'the  celebrated  Devonshire  clouted  cream.  In  England,  the  B.  of  Epping  and  Cambridge 
ds  highly  esteemed,  and  in  every  part  of  Great  Britain,  the  Dutch  B.,  in  a salted  form. 


Butter. 

Butterfly. 


230 


is  very  largely  consumed;  indeed,  three  fourths  of  all  the  foreign  B.  consumed  in  Great 
Britain  is  imported  from  Holland. 

In  order  to  separate  B.  from  milk,  recourse  is  always  had  to  the  process  of  agitation 
in  churns  (q.v.).  The  principle  involved  in  each  and  all  forms  of  this  apparatus  is  the 
thorough  agitation  of  the  contents,  so  as  to  cause  the  rupture  of  the  minute  fat  globules 
present  in  the  milk,  and  the  incorporation  of  these  ruptured  fat  globules  into  larger  or 
smaller  masses  of  butter.  The  cream  is  strained  through  cloth  into  the  churn,  to  remove 
any  foreign  matter;  and  the  agitators  being  set  in  motion,  the  friction  of  the  movement, 
combined  with  the  admission  of  air,  and  the  chemical  changes  it  induces,  raises  the  tem- 
perature of  the  whole  contents.  At  one  time,  it  was  thought  that  one  great  object  of 
the  agitation  was  the  admission  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  which  becoming  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  constituents  of  the  milk,  combined  therewith,  and,  as  a consequence, 
led  to  the  separation  of  the  butter.  It  is  found,  however,  that  B.  can  be  obtained  from 
milk  by  mere  agitation,  without  the  admission  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  At  the  same 
time,  in  the  ordinary  wa}"  of  churning,  oxygen  does  play  a subordinate  part  by  combin- 
ing with  the  sugar  of  the  milk,  and  forming  lactic  acid,  which  in  its  turn  sours  the  milk, 
and  separates  therefrom  the  caseine  (q.v.) — cheese-matter — in  minute  clots  or  flakes, 
yielding  what  is  commonly  called  sour  or  butter  milk.  The  process  of  churning  must  be 
conducted  at  a medium  rate.  If  too  quickly  performed  the  B.  is  soft  and  frothy,  and  i& 
said  to  burst;  whilst  when  too  slowly  made,  it  is  highly  tenacious,  strong  tasted,  and 
badly  flavored.  When  all  the  B.  has  come,  which  is  known  by  the  particles  agglutinat- 
ing into  irregular  masses,  the  B.  is  made  by  taking  the  lumps,  and  well  washing  and 
kneading  them  on  a wooden  board  in  a tub  of  pure  spring-water  till  all  the  butter-milk 
has  been  expressed;  it  is  then  divided  into  the  requisite  size  of  lumps,  fashioned  inta 
rolls,  or  molded  into  forms,  and  usually  stamped  with  some  device.  In  the  making  up 
of  the  B.  the  hands  of  the  operator  must  be  scrupulously  clean,  and  be  free  from  the 
slightest  taint  of  soap.  Persons  who  are  subject  to  moist  hands  should  never  knead  B., 
as  it  is  very  liable  to  be  contaminated  by  the  slightest  foreign  matter,  especially  animal 
secretions;  and  it  is  better  always  for  the  operator  to  wash  the  hands  with  water  contain- 
ing some  oatmeal  before  commencing.  So  important  is  this  source  of  contamination 
regarded  in  America,  that  every  endeavor  is  made  to  get  quit  of  manual  labor  in  'work- 
ing the  B.,  and  a wooden  butter-worker  has  been  invented,  and  is  largely  used  there. 
When  newly  prepared,  the  B.  is  called or  sweet  B.,  and  is  of  a yellow  color,  which 
is  well  known  to  be  deeper  as  the  pasture  on  which  the  cows  have  been  fed  is  richer,  and 
hence  the  poorer  kinds  of  B.  are  often  artificially  colored  with  arnotto  (q.v.). 

A large  quantity  of  the  B.  sent  into  market  has  more  or  less  common  salt  added,  for 
the  purpose  of  preserving  it.  For  use  within  a week  or  two,  the  proportion  of  common 
salt  employed  is  about  i an  oz  to  2 lbs.  of  B.,  though,  where  it  has  to  be  kept  for  some 
time,  as  much  as  1 oz.  of  salt  to  1 lb.  of  butter  is  used.  The  incorporation  requires  to 
be  carefully  and  dexterously  done,  so  that  the  resulting  material  may  be  uniform;  and 
the  better  plan  is  to  add  only  a portion  of  the  salt  at  a time,  and  to  knead  and  re-knead 
the  B.  till  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed.  When  the  less  amount  of  salt  has  been 
employed,  the  result  is  powdered  B..  and  the  larger  quantity  yields  salt  butter.  Much  of 
the  latter  is  closely  packed  in  small  wooden  firkins  or  kits,  and  occasionally  in  stone- 
ware, and  sent  into  market.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  have  these  kits,  and  indeed  to 
have  every  vessel  used  in  the  preparation,  as  clean  or  sweet  as  possible.  Constant  rins- 
ings with  cold  water,  and  scaldings  with  boiling  water,  are  resorted  to  Attention  must 
likewise  be  paid  to  the  air  of  the  apartments  in  which  the  operations  are  carried  on,  as 
a tainted  air  is  very  injurious. 

The  adulterations  liable  to  be  present  in  B.  are  an  undue  proportion  of  salt  and  water, 
and  these  run  up  occasionally  to  upwards  of  33  per  cent,  or  one  third  of  the  total  weight. 
Another  adulteration  is  the  presence  of  lactate  of  zinc,  derived  from  the  milk  being 
placed  in  zinc  pails  and  basins,  from  the  impression  that  by  some  imaginary  electrical 
influence  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  cream  will  be  the  result;  but  though  this  is  not 
attained,  yet  the  milk  tending  to  form  lactic  acid,  the  latter  attacks  the  zinc  vessel,  and 
forms  lactate  of  zinc,  which  dissolves  in  the  milk,  and  thereby  contaminates  it,  imparting 
an  unpleasant  taste,  and,  when  present  in  larger  quantity,  leading  to  violent  spasmodic 
vomiting.  When  B.  is  allowed  to  get  old,  it  becomes  rancid  and  tastes  and  smells  disa- 
greeably. To  some  extent  an  acid  is  formed,  called  butyric  acid  (q.v.).  For  the  use  of 
B.  in  diet,  see  Food  and  Nutrition. 

Butter,  in  chemistry,  is  often  applied  generically  to  any  substance  of  the  same  con- 
sistence of  B.,  and  is  therefore  used  to  d^esignate  palm,  cocoa-nut,  shea,  and  nutmeg 
oils.  It  is  also  applied  to  certain  metallic  substances  which  have  an  oily  aspect  and  con- 
sistence resembling  melted  B. ; thus  we  have  B.  of  antimony,  bismuth,  zinc,  and  tin. — 
Butter  of  antimony  is  a thick,  dense,  oily  compound,  produced  by  acting  upon  the 
native  sulphuret  of  antimony  (SbSa)  by  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  (HCl)  and  heat, 
when  the  oily  chloride  of  antimony  (SbCh)  is  formed.  See  Antimony. 

Butterine,  a substitute  for  B.,  was  first  manufactured  in  France,  but  is  now 
iXtensively  produced  in  this  country.  It  is  composed  of  animal  fat,  amalgamated  with 
milk,  to  which  is  sometimes  added  a small  proportion  of  real  butter. 

BUTTER,  Rock,  a mineral  which  may  be  regarded  as  a variety  of  alum  (q.v.) — an  iron 
alum,  appearing  as  a pasty  exudation  from  rocks  that  contain  alum  or  its  constituents. 


231 


utter. 

Butterflj. 


particularly  alum-slate  and  other  schistose  rocks.  It  occurs  at  Hurlet  alum-work,  near 
Paisley,  Scotland,  and  in  a number  of  places  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  not  unlike 
JB.  in  color,  varying  from  yellowish  white  to  sulphur  yellow.  It  is  rather  greasy  to  the 
touch,  and  is  easily  broken  in  pieces. 

BUTTEECUP.  See  Ranunculus. 

BUTTERFIELD,  John,  1783-1869;  one  of  the  founders  of  the  express  business 
in  the  United  States.  Before  the  time  of  railroads  he  was  proprietor  of  many  impor- 
tant lines  of  stage  coaches,  especially  in  New  York  state. 

BUTTERFIELD,  William,  b.  1814;  an  English  architect  noted  as  a leader  of  the 
"‘Gothic  revival”  in  England.  His  work  has  been  chiefly  in  church  and  collegiate 
architecture. 

BUTTEEFISH.  See  Gunnel. 

BUTTERFLY,  the  common  English  name  of  all  the  diurnal  lepidopterous  (q.v.) 
insects,  corresponding  with  the  genus  papilio,  as  originally  defined  by  Linnaeus,  but 
forming  many  genera  in  the  most  recent  entomological  systems.  Butterflies  exhibit  a 
great  similarity  in  almost  all  respects  to  other  lepidopterous  insects,  the  common  charac- 
ters of  which  will  be  found  in  the  article  on  that  order;  but  are  distinguished  even 
more  than  the  rest  of  them  generally,  by  brilliancy  of  coloring,  which  in  butterflies  also 
belongs  to  the  under  as  well  as  the  upper  side  of  the  wings,  whilst  the  beauty  of  moths 
and  hawk-moths  appears  chiefly  on  the  upper  side.  Accordant  with  this  circumstance, 
is  the  further  peculiarity,  that  almost  all  butterflies,  when  at  rest,  usually  hold  their 
wings  erect,  the  under  side  being  thus  chiefly  exhibited;  whilst  the  other  lepidopterous 
insects,  when  at  rest,  hold  their  wings  in  a horizontal  or  somewhat  inclined  position, 
and  some  have  them  wrapped  round  the  body.  Butterflies  are  also  the  only  lepidopter- 
ous insects  which  have  no  spines,  bristles,  or  hooks  on  the  margins  of  their  wings,  by 
which  the  second  wing  on  each  side  can  be  attached  to  the  first,  but  both  when  %ing 
and  at  rest,  have  all  their  wings  quite  separate.  The  manner  in  which  the  scales  of  the 
wings  are  imbricated,  gives  those  of  butterflies  a smoother  appearance  than  those  of 
moths  and  hawk-moths.  The  antennae  of  butterflies  are  generally  simple,  slender,  and 
elongated,  and  terminated  by  a little  club.  Their  caterpillars  have  always  sixteen  feet 
<see  Caterpillar).  The  pupa  or  chrysalis  is  angular;  is  seldom  enveloped  in  a 
cocoon;  is  generally  suspended  by  the  tail,  by  means  of  a silky  substance,  often 
to  a leaf  or  twig,  but  is  sometimes  supported  by  bands  around  the  middle;  and  generally 
jexhibits  more  or  less  of  that  golden  coloring  from  which  both  the  names  aurelia  (Lat. 
-auruni)  and  chrysalis  (Gr.  chrysos)  are  derived. 

Butterflies  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world;  they  are  to  be  seen  during  the  sun- 
shine of  the  brief  summer  extracting  nectar  from  the  flowers  even  of  Greenland  and 
Spitzbergen,  but  they  are  most  numerous  in  the  warmest  regions;  where,  however, 
many  of  them  live  chiefly  in  the  shade  of  moist  foliage,  in  woods  and  jungles.  Dr. 
Hooker,  describing  the  scenery  on  the  banks  of  the  Great  Runjeet  in  the  Sikkin  Hima- 
laya, says  that  “by  far  the  most  striking  feature  consisted  in  the  amazing  quantity  of 
superb  butterflies,  large  tropical  swallow-tails,  black,  with  scarlet  or  yellow  eyes  on 
their  wings.  They  were  seen  everywhere,  sailing  majestically  through  the  still  hot  air, 
or  fluttering  from  one  scorching  rock  to  another,  and  especially  loving  to  settle  on  the 
damp  sand  of  the  river  edge,  where  they  sat  by  thousands,  with  erect  wings,  balancing 
themselves  with  a rocking  motion,  as  their  heavy  sails  inclined  them  to  one  side  or  the 
other,  resembling  a crowded  fleet  of  yachts  on  a calm  day.” 

Butterflies  possess  no  small  power  of  v/ing;  some  of  them,  indeed,  of  which  the 
wings  are  comparatively  thin  and  delicate,  are  inferior  in  this  respect,  and  have  a sort 
of  zigzag  flight ; but  others  soar  in  the  air  with  a steady  and  continuous  motion.  Short- 
lived as  they  are  all  generally  believed  to  be,  some  of  the  tropical  species  perform 
wonderful  migrations;  concerning  which,  however,  nothing  but  the  fact  is  yet  well 
known.  “ Frequently,”  says  sir  James  Emerson  Tennent  in  his  work  on  Ceylon,  “ the 
extraordinary  sight  presents  itself  of  flights  of  these  delicate  creatures,  generally  of  a 
white  or  pale  yellow  hue,  apparently  miles  in  breadth,  and  of  such  prodigious  extension 
as  to  occupy  hours  and  even  days  uninterruptedly  in  their  passage,  whence  coming  no 
one  knows,  whither  going  no  one  can  tell.” 

The  number  of  species  of  B.  is  very  great,  and  the  arrangement  of  them  has  been 
found  difficult,  chiefly  upon  account  of  the  great  similarity  in  all  important  respects 
i which  prevails  among  them  all.  They  are  divided,  however,  into  two  well-marked 
sections,  of  which  the  first  is  characterized  by  having  only  a single  pair  of  spurs  or 
spines  on  the  tihim  (or  fourth  joints  of  the  legs),  placed  at  their  lower  extremity;  whilst 
in  the  other  section,  the  tibiae  of  the  hinder  legs  have  two  pair  of  spurs,  one  pair  at  each 
extremity.  This  distinction,  seemingly  unimportant  in  itself,  is  accompanied  by  other 
differences.  The  second  section  of  butterflies  maybe  regarded  as  forming  a sort  of  con- 
necting  link  between  butterflies  and  hawk-moths.  A few  British  species  belong  to  it, 
but  the  species  are  generally  tropical,  and  some  of  them,  found  in  tropical  America,  are 
remarkable  for  their  rapidity  and  power  of  flight,  and  for  the  migrations  which  they 
perform,  besides  being  amongst  “the  most  splendid  insects  in  creation,”  a resplendent 
green,  inimitable  by  art,  relieving  the  velvet  black  of  their  wings,  and  varying  with 


Butterfly. 

Button. 


232 


every  change  of  light.  The  beautiful  iridescence  of  the  wings  of  these  and  many  other 
butterflies  is  owing  to  the  peculiar  position  of  the  scales. 

Some  groups  of  butterflies  are  remarkable  for  the  imperfect  development  of  the  first 
pair  of  legs,  so  that  they  are  generally  described  as  having  four  legs  instead  of  six. 

The  eggs  of  butterflies  are  d^eposited  on  the  plants,  the  leaves  of  which  are  to  supply  the 
food  of  the  caterpillars.  In  cold  and  temperate  climates,  the  eggs  deposited  in  autumn 
arenot  hatched  till  the  following  spring;  but  it  is  believed  that  many  species  produce 
several  broods  in  a year,  as  the  eggs  in  summer  may  be  hatched  in  a few  days.  The 
caterpillars  of  each  species  are  generally  confined  to  some  particular  kind  of  plant,  the 
leaves  of  which  they  devour;  their  ravages  are  well  known,  but  the  excessive  increase 
of  their  numbers  is  in  part  restrained  by  many  enemies,  and  by  none  more  than  by  the 
ichneumons  (q.v.)  and  other  insects,  which  deposit  their  eggs  in  them,  and  the  larvae  of 
which  feed  on  them.  An  account  of  B.  transformations  will  be  given  under  Insect 
Transformations. 

Butterflies  vary  in  size  from  less  than  an  inch  to  almost  a foot  across  the  expanded 
wings.  The  largest  species  are  tropical.  Some  of  the  species  are  very  widely  distrib- 
uted: Cynthia  cardni,  of  which  the  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  thistles,  is  found 
not  only  throughout  Europe,  but  in  Egypt,  Barbary,  Senegal,  Cape  Colony,  Madagas- 
car, China,  Java,  Australia,  Brazil,  and  North  America,  being,  in  fact,  one  "of  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  all  insects.  The  geographical  limits  of  other  species  appear  to  be' 
very  restricted.  The  diversity  of  coloring  is  almost  endless,  but  a prevalence  of  cer- 
tain hues,  or  of  certain  modes  of  the  disposal  of  them,  is  observable  throughout  large' 
groups.  The  caterpillars  of  many  species  are  variously  furnished  with  spines,  those  of" 
others — none  of  them  British — have  long  fleshy  prominences,  horny  at  the  tip,  probably 
intended  as  means  of  defense.  The  hinder  wings  of  many  butterflies  are  curiously 
prolonged  into  tail-like  appendages,  one  or  more  on  each  wing,  which  vary  in  form,, 
being  sometimes  long  andiinear,  sometimes  broad,  and  widening  towards  the  extremity.. 
These  are,  however,  little  seen  in  British  species. 

Butterflies  are  chiefly  known  to  us  as  objects  of  admiration  and  of  pleasing  contem- 
plation, enhancing  the  charms  of  the  most  delightful  weather,  and  always  associated 
with  the  most  lovely  scenes,  or — it  must  be  added — as  a cause  of  annoyance  and  vexa- 
tion by  the  ravages  of  their  caterpillar  young  in  our  fields  and  gardens.  There  is,  how- 
ever, one  small  species  {euplcea  humata)  which  affords  a supply  of  food  to  some  of  the- 
wretched  aborigines  of  Australia.  Butterflies  pf  this  species  congregate  in  such  vast, 
numbers  on  the  masses  of  granite  in  the  mountains,  that  they  are  collected  bjr 
simply  making  smothered  fires  under  the  rocks,  in  the  smoke  of  which  they  are  suffo- 
cated. Bushels  of  them  are  thus  procured,  and  they  are  baked  by  placing  them  on  the- 
heated  ground,  the  down  and  wings  removed,  and  the  bodies  made  into  cakes  which, 
resemble  lumps  of  fat.  The  months  of  Nov.,  Dec.,  and  Jan.  are  quite  a season  of  fes- 
tivity from  the  abundance  of  this  food. 

Brief  notices  of  a few  of  the  principal  kinds  of  B.  will  be  found  in  other  parts  oT 
this  work.  See  Cabbage  Butterfly,  Camberwell  Beauty,  Purple  Emperor,  etc. 

BUTTERFLY  FISH.  See  Blenny. 

BUTTERFLY  WEED,  or  Pleurisy  Root,  Asclepias  tuberosa,  see  Asclepias;  a plant 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  which  has  obtained  a considerable  reputa- 
tion for  the  medicinal  virtues  of  its  root.  The  root  is  large,  formed  of  irregular  tubera 
or  spindle-shaped  branches,  externally  yellowish  brown,  internally  white,  with  a some- 
what acrid  nauseous  taste  when  recent,  merely  bitter  when  dried.  It  yields  its  proper- 
ties to  boiling  water,  and  is  usually  administered  in  the  form  of  a decoction,  sometimes 
in  that  of  a powder.  It  is  diaphoretic  and  expectorant,  and  has  been  found  useful  in 
the  commencement  of  pulmonary  affections,  in  rheumatism,  and  in  dysentery. — The- 
stem  of  the  plant  is  erect  and  hairy,  with  spreading  branches;  the  leaves  oblongo-lanceo- 
late,  alternate,  hairy,  and  somewhat  crowded;  the  flowers  orange-yellow,  forming  numer- 
ous umbels. 

BUT'TERMILK  is  the  form  of  milk  from  which  the  butter  or  oily  matter  has  beem 
abstracted.  See  Butter.  B.  contains  the  caseine,  sugar,  and  salts  of  ordinary  milk, 
and  is  only  deficient  in  oily  matters.  It  is  therefore  nutritious,  and  is  largely  used  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland  as  an  article  of  food,  being  very  generally  partaken  of  wdth  por- 
ridge and  with  potatoes.  It  may  be  drunk  ad  libitum,  is  a very  agreeable,  cooling  bev- 
erage, and  is  therefore  useful  in  certain  febrile  and  inflammatory  conditions. 

BUTTERMILK  FALLS,  in  Le  Roy,  Genesee  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Oatka  creek,  which 
falls  over  a limestone  ledge  90  ft.  high.  The  same  name  is  given  to  a cascade  in  Bog; 
Meadow  creek,  near  West  Point,  N.  Y. 

BUTTERNUT,  or  White  Walnut,  Juglans  cinerea,  a large,  wide-spreading  Ameri- 
can tree,  with  nearly  smooth  bark,  and  large  leaves.  The  nuts  are  well-known,  and 
form  agreeable  food  when  dried;  when  taken  green  and  pickled  they  are  prized  for  the- 
table.  Sugar  can  be  made  from  the  sap,  but  it  is  much  inferior  to  that  made  from, 
maple.  The  timber  is  useful  for  coach  and  cabinet  work,  posts,  rails,  and  wooden  bowls.. 

BUTTER  TREE,  a name  given  to  several  tropical  trees,  of  different  natural  orders 
the  fruits  of  which  yield  concrete  fixed  oils,  having  the  appearance  and  used  for  the  pur- 


233 


Butterfly. 

Button. 


:poBes  of  butter.  The  B.  trees  of  India  and  Africa  belong  to  the  genus  hasda  (q.v.),  of 
the  natural  order  sapotacece;  the  B.  trees  of  Guiana  and  Brazil  to  the  genus  caryocar 
(q.v,),  of  the  natural  order  rhizoholacecB.  The  oil-palms  (q.v.),  and  the  cocos  butyracea 
<see  Cocoa  Nut),  may  also  be  regarded  as  B.  trees,  although  not  generally  receiving 
that  name. 

BUTTERWORT,  Pinguicula,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  leniibulariaceos 
■(q.v.),  distinguished  by  a two-lipped  calyx,  the  upper  lip  trifid,  the  lower  bifid,  a spurred 
corolla,  two-lipped  and  gaping,  the  upper  lip  arched ; and  a globose  germen.  The  spe- 
cies are  small  plants  with  only  radical  leaves,  found  in  the  bogs  and  marshes  of  different 
quarters  of  the  world.  Some  of  them  possess  much  beauty  when  in  flower,  particularly 
P.  grandijlora,  a rare  native  of  the  s.  of  Fi-ance  and  of  Ireland.  The  common  B.  (P. 
'Gulgaris)  is  abundant  in  the  northern  parts  of  Britain  and  of  Europe.  It  has  the  power 
of  coagulating  milk.  The  Laplanders  pour  reindeer  milk,  warm  from  the  animal,  upon 
the  leaves  of  this  plant,  instantly  strain  it,  and  set  it  aside  for  two  or  three  days,  till  it 
acquires  the  consistence  of  cream,  and  some  degree  of  acidity,  when  it  is  with  them  a 
favorite  article  of  food.  A little  of  it  in  this  state  will  produce  the  same  effect  on  warm 
reindeer  milk  which  was  at  first  produced  by  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  origin  of  the 
English  name  B.  is  sometimes  referred  to  the  power  of  coagulating  milk,  sometimes  to 
the  peculiar  sliminess  of  the  leaves. 

BUTTISHOLZ,  a village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Lucerne,  and  11  m.  n.w.  from 
the  city  of  that  name.  Near  to  B.  is  a large  mound  called  the  English  Barrow,  because 
here  are  buried  3000  Englishmen,  followers  of  De  Coucy,  son-in-law  of  Edward  III.  of 
England,  who,  while  devastating  the  cantons,  were  defeated  and  killed  by  Swiss  peasants 
in  1376. 

BUTTMANN,  Philipp  Karl,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  philologists  of  modern 
times,  was  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1764,  and  studied  at  Gottingen  under  Heyne. 
He  became,  in  1789,  assistant  in  the  royal  library  in  Berlin,  and  rose  successively  to  be 
secretary  and  librarian  (1811).  He  held  at  the  same  time  (1800-8)  a professorship  in  the 
Joachimsthal  gymnasium  in  Berlin,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  for  a professorship 
in  the  newly  founded  university  of  that  city.  He  died  21st  June,  1829.  B.  is  best  known 
by  his  Greek  grammars,  the  Griech.  Qrammatik  (Berl.  1792;  21st  ed.  by  his  son,  Alexander 
Buttmann,  1863),  and  an  abridgment  of  it,  Griech.  Schulgram.  (14th  ed.  1862);  both  have 
been  translated  into  English.  His  Lexilogus  (translated  by  Fishlake)  and  Ausfuhrliche 
Gi'iech.  Sprachlehre,  or  larger  Greek  grammar,  which  have  gone  through  several  editions, 
are  designed  for  scholars.  In  his  Mythologus,  he  has  collected  his  essays  on  the  myths  of 
the  ancients. 

BUTTON.  The  term  B.  is  applied  to  the  well-known  appendages  to  dress  used  for 
fastening  or  for  ornament;  and  to  a sort  of  oblong  latch  moving  upon  a pivot  in  the  mid- 
dle, used  by  joiners  and  cabinet-makers  for  fastening  the  lids  of  boxes,  doors  of  presses, 
€tc.  The  mass  of  fused  metal  found  at  the  bottom  of  a crucible  or  cupel,  after  fusing  or 
assaying,  is  also  technichally  called  a button. 

The  history  of  button-making  is  in  many  ways  a curious  one.  Dating  no  further 
back  as  a trade  of  any  importance  than  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  it  has  undergone  several 
extraordinary  changes,  produced  chiefly  by  the  ever-varying  fashions  in  dress,  but  also 
by  some  simple,  though  ingenious  inventions,  as  well  as  by  foreign  competition.  In 
Great  Britain,  Birmingham  has  ahvays  been  the  principal  seat  of  the  button  manufacture. 
What  has  been  called  the  “Augustan  age”  of  button-making  in  that  city  included  the 
latter  portion  of  last  and  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  when  even  tradesmen 
wore  coats  “loaded  with  innumerable  gilt  buttons,”  and  when  employers  on  a moderate 
scale  in  this  manufacture  were  making  incomes  of  from  £2000  to  £3000  a year,  and  their 
workmen  from  £2  to  £4  per  week.  Early  in  the  present  century,  Mr.  B.  Sanders  intro- 
duced the  cloth-covered  button,  which  initiated  the  change  from  those  made  of  metal, 
and  by  which  he  rapidly  made  a fortune.  His  son,  in  1825,  effected  the  apparently  trivial 
but  really  ingenious  improvement  of  making  it  with  a canvas  tuft  instead  of  a metal 
shank,  by  which  both  the  button-holes  and  the  garment  itself  were  less  subject  to  injury. 
This  kind  of  button  had  an  enormous  sale,  and  is  still  much  used.  A further  alteration 
was  made  on  it  by  Mr.  W.  Elliott,  who  patented,  in  1837,  a mode  of  covering  the  button 
with  silk,  having  a pattern  in  the  center,  the  demand  for  which  was  at  one  time  so  great, 
that  sixty  looms  were  employed  in  London  in  making  the  special  material  required  for 
them.  In  1841,  the  old  Dorsetshire  wire  and  thread  button  was  replaced  by  the  “three- 
fold linen  button,”  still  considered  by  housewives  indispensable  for  under-clothing,  since 
neither  washing  nor  mangling  destroys  it.  It  is  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Mr.  H.  Jef- 
fries, of  Birmingham,  but  was  patented  by  Mr.  J.  Aston,  and  continues  to  be  made  in 
vast  numbers.  A single  English  firm  recently  consumed  in  one  year  for  this  kind  of 
button,  63,000  yards  of  cloth  and  34  tons  of  metal,  upon  which  250  hands  were  employed. 

Turning  now  to  other  materials  which  have  had  a great  “success”  in  their  day,  we 
find  that  buttons  made  of  hoof,  under  the  name  of  “horn  buttons,”  as  introduced  nearly 
40  years  ago  by  Mons.  E.  Bassot  of  Paris,  were  for  a good  many  years  most  extensively 
manufactured  at  Birmingham,  and  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  hoof  buttons  the 
trade  is  now  comparatively  insignificant,  and  the  French  makers  possess  the  market  for 
what  of  it  remains.  Tweed  clothing  and  fabrics  in  imitation  of  it  have,  through  the 


Button. 

Butyric. 


234 


necessity  of  matching  (heir  various  colors,  led  to  the  buttons  for  them  being  made  of  a. 
rather  uncommon  material,  namely,  vegetable  ivory  (q.v.).  This  substance,  which  is 
the  fruit  of  a palm,  somewhat  resembles  true  ivory,  but  is  rather  softer.  It  can  be  read- 
ily turned  in  the  lathe,  and  dyed  of  various  colors.  More  than  twenty  tons  of  it,  valued 
at  from  £25  to  £30  per  ton,  are  weekly  consumed  in  Birmingham  in  making  buttons,  and 
it  is  also  largely  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  France  and  Germany. 

What  we  have  hitherto  said  refers  principally  to  what  manufacturers  call  the  revolu- 
tions 6f  the  trade;  but  there  are  other  important  branches  which  have  been  less  subject 
to  change,  chief  among  these  being  the  so-called  “pearl  buttons” — that  is,  buttons  made 
of  mother-of-pearl  shells.  This  has  long  been  a leading  branch,  and  employs  a greater 
number  hands  than  any  other.  Metal  buttons,  too,  although  not  relatively  so  important 
as  formerly,  have  never  ceased  to  form  a prominent  section  of  the  trade.  They  are  a 
numerous  class,  and  Include  all  sorts  for  uniforms,  trouser  buttons,  fancy  buttons  which 
are  gilt,  stamped,  chased,  or  enameled,  and  many  cheap  varieties  in  iron  and  other  metals 
for  export.  Numerous  kinds  of  composite  buttons  are  also  partly  composed  of  metal. 
Glass  buttons  form  another  interesting  branch,  carried  on  to  a considerable  extent  in 
Birmingham,  but  more  largely  in  Bohemia  and  Paris;  so  also  do  porcelain  buttons, 
which,  although  an  English  invention,  are  now  almost  exclusively  made  in  France. 
Vulcanite  (q.v.)  buttons  have. been  extensively  made  in  the  United  States.  As  to  other 
materials,  a Birmingham  manufacturer  says  it  were  easy  to  write  out  a long  list  from 
which  buttons  have  been  made,  but  very  difficult  to  name  one  from  which  they  have  not 
been  made. 

We  shall  now  describe  briefly  some  of  the  processes  in  button-making,  beginning  with 
metal  buttons.  Circular  disks,  called  “ blanks,”  are  first  cut  out  of  sheet  brass  or  other 
metal  by  means  of  fly-presses,  usually  worked  by  girls.  The  fly-press  consists  of  a ver- 
tical iron  screw  with  a triple  thread,  to  which  screw  is  attached  a horizontal  arm,  bend- 
ing downwards  at  the  end  to  form  a handle.  A punch  attached  to  the  press  rises  and 
falls  with  the  motion  of  this  handle,  and  rapidly  cuts  out  the  blanks.  When  large 
quantities  of  one  pattern  are  required,  a self-feeding,  self-acting  machine  is  used,  which 
cuts  out  the  blanks  in  rows  at  one  blow,  turning  them  out  at  the  rate  of  2000  gross  per 
day.  After  being  annealed,  the  blanks  are  next  made  convex  by  a blow  from  a stamp. 
The  shanks  are  formed  of  wire  by  a separate  machine,  which  cuts  off  pieces,  and  bends- 
them  into  loops  of  the  required  form.  When  these  are  soldered  on,  the  buttons  are 
dressed  on  a lathe.  They  are  then  gilded  and  burnished;  some,  however,  are  only 
lackered;  and  some,  though  gilt,  are  finished  in  a dead  or  frosted  style. — “ Shell”  but- 
tons are  those  with  a convex  face,  a flat  or  convex  back,  and  hollow.  These  are  made 
of  two  blanks,  that  forming  the  face  being  larger  than  the  back  to  which  the  shank  is- 
attached.  These  blanks  are  pressed  into  the  required  shape  by  dies  worked  in  the  fly- 
press,  and  then,  by  another  die,  the  edge  of  the  larger  blank  is  lapped  over  the  smaller, 
and  thus  attached  without  soldering.  Livery  and  other  buttons  having  a device  in 
strong  relief  are  stamped  by  a die  placed  in  a stamping-press.  See  Stamping  op' 
Metals. 

In  making  covered  buttons,  a metal  blank  is  punched,  and  its  edge  is  turned  up  by 
a die  in  a fly-press;  then  a smaller  metal  blank  is  punched  with  a hole  in  the  middle, 
and  of  such  size,  that,  when  flat,  it  shall  fit  into  the  upturned  edge  of  the  first;  this  per- 
forated blank,  or  collet,  is  next  pressed  into  a concave  or  dished  shape.  Two  cloth 
blanks — the  face  one  of  silk,  and  the  other  for  the  tuft  of  thin  canvas — are  now  punched, 
one  considerably  larger  than  the  front  metal  blank,  the  other  somewhat  smaller;  the- 
larger  cloth  blank  is  laid  upon  the  flat  face  of  the  metal  blank,  which  is  filled  with  a 
disk  of  mill-board  or  paper,  and  its  edges  turned  over;  these  edges  are  covered  by  the 
smaller  cloth,  and  then  the  collet  laid  upon  them  with  its  concavity  towards  the  cloth. 
They  are  now  all  pressed  together  in  a sort  of  die  or  mold,  by  which  means  the  collet 
is  flattened  and  spread  out,  while  the  upturned  edge  of  the  metal  blank  is  turned  forci- 
bly over  it,  thus  securing  the  collet,  and  with  it  the  cloth  which  is  strained  tightly  on 
the  face,  and  its  edges  bound  between  the  blank  and  the  collet,  so  that  the  whole  is 
firmly  held  together.  The  linen-covered  button  for  underclothing,  above  referred  to,  is 
formed  of  a single  brass  ring  with  a groove  or  canal  on  one  face.  Into  this  the  edges  of 
the  two  round  linen  blanks  are  placed,  so  that  when  the  edges  of  the  groove  are  pressed 
firmly  down,  the  button  is  entirely  covered  wuth  linen. 

Buttons  with  holes,  technically  called  “four-holes,”  “three-holes,”  and  “two-holes,” 
when  of  pearl-shell,  wood,  bone,  or  ivory,  are  cut  with  a tubular  saw,  turned  separately 
in  a lathe,  and  drilled.  When  of  metal,  the  blanks  are  punched,  then  stamped  in  dies 
to  the  required  form;  the  holes  are  punched,  and  “rymered,”  to  round  the  sharp  edges 
that  would  otherwise  cut  the  thread. — Glass  buttons  are  most  largel}’’  made  by  taking  a 
rod  of  glass  of  any  color,  softening  the  end  by  heat,  and  pressing  it  into  a mold,  each 
half  of  which  is  fixed  to  one  limb  of  a pair  of  pincers.  The  shank  is  placed  into  a hole- 
in  the  mold  before  the  melted  glass  is  inserted. 

According  to  an  estimate  published  a few  years  ago  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Turner  of  Birming- 
ham, to  whose  paper  we  have  been  much  indebted,  the  number  of  artisans  employed  in 
the  button  manufactures  of  that  city  was  then  as  follows : 


235 


Button. 

Butyric. 


Making  metal  buttons  of  all  kinds 1200 

“ covered  buttons,  including  linen 1500 

“ pearl  buttons 2000 

“ vegetable  ivory  buttons 700 

“ other  kinds,  as  glass,  horn,  bone,  wood,  etc 600 

Total 6000 


Probably  about  1000  more  are  employed  in  London  and  elsewhere  in  Great  Britain,  and 
a,  large  proportion  of  the  whole  are  females.  At  that  time,  which  was  before  the  war 
with  Germany,  about  20,000  persons  were  employed  in  France,  showing  how  much  more 
largely  the  button  industry  has  been  developed  in  that  country.  Germany  is  a still 

freater  producer,  the  cheaper  kinds  of  fancy  buttons  made  in  the  Rhenish  provinces  of 
*russia,  the  glass  buttons  of  Bohemia,  and  the  pearl  buttons  of  Vienna  being  more 
extensively  exported  than  those  of  any  other  country.  Buttons  of  various  kinds  are 
made  on  a large  scale  in  the  United  States,  but  that  country  still  imports  them  largely 
from  Europe. 

BUTTON,  Sir  Thomas,  the  successor  of  sir  Henry  Hudson  in  the  exploration  of  the 
n.e.  coast  of  America.  In  1612-13,  he  was  frozen  in  and  wintered  on  the  w.  coast  of 
Hudson’s  bay.  The  next  summer  he  explored  all  the  coasts  of  the  bay,  returning  to 
England  in  the  autumn. 

BUTTONWOOD.  See  Plane. 

BUTTRESS  (old  Eng.  hotress;  Fr.  luttee),  a projection  for  the  purpose  of  giving  addi- 
tional support  or  strength  to  a wall.  In  the  classical  style,  there  were  no  buttresses, 
their  place  being,  to  a certain  extent,  supplied  by  pilasters,  antae,  etc.  The  different 
stages  of  Gothic  architecture  are  marked  hy  the  form  of  buttresses  employed,  almost  as 
distinctly  as  by  the  form  of  the  arch.  The  Norman  B.  was  broad,  often  semicircular, 
sometimes  dying  into  the  wall  at  the  top,  and  never  projecting  from  it  to  any  great 
extent.  Early  English  buttresses  project  much  more  boldly,  and  are  considerably  nar- 
rower, than  the  Norman.  They  are  frequently  broken  into  stages,  which  diminish  in 
size  as  they  ascend.  In  the  decorated  style,  this  division  into  stages  is  almost  invaria- 
ble, the  B.  being  often  supplied  with  niches  terminating  in  pinnacles,  and  very  highly 
ornamented  with  carving,  statues,  etc.  In  the  perpendicular  style,  they  retain  the  forms 
which  had  been  introduced  during  the  decorated  period,  the  ornamentation,  of  course, 
being  varied  to  suit  the  character  of  the  style.  Flying  buttresses — i.e.,  buttresses  in  the 
form  of  a sloping  arch,  connecting  the  upper  and  central  portions  of  an  arched  structure 
with  the  vertical  buttresses  of  the  outer  walls — were  introduced  into  England  at  the 
period  of  the  early  English,  though  they  existed  on  the  continent  previously,  where 
they  continued  to  be  used  to  a greater  extent.  They  were  also  very  common  in  Scot- 
land. In  England,  they  are  generally  called  arch -buttresses. 

BUTTS,  a CO.  in  central  Georgia,  on  the  Ockmulgee;  240  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  8311 — 4034 
colored.  The  surface  is  uneven,  and  soil  fertile.  Productions,  corn,  cotton,  and  sweet 
potatoes.  Co.  seat,  Jackson. 

BUTUA  ROOT.  See  Cissampelos. 

BUTY'RIC  ACID  may  be  best  obtained  by  saponifying  butter  with  potash,  then  adding 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  till  an  acid  reaction  is  attained,  and  distilling  about  one  half  of  the 
mixture,  adding  a little  water,  and  continuing  the  distillation  till  the  residue  is  not  acid. 
B.  A.  may  also  be  obtained  by  allowing  a small  quantity  of  milk-curd  to  act  upon  a solu- 
tion of  sugar  at  a temperature  of  77°  to  86°,  which  excites  a peculiar  process  of  fermen- 
tation resulting  in  the  formation  of  butyric  acid.  Some  chalk  is  added  to  take  up  the 
B.  A.  whenever  produced,  and  the  better  proportions  to  employ  are  100  sugar,  8 to  10 
fresh  curd,  and  50  chalk,  with  sufficient  water  to  make  a thin  liquid.  The  butyrate  of 
lirne  is  left  in  the  vessel,  and  on  acting  upon  that  by  dilute  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric 
acid,  and  redistilling,  the  free  B.  A,  passes  over  in  vapor,  and  is  condensed.  B.  A.  is  a 
transparent,  thin,  oily  liquid,  with  a most  persistent  rancid  odor.  It  is  mixable  in  all 
proportions  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  oil  of  vitriol ; has  the  specific  gravity  973  (water 
being  1000),  boils  at  314°;  though  it  volatilizes  at  ordinary  temperatures,  as  appears  from 
the  rancid  odor  of  its  vapor.  Its  chemical  symbol  is  H0,C8H703,  and  it  combines  with 
bases,  such  as  lime,  soda,  etc.,  to  form  salts. 

BUTYRIC  ETHER,  or  PmE-APPLE  Oil,  is  an  exceedingly  fragrant  oil  obtained  by 
distilling  butyric  acid  (or  the  butyrate  of  lime),  alcohol,  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  mate- 
rial which  passes  over  is  the  B.  E,,  and  it  is  generally  mixed  with  alcohol,  and  sold  in 
commerce  as  artificial  pine-apple  oil.  It  possesses  the  same  very  pleasant  flavor  which 
belongs  to  pine-apples,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  pine-apples  owe  their  flavor  to  the 
presence  of  natural  butyric  ether.  The  artifleial  variety  is  now  extensively  used  for 
flavoring  confections,  as  pine-apple  drops,  for  sophisticating  bad  rum,  and  for  flavoring 
custards,  ices,  and  creams,  as  also  an  acidulated  drink  or  lemonade  named  pine-apple 
ale.  B.  E.  alone  cannot  be  used  in  perfumery  for  handkerchief  use,  as,  when  inhaled  in 
even  small  quantity,  it  tends  to  cause  irritation  of  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs  and  intense 
beadache,  but  it  is  employed  as  one  material  in  the  manufacture  of  compound  perfumes. 


Baxar. 

Buzzard. 


236 


It  is  composed  of  ordinary  ether  (C4H5O)  and  butyric  acid  (CbHtOs-I-HO),  and  its  strict 
chemical  name  and  symbol  is  the  butyrate  of  the  oxide  of  ethyl  (C4H60,C8H703).  It  is 
remarkable  that  a substance  possessing  such  a disagreeable  odor  as  butyric  acid  (that  of 
rancid  butter)  should  be  capable  of  forming,  in  part  at  least,  a substance  with  such  a 
pleasant  flavor  as  artiflcial  pine-apple  oil. 

BUXAR',,  a t.  of  Shahabad,  in  Bahar,  presidency  of  Bengal,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ganges.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  the  scene  of  a victory  gained  in  1764 
by  sir  Hector  Munro.  At  the  head  of  7072  men,  of  whom  only  857  were  Europeans, 
he  defeated  a native  army  of  40,000,  and  captured  133  guns.  B.  is  62  m.  n.e.  of  Bena- 
res, and  398  n.w.  of  Calcutta.  Pop.  ’71,  13,446. 

BUXBAU'MIA,  a genus  of  mosses,  of  which  only  one  species  is  known,  B.  aphylla,. 
a very  rare  British  plant,  remarkable  for  its  apparent  want  of  leaves;  the  whole  plant 
above  ground  seeming  to  consist  of  a little  conical  bulb,  with  minute  scales,  which 
are,  however,  really  its  leaves. 

BUX'TON,  a t.  in  Derbyshire,  33  m.  n.w.  of  Derby.  It  lies  900  ft.  above  the  sea,  in^ 
a deep  valley,  surrounded  by  hills  and  moors,  which  have  been  tastefully  planted ; the 
only  approach  being  by  a narrow  ravine,  by  which  the  Wye  flows  into  the  Derwent. 
The  new  part  of  the  town  is  much  under  the  level  of  the  old.  Five  m.  to  the  e.  of 
B.  is  Chee  Tor,  a perpendicular  limestone  rock,  rising  to  a height  of  between  300' 
and  400  ft.  from  the  Wye.  B.  has,  for  300  years,  been  famous  for  its  calcareous 
springs,  tepid  (82°  F.),  and  cold  (discharging  120  gallons  of  water  per  minute),  audits 
chalybeate  springs.  It  is  visited  annually,  from  June  to  October,  by  12,000  to  14,000 
persons,  the  waters  being  taken  for  indigestion,  gout,  rheumatism,  and  nervous  and 
cutaneous  diseases.  Nearly  5000  strangers  can  be  accommodated  at  one  time.  There  is 
an  institution,  called  the  Devonshire  hospital,  containing  100  beds,  supported  by  sub- 
scription, where  nearly  1000  patients  are  annually  boarded  and  lodged  free  of  charge. 
The  baths  and  public  w^alks  are  numerous.  Much  of  the  splendor  of  B.  is  due  to  the- 
dukes  of  Devonshire,  one  of  whom,  in  the  last  century,  at  the  cost  of  £120,000, 
erected  an  immense  three-storied  pile  of  buildings  of  gritstone,  called  the  Crescent,  a 
curve  of  200  ft.,  with  wings  of  58  feet.  It  includes  several  hotels,  a library,  assem- 
bly rooms,  etc.  Near  B.  is  the  Diamond  hill,  famous  for  its  crystals;  and  Poole’s, 
hole,  a stalactitic  cavern  560  yards  long.  The  Romans  had  baths  here.  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  resided  for  some  time  at  B.,  when  in  the  custody  of  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury. 
B.  is  approached  by  railway  both  from  n.  and  s. ; and  the  baths,  which  were- 
rebuilt  some  years  ago,  are  considered  among  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  town,  which, 
in  1871  had  a population  of  3717,  is  rapidly  increasing.  Four  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished. 

BUXTON,  Jedidiah,  an  English  prodigy  of  skill  in  numbers,  b.  1704,  and  lived 
about  70  years.  Though  the  son  of  a schoolmaster  and  grandson  of  a vicar,  B.’s  educa- 
tion was  so  neglected  that  he  could  not  write,  nor  was  he  at  an  early  period  remarkable 
for  knowledge  of  numbers.  He  never  could  tell  how  his  singular  power  came,  or  how 
he  used  it;  but  it  was  observed  that  when  “figuring”  his  attention  was  withdrawn  from 
all  external  objects.  He  worked  out  every  question  by  his  own  methods,  without  external 
aid,  and  without  understanding  the  common  rules  of  arithmetic.  He  would  stride  over 
a piece  of  land  and  tell  the  contents  to  almost  exact  measure.  In  this  manner  he  measured 
the  whole  estate  of  Clinton,  some  thousands  of  acres,  giving  not  only  the  acres  but  even 
the  square  inches.  Then  for  his  own  amusement,  he  reduced  the  whole  to  square  hair- 
breadths, on  the  base  of  48  hairs  to  a lineal  inch.  His  memory  was  such  that  he  could 
stop  in  the  midst  of  an  abstruse  calculation,  and  a week  or  even  a month  later  resume  it 
where  he  had  left  off.  This  mania  for  figures  shut  him  out  from  all  other  knowledge,  and 
on  returning  from  church  it  did  not  appear  that  he  had  brought  away  a sentence  that  had 
been  given  out.  His  faculty  was  tested  before  the  royal  society,  where  he  was  presented 
with  a gratuity.  While  in  London  he  was  taken  to  see  Richard  HI.,  but  his  only  enjoy- 
ment was  in  counting  the  number  of  words  spoken  by  Garrick.  He  would  easily  count 
the  steps  of  a company  of  dancers,  but  admitted  that  the  sounds  given  out  by  a number 
of  musical  instruments  perplexed  him  beyond  measure. 

BUXTON,  Sir  Thomas  Fowell,  a man  of  singular  earnestness  and  force  of  character,, 
belonging  to  the  class  termed  “ philanthropists,”  was  b.  in  1786  at  Earl’s  Colne,  Essex. 
The  eldest  son  of  a wealthy  family,  and  early  deprived  of  paternal  guidance,  his  youth 
was  distinguished  chiefly  by  a strong  development  of  animal  energy,  natural  enough  to 
a young  Englishman  whose  full  stature  exceeded  6 ft.  4 inches.  At  the  university  of 
Dublin,  his  mind  at  length  asserted  its  claims,  and  the  new  consciousness  of  needing  to 
raise  the  family  fortunes  animated  him  to  extraordinary  efforts.  His  preparatory  educa- 
tion had  been  almost  thrown  away,  but  at  21  he  left  the  university  its  most  distinguished 
graduate.  In  that  year  he  married  a sister  of  the  celebrated  Mrs.  Fry,  and  entered 
business  as  a brewer,  with  an  energy  which  in  due  time  was  crowned  with  splendid 
prosperity.  His  warm  religious  and  moral  impulses  soon  brought  him  prominently  for- 
ward as  an  advocate  of  philanthropic  interests.  Prison  discipline  formed  one  of  the 
earliest  subjects  of  his  efforts.  In  1818,  he  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Wey- 
mouth, which  he  continued  to  represent  for  about  20  years,  taking  a prominent  part  in 


237 


Bazar. 

Buzzard. 


cyery  debate  on  such  questions  as  the  amelioration  of  criminal  law  and  of  prison  disci- 
pline, widow-burning  and  slave  emancipation . The  latter,  in  particular,  engrossed  a large 
share  of  his  activity  for  many  years,  and  no  man  on  that  side  displayed  more  indomitable 
zeal  and  firmness  in  its  advocacy.  In  1837,  he  was  rejected  by  his  constituency,  and 
refused  ever  after  to  stand  for  a borough.  His  philanthropic  labors,  however,  terminated 
only  with  his  life.  In  1840,  he  received  the  well-merited  distinction  of  a baronetcy.  He 
died  on  19th  Feb.,  1845.  Memoirs  of  Sir  T.  Fowell  B. 

BUXTORF,  Johann,  a celebrated  orientalist,  was  b.  25th  Dec.,  1564,  at  Kamen,  in 
Westphalia;  studied  at  Marburg,  Herborn,  Basel,  and  Geneva.  After  traveling  through 
Germany  and  Switzerland,  he  settled  at  Basel,  where  he  became  professor  of  Hebrew  in 
1591.  He  died  of  the  plague,  13th  Sept.,  1629.  In  a knowledge  of  rabbinical  literature, 
he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries.  The  two  works  which  prove  his  extensive  acquaint- 
ance with  this  recondite  branch  of  theological  study,  are  his  Biblia  Hebraica  llahbinica 
(Basel,  1618-19),  and  his  Tiberias  seu  Gommentarius  Masorethicus  (Basel,  1620).  The  most 
useful  of  his  grammatical  works  is  the  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum  (Basel,  1607). 

BUXTORF,  Johann,  the  son  of  the  former,  was  b.  at  Basel,  13th  Aug.,  1599,  and 
displayed  at  an  early  period  a decided  predilection  for  the  same  studies  with  his  father. 
At  five  years  of  age— according  to  his  rather  credulous  biographers— he  could  read  Ger- 
man, Latin,  and  Hebrew.  To  perfect  his  knowledge  of  these  tongues,  he  visited  Holland, 
France,  and  Germany;  and  in  1630  was  appointed  to  succeed  his  father  in  the  chair  of 
Hebrew  at  Basel,  where  he  died  16th  Aug.,  1664.  Besides  his  Lexicon  Chaldaicum  et 
Synacum  (Basel,  1622),  and  a work  of  Maimonides,  entitled  More  Nevochim  (Basel,  1629), 
which  is  an  exposition  of  obscure  passages  of  the  Old  Testament,  he  published  from  the 
MSS.  of  his  father  a Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  Talmudicum,  et  Babbinicum  (Basel,  1639),  and 
Goncordantm  Bibliorum  Hebraicorum  (Basel,  1632). 

BUX'US.  See  Box. 

BUYING  OF  FLEAS  by  lawyers  is  prohibited  by  an  old  Scotch  act  passed  in  1594.  It 
is  explained  under  the  English  term  champarty,  to  which  it  is  analogous. 

BUYUKDEREH,  a beautiful  suburb  of  Constantinople,  from  which  it  is  a few  miles 
distant,  situated  on  the  Bosporus,  in  the  midst  of  the  most  charming  scenery.  It  forrns 
the  summer  residence  of  many  of  the  Christian  ambassadors,  some  of  whom  have  splendid 
mansions  here. 

BUZZARD,  Buteo,  a genus  of  accipitres  (q.v.),  or  birds  of  prey,  of  the  iiMmXj  falcon- 
idoe,  having  a rather  small  and  weak  bill,  which  bends  from  the  base,  and  is  not  notched, 
as  in  falcons.  The  legs  are  short  and  strong,  the  tarsi  covered  with  scales  or  with 
feathers,  the  toes  short,  and  the  claws  strong.  Buzzards  may  be  regarded  as  an  inferior 
kind  of  eagles;  they  do  not  possess  courage  equal  to  that  of  eagles  and  falcons,  nor 
equal  strength  of  bill  or  claws.  They  are  large  birds ; the  common  B.  (B.  rulgaris) 
measuring  almost  4 ft.  from  tip  to  tip  of  its  outstretched  wings.  It  is  a bird  still  pretty 
common  in  Britain,  although  much  less  so  than  it  formerly  was.  It  is  subject  to  varia- 
tions of  plumage;  the  prevailing  color  is  brown,  with  a considerable  mixture  of  black 
on  the  upper  parts,  and  of  white  or  grayish- white  on  the  under.  It  is  sluggish  and 
inactive,  in  comparison  with  many  other  birds  of  the  same  family;  is  usually  slow  in 
its  flight,  and  often  sits  long  on  a tree,  watching  for  prey,  which,  when  it  perceives,  it 
glides  silently  into  the  air,  and  sweeping  rapidly  down,  seizes  it  in  its  claws.  This  B. 
is  plentiful  in  all  the  wooded  parts  of  Europe;  it  is  found  also  in  the  n.  of  Africa,  and 
is  known  to  exist  in  the  western  parts  of  Asia;  but  it  is  doubtful  how  far  it  extends  over 
that  continent,  a distinct  although  very  similar  species  occurring  in  the  Himalaya  moun- 
tains. The  common  B.  is,  however,  a North  American  bird.  Tame  female  buzzards 
have  been  known  in  several  instances  to  exhibit  so  strong  a propensity  for  incubation, 
and  the  rearing  of  young,  at  the  proper  season,  that  they  have  hatched  hens’  eggs  and 
brought  up  the  chickens,  although  if  chickens  not  of  their  own  hatching  were  brought 
within  their  reach,  they  devoured  them.  Meat  given  to  the  B.  nurse  was  carefully 
divided  among  her  nurslings,  but  they  found  out  by  their  own  instincts  the  use  of  grain 
and  other  vegetable  food. — The  rough-legged  B.  {B.  lagopus)  is  very  similar  to  the  com- 
mon B.,  but  is  at  once  distinguished  by  having  the  tarsi  feathered  to  the  toes,  whilst  in 
the  common  B.  they  are  covered  with  scales.  It  is  a rarer  British  bird,  yet  not  of  unfre- 
quent occurrence ; it  is  very  widely  diffused,  being  found  in  the  old  world  from  Lapland 
to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  equally  common  in  North  America.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently to  be  seen  in  marshy  districts,  and  often  skimming  over  marshes,  where  it 
makes  prey  of  frogs. — The  red-tailed  hawk  of  North  America  is  a species  of  B.  (buteo 
borealis).  It  is  in  very  bad  repute  among  American  farmers  and  housewives  for  its  fre- 
quent invasion  of  poultry -yards,  from  which  it  has  acquired  the  name  of  hen-hawk. — 
Several  other  species  of  B.  appear  to  be  limited  to  particular  parts  of  the  world,  asJwfeo 
jackal — so  called  from  the  resemblance  of  its  voice  to  that  of  the  jackal — to  s.  Africa, 
and  B.  melanosternon  to  Australia.  The  Australian  species  has  the  head,  chest,  and 
center  of  the  belly  deep  black.  The  honey-buzzards  (q.v.)  belong  to  a different  genus, 
although  nearly  allied  to  the  true  buzzards,  as  are  also  the  harriers  (q.v.),  of  which  the 
most  common  British  species,  the  marsh  harrier,  is  sometimes  called  the  moor  buzzard.— 
Bald  B.  is  the  name  of  the  oscrey  (q.v.). 


Buzzards. 

Byron. 


238 


BUZZARD’S  on  the  s.  coast  of  Massachusetts,  about  30  m.  long  by  7 wide; 

sheltered  from  the  ocean  by  the  Elizabeth  islands  and  Vineyard  sound.  In  the  bay  are 
the  harbors  of  New  Bedford,  Wareham,  Sippican,  Fairhaven,  and  Mattapoiset. 

BY-BIDDING,  at  auctions  where  the  bidder  may  be  employed  by  the  owner,  and 
really  bidding  to  enhance  the  price,  not  meaning  to  purchase.  This  form  is  unlawful; 
but  bidding  merely  to  prevent  the  sale  of  property  below  its  actual  value  is  not  so  con- 
sidered, 

BYBLOS,  an  ancient  city  of  Phenicia,  now  called  Jubei’l,  situated  at  the  base  of  the 
lower  range  of  the  Libanus,  about  halfjway  between  Tripoli  and  Beyrout.  B.  was 
famous  as  the  birthplace  of  Adonis,  or  Thammuz,  in  whose  honor  a splendid  temple  was 
erected,  which  attracted  many  worshipers.  The  name  given  to  the  town  by  the  Jew^s 
was  Giblah,  and  its  inhabitants  the  Giblites  are  noticed  in  the  Scriptures  as  stone- 
squarers  and  caulkers  of  ships.  A wall  belonging,  apparently,  to  the  era  of  the  cru- 
sades, surrounds  the  town,  and  the  remains  of  a Roman  theater  are  still  visible. — B. 
was  also  the  name  of  a town  in  the  Egyptian  delta,  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of 
papyrus  from  the  byblus  or  papyrus  plant. 

BY-LAWS  are  the  private  regulations  which  are  usually  made  by  corporate  bodies 
for  the  control  and  government  of  the  corporation.  They  are  binding,  unless  contrary 
to  the  laws  of  the  land,  or  to  the  charter,  or  act  of  incorporation,  or,  as  it  has  been 
decided  in  England,  unless  they  are  manifestly  unreasonable.  Blackstone  tells  us  that 
the  right  of  making  by-laws  was  allo^ved  by  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables  at  Rome ; and  Mr. 
Stephen,  in  his  Commentaries,  states  that  in  the  law  of  England  such  a right  is  so  much 
of  course,  as  regards  every  corporation,  that  if  the  charter  by  which  certain  persons  are 
incorporated  give  to  a select  body,  out  of  their  whole  number,  a power  to  make  by-laws 
as  to  certain  specified  matters,  the  body  at  large  is  nevertheless  at  liberty  to  make  them 
with  regard  to  all  matters  not  specified.  Every  corporation,  too,  can  of  course  alter  or 
repeal  the  by-laws  which  itself  has  made.  By  the  municipal  corporation  act,  5 and  6 Will. 
IV.  c,  76,  s.  90,  borough  councils  have  power  to  make  by-laws  for  the  government  of  the 
borough,  and  for  the  prevention  and  suppression  of  nuisances;  such  by-laws,  however, 
not  to  be  of  force  till  the  expiration  of  forty  days  after  the  same,  or  a copy  shall  have 
been  sent  to  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state,  during  which  period  her  majesty,  with  the 
advice  of  her  privy  council,  may  either  disallow  the  by -law’s,  or  a part,  or  enlarge  the  time 
within  which  they  shall  not  come  into  force.  Railway  companies  are  required  to  lay 
before  the  board  of  trade,  for  the  approbation  of  that  authority,  certified  copies  of  the 
by-laws  and  regulations  by  which  the  raibway  is  governed,  which  .by-laws  may  be  disal- 
low^ed  by  the  board  at  its  pleasure.  See  Canal,  Carrier,  Railway, 

BA"LES,  Mather,  d.d.  ; 1706-88;  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  ordained  minister  of 
the  Hollis  street  church,  Boston,  in  17S3.  In  1765,  he  was  given  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  divinity  by  the  university  of  Aberdeen.  He  was  a correspondent  of  Swdft  and  Pope, 
and  published  a volume  of  his  own  poems.  During  the  revolution  he  adhered  to  the 
English  side,  and  for  that  reason  his  connection  with  his  parish  w^as  dissolved.  In  1777, 
he  was  denounced  as  an  enemy  to  the  country,  imprisoned  for  a time,  and  condemned 
to  exile,  but  the  latter  sentence  was  commuted  to  confinement  in  his  owm  house,  before 
which  sentinels  were  placed.  His  reputation  for  quick  and  caustic  wit  has  kept  his 
memory  alive. 

BYNG,  George,  Viscount  Torrington,  a British  admiral,  b.  Jan.  27,  1663,  eldest 
son  of  John  Byng,  esq.,  of  Wrotham,  Kent,  entered  the  navy  as  a volunteer  at  the  age 
of  15,  and  rapidly  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieut.  In  1688,  he  recommended  himself  to  the 
prince  of  Orange  by  his  activity  and  zeal  in  attaching  the  officers  of  the  fleet  to  the 
cause  of  the  revolution,  and  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  capt.  In  1702,  he  took 
part  in  the  capturing  and  burning  of  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Vigo,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  red.  The  attack  on  Gibraltar  was  solely  confided  to  his 
command,  and  for  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Malaga  he  w-as  knighted  b}’’  queen 
Anne,  In  1708,  he  became  admiral  of  the  blue,  and  commanded  a squadron  fitted  out 
to  oppose  an  intended  invasion  of  Scotland  from  France,  on  the  part  of  the  pretender. 
He  pursued  the  French  fleet  to  the  firth  of  Forth,  took  one  ship,  and  forced  the  fleet 
back  to  Dunkirk,  on  which  occasion  he  was  presented  with  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
Edinburgh.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  rebellion  of  1715,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  a squadron  in  the  Downs,  and  for  important  services  against  the  French,  was 
created  a baronet.  In  1718,  he  commanded  the  English  fleet  sent  to  Sicily  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  neutrality  of  Italy,  and  gained  a victory  over  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Messina. 
Soon  after,  he  w>^as  appointed  treasurer  of  the  navy,  and  rear-admiral  of  Great  Britain. 
In  Jan.,  1721,  he  was  sworn  one  of  the  privy  council,  and  in  Sept,  following,  created 
baron  Southhill  and  viscount  Torrington.  On  the  revival  of  the  order  of  the  bath,  in 
1725,  he  was  installed  one  of  the  knights;  and,  on  the  accession  of  George  II.,  was 
nominated  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  He  represented  Plymouth  in  parliament  from 
1706  until  1721.  Died  Jan.  17,  1733. 

BYNG,  John,  a brave  but  ill-fated  British  admiral,  fourth  son  of  the  preceding,  b. 
in  1704,  entered  the  navy  early,  served  under  his  father,  and,  in  1727,  became  capt.  In 
1748,  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  red.  In  1756,  he  wuis  appointed  to  com- 


239 


liuzzardSw 

Byron. 


mand  a squadron  of  ten  ships  of  the  line  in  the  Mediterranean,  destined  for  the  relief  of 
Minorca,  at  that  time  blockaced  by  a French  fleet  under  La  Galissoniere.  On  the  20th 
May,  B.  made  the  signal  to  engage,  which  was  obeyed  by  rear-admiral  West  with  such 
impetuosity  that  several  of  the  enemy’s  ships  were  driven  out  of  the  line;  but  B.  not 
advancing  to  his  support,  the  French  were  allowed  to  escape,  and  Minorca  was  lost 
The  dissatisfaction  in  England,  on  the  news  arriving,  was  taken  advanta^  of  by  the 
ministry  to  avert  the  public  odium  from  their  own  inefficient  measures.  B.  was  tried 
by  a court-martial,  and  condemned  to  death,  for  a breach  of  the  12th  article  of  war,  but 
recommended  to  mercy.  Sacriflced  to  the  general  indignation,  he  was  shot  on  board 
the  Monarch,  at  Portsmouth,  Mar.  14,  1757,  meeting  his  fate  with  firmness  and  resigna- 
tion. In  the  fleet,  he  was  not  popular,  being  a strict  disciplinarian. 

BYNKERSHOEK,  Cornelius  van,  a Dutch  jurisconsult,  was  b.  at  Middelburg,  in 
Zealand,  29th  May,  1673.  He  studied  at  the  .university  of  Franeker,  took  the  degree  of 
doctor  in  1694,  and  immediately  after  commenced  to  practice  as  an  advocate  of  the 
Hague.  In  1703,  he  was  elected  by  the  states- general  a member  of  the  supreme  court, 
and,  in  the  exercise  of  his  functions,  soon  had  occasion  to  observe  how  defective  and 
vague  was  the  common  law  of  the  country.  In  1710,  with  a view  to  remedy  this,  he 
published  the  first  part  of  his  Ohservationes  Juris  Bomani;  in  1719,  his  Opuscula  Varii 
Argumenti;  and  in  1724,  he  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  president  of  the  supreme 
court.  In  1733,  appeared  the  rest  of  his  Ohserrationes  Juris  Romani.  B.  now  began  to 
devote  himself  earnestly  to  the  study  of  Dutch  and  international  law,  acquiring,  of  the 
former  in  particular,  a most  extensive  and  solid  knowledge.  His  great  work  on  this 
subject  is  his  Quastiones  Juris  Primti,  which  he  did  not  live  to  finish,  and  on  the  other, 
his  Questiones  Juris  Puhlici.  In  addition  to  these,  B.  collected  (from  his  notes)  the 
decisions  and  proceedings  of  the  supreme  court  in  his  time,  under  the  title  Ohserrationes 
Tumultuarice,  and  besides  (what  is  perhaps  his  most  valuable  work)  made  a digest  under 
the  title  of  Corpus  Juris  Hollandid  et  Zelandici,  of  all  the  laws  of  his  own  country, 
whether  statutory,  or  existing  in  the  decisions  of  courts,  or  in  the  practice  of  the  bar,  or 
in  the  customs  of  particular  places.  He  died  16th  April,  1743.  A complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  by  prof.  Vicat,  of  Geneva,  in  1761. 

BYRAM  RIVER,  a small  stream,  scarcely  more  than  a brook,  which  is  often  men- 
tioned as  the  farthest  western  boundary  of  New  England,  separating  the  towns  of 
Greenwich,  Conn.,  and  Rye,  N.  Y.  Recent  surveys  have  straightened  the  boundary 
line,  which,  however,  still  begins  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  follows  it  a short  distance. 
One  mile  aliove  its  entrance  into  Long  Island  sound,  the  stream  widens,  receives  the 
tide,  and  is  navigable  for  the  smaller  class  of  vessels  to  the  village  of  Port  Chester. 

BYRD,  William,  1674-1744;  b.  Va.,  and  educated  in  England,  where  he  became 
a fellow  of  the  royal  society.  Returning  to  America,  he  was  receiver-general  of  revenue 
in  Virginia,  colonial  agent,  member  of  the  council,  and  one  of  the  commissioners  to  fix 
the  North  Carolina  boundary.  He  laid  out  the  cities  of  Richmond  and  Petersburg  in 
1733  on  his  own  land. 

BYRGIITS,  Justus,  or,  more  properly,  Jobst  Burgi,  the  inventor  of  various  astro- 
nomical instruments,  was  b.  28th  Feb.,  1552,  at  Lichtensteig,  in  the  canton  of  St.  Gall, 
Switzerland.  In  1759,  he  went  into  the  service  of  the  learned  landgraf  of  Hesse, 
Wilhelm  IV.  His  first  work  was  a celestial  globe,  ths  surface  of  which  was  plated  with 
silver,  and  in  which  the  stars  were  placed  according  to  his  own  observations.  The 
landgraf  sent  it  to  the  emperor  Rudolf  II.,  who  thought  it  sc  beautiful  that,  in  1604, 
he  appointed  B.  his  own  mechanician.  B.  subsequently  went  to  Austria,  but  returned 
to  Cassel  in  1622,  where  he  died  in  1633.  Many  of  his  reputed  discoveries  and  inventions 
are  questioned,  such  as  those  of  logarithms  and  the  proportional  compasses;  but  he 
seems  to  have  hit  upon  something  like  both,  while  it  is  certain  that  he  was  the  inventor 
of  a method  of  resolving  spherical  triangles. 

BYELAW,  Birlaw,  or  Burlaw,  the  name  given  to  a sort  of  popular  jurisprudence 
formerly  in  use  in  Scotland,  in  villages  and  among  husbandmen.  Sir  John  Skene, 
writing  in  1597,  when  the  system  was  in  full  force,  defines  B.  as  '‘leges  rusticorum,  de  re 
rustica  latce — laws  made  by  husbandmen,  concerning  neighborhood  to  be  kept  among 
themselves.” — Reg.  Majest.  lib.  iv.  c.  39;  Be  Verb.  Signif.  voce  Byrlaw.  As  the  B.  was 
enacted  by  the  common  consent  of  the  villagers  or  neighbors,  so  it  was  administered  by 
judges  chosen  by  them  from  their  own  ranks.  These  judges  were  commonly  called 
“byrlaw  men,”  a name  which  is  still  applied  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  to  an  arbiter, 
oddsman,  or  umpire.  The  courts  which  they  held  were  called  “byrlaw  courts,”  and 
took  cognizance  of  disputes  between  neighbor  and  neighbor.  B.  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  boor,  or  haur,  a countryman. 

BYROM,  John,  1691-1763;  an  English  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer.  Colin  and 
Phoebe,  his  first  poetical  essay,  appeared  in  the  Spectator.  He  was  made  a member  of 
the  ro}^al  society;  inveij^ted  and  taught  a system  of  short-hand  writing;  was  a person  of 
lively  wit,  and  had  a taste  for  the  mystical  theology  of  Bbhme. 

BYRON,  Anne  Isabella  Milbanke,  1792-1860;  only  child  of  sir  Ralph  Milbanke, 
and  wife  of  lord  Byron.  She  married  lord  Byron  Jan.  2,  1815,  and  separated  from  him 
in  Feb.  of  the  next  year.  On  the  death  of  lord  (properly  baron)  Scarsdale,  she  became 


Byron. 

Byssus. 


240 


baroness  of  Wentworth,  and  for  several  years  before  her  death  employed  her  large 
income  in  works  of  charity.  One  child  was  borne  by  her  to  Byron,  “ Ada,  sole  daughter 
orf  my  house  and  heart,”  who  married  William,  lord  King,  afterwards  earl  of  Lovelace. 

BTRON,  Gp:oiige  Gordon,  Lord,  a great  English  poet,  was  b.  in  Holies  street,  Lon- 
don, on  the  22d  of  Jan.,  1788.  He  was  the  only  son  of  capt.  John  Byron,  of  the  guards, 
and  Catherine  Gordon  of  Gight,  an  heiress  in  Aberdeenshire.  Capt.  Byron  and  his 
wife  did  not  live  happily.  Domestic  peace  perished  in  the  conflict  of  their  ungoverna- 
ble tem^xws.  The  husband’s  habits  were  profligate  in  the  highest  degree,  and  the  wife’s 
.fortune  was  soon  squandered  in  the  debauch  and  at  the  gambling-table.  Separated  from 
Ler  husband,  the  lady  retired  to  the  city  of  Aberdeen  with  her  little  lame  boy,  whom 
she  passionately  loved,  her  sole  income  at  this  time  being  about  £130  per  annum.  In 
his  11th  year,  B.  succeeded  his  grand-uncle,  William  lord  Byron;  and  mother  and  son 
immediately  left  the  north  for  Newstead  abbey,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  family,  situated 
a few  miles  distant  from  Nottingham,  in  the  romantic  district  which  Sherwood  forest 
shadowed,  and  which  was  once  familiar  with  the  bugle  of  Robin  Hood.  On  succeeding 
to  the  title,  B.  was  placed  in  a private  school  at  Dulwich,  and  thereafter  sent  to  Har- 
row, The  most  remarkable  thing  about  B.’s  early  years  was  his  extraordinary  attach- 
ments. Like  almost  every  member  of  the  poetic  tribe,  he  “ had  a passion  for  the  name 
of  Mary,”  In  his  8th  year,  in  Aberdeenshire,  he  fell  in  love  with  Mary  Duff.  Margaret 
Parker,  a cousin  of  his  own,  and  who  died  early,  was  his  next  idol.  His  strongest  pas- 
sion was,  however,  for  Mary  Chaworth.  This  lady  he  flrst  met  when  on  a visit  to  New- 
stead  in  1803,  at  which  date  he  was  in  his  15th  year.  Miss  Chaworth’s  father  had  been 
killed  in  a duel  by  lord  Byron,  the  grand-uncle  of  the  poet,  and  marriage  would  have 
healed  the  family  feud,  and  would  have  joined  rich  estates.  But  it  was  not  to  be.  Miss 
Chaworth  was  B.’s  senior  by  two  years,  and  evidently  felt  little  flattered  by  the  worship 
of  the  lame  Harrow  boy.  Next  year  came  the  parting  interview  described  in  The 
Dream,  with  which  every  Englishman  is  familiar  now  as  with  a personal  experience, 
tn  1805,  B.  removed  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge;  and  two  years  thereafter,  his  first 
voluinn  of  verse,  entitled  Hours  of  Idleness,  was  printed  at  Newark,  The  poems  therein 
contained  were  not  absolutely  without  merit,  but  they  might  have  been  written  by  any 
well-educated  lad  who,  in  addition  to  ordinary  ability,  possessed  the  slightest  touch  of 
poetic  sensibility.  The  volume  was  fiercely  assailed  by  lord  (then  Mr.)  Brougham  in 
the  EdinhurghJ^vieio,  and  his  sarcasms  stung  B.  into  a poet.  The  satire,  English  Bards 
and  Scotch  Remewevs^  was  written  in  reply  to  the  article  in  the  Edinburgh,  and  the  town 
Tras  taken  by  a play  of  wit  and  a mastery  of  versification  unequaled  since  the  da}"s  of 
Pope.  Tn  the  babble  of  praise  that  immediately  arose,  B.  withdrew  from  England, 
■visited  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  sojourned  in  Turkey  and  Greece.  On  his 
return  in  1812,  he  published  the  first  two  cantos  of  Ghilde  Harold,  ■until  immense  success, 
and  was  at  once  enrolled  among  the  great  poets  of  his  country.  During  the  next  two 
years,  he  produced  The  Qiaour;  The  Bride  of  Abydos;  The  Corsair;  and  Za?*a.  While 
these  brilliant  pieces  were  flowing  from  his  pen,  he  ■vras  indulginginalltherevelriesand 
excesses  of  the  metropolis.  What  was  noblest  in  the  man  revolted  at  this  mode  of  life, 
and,  in  an  effort  to  escape  from  it,  he  married  Miss  Milbanke,  daughter  of  sir  Ralph  Mil- 
banke,  a baronet  in  the  co,  of  Durham.  This  union  proved  singularly  infelicitous.  It  lasted 
only  a year,  and  during  that  brief  period,  money  embarrassments,  recriminations,  and 
all  the  miseries  incident  to  an  ill-assorted  marriage,  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  After 
the  birth  of  her  child  Ada,  lady  Byron  retired  to  her  father's  house,  and  refused  to 
return.  This  event,  from  the  celebrity  of  one  of  the  parties,  caused  considerable 
•xcitement  in  the  fashionable  world,  B.  became  the  subject  of  all  uncharitable 
tongues.  The  most  popular  poet,  he  was  for  a space  the  most  unpopular  individual  in 
the  country.  Tn  one  of  his  letters,  written  from  Italy  some  years  later,  referring  to  the 
slanders  current  at  the  time,  he  thus  expresses  himself:  “I  was  accused  of  every  mon- 
strous vice  by  public  rumor  and  private  rancor.  My  name,  which  had  been  a knightly 
or  a noble  one  since  my  fathers  helped  to  conquer  the  kingdom  for  William  the  Nor- 
man, was  tainted.  I felt  that  if  what  was  whispered,  and  muttered,  and  murmured 
was  true,  I was  unfit  for  England;  if  false,  England  was  unfit  for  me.  I withdrew.” 
The  separation  from  his  wife,  and  the  departure  from  England,  mark  a stage  in  B.’s 
genius.  A new  element  of  power  had  entered  into  his  verse;  the  reader  feels  it 
quite  distinctly  in  the  magnificent  burst  of  exultation  that  opens  the  third  canto  of 
the  Childe — 

Once  more  upon  the  waters,  yet  once  more ! 

Misery  and  indignation  stimulated  him  to  remarkable  activity.  Six  months’  stay  at 
Geneva  produced  the  third  canto  of  Ghilde  Harold  and  The  Prisoner  of  Chillon.  Manfred 
and  The  Lament  of  Tasso  were  written  in  1817.  The  next  year,  he  was  at  Venice,  and 
finished  Childe  Harold  there;  and,  in  the  gay  and  witty  Beppo,  made  an  experiment  in 
the  new  field  which  he  was  afterwards  to  work  so  successfully.  During  the  next  three 
years,  he  produced  the  first  five  cantos  of  Don  Juan,  and  a number  of  dramas  of  various 
merit.  Cam  and  Werner  being  opposite  poles.  In  1822,  he  removed  to  Pisa,  and  worked 
there  at  Don  Juan,  which  poem,  with  the  exception  of  The  Vision  of  Judgment,  occupied 
his  pen  almost  up  to  the  close  of  his  life.  Morally,  his  Italian  life  was  unsatisfactory, 
and  his  genius  was  tainted  by  his  indulgences.  At  the  close  of  his  career,  he  was  visited 


241 


Byron. 

Byssus. 


by  a new  inspiration;  the  sun,  so  long  obscured,  shone  out  gloriously  at  its  setting.  In 
the  summer  of  1823,  he  sailed  for  Greece,  to  aid  the  struggle  for  independence  with  his 
influence  and  money.  He  arrived  at  Missolonghi  on  the  4th  of  Jan.,  1824.  There  he 
found  nothing  but  confusion  and  contending  chiefs;  but  in  three  months,  lie  succeeded 
in  evoking  some  kind  of  order  from  the  turbulent  patriotic  chaos.  His  health,  however, 
began  to  fail.  On  the  9th  of  April,  he  was  overtaken  by  a shower  while  on  horseback, 
and  fever  and  rheumatism  followed.  Medical  aid  was  procured,  and  copious  bleeding 
recommended;  but  this,  B.,  with  characteristic  willfulness,  opposed.  Before  death,  he 
sank  into  a state  of  lethargy,  and  those  who  were  near  heard  him  murmuring  about  his 
wife,  his  sister,  and  his  child.  After  twenty-  four  hours’  insensibility,  he  expired  on  the 
evening  of  the  19th  April,  1824.  His  body  ’was  conveyed  to  England;  and,  denied  a 
resting-place  in  Westminster  abbey,  it  rests  in  the  family  vault  in  the  village  church  of 
Hucknall,  near  Newstead. 

l,ord  B.  is  a remarkable  instance  ©f  the  fluctuations  of  literary  fashion.  Elevated  to 
the  highest  pinnacle  of  fame  in  the  heyday  of  his  early  popularity,  he  was  unduly 
deptt'ssed  after  his  death,  when  the  false  romance  which  he  threw  around  himself  and 
his  writings  began  to  wear  away;  and  it  is  only  during  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years 
that  the  proper  place  has  been  found  for  him  in  the  public  estimation.  He  is  high,  but 
not  thrj  highest.  The  resources  of  his  intellect  were  amazing.  He  gained  his  first  repu- 
tation as  a depicter  of  the  gloomy  and  stormful  passions.  After  he  wrote  Beppo,  he 
was  si  rprised  to  And  that  he  was  a humorist ; when  he  reached  Greece,  he  discovered  an 
ability  for  military  organization.  When  all  the  school-girls  of  England  fancied  their 
hands(jme  idol  with  a scowling  brow  and  a curled  lip,  he  was  laughing  in  Italy,  and 
declaring  himself  to  be  the  most  unromantic  being  in  the  world.  And  he  was  right. 
Take  away  all  his  oriental  wrappings,  and  you  discover  an  honest  Englishman,  who, 
above  all  things,  hates  cant  and  humbug.  In  Don  Juan  and  his  Letters  there  is  a won- 
derful fund  of  wit,  sarcasm,  humor,  and  knowledge  of  man.  Few  men  had  a clearer 
eye  for  fact  and  reality.  His  eloquence,  pathos,  and  despair;  his  Manfreds  and  Ghilde 
Harolds,  were  only  phases  of  his  mind.  Toward  the  close  of  his  life,  he  was  working 
toward  his  real  strength,  and  that  lay  in  wit  and  the  direct  representation  of  human  life. 
If  his  years  had  been  extended,  he  would  in  all  likelihood  have  deserted  poetry  for  prose, 
gaudy  colored  fiction  for  sober  fact;  and  the  assertion  maybe  hazarded,  that  the  English 
novel  would  have  boasted  of  another  and  a greater  Fielding. 

BYRON,  Henry  James,  b.  Manchester,  Eng. ; a playwright,  author  of  many  dra- 
matic works,  chiefly  in  burlesque,  that  have  won  popular  favor.  Among  them  are 
Fra  Diarolo;  Maid  and  Magpie;  Babes  in  the  Wood;  and  travesties  of  many  of  the  more 
popular  operas.  Of  comedies  he  has  written  War  to  the  Knife;  A Hundred  Ihousand 
Bounds;  Hot  Such  a Fool  as  he  Looks  (in  which  he  played  the  hero);  An  American  Lady; 
Old  Sailors;  and  Our  Boys,  the  last  comedy  achieving  an  almost  unexampled  success. 

BYRON,  Hon.  John,  1723-86;  an  English  admiral  and  circumnavigator.  He  was 
the  grandfather  of  Byron  the  poet.  While  young,  he  accompanied  Anson  around  the 
world,  and  in  later  years  experienced  so  much  hard  service  that  he  was  nicknamed  by 
sailors  “ Foul-weather  Jack.”  In  1769,  he  was  a governor  of  Newfoundland,  and  in 
1776  became  vice-admiral.  In  1778,  he  was  sent  with  a fleet  to  watch  the  movements  of 
count  d’Estaing,  who  had  gone  to  the  assistance  of  the  American  colonies  then  in  revo- 
lution; and  in  July  of  the  next  year,  fought  the  count  off  Grenada,  but  the  action  was 
of  little  importance. 

BYEON  BAY  lies  on  the  n.e.  coast  of  Labrador  in  North  America,  its  lat.  and  long, 
being  respectively  54°  40'  n.,  and  57°  30'  w. 

BYEON  ISLAND  is  situated  in  the  Mulgrave  archipelago  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  its  lat. 
and  long,  being  respectively  1°  18' s.,  and  177*  20'  east. 

BYS'SUS,  a name  given  from  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  times  to  the  bundle  of  silky 
filaments  by  which  many  lamellibranchiate  mollusks — bivalve  shells — attach  themselves 
to  rocks  or  other  fixed  substances.  The  B.  springs  from  a'cavity  at  the  base  of  the  soli- 
tary foot  of  the  mollusk,  and  its  filaments,  which  are  capable  of  being  rexjroduced  if 
destroyed,  are  secreted  by  a glandular  tissue  which  occupies  a furrow  running  nearly  to 
the  extremity  of  the  foot.  They  are  united  together  at  the  base  in  a common  mass,  and 
are  often  considerably  divergent.  They  are  guided  to  their  place  by  the  foot,  and  expand 
into  a sort  of  disk  at  the  point  of  attachment,  so  as  to  have  a firm  hold.  A few  common 
mussels  in  an  aquarium  readily  afford  an  opportunity  of  observing  the  B.,  particularly 
when  the  filaments  are  attached  to  the  glass  sides  of  the  vessel.  In  the  pinna  (q.v.)  of 
the  Mediterranean,  the  B.  is  remarkably  long  and  delicate,  has  a beautiful  silky  lustre, 
is  very  strong,  and  is  capable  of  being  woven  into  cloth,  upon  which  a very  high  value 
is  set;  but  the  animal  which  produces  it  is  now  so  rare,  that  it  is  almost  exclusively  an 
article  of  curiosity.  This  manufacture  was  known  to  the  ancients. 

BYS'SUS  (Gr.,  a fine  flaxen  or  silky  substance),  a genus  established  by  Linnaeus  to 
include  some  of  the  lowest  and  most  obscure  forms  of  vegetation,  and  defined  as  having 
a substance  like  fine  down  or  velvet,  simple  or  feathered.  Botanists  sometimes  ranked 
it  among  algm,  sometimes  among  fungi;  it  has  been  made  the  type  of  a group  byssacece, 
and  placed  among  lichens.  Some  have  regarded  this  group  as  entitled  to  the  rank  of 
U.  K.  III.— 16 


Bystrom. 

Byzantine. 


242 


a distinct  order,  “comprehending  the  filamentous  fungi  found  in  cellars,  and  similar 
plants;”  but  others  reject  the  genus  as  altogether  spurious.  Some  of  the  species  onco 
included  in  it  have  now  been  satisfactorily  shown  to  be  lichens,  others  to  be  confermcecp., 
whilst  many  appear  to  be  really  not  distinct  vegetable  forms,  but  cryptogamic  plants 
prevented  by  unfavorable  circumstances  from  proper  development.  The  green  incrus- 
tations formerly  regarded  as  species  of  B.,  have  been  found  to  be  the  primary  germina- 
tion of  mosses,  often  species  of  polytriclium  and  tortula.  It  cannot  be  said,  however, 
that  the  nature  of  all  the  vegetable  forms  which  have  been  referred  to  the  genus 
B.,  has  yet  been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  Some  of  them  are  very  phosphorescent,  and 
are  generally  found  where  some  higher  form,  of  vegetation  is  undergoing  decay. 

BYSTEOM,  JoH.  Nikolaus,  a celebrated  sculptor,  was  b.  18th  Dec.,  1783,  at  Philipp- 
stadt,  in  the  province  of  Wermeland,  Sweden,  and  educated  under  Sergell  of  Stockholm^ 
In  1809,  he  obtained  the  highest  prize  in  the  Swedish  academy  of  arts,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  went  to  Rome,  where  he  executed  his*  first  independent  work,  a “Drunkem 
Bacchante,”  and  sent  it  home.  It  v^as  received  with  great  approbation,  and  B.  had  to* 
repeat  it  thrice.  In  1815,  he  returned  to  Stockholm,  and  surprised  the  newly  elected 
crown-prince  by  exhibiting  a colossal  statue  of  himself,  which  he  had  finished  all  but 
the  head  in  Rome,  and  had  found  means  to  complete  quietly  in  Stockholm.  The  crown- 
prince  was  highly  gratified,  and  commissioned  B.  to  execute  colossal  statues  of  Charles 
X.,  XI.,  and  XII.  After  1838,  he  resided  in  Stockholm;  but  returned  to  Rome  in  1844, 
and  died  there  Mar.  13,  1848.  His  chief  works  are;  “A  Nymph  going  into  the  Bath,”' 
“A  reclining  Juno  suckling  the  Young  Hercules,”  “Hygieia,”  “A  Pandora  combing 
her  Hair,”  “A  Dancing-girl,”  a statue  of  Linnaeus,  and  colossal  statues  of  Charles  XHI. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  Charles  XIV.  B.  excels  in  the  delineation  of  females  and 
children,  but  his  male  figures  want  strength  of  character;  his  conceptions  are  always 
true  to  nature,  his  grouping  skillful  and  pleasant,  and  his  execution  is  clear  and  distinct. 

BYTTNERIACE.E,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  sometimes  united  -with  the- 
order  sterculiacem  (q.v.),  and  also  closely  allied  to  malmcece  (q.v.),  from  -which  it  differs,, 
especially  in  the  stamens  not  being  columnar — although  more  or  less  united,  generally 
into  a cup  or  tube — also  in  the  anthers  being  turned  inwards,  and  2-celled.  The  species, 
of  this  order  are  trees,  shrubs,  or  half -shrubby  plants,  abounding  chiefly  in  tropical  cli- 
mates, although  some  are  natives  of  the  temperate  zones.  About  400  have  been 
described.  The  flowers  of  many  are  beautiful.  The  most  important  product  of  the 
order  is  Cocoa  (q.v.).  The  fruit  of  guazuma  ulmifolia,  a native  of  Brazil,  is  eaten,  being 
filled  with  a sweet  and  pleasant  mucilage.  The  young  bark  of  this  tree  yields,  when 
macerated,  a copious  mucilage,  and  is  therefore  used  in  Martinique  for  clarifying  sugar, 
as  is  that  of  kydia  calycina  in  the  northern  provinces  of  India.  Guazuma  idmifolia  was- 
introduced  into  India,  and  at  one  time  largely  cultivated  in  the  Madras  presidency, 
under  the  name  of  bastard  cedar,  that  its  foliage  and  young  shoots  might  be  employed 
as  fodder  for  cattle.  Its  straight,  luxuriant  young  branches  yield  a strong  fiber.  The 
bark  of  other  species  of  this  order  also  affords  a tough  fiber,  which  is  employed  for 
making  cordage,  particularly  that  of  7nicrolcena  (or  schillera)  spectaUUs  in  the  regions  on 
the  southern  base  of  the  Himala3^a,  abroma  augustum  in  various  parts  of  India,  dombeya 
spectabilis  in  Madagascar,  and  D.  umbellata  in  the  isle  of  Bourbon.  Abroma  augustum 
has  been  especially  recommended  to  attention  and  cultivation  on  account  of  its  fiber, 
which  is  beautiful,  white,  fine,  and  strong,  and  is  produced  in  great  abundance.  The 
plant  grows  to  be  a handsome  small  tree,  having  hairy  lobed  leaves  and  beautiful  droop- 
ing purple  flowers;  but  may  be  treated  much  as  willows  grown  for  basket-making,  and 
in  this  way  yields  two,  three,  or  even  four  crops  of  cuttings  annually,  which  are  peeled 
and  the  bark  macerated  in  order  to  the  separation  of  the  fiber. 

BY-TOWN,  a t.  of  Upper  Canada,  on  the  Ottawa,  which  took  its  name  from  col.  By 
of  the  roj-al  engineers.  It  is  now  Ottawa  (q.v.),  the  capital  of  the  dominion  of  Canada. 

BYZAN'TINE  ART.  From  the  time  of  Constantine  the  great,  the  emperors  of  the 
east  arrogated  to  their  imperial  city  the  pre-eminence  which,  for  so  long  a period, 
ancient  Rome  had  actually  possessed;  and,  as  a necessary  consequence  of  this  assump- 
tion, Constantinople,  or  Byzantium,  as  it  still  continued  sometimes  to  be  called,  became 
the  rival  of  the  mother-city  in  the  richness  and  variet}’’  of  its  artistic  monuments.  In 
Rome,  and,  indeed,  in  the  whole  of  western  Europe,  the  first  effect  produced  by  Bio 
influx  of  the  mighty  stream  of  barbarian  life,  and  the  consequent  dissolution  of  existing 
society,  was  the  almost  total  suppression  of  artistic  effort.  It  was  then  that  the  artists 
of  the  west,  willing  and  eager  to  avail  themselves  of  the  invitation  held  out  to  them, 
poured  into  Constantinople,  carrying  with  them  what  yet  remained  of  the  artistic  life  of 
the  ancient  world.  B3’-zantium  was  the  hearth  on  which,  during  the  dark  period  of  the 
middle  ages,  those  feeble  sparks  of  ancient  art  were  kept  alive,  which  served  to  kindle 
the  new  and  independent  artistic  life  of  the  modera  world.  Not  only  were  the  painters 
and  sculptors  of  Italy  indebted  to  the  art  of  Byzantium  for  the  tradition  of  that  ideal 
mode  of  conception  to  which  the  term  classical  is  peculiarly  applied,  but  artists  in  every 
department  derived  thence  the  elements  of  that  technical  knowledge  without  which  the 
embodiment  of  such  conceptions  is  impossible.  This  practical  acquaintance  with  the 
technical  rudiments  of  their  respective  arts,  which  could  scarcely  have  been  derived 
from  a mere  examination  of  ancient  works,  was  communicated  to  the  fathers  of  Italian 


M3 


Bystrom. 

Byzantiucv; 


•art  by  living  Byzantines,  some  of  them  probably  the  descendants  of  those  whom  barba- 
rian conquests  had  driven  into  the  east,  and  whom  the  conquests  of  a still  more  barba- 
rous race  now  restored  to  western  Europe.  It  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  modern  art 
was  largely  indebted  to  this  circumstance  for  the  marvelous  stride  which  it  took  imme- 
diately after  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks.  But  though  its  chief  value  may 
^consist  in  its  having  thus  transmitted  to  us  the  succession  of  antiquity,  B.  A.  was  by  no 
means  devoid  of  original  and  individual  character ; and  it  is  only  in  so  far  as  it  possesses 
this,  and  not  when  regarded  as  a mere  conservation  of  antique  types  and  processes,  that 
•it  takes  rank  as  a school  of  art.  The  characteristic  element  in  B.  A.  may  be  described 
as  the  earliest  artistic  recognition  and  representation  to  the  senses  of  what  was  new  and 
peculiar  in  Christian  as  opposed  to  heathen  life.  To  the  fullest  extent  to  wiiich  it  could 
claim  a separate  and  individual  existence,  B.  A.  was  Christian  art;  and  consequently  in 
Germany,  where  the  subject  has  received  more  attention  than  in  this  country,  the  two 
terms  are  frequently  used  as  synonymous.  The  appearance  of  B.  A. , in  this  its  only 
peculiar  sense,  dates  from  the  age  of  Justinian,  i.e.,  from  the  earlier  half  of  the  6th  c., 
and  its  productive  period  may  be  said  to  terminate  with  the  conquest  -of  the  eastern 
•empire  by  the  crusaders  in  1204.  But  though  its  declension  dates  from  this  event,  B.  A. 
continued  to  exist  in  considerable  vigor  down  to  the  final  destruction  of  the  empire  of 
the  east,  in  1453;  and  even  now  may  be  seen  as  the  inseparable  handmaid  of  the  Greek 
•church,  both  in  Europe  and  in  Asia.  It  is  in  this  point  of  view,  and  more  particularly 
as  forming  the  basis  of  artistic  life  in  Rus^a,  that  B.  A.  possesses  its  chief  living  interest 
in  our  day.  What  Rome  was  to  the  western,  Byzantium  was  to  the  eastern  European; 
■and  the  relation  of  the  latter  to  his  mother- city,  if  it  commenced  at  a somewhat  later 
date,  continued  during  the  whole  period  of  the  middle  ages. 

Though  the  inhabitants  of  eastern  Europe  thus  derived  their  traditions  of  antiquity 
from  a meaner  source  than  the  Romanic  nations,  they  received  them  more  unbroken; 
and,  from  first  to  last,  were  subjected  to  their  influences  during  a much  longer  period. 
To  them  the  living  voice  and  hand  continued  to  communicate  what  for  nearly  a thou- 
sand years  Italians,  Spaniards,  and  Franks  had  had  to  seek  in  the  dead  image  and  letter 
alone ; and  if  anything  still  remains  unrecorded  of  ancient  thought,  it  doubtless  dwells 
on  Greek,  and  not  on  Roman  or  German  tongues.  Indolent,  luxurious,  and  dissolute 
as  their  ancestors  had  been  in  classical  times,  tlie  citizens  of  Constantinople  were  dis- 
tinguished by  an  intellectual  character,  which,  unfruitful  and  enfeebled  though  it  was, 
was  systematic,  subtle,  mystical,  and  pedantic.  They  were  eminently  an  instructed 
people;  but,  like  individuals  whose  glory  is  in  the  past,  they  were  more  conservative 
than  original;  and,  however  justly  we  may  despise  the  chaff  which  they  engendered,  it 
is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  value  of  the  corns  of  gold  which  clung  to  their  memo- 
ries. 

BvzANTmE  Architecture.  The  typical  form  of  B.  A.,  at  least  as  applied  to  ecclesi- 
astical purposes,  was  flxed  by  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  which  still  exists  as  the  great 
mosque  of  Constantinople.  It  was  built,  or  rather  rebuilt,  by  the  orders  of  Justinian, 
the  architects  being  Anthemius  of  Tralles,  and  Isodorus,  the  elder,  of  Miletus,  and  com- 
pleted 537  A.D.  Though  the  largest  and  most  magnificent,  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  was 
but  one  of  25  churches  which  were  erected  in  the  capital,  and  of  a vastly  greater  num- 
ber of  ecclesiastical  structures  with  which  the  provinces  were  adorned  by  the  pious 
emperor.  The  style  thus  introduced  largely  influenced  the  architecture  even  of  western 
Europe;  and  in  St.  Mark’s  at  Venice,  the  churches  at  Ravenna  and  elsewhere  on  the 
Adriatic,  and  even  in  the  cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  we  have  examples  of  churches 
-almost  purely  Byzantine.  The  fundamental  principle  in  the  construction  of  Byzantine 
churches  was  an  endlessly  varied  application  of  the  Roman  arch,  whilst  its  exhibition  in 
the  form  of  the  cupola  was  their  most  characteristic  feature.  In  the  St.  Sophia,  as  was 
generally  the  case,  the  cupola  covered  the  principal  central  portion  of  the  church,  and 
was  supported  by  strong  and  lofty  pillars,  bound  together  by  bold  arches.  To  this  cen- 
tral space  were  usually  joined  others  of  smaller  size,  which  were  covered  by  half-cupo- 
las or  arches  of  more  ordinary  construction.  Though  frequently  in  the  form  of  a Greek 
cross,  with  the  great  cupola  rising  in  the  center,  and  smaller  or  semi-cupolas  surmount- 
ing the  four  arms,  neither  this  nor  any  other  plan  was  consistently  adhered  to  in  Byzan- 
tine churches.  The  windows  were  always  semicircular,  similar  to  those  in  the  Romanic 
churches  of  Germany,  and  in  our  own  Saxon  or  early  Norman  churches;  but  the  doors 
were  frequently  square-headed,  after  the  classical  model.  Many  of  the  details,  such  as 
the  square  capitals  tapering  downwards,  and  the  bold  projecting  moldings  ornamented 
with  foliage,  seem  to  have  owed  their  origin  entirely  to  the  ingenuity  of  Byzantine  archi- 
tects. The  earlier  Byzantine  churches  were  profusely  ornamented  with  mosaics,  which, 
after  the  admixture  of  the  Gothic  element,  and  the  adoption  of  the  pointed  arch,  gave 
place  to  fresco-paintings.  The  constant  use  of  the  apse  (q.v.)  is.  after  the  cupola,  per- 
haps their  most  marked  feature.  The  following  division  into  periods,  though,  like  most 
divisions  of  the  kind,  somewhat  arbitrary,  has  the  authority  of  M.  Couchaud,  an  emi- 
nent French  architect,  in  its  favor,  and  is,  apparently,  adopted  by  Parker;  1.  From  the 
time  of  Constantine  to  the  middle  of  the  6th  c. ; 2.  From  the  beginning  of  Justinian’s 
reign  down  to  the  11th  c. , which  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  existing  buildings  ol 
the  pure  Byzantine  type;  3.  From  the  11th  c.  to  the  conquest  of  Greece  by  the  Turks, 


Byzantine. 


244’ 


when  the  influence  of  the  Venetian  conquests  is  apparent  in  the  intermixture  of  Italian 
and  Gothic  details  and  characteristics. 

Byzantine  Sculpture.  When  contrasted  with  the  ignoble,  tasteless,  and  meaning- 
less productions  of  the  later  plastic  art  of  Rome,  that  of  Constantinople  claims  both, 
admiration  and  respect.  The  figures  are  not  deficient  in  dignity  either  in  form  or  in 
attitude,  and  a deeply  Christian  spirit  is  traceable  both  in  their  general  conception,  and 
in  their  rich  and  significant  symbolical  accompaniments.  In  sculpture,  as  in  architec- 
ture, the  peculiar  Byzantine  type  first  exhibits  itself  towards  the  beginning  of  the  fitli 
century.  Alongside  of  unmistakable  reminiscences  of  the  antique,  it  exhibits  charac- 
teristics which  are  as  unquestionably  oriental.  The  figures  are  positively  laden,  not  with 
drapery  alone,  but  with  costume,  which  obscures  the  nobler  and  freer  lines  in  which 
the  ancients  delighted.  The  execution  is  careful,  even  painful.  All  this  becomes  more' 
and  more  the  case  as  we  advance  in  the  order  of  time,  the  earliest  Christian  works,  and 
those  immediately  suggested  by  the  antique,  exhibiting  such  faults  only  to  a limited 
extent.  Down  to  the  12th  c. , the  defects  which  we  have  described  were  the  worst  which 
could  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  B.  sculpture,  and  it  is  scarcely  earlier  than  the  13th  c.  that 
it  assumes  that  mummy-like  aspect  by  which  it  is  too  generally  known.  The  art  of 
carving  in  ivory  was  practiced  with  great  success  at  Constantinople,  and  in  the  exam- 
ples of  it  which  remain,  the  gradual  decline — the  benumbing  process,  as  it  has  been  aptly 
called — may  be  traced  with  great  distinctness.  Of  this  species  of  work,  in  its  earlier  and 
better  time,  a fine  specimen  in  alto-rilievo  of  the  “forty  saints”  may  be  seen  in  the 
museum  at  Berlin.  The  decorations  of  the  churches,  and  of  the  sacred  vessels  used  in 
the  service  of  the  altar,  formed  no  insignificant  objects  of  art  in  the  better  Byzantine, 
period.  Cups,  plates,  lamps,  candlesticks,  crosses,  and  the  like,  were  either  of  gold  or 
silver,  and  frequently  adorned  with  jewels;  whilst  the  altar  itself,  the  chancel,  and 
sometimes  the  whole  interior  of  the  church,  were  covered  with  precious  metals,  the^ 
panels  being  adorned  with  mosaics  or  frescos. 

Byzantine  Painting.  The  same  characteristics  which  we  have  ascribed  to  thG 
sculpture  belonged  to  the  pictoriale  Iforts  of  the  artists  of  Byzantium,  and  of  the  neighbor- 
ing countries  who  were  mostly  their  imitators.  The  execution  was  careful  and 
anxious  rather  than  skillful,  and  such  skill  as  still  remained  was  exhibited  in 
the  mechanical  perfection  with  which  the  gilding  of  the  backgrounds  and  other  details 
were  managed.  Of  B.  pictures,  the  best  existing  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  Italy, 
and  belong  especially  to  the  school  of  Sienna.  The  picture  of  the  Virgin  in  the  church 
of  St.  Domenico  at  Sienna  by  Guido,  bearing  date  1221,  deserves  special  mention. 
Much  labor  was  expended  on  the  illumination  of  MSS.  of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  these 
many  beautiful  examples,  as  fresh  as  when  they  were  painted,  may  be  seen  in  most  of 
the  larger  public  libraries  of  Europe.  The  chief  interest  attaching  to  B painting  con- 
sists in  the  parental  relation  in  which  it  stood  to  the  art  of  Italy.  Cimabue  may  be 
regarded  as  its  immediate  heir;  and  in  the  works  of  Giotto,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Pietro 
Perugino,  and  even  of  Raphael  in  his  earlier  time,  the  traces  of  the  inheritance  are 
quite  unmistakable.  See  Painting. 

BYZAN  TINE  EMPIRE,  also  styled  the  East  Roman,  Eastern,  or  Greek  Empire, 
was  founded  in  395  a. d.,  when  Theodosius  the  great,  at  his  death,  divided  the  Roman 
empire  between  his  two  sons,  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  The  former,  a weak  and  luxu- 
rious character,  was  made  emperor  of  the  eastern  division,  formerly  included  under  the 
prefectures  of  the  east  and  of  Illyricum — namely,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Pontus, 
stretching  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea  in  Asia;  Egypt  in  Africa;  and  Thrace, 
McEsia  (now  Bulgaria),  Macedonia,  Greece,  and  Crete  in  Europe.  Arcadius  left  the 
government  of  the  empire  in  the  hands  of  his  minister,  Rufinus,  from  whom  it  passed  to 
the  eunuch  Eutropius,  and  afterwards  to  Gainas,  the  murderer  of  Rufinus.  Gainas  fell  by 
his  ambition  in  401,  and  the  shameless  and  avaricious  empress  Eudoxia  ruled  until  the 
time  of  her  death,  404.  See  Arcadius.  After  Theodosius  II.,  a minor,  under  the 
guidance  of  the  prefect  Prastorio  Anthemius,  had  held  the  reins  during  six  years,  he 
resigned  the  government  in  favor  of  his  sister  Pulcheria  (Augusta),  who  ruled  power- 
fully while  her  brother  was  kept  apart  from  all  state  atfairs.  Western  Illyria  (compre- 
hending Pannonia.  Dalmatia,  and  Noricum)  was  ceded  to  the  Eastern  empire  by  the 
Roman  emperor,  Valentinian  III. ; and  after  several  victories  achieved  by  the  Byzantine 
general,  Ardaburius,  over  the  Persians,  a part -of  Armenia  was  also  annexed.  But. 
nevertheless,  Thrace  and  Macedonia  could  only  be  secured  from  the  destmctive  con- 
quests of  Attila  by  the  payment  of  tribute.  After  the  death  of  Theodosius  II.,  Pulcheria 
married  the  senator  Marcianus  (450-57),  whose  firmness  repelled  the  invasions  of  Attila. 
Marcianus  was  followed  by  Leo  I.,  surnamed  Macella  (the  butcher),  a Thracian  of  low 
birth,  but  elevated  to  the  throne  by  the  commander-in-chief,  Aspar,  who,  being  himself 
an  Arian,  would  not  venture  to  encounter  the  perils  that  sovereignty  might  have  entailed 
on  one  of  his  religious  views.  Leo  II.,  grandson  of  the  former,  succeeded,  but  died 
after  a few  months,  in  consequence  of  which  the  crown  came  into  the  possession  of  his 
father,  Zeno  (474-91),  who  was  banished  by  Basiliscus  (475),  but  who  re-ascended  the 
throne  in  477.  Though  a weak  and  unpopular  ruler,  he  contrived  to  retain  his  power  in 
spite  of  several  serious  revolts.  The  internal  distraction  of  the  empire,  to  which,  as  at  other 
times,  religious  strifes  added  considerably,  increased  greatly  during  the  reign  of  Zeno, 


245 


Byzantine. 


and  the  invasions  of  the  Goths  were  prevented  only  by  gifts  and  stratagems.  Ariadne, 
widow,  of  Zeno  by  her  second  marriage  raised  the  courtier  Silentiariiis  to  the  throne 
under  the  title  Anastasius  I.  (491-518).  By  the  help  of  the  Goths,  this  monarch  over- 
threw, after  a six  years’  contest,  the  robber  tribes  at  Mt.  Taurus.  A new  enemy,  how- 
ever, now  appeared  on  the  Danube  in  the  Bulgarians,  against  whose  desolating  raids 
Anastasius  built  the  long  wall,  to  protect  the  peninsula  on  which  Constantinople  lies. 
The  war  with  the  Persians  also  broke  out  anew  during  his  reign ; and  religious  tumults 
aften  purpled  the  streets  of  Constantinople  itself.  After  his  death,  the  army  raised 
Justinus  I.  to  the  throne.  He  maintained  his  position  mainly  through  the  favor  of  the 
clergy,  whom  he  had  conciliated  by  his  severe  persecution  of  heretics. 

His  nephew,  Justinian  (q.v,),  succeeded  ( 527-65),  and  became  celebrated  by  his  code 
of  laws,  and  by  the  victories  of  his  great  generals,  Belisarius  (q.v.)  and  Narses  (q.v.). 
But  the  rapid  decline  of  the  empire  after  his  death  showed  that  he  had  not  been  able  to 
give  it  any  internal  consolidation  or  vitality.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Justinian  that 
those  pestilent  contests  of  the  blues  and  whites  against  the  greens  and  reds  (political 
factions  so  named  from  the  colors  respectively  worn)  first  attained  any  consequence 
and  though  the  first  disturbance  was  terribly  chastised  by  Belisarius  in  532,  they  con- 
tinued to  distract  the  capital  periodically  down  to  the  7th  century.  Justin  II.  (565-78), 
a weak  man,  governed  by  his  wife,  Sophia,  yielded  a part  of  Italy  to  the  Longobards, 
was  unsuccessful  against  the  Persians,  allowed  the  Avari  to  plunder  the  Danubian 
provinces,  and  ultimately  became  insane  through  vexation  and  anxiety.  Tiberius,  the 
capt.  of  the  guard,  was  then  made  regent,  and  after  the  death  of  Justin  II.,  received  the 
imperial  dignity.  He  ruled  with  mildness  and  prudence  (578-82),  purchased  a peace 
with  the  Avari,  concluded  the  war  with  Persia,  and  left  as  his  successor  the  commander- 
in-chief,  Mauricius,  who  reigned  from  582  to  602.  Having  replaced  on  the  throne  the 
Persian  king,  Kosroes  II.,  who  had  been  banished  by  his  subjects,  he  thus  secured  the 
peace  of  his  eastern  frontiers;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  war  against  the  Avari  did  not 
prosper.  His  niggardly  treatment  of  the  army  caused  a military  insurrection,  in  which  hc‘ 
was  slain  along  with  his  son;  and  Phocas,  one  of  his  generals,  was  elevated  to  the  throne. 
Phocas  proved  a bad  ruler.  Through  his  monstrous  vices,  tyranny,  and  incapacity 
for  government,  the  empire  lapsed  into  still  deeper  anarchy.  Suddenly,  ho'wever,  a 
deliverer  appeared  in  the  person  of  Heraclius  (q.v.),  son  of  the  exarch  or  governor- 
general  of  Africa,  who  headed  a conspiracy,  marched  to  Constantinople,  overthrew  the 
tyrant,  and  ascended  the  throne,  610.  But  great  as  was  the  genius  of  Heraclius,  he  had 
to  submit  to  twelve  years  of  defeat  before  he  could  organize  and  discipline  a victorious 
army.  In  622,  he  opened  those  magnificent  campaigns  in  which  the  power  of  Persia 
was  crushed,  and  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Gibbon,  were  equal  to  those  of  Scipio  or 
Hannibal.  He  lived,  however,  to  see  more  formidable  foes  in  the  Arabs,  who,  inspired 
by  fanatic  zeal,  and  led  by  the  caliph  Omar,  captured,  during  635-41,  the  countries 
on  the  Euphrates,  with  Syria,  Judea,  and  Egypt.  The  power  of  the  Greeks,  which 
was  demanded  to  resist  the  Arabian  invasions,  was  miserably  divided  and  weakened  by 
their  unending  religious  quarrels,  especially  the  controversy  of  the  Orthodox  against  the- 
Monothelites  (q.v.).  The  empire  was  breaking  asunder,  and  Heraclius,  now  worn  out 
with  the  fatigues  of  war,  had  abandoned  his  enfeebled  senses  to  pleasure,  and  his- 
enfeebled  intellect  to  theological  discussions.  He  died  in  614.  Constantine  III.,  who 
succeeded  his  father,  Heraclius,  also  died  soon  after,  and  was  followed  by  Heracleonas, 
who  lost  the  crown,  and  was  mutilated  in  an  insurrection.  The  next  ruler  was  Constans,  the 
son  of  Constantine  III.,  who  ruled  from  642  to  668,  made  himself  odious  by  cruelty,  and 
perished  in  an  insurrection.  His  son,  Constantine  IV.,  Pogonatus  (668-85),  enforced  a 
treaty  of  peace  on  the  invading  Arabs  (675)  by  his  successful  use  of  the  Greek  fire,  in  warfare. 
On  the  other  side,  he  was  compelled  to  pay  tribute  in  680  to  the  Bulgarians,  who  had 
established  themselves  in  ancient  Mcesia.  Justinian  II.  (685-711),  son  and  successor  of 
Pogonatus,  was  victorious  in  war  against  the  Monothelite  Maronites;  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Bulgarians  (688),  and  by  the  Arabs  (692).  His  cruelty  caused  an  insurrection,  at 
the  head  of  which  was  Leontius,  who,  in  695,  deposed  him,  cut  off  his  nose  (hence  his 
surname  Rhinotmetus),  and  banished  him  to  the  Taurio  Chersonese;  in  705,  he  was 
restored  to  the  throne,  but  adversity  had  taught  him  no  wisdom.  A part  of  his  subjects 
revolted,  and  the  king,  abandoned  by  his  army  and  by  the  Buglarians,  was  assassinated 
in  711.  With  him  the  dynasty  of  Heraclius  expired. 

Philippicus  Bardanes  (the  leader  of  the  last  insurrection  against  Justinian  II.)  was 
next  raised  to  the  throne  (711);  but  having  made  himself  odious  by  favoring  the  meta- 
physical tenets  of  the  Monothelites,  he  was  deposed,  and  brutally  deprived  of  eye-sight 
(713).  His  successor,  Anastasius  II.,  prudently  screened  himself  from  a mutinous  army 
by  retiring  into  a monastery  (716),  and  left  the  crown  to  Theodosius  III.,  who  abdicated 
in  717  when^fjeo,  the  Isaurian,  and  gen.  of  the  army  of  the  east,  did  not  recognize  him, 
and  marched  with  hostile  intent  to  Constantinople.  Leo  (q.v.)  himself  ascended  the 
throne  in  717,  and  drove  back  the  Arabs  from  Constantinople,  but  unhappily  gave  occa- 
sion, in  726,  for  that  contest  concerning  the  worship  of  images,  which  rent  the  empire 
for  more  than  a century.  In  728,  the  exarchate  of  Kavenna  was  lost,  and  the  eastern 
provinces  became  the  prey  of  the  Arabs,  over  whom,  however,  he  won  a great  victory 
in  Phrygia.  He  died  in  741,  Constantine  V.  (741-775),  son  of  Leo  III.,  on  account  of 
his  zeal  as  an  iconoclast,  was  hated  by  the  monks,  who  gave  him  the  surname  “ Cop- 


JSyzantine. 


246 


ronymos,  ” because  (according  to  their  malicious  and  uncleanly  statement)  he  had  polluted 
the  font  at  his  baptism.  He  was  a brave  ruler,  recovered  from  the  Arabs  parts  of  Syria 
and  Armenia,  and  ultimately  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  against  whom  he  had  long  been 
unsuccessful.  His  son,  Leo  IV.  (775-780),  was  a mild  ruler;  but  by  the  ability  of  hU 
generals,  he  made  the  boundaries  of  the  empire  secure  against  the  Arabs.  After  him, 
Constantine  VI.  ascended  the  throne  under  the  guardianship  of  his  ambitious  mother, 
Irene  (q.v.),  who  raised  a powerful  party  in  favor  of  image- worship.  Constantine  having 
made  an  attempt  to  liberate  himself  from  the  influence  of  his  mother  and  her  paramour, 
Btauratius,  Irene  barbarously  caused  her  own  son  to  be  blinded  (797).  He  died  soon 
after  this  atrocity;  and  Irene,  who  had  boldly  conceived  the  design  of  marrying  the 
•emperor  Charlemagne,  and  thus  uniting  the  e.  and  w.  of  Europe  in  one  vast  realm, 
excited  the  opposition  which,  in  802,  placed  her  treasurer,  Nicephorus,  on  the  throne. 
Irene  was  banished  to  Lesbos,  where  she  died  in  803.  Nicephorus,  who  fell  in  battle 
against  the  Bulgarians  (811),  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Stauratius,  who  soon  yielded 
the  throne  to  his  brother-in-law,  Michael  I.,  from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Armenian 
gen.,  Leo  V.,  a powerful  ruler,  who  conquered  the  Bulgarians,  but  fell  (820)  in  a con- 
spiracy excited  by  his  zeal  against  image- worship.  Michael  II. , the  stammerer,  was 
raised  from  a dungeon  to  the  throne,  and  ruled  until  829.  In  his  reign,  Crete  and  Sicily 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Arabs.  Under  the  rule  of  his  son,  Theophilus,  who  is 
praised  by  the  Byzantine  historians  for  his  love  of  justice  (829-842),  the  gen.,  Manuel, 
gained  some  indecisive  victories  over  the  Arabs.  Theodora,  widow  of  Theophilus,  and 
guardian  of  Michael  III.  (842-867),  brought  the  controversy  about  images  to  a close  at 
the  council  of  Nicaea  (842),  when  the  worship  of  these  was  fully  sanctioned  and  re-intro- 
duced. During  this  reign  the  government  busied  itself  in  the  persecution  of  the  Pauli- 
cians  (q.v.),  while  the  Arabs  devastated  the  Asiatic  provinces.  Theodora,  having  been 
banished  to  a convent  by  her  son,  the  government  was  for  some  time  held  by  Bardas, 
uncle  of  Michael  III.,  and  after  his  assassination,  by  Basilius  I.,  the  Macedonian,  who 
caused  Michael  to  be  put  to  death,  and  afterwards  ruled  ably  from  867  to  886.  But 
though  on  the  whole  successful  against  the  Arabs,  the  latter  contrived  to  make  them- 
selves masters  of  Syracuse.  His  dynasty  (the  Macedonian)  maintained  itself  on  the 
Byzantine  throne,  with  some  few  interruptions,  until  1056.  The  reign  of  his  son,  Leo 
VI.,  the  philosopher,  (886-912),  was  not  prosperous.  The  inroads  of  the  Bulgarians  and 
of  the  Arabs,  who,  in  904,  plundered  Thessalonica,  continued  to  increase  during  the 
government  of  his  son,  Constantine  VII. , Porphyrogenitus,  who  ruled  mildly  but  feebly 
<912-959).  Under  his  son,  the  dissolute  Romanus  II.  (959-963),  Crete  was  retaken  from 
the  Arabs  by  the  vigor  of  his  gen.,  Nicephorus  Phocas,  who,  on  the  death  of  the  empe- 
ror, married  his  widow,  Tlieophania.  She,  however,  caused  him  to  be  murdered  in 
969,  as  she  wished  to  marry  John  Tzimiskes,  who  ruled  till  976,  and,  like  his  predecessor, 
was  victorious  against  the  Arabs  and  Bulgarians,  as  also  the  Russians,  who  about  this 
time  began  to  emerge  from  obscurity  as  an  enemy  of  the  Byzantine  power.  His  succes- 
sor, Basilius  II.  (976-1025),  the  son  of  Romanus,  conquered  the  Bulgarian  kingdom,  and 
attached  it  as  a province  to  the  empire,  which  it  remained  till  1186,  when  it  again  became 
independent.  His  brother,  Constantine  VIII.  (1025-28),  did  not  resemble  him.  Romanus 
III.  next  ascended  the  throne,  but  was  assassinated  by  his  wife,  Zoe,  a profligate  but 
crafty  princess,  who  raised  successively  to  the  imperial  dignity  Michael  IV.  (1034),  Michael 
V.  (1041),  and  Constantine  IX.  (1042).  Meanwhile,  Russians  and  Arabs  devastated  the 
realm.  In  Asia,  the  Seljuk  Turks  proved  dangerous  enemies;  while  in  lower  Italy,  the 
Normans  narrowed  the  Byzantine  power  to  the  possession  of  Otranto.  After  Constan- 
tine’s death  in  1054,  Theodora,  sister  of  Zoe,  was  elected  empress;  and  on  .her  death  in 
1056,  Michael  VI.,  who  was  deposed  by  Isaac  I.,  Comnenus. 

With  Isaac  I.,  Comnenus,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1057,  the  dynasty  of  the  Com- 
nenian  emperors  began.  He  retired  to  a monastery  (1059),  and  was  succeeded  by  Con- 
stantine X.,  whose  widow,  Eudocia,  married  Romanus  IV.,  and  raised  him  to  the 
throne.  Romanus  was  deposed  in  1071  by  Michael  VII.  (son  of  Constantine  X.),  who, 
in  his  turn,  was  dethroned  by  Nicephorus  HI.  (1078),  who  reigned  until  1081,  when  he 
was  deposed  by  Alexius  I.,  Comnenus  (q.v.),  (1081-1118).  This  last  reign  was  marked 
by  the  commencement  of  the  crusades.  The  successors  of  Alexius — his  son,  Kalo- Joan- 
nes (1118^43),  and  Manuel  I.  (1143-80) — were  able  rulers,  and  victorious  in  their  engage- 
ments with  the  Turks.  Manuel’s  son,  Alexius  II.,  was  murdered  by  his  guardian, 
Andronicus  (grandson  of  Alexius  I.),  who  raised  himself  to  the  throne.  He  was  the  last 
prince  of  the  Comnenian  dynasty,  and  fell  in  an  insurrection  excited  by  his  own  cruelty, 
1185. 

After  the  first  turbulent  reign  of  Isaac  II.,  who  was  blinded  and  deposed  by  his 
brother,  Alexius  III.,  who  took  the  surname  of  Comnenus  in  1195,  the  crusaders 
restored  Isaac  to  the  throne  (1203),  and  also  crowned  his  son  Alexius  IV. ; but  the  rest- 
less citizens  of  Constantircple  elected  Nicolas  Kanabus,  who  took  the  title  of  Alexius 
V.,  and  pursuing  the  usual  bloody  course,  put  his  predecessor  to  death. 

In  1204,  the  French  and  the  Venetians  (collectively  named  Latins)  advanced  on  Con- 
stantinople, and  captured  the  city,  April  12,  having  made  themselves  masters^  of  the 
European  provinces.  The  whole  was  divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  the  first,  includ- 
ing the  metropolis,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  who  was  made  emperor, 
and  to  whom  the  other  participants  in  the  expedition  did  fealty  for  their  respective 
shares.  The  Venetians  obtained  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic  and  iEgean  seas,  a part  of 


247 


Byzantinev 


the  Morea,  and  several  islands;  Bonifacius,  count  of  Montferrat,  Macedonia,  and  part 
of  Greece;  several  dukedoms,  countships,  etc,,  were  also  established  at  Athens,  Philip- 
popolis,  and  other  places  for  French  knights;  while  a number  of  Greek  princes,  both  on 
the  mainland  and  in  the  islands,  maintained  their  independence.  In  the  w.  of  Asia 
Minor,  Theodorus  Lascaris,  who  had  been  elected  emperor  at  Constantinople,  formally 
transferred  the  seat  of  government  to  Nicaea;  and  finally,  in  the  n.e.  of  Asia  Minor,  the 
governor  of  the  province  of  Colchis,  Alexius  Comnenus,  ruled  at  Trebizond  with  abso- 
lute authority;  while  one  of  his  successors,  John  Comnenus,  even  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor.  At  Constantinople,  neither  Baldwin  nor  his  successors  could  strengthen  the 
sinking  empire,  Baldwin  himself  died  (1206)  a prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the  Bulgarians. 
After  him  came  his  brother  Henry,  who  ruled  bravely  and  wisely  till  1216.  For  the 
next  four  years,  the  empire  was  actually  without  a ruler,  and  a prey  to  utter  anarchy. 
In  1221,  Robert,  son  of  Peter,  count  of  Auxerre  and  Courtenay,  came  to  the  throne; 
and  was  succeeded  by  John  of  Brienne,  titular  king  of  Jerusalem  (1228-37);  and  the 
latter  by  Baldwin  II.  (1237-61).  During  these  reigns,  a great  part  of  the  empire  was 
seized  by  John  Vatazes,  successor  of  Theodorus  Lascaris  of  Nicaea  (1222-55).  This  ruler 
was  followed  in  Nicaea  by  Theodorus  II.  (1255-59),  whose  son,  Johannes,  during  his 
minority,  was  superseded  by  Michael  YIII.,  Palaeologus,  who,  by  the  help  of  the 
Genoese,  captured  Constantinople  (July  25,  1261),  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  Latin 
dynasty;  though  some  few  Latin  principalities  maintained  themselves  till  the  fall  of  the 
Byzantine  empire. 

Michael,  the  first  of  the  Palaeologi,  a powerful  prince,  really  endeavored  to  strengthen 
the  realm ; but,  by  his  unhappy  attempt  to  unite  the  Greek  church  with  the  Latin,  from 
which  it  had  decisively  separated  (1054),  he  gave  great  offense  to  the  clergy  and  the 
people.  His  son,  Andronicus  II.,  who  came  to  the  throne,  1282,  re-established  the 
Greek  ritual.  After  the  death  of  his  son  and  co-regent,  Michael  IX.  (1320),  Andronicus 
II.  was  compelled  to  divide  the  throne  with  his  grandson,  Andronicus  HI.,  who  became 
sole  emperor,  1328.  This  monarch  unsuccessfully  opposed  the  Turks,  who  took  Nicaea 
and  Nicomedia  in  1339,  and  wasted  the  European  coasts.  He  died  in  1341.  Under  his 
son,  Johannes  V.,  the  Turks  first  gained  a firm  footing  in  the  European  provinces,  and 
spread  themselves  from  Gallipoli  (which  they  captured  in  1357)  over  other  districts. 
Sultan  Murad  took  Adrianople,  1361,  and  made  it  the  seat  of  government.  He  and  his 
follower,  Bajazet,  conquered  all  the  Byzantine  territories  as  far  as  Constantinople. 
Manuel  II.,  son  and  successor  of  Johannes,  was  besieged  in  Constantinople  by  Bajazet, 
who  defeated  an  army  under  Sigismund  of  Hungary,  at  Nicopolis,  in  1396,  and  com- 
pelled the  Byzantine  monarch  to  cede  to  the  Turks  one  of  the  main  streets  of  the  city, 
which  was  saved  from  capture  only  by  Timur’s  incursions  into  the  Turkish  territories, 
1402.  By  this  diversion  Manuel  recovered  some  portion  of  the  Byzantine  provinces; 
but  made  so  little  use  of  the  occasion,  that,  in  1422,  the  metropolis  was  again  besieged 
by  Murad  II.,  who,  after  he  had  overthrown  the  force  sent  to  aid  the  emperor  by 
Ladislaus,  king  of  Hungary,  at  the  battle  of  Varna,  made  Constantinople,  in  1444,  the 
limit  of  the  domains  of  Johannes  VI.,  son  of  Manuel,  and  compelled  him  to  pay  tribute. 
Constantine  XI.,  brother  of  Johannes,  bravely  but  fruitlessly  contended  against  the 
overwhelming  Turkish  forces,  and  fell  heroically  in  the  defense  of  Constantinople, 
which  was  captured  by  Mohammed  II.,  May  29,  1453,  when  the  B.  E.  was  brought  to 
a close.  The  petty  Latin  princes  who  existed  here  and  there  in  Greece,  and  the  despots, 
Demetrius  and  Tlaomas,  who  ruled  in  the  Morea,  were  subdued  by  Mohammed  in  1460 ; 
while  David,  a member  of  the  Comnenian  dynasty,  the  last  emperor  of  Trebizond,  sub- 
mitted in  1461. 

It  is  almost  superfluous,  after  this  painful  and  bloody  record  of  dynastic  crimes  and 
tumults,  continuing  century  after  century  for  upwards  of  a thousand  years,  to  affirm 
that  the  history  of  the  world  never  witnessed  so  miserable  and  degraded  a caricature  of 
imperial  government  as  the  B.  E.  affords,  or  to  express  the  conviction  that  nature  was 
sternly  satisfied  to  behold  it  finally  swept  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  even  by  the  hands 
of  barbarous  Turks. 

The  constitution  of  the  B.  E.  was  founded  on  the  institutions  of  Diocletian  and 
Constantine  the  great,  and  was  purely  despotic.  The  emperors,  who  were  consecrated 
by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  claimed,  as  the  true  descendants  of  the  Caesars,  a 
sovereignty  over  the  west  as  well  as  the  east,  and  styled  themselves  “rulers  of  the  Ro- 
mans, ” even  after  Charlemagne  had  founded  a new  dynasty.  Though  great  influence  was 
at  various  times  exercised  by  the  clergy  as  well  as  by  women,  courtiers,  and  ministers,  the 
emperors  were  pure  autocrats,  having  supreme  power  in  all  departments  of  government, 
and  being  themselves  superior  to  all  laws.  By  pompous  titles,  by  great  splendor  of  cos- 
tume. and  by  a strict  observance  of  an  elaborately  minute  court  ceremonial,  as  well  as  by 
the  cruel  penalties  inflicted  for  any  insult  offered  to  the  imperial  dignity,  or  to  the  dignity 
of  the  emperor’s  relatives,  they  kept  themselves  sacredly  apart  from  the  people.  Gradually, 
everything  disappeared  that  might  have  been  a check  upon  the  utter  despotism  of  the 
supreme  power.  As  early  as  the  6th  c.,  the  consulate  was  absorbed  into  the  mass  of 
imperial  honors,  while  the  traces  of  the  senate  which  Constantine  had  established  at 
Byzantium,  and  which  was  composed  of  those  on  whom  the  emperor  had  bestowed  the- 
dignity  of  patriciate,  as  well  as  the  chartered  privileges  of  the  towns,  had  entirely  van- 
ished in  the  10th  century.  The  privy  council,  to  whom  the  conduct  of  the  state  was 
intrusted,  was  arbitrarily  chosen  by  the  emperor.  The  state  officials  were  very  numer- 


l>yzantlne. 


248 


ous,  and  their  respective  ranks  carefully  distinguished.  They  were  raised  far  above  the 
populace  by  titles  and  privileges,  but  were  utterly  dependent  on  the  throne.  Among 
these,  the  domestici  (including  many  eunuchs),  claimed  the  highest  rank  as  immediate 
attendants  on  the  emperor.  The  rank  of  the  curopalates,  who  had  charge  of  the  four 
chief  imperial  palaces,  became,  in  course,  of  time,  subordinate  to  that  of  the  protovesti- 
arius,  who  was  invested  with  the  highest  dignity  of  all.  The  domestici  were  made  com- 
manders-in-chief of  the  army.  Among  them,  the  domesticus  of  the  east  (styled,  par  excel- 
lence,  megadomesticus)  held  the  highest  rank,  and  finally,  under  the  Palaeologi,  was  con- 
sidered the  first  civil  and  military  officer  of  the  realm.  The  provinces  were  ruled  by 
governors  bound  to  contribute  certain  sums  to  the  royal  revenue,  which  gave  rise  to 
oppressive  exactions.  No  distinction  was  made  between  the  state-revenue  and  the  privy- 
purse.  For  military  service,  the  land  was  divided  into  districts  {themata)-,  and  the 
army,  down  to  the  later  times,  consisted  almost  entirely  of  foreign  mercenary  troops, 
the  imperial  body-guard,  or  spatharii,  who  were  mainly  Germans,  holding  the  highest 
rank.  The  admiral  of  the  fieet  was  styled  megas  dux.  In  the  midst  of  constant  internal 
and  external  disturbances,  the  administration  of  justice  was  grossly  neglected  and  abused, 
though  Justinian  and  other  emperors  earnestly  endeavored  to  establish  just  laws. 

BYZAN'TINE  HISTOEIANS  are  those  Greek  writers  who  have  handled  the  history  of 
the  Byzantine  empire.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes — 1.  Those  whose  works 
refer  exclusively  to  Byzantine  history ; 2.  Those  who  professedly  occupy  themselves 
with  universal  history,  but  at  the  same  time  treat  Byzantine  history  at  disproportionate 
length;  3.  Those  who  write  on  Byzantine  customs,  antiquities,  architecture,  etc.  The 
B.  H.  are  far  from  faultless,  yet,  as  they  are  the  only  sources  of  information  regarding 
the  vast  empire  of  the  east,  they  are  invaluable  to  us.  The  most  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive among  them,  however,  are  those  who  confine  their  attention  to  a limited  number  of 
years,  and  to  the  events  which  transpired  under  their  own  observation,  or  in  which  they 
took  part.  The  principal  B.  H.  were  collected  and  published  at  Paris  in  36  vols.,  wdth 
Latin  translations  under  the  editorship  of  P.  Philippe  Labbe,  a Jesuit,  and  his  success- 
ors (1648-1711).  This  magnificent  collection  was  reprinted,  with  additions,  at  Venice, 
1727-33.  In  1828,  Niebuhr,  assisted  by  Bekker,  the  Dindorfs,  and  others,  began  a 
Corpus  Scriptorum  Historice  Byzantirm,  carried  on  till  1855,  and  continued  in  1872  by  the 
Bibliotheca  Orceca  Medii  JEvi. 

BYZANTINE  RECENSION,  the  Greek  New  Testament  used  in  Constantinople 
after  that  city  became  a see  in  the  eastern  church:  also  used  as  the  basis  of  the  old 
Slavonic  version.  It  differs  very  little  from  the  received  text. 

BYZAN'TINES,  in  numismatics,  is  the  term  applied  to  coins  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 
Byzantine  coins  are  of  gold,  silver,  and  bronze ; bear  impressions  distinct  from  those  of 
the  earlier  Roman  coins;  and  were  copied  in  several  countries  where  the  Byzantine 
standard  was  adopted.  The  commercial  relations  of  the  eastern  empire  served  to  dis- 
tribute its  coinage  over  almost  all  the  then  known  world.  It  was  current  in  India,  as 
well  as  in  the  n.  of  Europe.  Recently,  an  increased  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  study 
of  I^'zantine  coins  as  aids  to  history. — Saulcy,  Essaide  Classification  de  Suites  Monetaires 
Byz^tines  (Metz,  1836). 

BYZAN  TIUM,  a city  which  stood  on  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  was  first  founded  by 
emigrants  from  Megara  in  667  b.c.,  and  rapidly  rose  to  importance  as  a seat  of  com- 
merce. Its  position  was  at  once  secure  and  enchanting;  it  commanded  the  shores  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  had  magnificent  facilities  for  trade,  and  was  also  encircled  with  rich, 
picturesque,  and  varied  scenery.  After  a time  of  subjugation  under  Darius  Hystaspes, 
B.  was  liberated  from  the  Persian  yoke  by  Pausanias.  Along  with  other  Grecian  sea- 
ports, B.  revolted  from  Athens  in  440  b.c.,  but  was  captured  by  Alcibiades  (408).  Lpan- 
der  recovered  it  for  the  Lacedemonians  in  405.  Shortly  afterwards,  it  renewed  its  alliance 
with  Athens,  and  in  390,  Thrasybulus  altered  its  form  of  government  from  an  oligarchy 
into  a democracy.  When  Athens  again  acquired  a dangerous  importance  as  a naym 
power,  B.,  in  356,  leagued  itself  with  Chios,  Rhodes,  and  king  Mausolus  II.,  of  Caria, 
and  crippled  the  trade  of  the  former  city;  with  which,  however,  it  again  formed  an 
aMiance,  through  the  influence  of  Demosthenes,  in  opposition  to  Philip  of  Macedon, 
who,  in  341-340  b.c.,  vainly  besieged  Byzantium.  Under  Alexander  the  great,  B. 
retained  a certain  degree  of  independence.  For  some  time,  B.  was  tributary  to  the 
Gauls,  who  settled  in  Thrace,  after  the  death  of  Brennus  (280  b.c.).  After  the  second 
Punic  w^ar,  wdien  the  Romans  began  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Grecian  and  Asiatic 
cities,  B.  attached  itself  to  Rome,  and,  retaining  almost  entire  its  former  liberties,  main- 
tained also  its  commercial  importance.  In  the  civil  war  between  Septimius  Severus 
and  Pescennius  Niger,  B.  sided  with  the  latter.  It  was  therefore  besieged  by  Severus, 
and,  after  a brave  defense  of  3 years’  duration,  was  captured  in  196  a.d.,  and  reduced  to 
ruin.  Severus,  repenting  of  the  desolation  wdiich  he  had  made,  rebuilt  a part  of  the 
city  under  the  name  of  Augusta  Antonina,  and  ornamented  it  with  baths,  porticos,  etc. 
Caracalla  restored  to  the  inhabitants  their  ancient  privileges;  and  in  330  a.d.,  under  the 
name  of  New  Rome  or  Constantinople,  it  w'asmade  the  metropolis  of  the  Roman  empire. 
See  Constantinople. 

BZOVIUS,  or  Bzowsivi,  Abrabam,  1567-1637;  a Polish  Dominican,  one  of  the  most 
voluminous  writers  of  his  time.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  Milan 
and  Bologna.  He  continued  the  ecclesiastical  annals  of  Baronius  from  1198  to  1532. 


249 


Byzantine. 

C. 


C 

CTHE  third  letter  in  all  the  alphabets  derived  from  the  Roman.  It  corresponds 
in  place  to  the  Greek  gamma  (F),  and  had  originally  the  same  sound — viz.,  that  of 
g in  gun;  as  is  expressly  recorded,  and  as  is  proved  by  very  old  inscriptions,  on 
'which  'we  read  leciones,  lece,  for  "what  'were  after'wards  'written  legiones,  lege.  This  medial 
or  flat  guttural  sound  of  c was  at  an  early  period  of  Roman  history  lost  in  the  sharp 
guttural  or  A;-sound  (see  Alphabet),  and  this  continued  to  be  the  pronunciation  of  the 
letter  c in  Latin  down  at  least  to  the  8th  c.  of  the  Christian  era,  not  only  in  such  words 
as  comes,  clamo,  but  also  before  the  vowels  e and  i.  Such  Latin  words  as  Cicero,  fecit, 
are  uniformly  represented  in  Greek  by  Kikero,  phekit;  and  in  the  times  of  the  empire, 
the  Germans  borrowed  Kaiser,  keller,  from  Goesar,  cellarium. 

K seems  difficult,  at  first  sight,  to  account  for  the  same  letter  having  sounds  so  dif- 
ferent as  those  heard  in  call  and  in  civil.  The  beginning  of  the  transition  is  to  be  found 
in  the  effect  produced  upon  certain  consonants  by  their  standing  before  i followed  by  a 
vowel.  Thus,  in  nation,  ti  has  the  effect  of  sh-,  and  out  of  diurnal  has  sprung  journal. 
In  such  combinations,  i is  originally  a semi-vowel  having  the  force  of  y,  and  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  tyon,  dyur,  pronounced  in  one  syllable,  cannot  but  slide  into  the  sibilant  or 
hissing  sounds  of  shon,jur.  A precisely  similar  effect  is  produced  on  the  A:-sound  before 
ia,  iu,  io;  in  Lucius,  Porcia,  or  rather  Lukyus,  Porkya,  ky  tends  to  slide  into  a hissing; 
sound  similar  to  that  of  ty  and  dy.  This  tendency  showed  itself  early  in  the  Latin 
tongue;  and  in  the  vulgar  Latin  of  later  ages,  and  in  the  Romanic  tongues  that  sprang 
out  of  it,  it  fully  developed  itself,  so  that  the  Italian  came  to  pronounce  Lueia  as  if 
written  Lutshia.  Combinations  like  ceo,  cea,  are  little  different  from  do  and  cia,  and 
would  naturally  follow  the  same  course;  and  the  s-sound  being  once  associated  with  the 
letter  c in  these  positions  was  gradually  extended  to  it  in  cases  where  the  e or  i was  not 
followed  by  a vowel. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  resembled  the  Roman,  from  which  it  sprang,  in  having 
no  k,  and  in  always  using  c with  the  sound  of  k;  king  and  keen  were  spelled  cyning  and 
cene.  It  was  also  without  q,  for  which  cw  was  used — quick  being  spelled  cwic.  By  a 
process  analogous  to  that  described  above,  such  Anglo-Saxon  words  as  ceorl,  ceosan  (pro. 
kyorl,  kyosan),  became  transformed  into  the  English  churl,  choose.  And  this  suggests  a 
natural  explanation  of  the  multitude  of  cases  where  the  c of  the  Latin  has  been  trans- 
formed into  c/i  in  French,  and  has  passed  in  this  form  into  English — e.g.,  'LdX.  caput, 
Fr.  chef,  Eng.  chief;  Lat.  caminus,  Eng.  chimney;  Lat.  carmen,  Eng.  charm.  For  as 
the  Anglo-Saxons  turned  the  karl  or  korl  of  the  other  Gothic  nations  into  kyorl,  so  doubt- 
less the  Romanized  Gauls  corrupted  the  pronunciation  of  the  Latin  camera,  for  exam- 
ple, into  kyamera  (compare  Eng.  cart,  pro.  by  some  kyart),  which  would  then  readily 
slide  into  chambre. 

In  the  other  Germanic  alphabets,  which  were  derived  partly  from  the  Roman  and 
partly  from  the  Greek,  the  Greek  kappa  or  k is  used  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  c,  which, 
in  German,  Swedish,  etc.,  appears  only  in  words  borrowed  from  the  Romanic  languages. 
See  letter  K. 

In  modern  English,  c is  pronounced  like  k before  the  vowels  a,  o,  u,  and  like  s before 
e,  i,  and  y;  and  where  the  sharp  guttural  sound  has  to  be  represented  before  e,  i,  and  y, 
the  Germanic  k has  superseded  the  Anglo-Saxon  c,  as  in  king,  keen.  In  so  far  as  mere 
sound  is  concerned,  c is  a superfluous  letter  in  English ; in  every  case  its  power  could  be 
represented  either  by  k or  by  s.  In  the  corresponding  words  of  the  several  Aryan  languages, 
we  find  various  substitutions  for  c,  thus:  Lat.  calamus,  Eng.  halm  (stalk),  Rus.  soloma; 
Lat.  cord-,  Eng.  heart,  Rus.  serdtse;  Lat.  collum,  Ger.  ^a^s(neck);  Lat.  (sharp) ; Fr. 
aigre,  Eng.  eager;  Lat.  due-  (lead  or  draw),  Ger.  zog,  Eng.  tug;  Gr.  pepo,  Lat.  coquo,  Eng. 
cook;  Lat.  dictus,  Ital.  ditto.  C sometimes  disappears  before  I and  r;  thus ; Gr.  kleo  (to- 
^und  one’s  fame,  allied  to  kaleo,  to  call  or  shout),  Lat.  laudo,  to  praise,  Ger.  laut,  voice, 
Eng.  loud,  old  Ger.  hlud,  fame  (hence  Hludwig  or  Clodowig,  Clovis,  Louis). 

C,  in  music,  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  notes  of  the  gamut.  The  scale  of  C major  has 
neither  flats  nor  sharps,  and  therefore  is  called  the  natural  scale.  The  different  octaves 
of  the  gamut,  beginning  with  C,  are  called  by  the  Germans  the  great,  small,  one-stroked, 
two-stroked,  etc.,  beginning  with 


; thus,  c C,  c,  c,  c,  c. 


C is  also  the  sound  on  -which  the  system  of  music  is  founded,  and  from  which  the  mathe- 
matical proportions  of  intervals  are  taken;  that  is,  a string  of  a given  length  sounding  C, 
when  divided  into  certain  proportions,  is  made  to  produce  harmonically  the  intervals  of 
the  different  fundamental  chords. 


Caaba. 

Cabbage. 


250 


C Major,  the  first  of  the  twelve  major  keys  in  modern  music ; being  the  natural  scale, 
it  has  no  signature. 

C Minor,  the  tonic  minor  of  C major,  has  three  flats  for  its  signature — viz,,  B flat,  E 
flat,  and  A flat. 

CAABA.  See  Kaaba. 

CAA'ING  WHALE,  Globicephalus  deductor,  an  interesting  cetaceous  animal,  which  has 
been  very  generally  included  by  naturalists  in  the  genus  delphinus  with  dolphins  (q.v.) 
and  porpoises  (q.v.),  being  named  by  some  delphinus  melas  (Gr.  black),  by  others  B. 
globiceps,  from  the  round  form  of  its  head,  but  which  has  recently  been  separated  from 
the  true  dolphins,  either  as  a species  of  porpoise  {phoccena),  or  as  the  type  of  a distinct 
genus,  globicephalus,  principally  characterized  by  the  rounded  muzzle,  and  the  convex 
and  rounded  top  of  the  head.  The  general  form  of  the  animal  is  not  unlike  that  of  tho 
common  porpoise,  but  it  is  much  larger,  being  from  16  to  24  ft.  in  length.  The  body  is 
thick,  its  circumference  at  the  origin  of  the  dorsal  fin,  where  it  is  greatest,  being  rather 
more  than  10  ft.,  tapering  towards  the  tail,  which  is  deeply  forked.  The  pectoral  fins 
are  remarkably  long  and  narrow,  fully  5 ft.  in  length,  differing  very  much  in  this  respect 
from  those  of  every  other  known  cetaceous  animal.  The  whole  number  of  vertebrae 
is  55.  The  color  is  black,  with  a white  streak  from  the  throat  to  the  vent;  and  the  skin 
is  beautifully  smooth,  shining  like  oiled  silk. 

The  C.  W.  feeds  on  cod,  ling,  and  other  large  fishes,  but  also  to  a great  extent  on 
cephalopodous  mollusca,  the  cuttle-fish,  indeed,  seeming  to  be  its  principal  food.  It  is 
the  most  gregarious  of  all  the  cetacea,  great  shoals  or  herds  being  usually  seen  together 
in  the  northern  seas  which  it  inhabits.  These  herds  exhibit  the  same  propensity  with 
flocks  of  sheep,  when  pressed  by  any  danger,  to  follow  their  leaders,  so  that  when  they 
are  hemmed  in  by  boats,  if  one  break  through  to  the  open  sea,  all  escape ; but  if  one  is 
driven  ashore,  the  rest  rush  forward  with  such  blind  impetuosity  as  to  strand  themselves 
upon  the  beach,  where  they  become  an  easy  prey  and  rich  prize  to  their  pursuers.  The 
appearance  of  a herd  of  caaing  whales  in  a northern  bay  produces  a scene  of  great  excite- 
ment, and  every  boat  is  in  requisition.  From  50  to  100  whales  are  often  captured,  and 
it  is  recorded  that  1110  were  killed,  in  the  winter  of  1809-10,  at  Hvalfiord,  in  Iceland. 
The  word  caaing  is  not  the  Scottish  form  of  calling,  as  has  been  supposed,  but  is  a totally 
different  Scotch  word,  which  signifies  driving.  C.  W.  appears  to  be  originally  an  Ork- 
ney or  Zetland  name.  The  same  animal  is  known  to  sailors  as  the  black  whale,  the 
howling  whale,  the  social  whale,  and  the  pilot-fish. — Another  species  of  the  same  genus, 
G.  rissoanus,  9 or  10  ft.  long,  the  male  of  a bluish-white  color,  the  female  brown,  both 
sexes  marked  with  irregular  white  lines  and  brown  spots,  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean. 

CABAGAN',  a thriving  t.,  situated  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Luzon, 
one  of  the  Philippines.  Pop.  upwards  of  11,000. 

CABAL',  a term  employed  to  denote  a small,  intriguing,  factious  party  in  the  state, 
and  also  a union  of  several  such,  which,  for  political  or  personal  ends,  agree  to  modify 
or  sacrifice  their  principles.  The  word  was  used  to  describe  an  English  ministry  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  the  initials  of  whose  names  composed  Cabal — viz.,  Clifford,  Ash- 
ley, Buckingham,  Arlington,  and  Lauderdale.  This  was  not  the  origin  of  the  word, 
Iiowever,  as  some  have  supposed;  but  merely  the  ingenious  application  of  a word  pre- 
viously in  use,  and  which  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  the  French  caibale,  possess- 
ing a similar  signification. 

CABALA.  See  Cabbala,  ante. 

CABANEL,  Alexandre,  b.  1823;  a French  painter  of  mythological  and  religious 
subjects,  among  which  are  “The  Birth  of  Venus”  (of  which  he  made  two  copies  for 
American  patrons),  and  “Nymph  carried  off  by  a Faun.”  He  is  a member  of  the 
French  academy,  and  a professor  in  the  school  of  fine  arts. 

CABANIS,  Pierre  .Tean  Georges,  a French  physician,  philosophical  writer,  and 
partisan  of  Mirabeau  in  the  revolution,  was  b.  at  Cosnac,  in  the  department  of  the 
CJharente-Inferieure,  1757.  When  he  had  completed  his  studies  in  Paris  (1773),  he  went 
to  Warsaw,  in  the  capacity  of  secretary  to  a Polish  magnate.  On  his  return  to  Paris, 
he  was  for  some  time  engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  from  which  he  turned  his  attention 
to  an  earnest  study  of  medicine.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  he  attached  himself 
to  the  liberal  side,  but  detested  the  cruelties  which  followed.  For  Mirabeau,  whose 
opinions  he  received,  he  wrote  a work  on  national  education,  which  was  published  after 
the  death  of  that  great  orator  (1791).  C.  was  one  of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  after- 
wards member  of  the  senate,  and  administrator  of  the  hospitals  of  Paris.  He  died  May 
5,  1808.  _ His  chief  work,  Rapports  da  Physique  et  du  Moral  de  V Homme,  completed  in 
1802,  gained  its  author  a considerable  reputation  as  a writer  and  philosopher.  The  work 
displays  no  mean  power  of  observation  and  analysis,  but  is  characterized  by  a sensation- 
alism so  absolute,  that  it  seems  at  first  siglit  as  if  the  author  were  burlesquing  with  grave 
irony  the  doctrines  of  his  brother-materialists.  He  denies  that  the  soul  is  an  entity;  it 
is  only  a faculty;  and  declares  the  brain  to  be  merely  a particular  organ  specially  fitted 
to  produce  thought,  as  the  stomach  and  the  intestines  perform  the  function  of  digestion. 
C.  traces  this  grotesque  analogy  through  all  its  niceties,  and  at  last  triumphantly  con- 
cludes, “that  the  brain  digests  impressions  and  organically  secretes  thought !” 


251 


Caaba. 

Cabbage,^ 


CABARRUS,  a co.  in  s.w.  North  Carolina,  on  the  N.  C.  railroad,  watered  by  Rocky 
river;  350  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  14,964 — 5120  colored.  Soil  moderately  fertile,  producing^ 
corn,  wheat,  cotton,  etc.  Co.  seat.  Concord. 


CABARRUS,  Francisco  de,  1752-1810;  a Spanish  financier,  originator  of  a bank 
and  company  for  trade  with  the  Philippine  islands.  He  was  one  of  the  council  of 
finance  under  Charles  III.,  and  proposed  many  reforms.  Under  Charles  IV.  he  was- 
accused  of  embezzlement  and  imprisoned,  but  soon  after  was  released  and  made  a 
count.  Bonaparte  made  him  a minister  of  finance,  in  which  otfice  he  died.  His 
daughter  Theresc,  under  the  name  of  Mme.  Tallien,  afterwards  princess  of  Chimay, 
was  conspicuous  in  the  closing  days  of  the  French  revolution  of  1789. 

CABATUAN,  a city  of  the  province  of  Iloilo,  on  the  island  of  Panay,  one  of  the 
Philippines.  It  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Tiguin,  which  so  abounds  with 
crocodiles  that  fishing  is  unsafe.  Navigation  is  very  uncertain,  the  river  being  some- 
times nearly  dry,  while  at  others  it  overflows  its  banks,  and  deluges  the  surrounding 
country.  The  city  was  founded  in  1732,  and  possesses  a population  of  23,000,  who  are 
chiefly  engaged  in  the  production  of  rice,  and  of  cocoa-nut  oil. 

CABAZERA,  capital  of  the  province  of  Cagayan,  island  of  Luzon,  Philippines.  Pop. 
15,000.  Tobacco  is  grown  very  extensively  in  the  province,  and  its  manufacture  affords- 
employment  to  large  numbers  of  people. 

CABBAGE,  Brassica  oleracea  (see  Brassica),  a plant  in  most  general  cultivation  for 
culinary  purposes  in  Europe  and  other  countries,  cultivated  also  to  a considerable  extent 
for  feeding  cattle.  It  is  a native  of  the  rocky  shores  of  Britain  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  more  plentiful  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  than  in  more  northern  lati- 
tudes, and  in  its  wild  state  is  generally  from  a foot  to  two  feet  high.  This  plant  has 
been  cultivated  in  Europe  from  time  immemorial;  it  has  likewise  been  cultivated  from 
an  early  period  in  gardens  and  about  villages  in  India.  Few  plants  show  so  great  a ten- 
dency to  vary  in  their  form  through  cultivation;  and  among  the  varieties  of  this  one 
species  are  reckoned  several  of  our  most  esteemed  culinary  vegetables,  such  as  kale 
(q.v.)  or  greens,  borecole,  colewort  (q.v.),  savoy  (q.v.),  kohl  rabi  (q.  v.),  cauliflower (q.v.), 
and  broccoli  (q.v.) — plants  which  differ  much  in  their  appearance  and  in  the  particular 
qualities  for  which  tney  are  valuable,  both  from  each  other  and  from  the  original  wild 
plant. 

The  wild  C.  has  smooth  sea-green  leaves,  waved  and  variously  indented;  the  boiling 
of  the  leaves,  or  their  forming  close  heads  at  a certain  stage  of  tile  growth  of  the  plant, 
so  that  the  inner  leaves  are  blanched,  is  peculiar  to  those  cultivated  varieties  which  com- 
monly receive  the  name  of  cabbage. 

The  ordinary  varieties  of  C.  are  often  called  by  the  general  name  of  white  G. , to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  red  C.,  which  is  of  a deep  brownish-red  or  purplish  color,  and  is 
chiefly  used  for  pickling,  for  which  purpose  it  is  much  esteemed.  The  t7'et  C.,  or  com 
G.,  is  a variety  cultivated  for  cattle,  especially  in  the  Channel  islands  and  the  n.  of 
France,  of  which  the  leaves  do  not  close  together  into  compact  heads,  but  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  great  height — reaching,  when  it  is  in  flower,  10  ft.  on  rich  soils — and 
for  its  branching  stem.  The  stems  of  this  kind  are  sometimes  used  as  stakes  for  pease, 
and  even  as  cross-spars  for  thatched  roofs.  The  Portugal  or  tranxuda  G.,  also  known  as 
couve  tronchuda,  is  a variety  remarkable  for  its  delicacy,  and  for  the  large  midribs  of  its 
leaves,  which  are  often  used  like  sea-kale.  It  is  an  article  of  luxury  like  cauliflower, 
and  requires  a somewhat  similar  cultivation. — Cabbage-seed  is  sown  either  in  spring  or 
autumn,  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  in  rows  at  distances  of  two  feet  or  upwards, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  variety.  They  are  often  planted  closer,  and  the  alternate 
plants  cut  young  for  open  greens,  for  which  the  sprouts  that  arise  from  the  stem  of  some 
varieties  after  the  head  has  been  cut  off  are  also  used.  Cabbages  require  a rich,  well  - 
manured  soil,  and  the  earth  about  the  roots  ought  to  be  often  stirred.  By  sowing  and 
planting  at  different  dates  and  of  different  varieties,  a succession  is  secured  in  the  gar- 
den; and  when  winter  approaches,  part  of  the  principal  crop  may  be  taken  up  and  laid 
in  a sloping  position,  so  that  only  the  heads  are  above  the  earth,  in  which  way  they  are 
generally  preservedwithout  injury.  In  some  places,  cabbages  are  completely  buried  in 
the  earth,  the  plants  not  being  allowed  to  touch  each  other;  and  this  method  succeeds 
well  in  peaty  or  sandy  soils. 

The  C. , considered  as  food,  contains  more  than  90  per  cent  of  water,  and  therefor® 
cannot  be  very  nutritious:  100  parts  of  the  ordinary  C.  consist  of 


Extractive 

Gummy  matters. . . 

Resin 

Vegetable  albumen 

Green  fecula 

Water  and  salts. . . 


2.34 

2.89 

0.05 

0.29 

0.63 

93.80 


The  digestibility  of  C.  varies  according  as  it  is  partaken  of  raw  or  boiled ; thus,  raw  C. 
alone  is  digested  in  2^  hours;  raw  C.,  with  vinegar,  in  2 hours;  and  boiled  C.  takes  4^ 
hours.  Immense  quantities  of  cabbages  are  used  in  Germany  as  sauer  kraut  (q.v.). 
CABBAGE  BARK.  See  Andira. 


Cabbage. 

•Cabin. 


252 


CABBAGE  BUTTERFLY,  a name  common  to  several  species  of  butterfly,  the  larvse 
of  which  devour  the  leaves  of  cruciferous  plants,  especially  of  the  cabbage  tribe,  and  are 
popularly  known  as  cabbage-worms  or  kale- worms.  The  large  C.  B,,  or  large  white 
garden  butterfly  {pontia  brassiccB,  or  pieris  brassicm),  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  Brit- 
ish butterflies.  It  is  white;  the  win^s  tipped  and  spotted  with  black.  The  wings, 
when  expanded,  measure  from  to  3 in.  across.  The  antennae  terminate  in  an  ovoid 
•club.  The  female  lays  her  eggs,  which  are  conical  and  bright  yellow,  in  clusters  of  20 
•or  30,  on  the  leaves  of  the  plants  which  are  the  destined  food  of  the  caterpillars. 
The  caterpillars,  when  fully  grown,  are  about  1 in.  or  1^  in.  long,  and  are  excess- 
ively voracious,  eating  twice  their  own  weight  of  cabbage-leaf  in  24  hours.  When 
full  grown,  they  suspend  themselves  by  their  tails,  often  under  ledges  of  garden- 
walls,  or  similar  projections,  and  are  metamorphosed  into  shining  pale-green  chrysa- 
lids, spotted  with  black,  from  which  the  perfect  insect  emerges,  either  in  the  same 
season  or  after  the  lapse  of  a winter — no  longer  to  devour  cabbage  leaves,  but  to 
subsist  delicately  upon  honey,  which  it  sucks  from  flowers. — See  Insects. — The 
small  C.  B.,  or  small  garden  wliite  butterfly,  sometimes  called  the  turnip  butterfly 
{pontia  OY pieris  rapcB),  very  much  resembles  the  large  C.  B.,  but  the  expanse  of  the 
wings  is  only  about  2 inches.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves  of  cabbages,  turnips,  etc. , and  the  caterpillars,  which  are  of  a velvety  appear- 
ance, pale  green,  with  a yellow  line  along  the  back,  and  a yellow  dotted  line  on 
•each  side,  sometimes  appear  in  great  numbers,  and  prove  very  destructive.  They 
bore  into  the  hearts  of  cabbages,  instead  of  merely  stripping  the  leaves,  like  those 
of  the  last  species,  and  thus  are  a greater  pest,  even  when  comparatively  few.  The 
•chrysalis  is  of  a pale  reddish-brown  color,  h’eckled  with  black. — A third  species, 
.also  common  in  Britain,  the  green-veined  white  butterfly  {pontiaorpieris  napi),  very 
nearly  resembles  the  small  cabbage  butterfly. — The  excessive  multiplication  of  these 
insects  is  generally  prevented  by  small  birds,  which  devour  them  and  their  caterpil- 
lars, and  by  insects  of  the  ichneumon  (q.v.)  tribe,  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  caterpillars, 
that  their  own  larvse  may  feed  on  them. 

CABBAGE  FLY,  Anthomyia  brassicce,  a fly  of  the  same  family  with  the  house-fly, 
hesh-fly,  etc.,  and  of  which  the  larvse  or  maggots  often  do  great  injury  to  the  roots  of 
•cabbages,  and  sometimes  to  those  of  turnips.  It  is  of  the  same  genus  with  the  fly  gen- 
erally known  as  the  turnip  fly  (q.v.),  and  also  with  the  potato  fly  (q.v.),  beet  fly  (q.v.), 
etc.  It  is  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  half  an  inch  in  expanse  of  wings; 
of  an  ash-gray  color;  the  male  having  a silvery  gray  face,  and  a long  black  streak  on 
the  forehead;  the  female,  a silvery- white  face,  without  any  black  streak;  the  abdomen 
of  the  male  is  linear,  that  of  the  female  terminates  conically;  the  eyes  of  the  male 
nearly  meet  on  the  crown,  those  of  the  female  are  distant,  with  a broad  black  stripe 
between  them.  The  larva  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  flesh-fly — yellowish  white,  taper- 
ing to  the  head,  which  has  two  black  hooks.  The  pupa  is  rust-colored  and  horny. 

CAdBAGE  MOTH,  Mamestra  or  Moctua  brassiem,  a species  of  moth,  the  caterpillar  of 
which  feeds  on  cabbage  and  turnip  leaves,  and  is  sometimes  very  destructive.  The 
caterpillar  is  greenish-black,  and  changes  to  a brown  pupa  in  autumn.  The  perfect 
insect  is  of  a rich  mottled-brown  color,  the  upper  wings  clouded  and  waved  with  darker 
brown,  and  having  pale  and  white  spots,  a yellowish  line  near  the  fringe,  the  fringe 
•dotted  with  black  and  ocher,  the  under- wings  brownish  and  white. 

CABBAGE  PALM,  or  Cabbage  Tree,  a name  given  in  different  countries  to  dif- 
ferent species  of  palm,  the  great  terminal  bud  of  which — the  palm  cabbage — is  eaten 
like  cabbage.  The  C.  P.  of  the  West  Indies  is  areca  oleracea.  The  southern  states  of 
America  have  also  their  C.  P.  or  cabbage  tree,  otherwise  called  the  palmetto  {chamcBrops 
palTuetto).  See  Areca,  Euterpe,  Palm,  and  Palmetto. 

CABBALA  (from  Heb.  kibbel,  to  receive),  the  received  doctrine,  by  which  is  not  to  be 
understood  the  popularly  accepted  doctrine,  but  that  inner  or  mystical  interpretation  of 
the  law  which  the  Cabbalists  allege  that  Moses  received  from  God  in  the  mount,  and  sub- 
sequently taught  to  Joshua,  who  in  his  turn  communicated  it  to  the  70  elders,  and 
which  has  ever  since  been  the  treasure  of  the  select  Jews.  Since  the  12th  c.,  the  study 
of  this  secret  lore  has  gradually  resulted  in  a distinct  school  and  literature,  the  elements 
of  which,  however,  are  already  visible  in  the  Macedonian  epoch,  and  the  real  or  histor- 
ical source  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  eastern  doctrine  of  emanation.  In  Philo,  in 
the  Talmud,  etc.,  we  certainly  find  theologico-philosophical  conceptions,  which  were  at 
a later  period  taken  up  and  modified;  but  the  first  book  on  cosmogony  is  Jezirah,  a pro- 
duction of  the  7th  c.,  attributed  to  Akiba.  After  the  second  half  of  the  12th  c.,  the 
Cabbalistic  doctrines,  which  had  at  first  been  confined  to  such  high  themes  as  God  and 
creation,  began  to  include  exegesis,  ethics,  and  philosophy,  and  so  became  a kind  of 
mystical  religious  philosophy.  The  numerous  Cabbalistic  writings  composed  during  the 
three  subsequent  centuries,  professed  to  teach  the  secret  or  mystical  sense  of  Holy  Writ, 
and  the  principles  on  which  it  is  grounded,  the  higher  meaning  of  the  law,  as  well  as 
the  method  of  performing  miracles,  by  the  use  of  divine  names  and  sacred  incantations. 
The  Cabbalists,  moreover,  prepared  books,  which  they  attributed  to  the  oldest  authori- 
ties— for  instance,  Soha/r,  a work  written  in  Aramaic,  during  the  13th  c.,  and  fathered 
upon  Simeon-ben-Joachai,  a scholar  of  Akiba.  This  became  the  Bible  of  the  Cabbalistic 


253 


Cabbage. 

Cabin. 


neophytes.  The  chief  opponents  of  the  Cabbalists  were  the  philosophers,  and  in  part 
the  Talmudists.  Towards  the  close  of  the  16th  c.,  the  Cabbalistic  wisdom,  which  by 
that  time  had  degenerated  into  magic  and  word- juggling,  received  a new  impulse  from 
its  teachers  in  Palestine  and  Italy.  Since  the  time  of  Reuchlin,  many  Christian  schol- 
ars have  investigated  the  subject. 

CABE^A.  DE  VAC  A.  See  Nuf^EZ  Alvar, 

CABELL,  a co.  in  s.w.  West  Virginia,  on  the  Ohio  river  at  the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio  railroad,  watered  by  Guyandotte  river.  It  is  hilly  but  fertile,  producing  corn, 
tobacco,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Barboursville.  Pop.  ’80,  13,746 — 905  colored. 

CABEIRI,  divinities  anciently  worshiped  in  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Asia  Minor,  and 
Greece.  The  ancients  have  left  us  very  obscure  notices  of  the  C.,  and  learned  men  have 
been  unable  to  reach  any  satisfactory  conclusions  with  regard  to  them  and  their  wor- 
ship. It  is  certain  that  the  worship  had  both  its  mysteries  and  its  orgies,  and  it  appears 
«,lso  that  the  C.  were  amongst  the  inferior  divinities,  and  regarded  as  dwelling  upon  the 
•earth,  like  the  Curetes,  Corybantes,  and  Dactyles,  and  were  probably  representatives  of 
Ihe  powers  of  nature. 

CABEN'DA,  or  Kabenda,  a seaport  in  Loango,  lower  Guinea,  on  the  Atlantic,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Livingstone,  5°  30'  south.  It  is  one  of  the  few  salubrious  places  on 
the  coast.  Pop.  16,000. 

CA'BES,  or  KHABS,  Gulf  of  (ancient  Syrtis  Minor),  an  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  lying  between  the  islands  of  Kerkenna  and  Jerba,  on  the  n.e.  coast  of  Africa,  in 
iat.  about  34°  n.,  and  long,  from  10°  to  11°  east.  The  town  of  Cabes  (ancient  I'acape) 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  gulf. 

CABET,  ^lTIENNE,  a notable  French  communist,  w^as  b.  at  Dijon,  Jan.  2,  1788,  and 
•educated  for  the  bar,  but  turned  his  attention  to  literature  and  politics.  Under  the  res- 
toration, he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Carbonari  (q.v.),  and  in  1831  was  elected 
deputy  for  the  department  of  Cote  d’Or.  Soon  afterwards,  he  published  a History  of 
the  July  Resolution  (1832),  started  a radical  Sunday  paper,  Le  Populaire  (1833),  and,  on 
account  of  an  article  in  this  paper,  was  sentenced  to  two  years’  imprisonment,  but 
escaped  to  London.  Here  he  wrote  brochures  against  the  July  government,  and  began 
his  communistic  studies.  After  the  amnesty,  1839,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  published 
a History  of  the  French  Revolution  (4  vols.,  1840),  bestowing  great  praise  on  the  old  Jaco- 
bins. He  attracted  far  more  notice  by  his  Voyage  en  Icarie  (1840),  a “ philosophical  and 
social  romance,”  describing  a communistic  Utopia.  The  work  obtained  great  popularity 
among  the  working-classes  of  Paris.  C.  next  proceeded  to  turn  “ his  philosophical 
romance”  into  a reality,  and  published  (1847)  in  his  journal,  Le  Populaire,  the  statutes 
for  the  formation  of  an  “ Icarian  colony”  on  the  Red  river  in  Texas;  inviting  his  fol- 
lowers to  emigrate.  The  first  division  sailed  on  the  2d  Feb.,  1848,  but  a short  experi- 
ence convinced  them  that  Texas  was  anything  but  a Utopia.  Their  complaints  reached 
Europe,  but  did  not  deter  C.  from  embarking  at  the  head  of  a second  band  of  colonists. 
On  his  arrival,  he  learned  that  the  Mormons  had  just  been  expelled  from  Nauvoo,  in 
Illinois,  and  that  their  city  was  left  deserted.  The  Icarians  established  themselves  there 
in  May,  1850.  C.  now  returned  'o  France,  to  repel  the  accusations  against  his  probity 
which  had  been  circulated  during  his  absence,  and  to  obtain  a reversal  of  the  judgment 
which  had  been  formally  pronounced  against  him,  30th  Sept.,  1849.  Having  succeeded 
in  this,  he  went  back  to  Nauvoo,  where  he  governed,  as  a sort  of  dictator,  his  petty 
•colony,  until  1856,  when  he  was  deprived  of  his  office,  and  obliged  to  flee  to  St.  Louis, 
where  he  died  9th  Dec.  of  the  same  year.  C.  was  a shallow  thinker,  a weak  ruler,  and 
a poor  writer;  but  his  success,  such  as  it  was,  is  a proof  of  what  can  be  accomplished 
by  what  has  been  termed,  with  more  vigor  than  elegance,  “pig-headed  perseverance.” 

CABE'ZA  DEL  BUEY,  a t.  of  the  new  province  of  Badajoz,  Spain,  about  86  m.  e.s.e. 
•of  the  city  of  Badajoz.  It  is  situated  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Pedregoso,  has 
manufactures  of  woolens  and  linens,  and  a trade  in  cattle  and  agricultural  produce. 
Pop.  6500. 

CABE'ZA  DEL  BUEY,  a small  t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Badajos,  86  m.  e.s.e.  of 
the  town  of  Badajos,  on  the  n.  slope  of  the  Sierra  el  Pedrose.  The  town  is  tolerably 
well  built,  and  has  a number  of  churches  and  other  public  buildings.  Pop.  5395,  engaged 
chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  w'oolen  and  linen  cloths.  [From  Chambers’s  Supplement.'\ 

CABEZON  DE  LA  SAL,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Valladolid,  about  7 m.  n.n.e. 
of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  is  situated  on  the  Pisuerga,  and  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of 
one  of  the  first  battles  of  the  peninsular  campaign,  in  which  the  Spaniards  were  signally 
defeated  by  the  French.  Pop.  2000. 

CABIN  is  the  general  name  for  a room  or  apartment  on  shipboard.  In  ships  of  war, 
the  living-rooms  of  the  admirals  and  captains  are  called  “state”  cabins,  and  are  fitted 
up  with  much  elegance,  with  a gallery  or  balcony  projecting  at  the  stern.  The  chief 
officers  below  the  captain  have  their  cabins  on  either  side  of  the  main-deck;  while  those 
of  the  subordinate  commissioned  officers  are,  in  lar^e  ships,  on  either  side  of  the  lower 
or  orlop  deck.  All  the  cabins  of  a ship  of  war  are  inclosed  by  light  paneling,  which  is 
quickly  removable  when  preparing  for  action. 


Cabinet. 

Cabral. 


254 


CABINET  (Ital.  gahinetto),  a small  chamber  set  apart  for  some  special  purpose,  such 
as  the  conservation  of  works  of  art,  antiquities,  specimens  of  natural  objects,  models, 
and  the  like.  From  signifying  the  chamber  in  which  such  collections  are  contained,  the 
term  C.  has  recently  come  to  be  employed  by  us,  in  imitation  of  the  French,  to  signify 
the  collections  themselves,  and  this  even  when  they  till  many  rooms  or  galleries.  It 
often  means  simply  a small  room  appended  to  a larger  one,  when  it  is  also  called  an  ante- 
room, a retiring-room,  and  the  like.  See  Closet. — Cabinet  Picture,  a picture  suited 
for  a cabinet  or  small  room.  C.  pictures  are  generally  small  in  size,  highly  finished, 
and  thus  suited  for  close  inspection. 

CABINET  (see  Ministry,  ante),  in  political  affairs,  the  heads  of  departments  who 
are  the  immediate  advisers  or  counselors  of  the  chief  executive.  In  the  United  States 
government  the  cabinet  consists  of  the  secretaries  of  state,  treasury,  war,  navy,  and 
interior,  the  attorney-general  and  the  postmaster-general.  They  meet  whenever  desired 
by  the  president,  but  not  publicly.  No  minutes  are  kept  of  their  doings,  nor  are  the 
names  of  those  present  recorded.  The  president  presides;  and  he  may  at  any  time 
require  in  writing  the  opinion  of  any  of  the  members  upon  matters  concerning  his  depart- 
ment. But  the  cabinet  has  no  responsibility,  as  that  rests  with  the  president  alone. 

CABIRI,  or  Cabeiri,  divinities  worshiped  in  Egypt,  Phenicia,  and  other  countries, 
but  of  which  worship  or  its  purpose  little  is  known.  The  worship  was  observed  yearly 
and  the  ceremonies  lasted  nine  days,  always  in  secret,  though  women  and  children  were 
admitted.  In  Lemnos  all  the  fires  were  extinguished,  sacrifice  for  the  dead  was  offered, 
and  a sacred  vessel  was  sent  to  Delos  to  procure  new  fire,  which  was  distributed  among 
the  people,  and  with  its  kindling  they  began  a new  or  regenerated  life,  free  from  sin. 

CABLE  is  either  a large  rope,  or  a chain  of  iron  links,  chiefly  employed  on  shipboard 
to  suspend  and  retain  the  anchors.  Rope  cables  are  made  of  the  best  hemp,  twisted 
into  a mass  of  great  compactness  and  strength.  The  circumference  varies  from  about 
3 in.  to  26.  A certain  number  of  yarns  are  twisted  to  form  a lismm;  three  lissums  are 
twisted  in  an  opposite  direction  to  form  a strand;  and  three  strands  are  twisted  (in  the 
same  direction  as  the  yarns  in  a lissum)  to  form  a cable.  The  number  of  yarns  in  a C. 
of  given  size  is  not  always  alike,  because  the  yarns  slightly  vary  in  thickness;  but  the 
following  is  one  among  many  tables  which  have  been  prepared  relating  to  cables  of  120 
fathoms,  and  of  the  usual  degrees  of  thickness: 


Inches 

Circumference. 


6, 

9 

12, 

15, 

18 

20 


Yams. 
= 48.. 

= 174.. 
= 393.. 
= 699.. 
= 1093. . 
= 1574. . 
= 1943. . 


Lbs, 

192 

696 

1572 

2796 

4372 

6296 

7772 


Some  cables  are  made  with  four  strands,  but  three  is  the  common  number.  If  a C.  be 
twisted  too  much,  it  is  stiff;  if  too  little,  it  is  weak.  The  strength  of  a C.  of  18  in. 
circumference  is  found  to  be  about  60  tons;  and  for  other  dimensions,  the  strength  varies 
according  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter.  On  shipboard,  cables  receive  the  names  of  chief 
cables,  bower  cables,  etc.,  according  to  the  anchor  to  which  they  are  attached.  During 
the  great  war  ending  in  1815,  the  largest  ships  in  the  British  navy  carried  ten  cables, 
most  of  which  were  about  2 ft.  or  a little  more  in  circumference.  Although  ships  sel- 
dom anchor  at  a greater  depth  than  40  fathoms,  it  is  not  deemed  safe  to  trust  the  anchor 
to  one  C.  of  the  usual  length;  two  are  spliced  together  at  the  ends.  The  hemjien  cables 
now  made  are  generally  101  fathoms;  but  100  fathoms  in  practical  seamanship  denotes 
“ a cable’s  length,”  and  is  really  the  length  of  a chain  cable. 

Chain  Cables  are  made  of  links,  the  length  of  each  of  which  is  generally  about  six 
diameters  of  the  iron  of  which  it  is  made,  and  the  breadth  about  three  and  a half  diame- 
ters. In  government  contracts,  chain  cables  are  required  to  be  made  in  12^  fathoms 
lengths,  with  one  swivel  in  the  middle  of  every  alternate  length,  and  one  joining-shackle 
in  each  length.  The  stay-pins,  to  strengthen  the  links,^  are  of  cast  iron.  The  bar  or  rod 
from  which  each  link  is  made,  has  the  two  ends  cut  diagonally ; it  is  bent  into  the  form 
of  a nearly  complete  oval  ring;  and  then  the  two  ends  are  joined  and  welded,  the  stay- 
pin  being  at  the  same  time  introduced  at  the  proper  place.  Besides  the  ordinary  links, 
there  are  end-links,  joining-shackles,  splicing-tails,  mooring-swivels,  and  bending- 
swivels.  The  sizes  of  chain  cables  are  denoted  by  the  thickness  of  the  rod-iron  selected 
for  the  links.  The  following  table  gives  certain  ascertained  quantities  concerning  the 
cables  in  ordinary  use . 


Thickness  of  Iron.  Weight  of  Stay-pin. 
^ inch.  i oz. 

1 “ “ 

“ 12  “ 

2 “ 28  “ 

2ir  “ 40  “ 


Weight  per  Fathom. 

Breaking  Strain, 

13i  lbs. 

6 tons. 

54  “ 

24  “ 

121  “ 

60  “ 

215  “ 

99  “ 

272  “ 

126  “ 

255 


Cabinet. 

Cabral. 


By  the  chain  cables  act  of  1871,  certain  bodies  are  licensed  to  erect  machines  for 
testing  all  chain  cables  and  anchors;  and  it  is  forbidden  to  sell  or  purchase,  under  a 
penalty  of  £50,  any  chain  cable  or  any  anchor  weighing  more  than  168  lbs.,  which  has 
not  been  duly  tested.  Minor  alterations  were  introduced  by  a later  act  (1874),  leaving 
the  main  rules  intact, 

CABLE-MOLBING-,  in  architecture,  is  a molding  cut  in  the  form  of  a rope,  the 
twisting  being  prominently  shown.  It  was  much  used  in  the  later  Norman  style. 

CABLING,  the  molding  by  which  the  hollow  parts  in  the  flutes  of  columns  and 
pilasters  in  classical  architecture  are  often  partially  filled.  The  C.  seldom  extends 
beyond  the  third  part  of  the  shaft  from  the  ground. 

CABOCHED,  or  Cabossed,  an  heraldic  term,  from  the  old  French  word  cahoche,  the 
liead.  When  the  head  of  an  animal  is  borne,  without  any  part  of  the  neck,  and  exhib* 
ited  full  in  face,  it  is  said  to  be  caboched. 

CABOCHIENS,  certain  butchers  of  Paris,  named  from  their  chief  Jean  Caboche, 
who  were  partisans  of  John  of  Burgundy  against  the  Armagnacs.  In  1418,  their  out 
rages  provoked  the  people  of  Paris  to  rise  against  them. 

CABOOSE,  or  Camboose  (Danish,  kabyse,  a cook’s  room  in  a ship;  Ger.  kabuse,  a little 
room),  is  the  name  of  the  kitchen  or  cook-room  in  a merchant-ship.  In  coasting-vessels, 
the  term  is  applied  to  a portable  cast-iron  stove  on  the  deck,  where  food  is  cooked. 

CABOT,  the  name  of  two  Venetians,  father  and  son,  both  celebrated  as  navigators  and 
discoverers. — Giovanni  Cabot,  or  Cabotto,  the  father,  whose  business  compelled  him 
to  reside  much  in  Bristol,  was  appointed  by  Henry  VII.,  Mar.  5,  1496,  to  the  command 
of  a squadron  of  five  vessels  on  a voyage  of  discovery  in  the  Atlantic  ocean.  In  this 
expedition  he  was  accompanied  by  his  sons  Ludovico,  Sebastiano  (born  at  Bristol,  1477), 
and  Sanzio.  On  the  24th  of  June,  1497,  the  coast  of  Labrador,  North  America,  was 
sighted.  The  merit  of  this  discovery  has  been  generally  ascribed  to  the  navigator’s 
second  son,  Sebastian  C.,  the  most  scientific  of  the  family;  but  an  extract  from  a chart 
preserved  by  Hakluyt  mentions  the  father  before  the  sou.  The  expedition  returned  in 
Aug.,  1497.  In  1498,  a second  was  made,  with  what  results  we  do  not  know;  and  in 
1499,' a third  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  About  this  time,  Giovanni,  the  father,  appears  to 
have  died,  and  we  hear  no  more  of  Sebastian  till  1512,  when  he  entered  the  service  of 
Ferdinand,  king  of  Spain.  During  the  year  1515,  he  was  engaged  in  revising  maps  and 
charts  in  connection  with  his  profession,  and  in  planning  an  exploration  of  the  n.w. 
passage  to  Asia,  which,  however,  was  laid  aside  on  account  of  the  death  of  Ferdinand 
in  1516.  C.,  who  seems  to  have  been  no  favorite  with  the  Spanish  courtiers,  was  now 

subjected  to  a series  of  contemptible  insults.  This  usage  induced  him  to  return  to  Eng- 
land and  in  1517,  he  was  appointed  by  Henry  VIII.  to  the  command  of  an  expedition 
to  Labrador.  He  reached  lat.  67^°  n.,  and  entered  Hudson’s  bay,  where  he  gave  names  to 
several  places;  but  the  expedition  proved  on  the  whole  a failure,  on  account  of  the 
cowardice  or  malice  of  his  vice-commandant,  sir  Thomas  Perte.  C.  now  entered  again 
Into  the  Spanish  service,  was  made  pilot-major  of  the  kingdom  by  Charles  V.,  and  com- 
manded an  expedition  which  examined  the  coast  of  Brazil  and  La  Plata,  which  he 
attempted  to  colonize.  In  1531,  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  resumed  his  old  situation; 
but  in  1548,  he  once  more  betook  himself  to  England,  where  he  was  well  received  by 
king  Edward  VI.,  who  made  him  inspector  of  the  navy,  and  gave  him  a pension.  To 
this  monarch  he  seems  to  have  explained  the  variation  of  the  magnetic  needle  in  several 
places,  which  he  was  among  the  first,  if  not  the  .very  first,  to  notice  particularly.  In 
1553,  C.  was  the  prime  mover  and  director  of  the  expedition  of  merchant  adventurers 
which  opened  to  England  an  important  commerce  with  Russia.  It  is  not  known  exactly 
when  C.  died. — Memoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot  (Lond.  1831). 

CABOT,  George,  1751-1823;  b.  Mass.;  in  early  life  a ship  captain,  but  in  1776 
chosen  to  the  Massachusetts  provincial  congress.  He  was  also  in  the  state  constitutional 
convention,  and  in  1789  was  chosen  U.  S.  senator.  He  was  offered  but  declined  the 
position  of  secretary  of  the  navy.  His  last  political  act  was  to  preside  over  the  Hartford 
convention. 

CABOTVILLE.  See  Chicopee,  ante, 

CABOTZ,  See  Cusso. 

CABBA  (ancient  ^gabrum),  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Cordova,  30  m.  s.e.  of 
the  city  of  that  name.  C.  is  irregularly  built  between  two  hills,  and  surrounded  with 
gardens;  vineyards  in  the  neighb^orhood  produce  excellent  wine.  It  is  chiefly  agricul- 
tufal;  but  it  has  manufactures  of  woolen,  linen,  hats,  soap,  earthenware,  etc.  Pop. 
12,000. 

CABRAL,  Francisco,  1528-1609;  a Portuguese  Jesuit  missionary  at  Goa,  and  super- 
intendent of  the  mission  schools  in  India.  He  also  labored  in  Japan  with  success,  and 
had  the  supervision  of  missions  in  China.  He  was  for  nearly  40  years  at  the  head  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  school  in  Goa. 

CABBAL,  or  CABBEBA,  Pedro  Alvarez,  the  discover  of  Brazil,  was  descended  from 
an  old  and  patrician  Portuguese  family.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life,  save  the 
fact,  that  he  must  have  recommended  himself  by  talent  and  enterprise  to  king  Emanuel 


Cabrera. 

Cache. 


25G 


of  Portugal,  who,  after  the  first  voyage  of  Vasco  de  Gama,  appointed  C.  to  the  com- 
mand of  a fleet  of  13  vessels,  carrying  1200  men,  and  bound  for  the  East  Indies.  On  the 
9th  Mar.,  1500,  he  sailed  from  Lisbon.  To  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  being  becalmed 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  he  took  a course  too  far  westerly,  fell  into  the  South  Ameri- 
can current  of  the  Atlantic,  and  was  carried  to  tlie  unknown  coast  of  Brazil,  of 
which  he  claimed  possession  for  the  king  of  Portugal,  April  24,  1500,  naming  the  new 
country  “ Terra  da  Santa  Cruz.”  After  sending  home  one  vessel  to  bear  news  of  this 
great  accidental  discovery,  C.  sailed  for  India;  but  on  the  29th  of  May,  four  of  his  vessels 
foundered;^  and  all  on  board  perished,  including  Diaz,  the  great  navigator;  and  soon, 
afterwards  three  more  vessels  were  lost.  C.  therefore  landed  at  Mozambique,  on  the  e. 
coast  of  Africa,  of  which  he  first  gave  clear  information,  and  also  discovered  (Aug.  23) 
the  Antschedives  islands,  of  which  he  described  correctly  the  position.  Hence  he  sailed 
to  Calicut,  where,  having  made  the  terror  of  his  arms  felt,  he  was  permitted  to  found  a 
factory;  entered  into  successful  negotiations  with  native  rulers,  and  thus  established  the 
first  commercial  treaty  between  Portugal  and  India.  He  returned  from  India,  bringing 
with  him  a considerable  booty,  and  arrived  in  the  port  of  Lisbon,  July  31,  1501.  It 
appears  probable  that  the  king  was  dissatisfied  with  the  results  of  the  expedition 
(although  it  had  annexed  Brazil  to  the  crown  of  Portugal),  for  subsequently  w^e  find  no 
mention  made  of  C.  among  other  discoverers.  At  the  request  of  C.,  Sancho  de  Toar 
wrote  a description  of  the  coast  of  Sofola.  C.’s  voyages  are  described  in  Ramusio’s 
Navigatione  e Viaggi,  3vols.  (Venice,  1563;  newed.,  Venice,  1835). 

CABRE'RA,  a small  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  lying  off  the  southern  point  of 
Majorca.  It  is  about  3 m.  in  length  and  breadth,  with  an  irregular  coast,  and  is  little  else 
than  a barren  calcareous  rock.  The  only  interest  attached  to  C.  is,  that  during  the  war 
in  the  Peninsula  it  formed  a Spanish  depot  for  French  prisoners,  who  were  crowded  in 
thousands  into  the  desolate  spot,  and  treated  with  great  barbarity ; of  which  an  account 
is  given  in  a popular  work,  entitled  the  Adventures  of  a French  Sergeant. 

CABRE'RA,  Don  Ramon,  the  boldest  leader  of  the  Carlist  party  in  Spain,  w*as  b.  at 
Tortosa,  in  Catalonia,  31st  Aug.,  1810.  The  death  of  Ferdinand,  in  1833,  gave  the  sig- 
nal for  a civil  war,  and  first  brought  C.  into  notice.  Placing  himself  at  the  head  of 
some  guerilla  troops,  he  joined  the  absolutists,  or  partisans  of  Don  Carlos,  and  by  his 
vigilance,  energy,  and  daring  soon  rose  to  be  second  in  command  in  the  Maestrazgo  dis- 
trict. Throughout  Aragon  and  Valencia  his  name  became  a by -word  for  cruelty.  After 
penetrating  as  far  s.  as  Andalusia,  his  forces  were  completely  routed  by  the  royal  troops, 
on  the  borders  of  Aragon,  and  he  himself,  severely  wounded,  escaped  with  difficulty 
into  the  woods.  It  was  now  rumored  that  C.  was  dead,  when  all  at  once  he  reappeared 
at  the  head  of  10,000  foot  and  1600  horse.  Invading  the  province  of  Valencia,  he  over- 
threw the  royal  army  at  Buhol,  18th  Feb.,  1837,  and  again  on  the  19th  Mar.  at  Burjasot; 
but  was  in  his  turn  vanquished  at  Torre  Blanca,  and  once  more  compelled  to  seek  a 
hiding-place.  Shortly  after,  he  reopened  the  war  with  fiery  energy.  Madrid  itself  was 
threatened  by  C. , who,  about  this  time,  received  the  title  of  count  of  Morelia  for  his 
vigorous  defense  of  the  fortress  of  that  name,  and  was  also  appointed  governor-general 
of  Aragon,  Valencia,  and  Murcia.  The  Carlists  now  believed  that  the  triumph  of  abso- 
lutism was  approaching,  when  the  treachery  of  the  Carlist  gen.,  Marotto,  changed  the 
whole  aspect  of  affairs,  and  Don  Carlos  fled  from  Spain.  C.  held  out  until  Espartero 
forced  him  to  quit  the  country  in  the  summer  of  1840.  He  then  entered  France,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  and  confined  for  a short  time  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.  In  1845, 
he  strongly  opposed  Don  Carlos’s  abdication  of  his  rights.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  revolution  in  1848,  he  renewed  the  struggle  on  behalf  of  absolutism  in  Spain; 
but  the  adventure  proved  a miserable  failure,  and  on  the  17th  Jan.,  1849,  he  recrossed 
the  Pyrenees,  to  live  in  retirement.  He  afterwards  married  a wealthy  English  lady. 
Miss  Marianne  Catherine  Richards.  When  Alphonso  was  proclaimed  king  of  Spain  in 
1875,  C.  advised  the  Carlists  to  submit  to  him,  chiefly  because  he  was  “a  good  son  of 
the  church.”  He  died  24th  May,  1877. 

CABITL',  a river  in  Afghanistan,  rises  in  lat.  34°  21'  n.,  and  long.  68°  20'  e.,  on  ths 
southern  declivities  of  the  Hindu  Kush  or  Indian  Caucasus.  • Its  source  is  8400  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  and  an  eastward  run  of  320  m.,  with  a fall  of  about  7500  ft.,  along 
n.  Afghanistan,  through  the  Khyber  mountains,  and  across  Peshawur,  carries  it  into 
the  Indus,  opposite  to  Attock,  in  the  Punjab.  The  point  of  confluence  marks  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  main  stream,  while  the  tributary  itself  is  practicable  about  50  m. 
upwards  for  craft  of  40  or  50  tons.  By  means,  therefore,  of  the  two  taken  as  one  line, 
there  exists  an  available  communication  of  about  1000  m.  between  the  Khyber  moun- 
tains and  the  Indian  ocean.  The  C.  washes  the  cities  of  Cabul,  Jelalabad,  and 
Dobundee. 

CABUL'  is  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  Afghanistan  (q.  v.)  which  lies  s.  of  the  Hindu 
Kush,  and  is  drained  by  the  Cabul  river.  It  extends  from  the  s.  of  Ghiznee  to  the 
Hindu  Kush,  and  from  Bamian  (q.v.)  to  the  Khyber  pass.  This  region  has  long  occu- 
pied a prominent  position  in  the  world.  Through  it,  as  the  passage  from  Persia  to 
India,  Alexander  the  great  m^-ched  to  complete  his  eastern  conquests;  from  it  issued 
Mahmoud  of  Ghiznee,  the  first  Mohammedan  invader  of  Hindustan. 

The  city  of  Cabul,  from  which  the  surrounding  territory  takes  its  name,  has  60, (XK) 


257 


Cabrera. 

Cache. 


Tnll3,blt8/Ilt'S,  8/Hd  stands  in  Ijlt.  34**  30^  n Jinfl  Tr\n<r  o • i 1 

river  here  crossed  by  three  bridges,  ceases  to  be  foldable.  Elevated  about  and 

the  Hrndu  Kush 

fiom  75^0  V ^ ^ V winter,  and  a temperate  summer,  ranging 

s ~T<i^  £•„•;  £s"s;?  ” ?.?= s„ia 

i,  i,5ii.di  trrf  !rw:;"s?j  r.ii'*si  “5 

ously  beea\TnedTo’’Hfe'^^^^^^^^  P“““  having  previ- 

he  hIXtoeli  as 'his  ?eiy  1^"’  C The“po"fs“o?’  u’  T?h 

elder  hrother  and  the  son  of  the  latter,  AbduteCrX  M 

enteSlt'r'*'^  Bokhara.  Shere  Ali  was  at  first  unsuccessful.  On  May  21  1866  Uzful 

S=S^“— 

reridlt  2 Cabuh  ’ ‘hat  there  should  be  an  Engl4 

CACA'O.  See  Cocoa. 

a po^omod.  “ *■  “ *’*  « “•  of  Termini,  with 

SVH— 

the  Ma*n^*2\^zn2"'’T?  Philippines,  in  the  province  of  South  Camarines  on 

Migti^rdVeUTiityn 

long  cioV  ‘^irpffis%“pe2KS 

mounppa"nyul22&“  *=ltSpil  r!v2t  Is^r^B^ittS-afJ^r'l  Sl 

350  m.,  enters  the  Brahmaputra  aifouTdO  T above  mcta  S 

nd  Zorr,airtlo?hs’  hamboo,  iron  ore, Tax  and  ivj,^ 

ana  impoits  salt,  cloths,  tobacco,  and  ghee  or  half  liquid  butter. 

3rn  wahL^of  th^Un'iffd''st'?t’  “j*’  “t"*®  travelers  in  the  great  west- 

^ United  States  to  places  for  concealing  provisions  and  other  articles 

*em®elvfs  o/what  artinr*^  “Por  orossing  the  Eocky  mountains,  they  disburden 

itra“rn[aee2of  TTJI  h?,  jPared,  and,  to  conceal  .them  from  the  Indians,  con- 

atefandTirenidl?  A u ‘he.  wdderness.  The  making  of  a C.  is  a matter  of  much 
MoS  Md  th®en  J ^ "fopth  °f  perhaps  6 or  8 ft.  and  several  feet 

.ible  care^  S excTatere»rtU^  interred,  the  surface  is  replaced  with  the  utmost  pos- 
.X7PW  excavated  earth  is  also  carefully  removed,  so  as  to  leave  no  trace  what 

ZZf  C..  however,  irknowrto  ?he  m^^^^ 

>0^6  kndmark,  and  returning  months  afterwards,  they  probably  find  its  contend  und^s^ 

mSit^Ss'^wW  ^ natural  or  artificial,  in  the  ground  or 

Ksllves  explorers  stow  provisions  or  records,  to  be  found  by 

“lerredltio:sof'inTmr‘“®  *'«  ^ 

u.  K.  III.— 17 


Cache. 

Cacteaa. 


• • 258 


CACHE,  a CO.  in  n.e.  Utah,  on  the  Idaho  frontier,  watered  by  Bear  river;  700  sq.m.v 
pop.  ’70,  8229;  in  ’80,  12,561.  Productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Logan. 

CACHE'O,  or  Cacheu,  a t.  in  Senegambia,  w.  Africa,  in  the  land  of  the  Papels,  a 
few  miles  from  the  mouth  of  San  Domingo  or  Cachoa  river;  pop.  15,000.  It  is  a Por- 
tuguese fortified  post,  and  has  trade,  in  ivory  and  gold  dust. 

CACHET,  Lettres  de.  See  Lettres  de  Cachet. 

CACHE'XIA,  a name  applied  by  physicians  sometimes  to  a group  of  diseases,  and 
sometimes  to  the  constitutional  state  accompanying  a particular  disease — e.g.,  can- 
cerous C.,  gouty  C.,  mercurial  cachexia.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  kakos^ 
bad,  and  fiexis,  a habit,  and  signifies  simply  a had  habit  of  body,  without  reference  to 
the  cause  of  illness.  From  Cullen’s  having  in  modern  times  given  extensive  circula- 
tion to  the  word,  as  indicating  a large  group  of  chronic  diseases,  in  most  of  which  there 
are  complicated  changes  in  the  blood  and  in  the  solid  textures,  C.  has  come  to  be  chiefiy 
employed  with  reference  to  diseases  in  which  the  general  nutrition  of  the  body  is  at 
fault,  and  in  which  the  local  disorders  are  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  a constitutional 
cause.  Thus,  cancerous  C.  indicates  the  peculiar  impoverished  state  of  the  blood  and 
general  debility  which  are  associated  with  the  deposits  of  cancer  in  various  parts  of  the 
body;  gouty  C.,  the  state  of  the  general  system  in  gout,  as  opposed  to  the  mere  local 
attack  of  gout  in  the  foot,  etc.  The  cachexiae  differ  from  the  fevers  in  being  much 
slower  in  development,  and,  for  the  most  part,  in  having  no  natural  termination  at  a 
fixed  period.  See  Crisis. 

CACHICAMA,  or  Tatou-peba,  Dasypus  novem-dnctus,  an  armadillo  in  tropical 
America,  covered  with  horny  plates.  It  is  about  \\  ft.  long,  harmless,  and  easily  tamed. 
Its  food  is  ants  and  other  insects. 

CACHOE'IRA,  or  Caxoeira,  a t.  in  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Bahia,  and  62  m. 
n.w.  of  the  city  of  Bahia;  pop.  15,000.  It  has  a town-house,  a prison,  a Carmelite 
convent,  and  several  churches.  Its  trade  is  in  tobacco,  coffee,  and  sugar. 

CA'CHOLONd,  a beautiful  mineral,  regarded  as  a variety  of  opal  (q.v.).  It  is  some- 
times called  pearl  opal,  or  mother-of-pearl  opal.  It  is  generally  of  a milk-white  color, 
rarely  with  a yellowish  or  reddish  tinge,  opaque  and  dull  or  pearly  and  shining,  and  has 
a flat  conchoidal  fracture.  Among  the  localities  in  which  C.  is  found  are  the  Giants’ 
Causeway  and  the  Faroe  islands. 

CACHOLOT,  CACHALOT,  SPERMACETI  WHALE,  or  Sperm  Whale,  Physeter  macro- 
cephalus  or  catodon  macrocephalus,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  cetacea  (q.v.),  very  peculiar  in 
form  and  appearance,  much  sought  after  not  only  on  account  of  the  oil,  but  still  more 
on  account  of  the  spermaceti  (q.v.)  which  it  yields.  Ambergris  (q.v.)  is  also  obtained 
from  it.  The  C.  belongs  to  the  family  of  cetacea  called  physeteridm,  or  catodontidce,  of 
which  some  naturalists  still  think  that  there  is  only  one  well-ascertained  species.  There 
appears,  however,  to  be  pretty  good  reason  for  thinking  that  at  least  two  species  exist, 
both  of  which  are  occasional  visitants  of  the  British  shores — the  common  C. , having  no 
dorsal  fin,  and  the  high-finned  C.  {physeter  tursio)  having  a very  high  dorsal  fin.  The 
common  C.  has  a very  wide  geographical  range.  It  may  almost  be  said  to  inhabit  all 
seas,  although'it  is  most  abundant  in  those  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  It  is  not  of 
frequent  occurrence  on  the  European  shores,  although  it  sometimes  enters  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  is  occasionally  stranded  on  the  coasts  of  Britain.  An  individual,  54  ft. 
long  and  30  in  circumference,  ran  ashore  on  Cramond  island,  in  the  firth  of  Forth,  in 
1769,  and  was  very  particularly  described  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  by  Mr. 
Robertson  of  Edinburgh.  Twelve  were  caught  at  Walderwich,  on  the  Suffolk  coast,  in 
1788.  The  C.  sometimes  reaches  the  length  of  70  or  8t)  feet.  The  head  is  enormously 
large,  forming  about  one  half  of  the  entire  bulk  of  the  animal,  and  occupying  more 
than  one  third  of  the  entire  length.  From  the  head,  the  body  tapers  to  the  tail,  and  at 
last  rather  rapidly.  The  general  color  is  very  dark  gray,  nearly  black  on  the  upper 
parts,  lighter  beneath.  Old  males,  or,  in  the  language  of  the  South  Sea  whalers,  old 
bull- whales,  usually  have  a large  gray  spot  on  the  front  of  the  head.  The  muzzle  is  very 
obtuse,  almost  as  if  suddenly  cut  off  in  front,  the  breadth  of  it  almost  equaling  the 
thickness  of  the  body.  In  a protuberance  on  the  upper  part  of  it,  is  the  blow-hole, 
which  is  single,  situated  a little  on  the  left  side,  and  in  form  not  unlike  the  letter  S elon- 
gated. The  mouth  is  very  large  and  wude;  and  the  throat,  unlike  that  of  the  Green- 
land whale,  is  very  wide,  suABciently  so  to  admit  the  body  of  a man.  The  upper  jaw 
projects  some  feet  beyond  the  lower,  and  is  destitute  both  of  teeth  and  whalebone ; the 
lower  javv  has  from  20  to  25  teeth  on  each  side,  according  to  the  age  of  the  animal. 
The  teeth  are  conical  and  slightly  recurved,  projecting  about  2 in.  from  the  gum.  The 
lower  jaw  is  extremely  narrow,  the  two  branches  being  in  contact  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  its  length:  it  fits  into  a groove  in  the  upper,  in  which  are  cavities  for  the  teeth. 
The  eyes  are  small,  and  placed  far  back  in  the  head,  above  the  angles  of  the  mouth; 
the  left  eye  is  said  to  be  smaller  than  the  right.  Just  above  the  eyes,  the  dorsal  line 
rises  considerably;  the  dorsal  fin  is  also  represented  by  a protuberance  about  half-way 
between  the  neck  and  the*  tail ; and  these  parts  are  seen  above  water  in  the  ordinaiy 
swimming  of  the  animal,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  from  3 to  7 m.  an  hour,  and  just  under 
the  surface  of  the  water,  although  when  alarmed  it  swims  with  greater  velocity,  strik- 


259 


Cache. 

Cacteao. 


iDg  the  water  upward  and  downward  with  its  tail  with  great  force.  The  pectoral  fins 
I are  small,  and  seem  scarcely  if  at  all  to  aid  in  progression,  which  is  accomplished  bv 
! the  large  and  powerful  tail-fin.  The  tail-fin  is  very  broad,  and  is  divided  into  two 
Jobes,  called  by  South  Sea  whalers  the  flukes. 

The  enormous  head  of  the  C.  is  in  great  part  occupied  by  a cavity  in  front  of  and 
j above  the  skull,  called  by  whalers  the  case,  which  is  a receptacle  for  spermaceti  (q  v ) 

I lliis  substance  being  light,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  the  animal  in  swimming  raises  its 
head  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  which  it  also  often  does  even  when  at  rest  “ like  a 
black  rock  in  the  ocean.”  The  case  frequently  holds  as  much  as  ten  large  barrels  of 
i ^P^r^^ceti.  It  is  not  formed  of  bone,  but  of  a strong  tendinous  integument,  and  is 
•divided  into  compartments  communicating  with  each  other.  The  substance  which  it 
contains  is  in  a semi-fiuid  state,  but  hardens  on  cooling:  it  consists  of  spermaceti  and 
oil;  tlie  oil  IS  separated  by  draining  and  squeezing,  and  the  spermaceti  further  purified 
till,  instead  of  being  a yellow  unctuous  mass,  in  which  state  it  is  brought  home  by  the 
whalers,  it  assumes  a beautiful  pearly  white,  fiaky,  almost  crystalline  appearance  When 
the  spermaceti  whale  is  killed,  and  towed  alongside  the  whaling-ship,  the  case  is  emptied 
ot  Its  valuable  contents  through  a hole  made  in  front  of  the  muzzle,  and  by  means  of  a 
bucket  attached  to  a pole.^  The  spermaceti  was  at  one  time  imagined  to  be  the  brain  of 
the  whale;  what  purpose  it  serves  in  the  animal  economy,  is  not  well  known  except 
thatalready  alludedtoof  giving  buoyancy  to  the  forepart  of  the  huge  body  and  per- 
haps this  IS  its  chief  use,  respiration  even  more  than  progression  depending  on  it  • but 
It  IS  distinct  enough  from  the  brain,  which  is  comparatively  very  small,  and  is  indeed 
as  well  as  the  skull  which  contains  it,  small  in  proportion  to  the  whole  bulk  of  the 
creature.  Cavities  filled  with  spermaceti  are  distributed  over  the  body,  and  even 
1 T external  fat  or  blubber,  although  the  principal  mass  is  in  the  head 

Ihe  blubber  of  the  C.  is  npt  nearly  equal  in  thickness  to  that  of  the  Greenland  whale 
, being  only  about  14  in.  thick  on  the  breast  of  a large  whale,  and  from  8 to  11  in  on 
/Other  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  called  by  whalers  the  blanket,  is  removed  from  the  body 
of  the  captured  whale  in  great  strips,  and  is  heated  in  large  pots,  the  skin  of  the  whale 
I seeing  for  fuel,  when  the  oil  known  as  sperm  oil  (q.v.)  fl^ows  from  it.  The  junk  a 
thick  elastic  mass,  which  occupies  the  forepart  of  the  head,  immediately  under  the  erne 
|yieids  also  a considerable  quantity  of  sperm  oil. 

The  C.  feeds  upon  fishes  and  cephalopodous  mollusks.  Squids  and  cuttle-fishes 
appear  to  be  its  chief  food.  It  is  gregarious  in  its  habits,  and  the  herds  are  called 
^hools  by  w^halers.  Five  hundred  or  more  have  been  seen  in  a single  herd  Lare:e 
herds  generally  consist  of  females,  with  only  a few  males;  herds  of  young  males  also 
occur;  when  solitary  individuals  are  met  with,  they  are  almost  always  old  males.  Ter- 
rible conflicts  often  take  place  among  the  males,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  the  lower 
gw  deformed  in  consequence  of  having  been  dislocated  or  broken  in  them  See 
W HALE-FISHERY. 

CACIQUE',  or  Cazique',  the  designation  given  to  the  chiefs  of  Indian  tribes  in  works 
relating  to  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  America.  The  word  was  derived  by  the 
Spaniards  from  the  language  of  the  former  inhabitants  of  St.  Domingo. 

CACOD.S)'MON.  See  Demon. 

CA  CODYLE,  or  Ka'kodyle,  is  an  organic  substance  containing  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  arsenic  (C4H6AS).  It  has  been  proposed  to  employ  the  oxide  of  C.  (C4H6AsO)  as  a 
leadly  agent  in  war.  This  compound,  otherwise  known  as  Cadet's  fuminq  liquor  or 
ilkar^ne,  has  the  remarkable  property  of  taking  fire  spontaneously  when  exposed  to  the 
iir,  and  evolving  abundant  fumes  of  arsenic.  Thus,  a shell  filled  with  it  would  on 
lurstmg  saturate  a space  of  ground,  or  the  rigging  or  deck  of  a man-of-war,  with  a 
iquid  which  would  quickly  take  fire  of  its  own  accord,  and  besides  causing  destruction 
)y  burning,  would  likewise  spread  death  by  its  fumes. 

CACON'GO,  or  Mallem'ba,  an  independent  state  of  s.  Guinea,  Africa,  extending 
.long  the  s.  Atlantic  ocean,  in  lat.  5°  s.,  and  stretching  s.e.  as  far  as  the  river  Bell.  Its 
imits  interiorly  are  not  well  defined.  The  country  is  generally  flat,  and  the  soil  fertile, 
he  principal  towns  are  Kmguele,  and  Cacongo  and  Mallemba  on  the  coast,  the  last 
nee  a great  mart  for  slaves. 

Cacta'ce^,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  succu- 
^nt  shrubs  of  very  pngular  appearance.  Linnaeus  included  all  the  C.  in  the  single 
enus  cactus,  which  is  now  divided  into  a number  of  genera;  the  name  cactus,  however 
till  continuing  in  popular  use,  common  to  the  whole  order.  Nearly  500  species  are 
number  is  probably  much  greater.  The  C.  are,  without  exception, 
atives  of  America,  and  their  extraordinary  forms  constitute  a remarkable  feature  in  the 
® warmer  regions.  All  of  them  have  fleshy  stems,  either  simple  or 

^®ast  when  old,  having  an  easily 
f annual  rings,  and  covered  with  a layer  of  inner 

I part  may  be  regarded  only  as  a layer  of  bark.  Most  of 

V alone  have  true  leaves,  which  are  fleshy;  and  the  opunticB 

which  soon  fall  off;  but,  instead  of  leaves,  most  of  the  order 
ave  clusters  of  hairs  or  prickles,  where  buds  are  formed  in  their  stems,  and  these  are 


Cactus. 

Cadre. 


260 


very  numerous,  even  in  the  species  which  in  ordinary  circumstances  most  rarely  develop- 
branches.  The  multiplicity  of  curious  forms  exceeds  imagination;  in  many  species 
(melocactidoB,or  melon  thistles), the  stem  swells  out  into  a globe;  in  others  {torch  thistles), 
rises  up  as  a column  with  many  angles;  in  others  {opuntioe,  Indian  figs,  or  prickly  pears), 
it  divides  in  leaf-like  articulations;  in  some  {pereskice)  it  assumes  a tree-like  form,  in. 
which  the  thick  stem  bears  a head  of  branches,  and  reaches  a considerable  height,  some- 
times even  30  or  40  feet.  Those  which  have  angular,  ribbed,  and  channeled,  or  flat  and 
two-edged  stems,  show  a tendency  to  the  cylindrical  form  as  the  stem  advances  in  age. 
Some  species  have  long  creeping  or  trailing  stems.  The  whole  organization  of  the  C. 
adapts  them  for  the  endurance  of  long  droughts ; they  vegetate  vigorously  during  a part 
of  the  year,  and  then  rest;  the  very  absence  of  leaves  concurring  with  the  absence  of 
pores  ov.stomata  in  their  tough  skin  to  enable  them  to  resist  the  action  of  a dry  atmos- 
phere and  powerful  sunshine,  and  to  occupy  arid  soils  and  bare  rocks,  on  which  they 
are  very  generally  found,  often  covering  large  tracts.  Some  of  them  grow  rapidly  on 
old  lavas,  and  disintegrate  them  by  their  penetrating  roots,  thus  preparing  a soil  for 
other  plants;  and  the  prickly  pear  is  often  planted  in  Sicily  by  the  mere  insertion  of  a 
branch  or  joint  of  it  in  a fissure  of  lava.  Many  species  occur  as  epiphytes  (q.v.)  on  the 
trees  of  American  forests.  Some  also  grow  on  high  mountains,  a few  even  reaching 
almost  to  the  border  of  the  snow.  Th^e  plants  of  this  order  are  a great  boon  to  the 
regions  in  which  they  chiefly  abound,  which  are,  at  least  during  great  part  of  the  year, 
very  destitute  of  water;  their  stems  containing  a store  of  insipid  and  wholesome  juice, 
of  which  both  men  and  cattle  avail  themselves. — Some  species,  as  the  prickly  pear 
(q.v.),  produce  a pleasant  fruit. — The  fruit  of  opuntia  tuna  affords  a valuable  pigment 
of  the  richest  carmine  color. 

The  flowers  of  the  C.  are  in  general  very  short-lived;  those  of  some  night-flowering^ 
species,  as  of  cereus  grandijiorus,  well  known  in  our  hothouses,  endure  only  for  part  of 
a single  night.  In  the  greater  number,  they  are  large  and  splendidly  colored,  in  some 
they  are  very  fragrant.  The  order  is  regarded  as  botanically  allied  to  mesemhryaceoB- 
(q.v.)  and  to  grossulariaceoe  (q.v.,  gooseberry,  currant,  etc.). 

The  cultivation  of  the  C.  in  green  houses  and  hothouses  has  been  much  in  fashion 
for  more  than  30  years.  The  gardener  must  imitate  the  natural  conditions  of  their 
growth,  by  giving  water  freely  during  a few  months,  and  withholding  it  almost  entirely 
during  the  rest  of  the  year.  Most  of  them  are  easily  propagated  by  branches,  taken  off, 
and  allowed  to  dry  a fittle  before  being  planted.  The  melocactidoe,  which  do  not  readily 
produce  branches,  are  made  to  do  so  by  cutting  off  or  burning  out  the  central  bud,  that 
the  means  of  propagating  them  may  be  obtained. 

CACTUS.  See  Cacte^,  ante. 

CACUS,  in  legend,  a gigantic  son  of  Vulcan,  who  dwelt  in  a cave  on  mount 
Aventine  and  continually  vomited  fire  and  smoke.  He  stole  cattle  from  the  people  and 
drew  them  backward  into  his  cave,  so  that  their  tracks  would  not  point  to  his  abode 
He  was  slain  by  Hercules  for  stealing  the  cattle  of  Geryon. 

CADAM'BA,  or  Kudumba,  the  wood  of  several  species  of  nauclea,  a genus  of  trees 
of  the  natural  order  cinchonaceae,  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  having  flowers  with  a fun- 
nel-shaped corolla.  N.  cadamha  is  a noble  tree,  with  orange-colored  fragrant  flowers, 
collected  in  heads  about  the  size  of  a small  apple.  The  leaves  are  from  6 to  10  in, 
long.  The  wood  is  yellow,  soft,  and  fine-grained.  The  tree  is  highly  prized  for  the 
shade  which  it  affords;  the  wood  is  used  for  various  purposes.  N.  cordifoUa  is  a large- 
tree,  plentiful  in  mountainous  districts  of  Hindustan ; the  wood  yellow,  close-grained, 
and  used  for  flooring-planks,  packing-boxes,  and  many  other  purposes,  as  is  also  that  of 
N.  parvijlora.  All  kinds  of  C.  wood  are,  however,  liable  to  be  injured  by  moisture,  and 
can  only  be  used  where  they  are  to  be  kept  dry. 

CAD  A MOSTO,  Luigi  da,  a Venetian  navigator  of  the  15th  c.,  who,  with  others,  irt 
1455,  explored  the  w.  coast  of  Africa  as  far  south  as  the  river  Gambia.  He  wrote  an  ac- 
count of  his  voyages  in  the  Book  of  the  First  Voyage  over  the  Ocean  to  the  Land  of  Negroes^ 
in  Lower  Ethiopia. 

CADASTRAL  SURVEY  is  one  which  represents  objects  in  their  true  relative  posi- 
tions and  dimensions,  as  they  exist  on  the  face  of  the  country,  differing  thus  from  a 
topographical  survey,  which,  for  distinctness,  enlarges  certain  objects,  as  the  dimensions 
of  houses,  width  of  roads,  streams,  etc.  The  usual  scale  of  a map  of  C.  S.  is  about  2 ft. 
to  a mile. 

CAD'DICE,  or  Cad'dice-Fly  {phryganen),  a Linnsen  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  neu~ 
roptera,  a family  in  subsequent  entomological  systems,  and  constituted  by  Mr.  Kirby 
into  a distinct  order,  trichoptera  (Gr.  hairy-winged).  The  caddice-flies  certainly  differ  in 
important  particulars  from  the  other  neuropterous  insects,  and  exhibit  points  of  resem- 
blance to  .the  lepidoptera.  They  have  no  mandibles,  and  the  maxillae  and  lower  lip  ar& 
membranous  and  united ; the  head  is  small,  with  prominent  eyes,  and  two  additional 
email  simple  eyes  situated  on  the  forehead;  the  antennae  are  long  and  bristle-like,  com- 
posed of  very  numerous  indistinct  joints.  Both  wings  and  body  are  generally  very 
hairy,  and  the  wings,  when  at  rest,  are  raised,  and  meet  above  the  back  like  those  of 
butterflies,  from  which,  however,  they  differ  very  much  in  form,  being  much  more 


261 


Cactus. 

Cadelle. 


elongate:  the  legs  are  long.  Caddice-flies  are  extremely  active,  particularly  in  the  even- 
ing and  at  night,  when  the  smaller  species  often  fly  in  great  numbers  above  streams  and 
ponds.  These  insects  are  most  interesting,  however,  on  account  of  their  larvse,  of  which 
the  larger  kinds  are  the  well-kno^yn  caddice- worms,  or  cad-hait  of  anglers.  They  are  of 
a long,  almost  cylindrical  form,  the  head  and  first  three  segments  hard,  the  remainder 
—the  abdoniinal  segments— soft.  To  the  thoracic  segments  are  attached  the  feet,  six  in 
number,  as  in  the  perfect  insect.  The  larva  lives  alwaj'S  in  water,  feeding  on  aquatic 
vegetables.  It  spins  by  its  mouth  silken  threads,  by  means  of  which,  together  with  a 
viscid  substance,  it  attaches  together — and  often  in  a very  symmetrical  manner  and 
with  interesting  peculiarities  which  differ  in  the  different  species— small  hard  substances, 
such  as  small  stones,  bits  of  stick,  or  small  shells,  even  although  they  happen  to  contain 
living  inmates,  and  thus  constructs  a case  for  itself,  in  which  its  soft  body  is  protected, 
and  from  which  only  the  head  and  hard  thoracic  segments  are  voluntarily  protruded’ 
When  it  changes  into  the  pupa  state,  in  which  it  differs  little  from  the  perfect  insect’ 
except  in  the  imperfectly  developed  wings,  it  fixes  its  case  to  some  solid  substance 
beneath  the  water,  and  closes  the  two  extremities  with  a kind  of  grating,  which  admits 
the  free  passage  of  water,  necessary  for  respiration.  Before  assuming  the  perfect  form 
the  pupa  of  the  larger  species  breaks  out  of  its  case  by  means  of  a pair  of  hooks  on  the 
forepart  of  the  head,  and  swims  actively  by  means  of  the  hind  legs,  or  crawls  by  the 
other  two  pair.  Many  of  the  smaller  species  bring  their  pupa  case  to  ’the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  there  take  wing  from  it  as  from  a boat.  The  species  of  caddice -fly  are  very 
numerous,  and  they  are  said  to  be  more  so  in  the  n.  than  in  the  s.  of  Europe  About 
200  British  species  have  been  described.— The  angler  looks  for  cad-bait  about  the  edo-es 
of  streams  and  under  stones,  or  on  the  stalks  of  water-cresses,  and  other  aquatic  plants. 
As  a bait  for  angling,  the  caddice  is  almost  as  deadly  as  the  May-fly,  and  more  so,  in 
clear  running  streams,  than  the  ordinary  worm;  the  usual-sized  bait-hook  is  used,  upon 
^sl baits  are  fixed,  the  angler  proceeding  exactly  as  in  ordinary  worm- 


^o^isiana,  bordering  on  Arkansas  and  Texas;  1200  sq.m.; 
pop.  ^b,d05— 19,d83  colored.  Productions,  corn,  cotton,  sweet  potatoes,  etc.  The 

lexas  Pacific  railroad  passes  through  the  parish.  Principal  town,  Shreveport. 

1 1 Cadodaquios,  Indians  in  or  near  Texas  on  the  upper  Red  river  and 

Jake  Caddo.  There  are  but  a few  hundreds  left  of  a once  large  tribe. 

CADE,  Jack  a historical  character,  leader  of  an  insurrection  which  broke  out  in 
Kent,  June,  14o0.  Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history,  further  than  that  he  was  an 
Rishman,  and  an  ille^timate  relation  of  the  duke  of  York,  and  hence  called  himself 
Mortimer.  With  15,000  or  20,000  armed  men  of  Kent,  C.  marched  on  London,  and 
encamped  at  Blackheath,  whence  he  kept  up  a correspondence  with  the  citizens,  many 
of  whom  were  favorable  to  his  enterprise.  The  court  sent  to  inquire  why  the  good  men 
f left  their  homes;  C.,  in  a paper  entitled  “ The  Complaint  of  the  Commons 

ot  Kent,  replied  that  the  people  were  robbed  of  their  goods  for  the  king’s  use;  that 
mean  and  corrupt  persons,  who  plundered  and  oppressed  the  commons,  filled  the  hidi 
offices  at  court;  that  it  was  “noised  that  the  king’s  lands  in  France  had  been  aliened;” 
that  mis^overnment  had  banished  justice  and  prosperity  from  the  land;  and  that  the 
especially  ill-treated  and  overtaxed,  and  that  the  free  election  of 
shire  had  been  hindered.  In  another  paper,  called  “The  Requests  by 
the  Captain  of  the  Great  Assembly  in  Kent,”  C.  demanded  that  the  king  should  resume 
the  grants  of  the  crown,  which  he  complained  the  creatures  about  the  royal  person  fat- 
V'  compelled  to  live  on  taxation;  that  the  false  progeny  of 

the  duke  of  Suffolk  should  be  dismissed;  and  that  the  duke  of  York  and  others  should 
be  restored  to  favor,  and  a number  of  persons  punished.  The  court  sent  its  answer  in 
the  torin  of  an  army,  before  which  C.  retreated  to  Sevenoaks,  where  he  awaited  the 
attack  of  a detachment,  which  he  defeated.  The  royal  army  now  objected  to  fight 

court  made  some  concessions,  and  C.  entered  London  on 
me  dd  July,  tor  two  days,  he  maintained  the  strictest  order;  but  he  forced  the  mayor 
judgment  upon  lord  Say,  one  of  the  king’s  hated  favorites,  whose 

houses  Were 

h!«  leader  himself,  it  is  said,  setting  the  example.  C.,  who  at  night  lodged 

flip  borough,  got  news  that  the  citizens  intended  to  prevent  his  entrance  into 

dffeS  A attack  on  the  bridge,  but  was 

A pardon  now  sowed  dissension  among  his  followers,  who  dis- 

bnfwl’/f  upon  C.’s  head.  He  attempted  to  reach  the  Sussex  coast, 

Tnfv Ti  esquire,  named  Alexander  Iden,  who  fought  and  killed  him, 

July  11.  His  head  was  stuck  upon  London  bridge,  as  a terror  to  traitors. 

'mauritanica  or  carahoides,  an  insect  sometimes  found  in  grana- 
F?Lpp  f but  seemingly  imported  from  more  southerly  countries,  where,  as  in 
brpad  nimp  ^ commit  great  ravages  among  stored  corn.  They  also  live  on 

ton^  flnl^^np^  rc«cn  wood.  When  full  grown,  they  are  about  f of  an  in. 

rough  with  scattered  hairs,  whitish,  tapering  towards  the  head; 
horny,  and  furnished  with  two  curved  jaws.  The  perfect  insect  is  a 


n-jpQQv  Kppfip  VY  11,11  twu  ^.Uiveu  jaws,  ine  periect  insect  is  a 

glossy  beetle  of  a deep  chestnut  color,  marked  with  dotted  lines.  It  belongs  to  the 


Cadence. 

Cadets. 


262 


family  of  xylophagi,  of  the  order  of  coleoptera  (q.v.),  section  tetramera.  The  name  C.  is 
French. 

CA'DENCE,  in  music,  is  the  finish  of  a phrase  (in  German,  schluszfaU),  of  which  there 
are  three  principal  species — viz. , the  whole,  the  half,  and  the  interrupted  cadence.  The 
whole  C.,  which  finishes  on  the  harmony  of  the  tonic,  is  also  called  the  perfect  C.,  and 
is  always  used  at  the  end  of  a composition,  and  frequently  called  the  final  cadence.  In 
its  most  perfect  use,  it  consists  of  three  chords — the  one  before  the  final  being  always 
the  dominant,  as  for, example: 


The  half  C.,  also  called  the  imperfect  C.,  is  used  to  mark  the  termination  of  an  idea 
or  phrase,  like  the  colon  and  semicolon;  showing  a considerable  division,  but  at  the 
same  time  that  a continuation  is  necessary.  The  harmony  of  the  half  C.  is  the  reverse 
of  the  whole  C.,  as  it  falls  from  the  tonic  to  the  dominant,  and  sometimes  to  the  sub- 
dominant as  follows: 


In  the  interrupted  C.  (Ger.  trugsclilusz;  Ital.  cadenza  dHnganno),  the  preparation  for  the 
ordinary  perfect  C.  is  made;  but  instead  of  the  harmony  of  the  tonic  following  the 
dominant,  another  harmony  quite  strange  is  introduced,  so  that  the  ear  is  deceived. 
The  more  particular  the  preparation  for  the  usual  C.  is  made,  the  more  strange  and 
unexpected  is  the  interruption,  which  can  be  made  in  so  many  ways  that  Reicha,  in 
his  Traite  de  Haute  Composition  Musicale,  gives  129  interrupted  cadences.  The  following 
are  those  generally  in  use : 


CADENCY  (from  Lat.  cado,  to  fall  or  decline).  The  marks  by  which  the  shields  of 
the  younger  members  of  families  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  elder,  and  from 
each  other,  is  an  extensive,  and,  in  so  far  as  that  term  can  be  applied  to  heraldry  at 
all,  an  important  branch  of  the  science.  No  distinction  is  usually  made  by  writers  on 
heraldry,  and  probably  the  practice  of  heralds  in  general  scarcely  admits  of  any  being 
made,  between  marks  of  G. , differences,  distinctions,  or  even  brisures,  though  the  last  term 
is  pretty  constantly  and  quite  appropriately  used  to  include  not  only  differences  in 
general,  but  also  abatements  (q.v.)  or  bearings  by  which  the  arms  of  the  family  are 
broken  or  diminished.  See  Bastard  Bar.  But  there  is  a manifest  convenience  in  the 
practice  which  is  usually  followed  in  Scotland,  of  appropriating  the  label,  the  crescent, 
the  mullet,  and  the  rest  of  the  series  of  marks,  commonly  known  as  marks  of  C.,  to 
the  purpose  of  distinguishing  the  sons  from  the  father,  and  from  each  other,  during 
the  father’s  life-time ; and  of  adopting  other  distinctions — such  as  the  bordeur  of  various 
kinds,  the  chief  engrailed,  embattled,  and  the  like,  as  differences  between  the  coats  of 
brothers,  after  the  death  of  their  father,  and  of  the  houses  descended  from  them. 
Another  very  common  mode  of  differencing  the  shields  of  brothers  in  early  times,  was 
by  changing  the  tinctures;  but  this  is  now  regarded  as  too  extensive  a change  for 
such  a purpose. 

The  differences  at  present  used  by  the  royal  family  will  be  found  in  most  of  the 
peerages.  The  rule  with  regard  to  them  seems  to  be  that,  unlike  subjects,  they  all 
bear  the  label  of  three  points  argent;  but  the  label  of  the  prince  of  Wales  is  plain, 
whilst  those  of  the  other  princes  and  princesses  are  charged  with  crosses,  fleurs-de-lis, 
hearts,  or  other  figures,  for  the  sake  of  distinction.  One  of  the  most  frequent  reasons 
for  matriculating  the  arms  of  the  younger  branches  of  families  of  distinction  in  the 
lord  Lyon’s  register,  is  that  they  may  be  properly  distinguished  from  those  borne  by  the 
head  of  the  house. 


263 


Cadence* 

Cadets. 


per  wf  a?the\“nSg“of"  a ^ «*« 

Cthfw^  Wris  a reputed  giant),  a picturesque  mountain  in  Merion- 

in  1 ’ ^ ■ i -i^'  I^olgelly.  It  consists  of  an  immense  ridge  of  broken  nrec 

feef  'lUs"J;omno^^^^  the  highest  peak  reaching  a/elevation  of  2914 

mimiVp  I Porpliyiy,  and  other  trap  rocks,  with  beds  of  slag  and 

summit,  which  is  very  extensive,  includes  the  Wrekin  in 
Shropshire,  and  St.  George’s  channel  almost  to  the  Irish  coast.  vvreKin  in 

CADET  {ante).  All  students  at  the  United  States  military  academy  and  navol  nrnd 
emy  have  this  title;  and  there  are  also  medical  cadets  recogniLd  as  a d‘istinct  rani 

CADET,  Military  (Fr.  cadet,  younger,  junior  in  service— allied  in  derivation  and 
meaning  to  cadency  (q.v.)  in  heraldry),  is  a term  applied  in  a general  sense  to  a iuninr 
hln^rTn^^  a noble  family  as  distinguished  from  the  eldest;  and  in  France  any  officer 

authority  in  India,  there  were  about  5000  English  offi^rs  in  their 
pay.  Those  who  commanded  the  company’s  own  regiments  had  been  nmfooo*  n 
educated  by  the  company.  A youth,  nominated  by  Jh!  Xfctors ^ 

Ind^’lS  English  education,  and  admitted  between The  ages  of  14 

and  18  to  Addiscombe  school  or  college,  near  Croydon  If  a orobatinn  nf  4i 

replted  satisfactorily,  he  entered  upon  a two  years’  course  of  studv^  If  Hp  rtao  u 

"a"  ’I”"  «■'  •(  ofci  I si 

The  second  aspect  of  military  cadetship  in  England  adverted  to  abnvp  ti,of 

sSiSSslISiBaa 


remodebna  of^the^n^inA  designation  was  established  in  1858  by  a 

^ department  of  the  royal  military  college  at  Sandhnrsit  ‘ Ttc 

r»;5£  ,i;r" 

Edging  varie^d  from  £100^n  payment  for  education,  board,  and 

St^’Tolfs  If  officers  “ w“S  f ”f  V'  'tiryoufts  we^"  qSeS 

service,  and  had  lefXirT^^ilt^r^^^^^^^^^^ 


Cadets. 

Ceecilius. 


264 


admitted  and  educated  gratuitously.  This  system  was  abolished  in  1870.  Sub-lieu- 
tenants of  cavalry  and  infantry,  styled  “student  officers,”  who  have  done  duty  with  a 
regiment  for  about  12  months,  are  now  required  to  attend  the  college  at  Sandhurst,  and 
go  through  a course  of  study  for  a year.  At  the  end  of  it,  on  passing  a satisfactory 
examination,  they  are  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  and  rejoin  their  regiments. 
See  also  Military  Academy,  Royal. 

CADET’S  FUMING  LIQUOE.  See  Cacodyle. 

CA'DI,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a judge  or  person  learned  in  the  law,  the  title  of 
an  inferior  judge  amongst  the  Mohammedan  nations,  who,  like  the  Mollah  (q.v.),  or 
superior  judge,  must  be  chosen  from  the  higher  ranks  of  the  priesthood,  as  all  law  is 
founded  upon  the  Koran. 

CADILLAC,  Antoine  de  la  Mothe,  d.  1719;  a French  pioneer  and  officer  in 
America,  who  came  to  Nova  Scotia  in  1691 ; commanded  at  Michilimackinac,  1691-97, 
and  in  1701  founded  Detroit.  He  was  governor  of  Louisiana,  1712-17,  where  he  had 
much  trouble  with  the  Indians. 

CADIZ,  a province  in  s.  Spain,  in  the  ancient  division  of  Andalusia;  bounded  n. 
by  Seville,  e.  by  the  Mediterranean,  s.  by  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  w.  by  the  Guadal- 
quivir; 2806  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  426,499.  It  is  a mountainous  region,  traversed  by  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  but  partially  cultivated.  The  wines  of  the  province  are  especially 
fine.  The  western  part  is  traversed  by  the  Seville  and  Cadiz  railroad. 

CADIZ  (ancient  Oades),  an  important  commercial  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  modem 
province  of  the  same  name,  which  forms  a part  of  the  great  division  of  Andalusia;  is 
situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  long  narrow  isthmus  of  the  isle  of  Leon,  in  lat.  36°  32' 
n.,  and  long.  6°  17'  west.  The  Atlantic  ocean  washes  its  western  and  part  of  its  south- 
ern side,  and  on  the  n.  and  n.e.  it  is  inclosed  by  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  a deep  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic,  forming  an  outer  and  an  inner  bay.  Connected  by  only  a narrow  strip  of 
ground  (in  some  places  not  above  200  yds.  across)  with  the  mainland,  C.  is  admirably 
situated  for  defense;  but  though  it  has  several  sea  and  land  fortifications,  these  are  by 
no  means  considered  impregnable.  The  town,  which  is  surrounded  by  walls,  forms 
nearly  a square,  each  side  being  about  a mile  and  a half  in  length.  The  houses  being 
built  of  white  stone,  the  city  presents  a remarkably  bright  and  clean  appearance  from 
the  sea.  The  streets  are  well  paved  and  lighted,  regular,  but  narrow,  and  there  are 
some  pleasant  public  walks,  the  most  frequented  of  which  is  the  Alameda.  It  has  few 
public  buildings  of  note ; its  two  cathedrals  are,  on  the  whole,  but  poor  specimens  of 
ecclesiastical  architecture,  and  its  pictures,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  excellent 
pieces  by  Murillo,  are  of  little  value.  C.  declined  greatly  as  a commercial  city  after  the 
emancipation  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America;  but  owing  partly  to  the  recent 
extension  of  the  railway  system  in  Spain,  and  partly  to  the  establishment  of  some  new 
lines  of  steamers,  the  trade  has,  within  the  last  thirty  years,  revived  considerably.  Quite 
lately  again  there  has  been  serious  depression.  In  1873,  the  total  imports  of  C.  were 
valued  at  £2,100,729;  in  1876,  at  £1,908,166;  in  1873,  the  exports  were  worth  £3,941,095; 
and  in  1876,  only  £1,908,166.  The  number  of  Spanish  ships  which  entered  C.  in  1874 
was  2677,  with  a tonnage  of  315,333;  of  foreign  ships,  962 — tonnage,  300,730.  The 
exports  consist  of  wine,  olive-oil,  fruits,  salt,  and  metals.  The  manufactures  are  glass, 
woolen  cloth,  soap,  hats,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  ’79,  68,000. 

C.  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  in  Europe,  having  been  built  by  the  Phenicians, 
under  the  name  of  Gaddir,  347  years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  or  about  1100  b.c. 
It  afterwards  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom  it  was  captured 
by  the  Romans,  who  named  it  Gades,  and  under  them  it  soon  became  a city  of  vast 
wealth  and  importance.  Occupied  aRerwards  by  the  Goths  and  Moors,  it  was  taken  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1262.  In  1587,  Drake  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  bay;  nine 
years  later,  it  was  pillaged  and  burned  by  lord  Essex;  and  in  1625  and  1702,  it  was  unsuc- 
cessfully attacked  by  other  English  forces.  After  the  revolution  of  1808,  C.  became  the 
headquarters  of  the  insurrectionary  junta,  by  whose  orders  it  was  separated  from  the 
mainland.  The  French,  in  Feb. . 1810,  commenced  a blockade,  which  they  vigorously  per- 
severed in,  capturing  several  of  the  forts,  until  Aug.  25,  1812,  when  the  victories  of  the 
duke  of  Wellington  forced  them  to  abandon  it.  The  city  was  besieged  and  taken  by 
the  French  in  1823,  and  held  by  them  until  1828.  In  the  Spanish  revolution  of  1868,  C. 
played  a distinguished  part. 

CADMIA  is  the  term  applied  to  the  crust  formed  in  zinc  furnaces,  and  which  contains 
from  10  to  20  per  cent  of  cadmium. 

CADMIUM  is  a metal  which  occurs  in  zinc  ores,  and,  being  more  volatile  than  zinc, 
rises  in  vapor,  and  distils  over  with  the  first  portions  of  the  metal.  See  Zinc.  C.  is 
represented  by  the  symbol  Cd,  has  the  atomic  weight  56 — new  system,  112 — and  the 
specific  gravity  8.6.  It  is  a white  metal,  somewhat  resembling  tin;  is  malleable  and 
ductile;  fuses  at  442°  F.,  and  rises  in  vapor  a little  above  600°.  It  is  rarely  prepared 
pure,  and  is  not  employed  in  the  arts  as  a metal,  though  one  or  more  of  its  salts  have 
been  serviceable  in  medicine.  The  sulphide  of  C.,  CdS,  occurs  naturally  as  the  mineral 
greerijockite,  and  when  prepared  artificially,  is  of  a bright  yellow  color.  It  is  known  as 
cadmium  yellow,  and  is  of  great  value  to  the  artist.  A great  variety  of  tints  are  pro- 


265 


Cadets. 

Caeciliug. 


^ced  by  mixing  it  with  white-lead.  Much  of  what  is  sold  as  Nanles  vellow  ^ ia 
able  qualities,  which  are  causing  it  rapidly  to  supersede  Naples  yellow’  ^ ^ 

Phenicia,  and  the  discovery  of  brass,  or  introduction  of  its  use  WPt  or 

ove^^th^peTsVn^t^  CaptS  1^1791^116  was""  sent  Ts"^a"  fro""* 

Pichegru  for  the  overthrow  of  the  first  consul  WiTh  this  desilT  he^ wPn?“t^^P 
was  arrested,  condemned  and  executed  Time  irim  ^ ^ 

^nd  indomitable  resolution  ‘‘  PPs  iSnd  was  cast  i^the  trnf  ^ 
would  have  done  great  things.”  was  N^poS’s  estimate  of  hto 

whiTwafsfp’pt^d"" god^pSo  flf^Tre  C t Te^  "“I'l 

Sf 

sj'.yr.'ac:''*'*-  “ “■• 

;SFSSKS^tlP  S“S“c 

.nSnfoPttir?o?m'iu  ?'“«='!  ^e''Pents, 

ibserved  allying  them  to  batrachials  with  whilh  structure  peculiarities  were 

act  having  been  ascertained  of  their  breath  in  o-  hv  o-iiir  ranked  the  important 

aetamorpLsis  The  bodfis  almlll  "^tSad  t"alf Z " 

Mmsmmmmi 


Oeecum. 

Oaermarthenshlre* 


266 


C^'CUM  (Lat.  mens,  blind),  a blind  sac;  that  is,  a sac  or  bag  having  only  one  open- 
ing, connected  with  the  intestine  of  an  animal.  In  man  there  is  only  one  C.,  very  small, 
and  apparently  not  performing  any  important  function,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the 
small  intestine,  where  it  terminates  in  the  large  intestine  or  colon.  In  many  of  the 
mammalia,  however,  and  particularly  in  most  of  those  which  are  herbivorous,  it  is  com- 
paratively large,  and  is  found  to  secrete  an  acid  fluid  resembling  the  gastric  juice.  It 
therefore  appears  that,  where  the  nature  of  the  assimilatory  process  is  such  as  to  require 
the  detention  of  the  food  for  a considerable  time,  this  provision  is  made  for  it,  in  order 
that  digestion  may  be  more  completely  accomplished.  The  C.  is  entirely  wanting  in 
some  quadrupeds,  as  in  bats,  and  the  bear  and  weasel  families.  Birds  have  two  caeca, 
which  are  generally  long  and  capacious  in  those  that  are  omnivorous  or  granivorous, 
and  the  position  of  which  is  the  only  circumstance  that  marks  the  division  of  the  intes- 
tine into  two  parts,  the  small  and  the  large  intestine,  or  the  ileum  and  the  colon.  In 
reptiles,  a C.  is  of  very  rare  occurrence.  Fishes  have  none  in  the  position  occupied  by 
those  of  quadrupeds  and  birds,  but  many  of  them  have  caeca  attached  to  the  intestine  at 
its  uppermost  part,  and  very  generally  regarded  as  appendages  of  the  stomach.  The 
number  of  these  caeca  is,  however,  extremely  various;  sometimes  there  are  only  2,  and 
sometimes  more  than  100.  The  number  is  different  even  in  very  nearly  allied  species 
of  the  same  family;  thus,  there  are  only  6 in  the  smelt,  but  70  in  the  salmon;  24  in  the 
herring,  and  80  in  the  shad.  In  some  Ashes,  as  the  cod,  the  caeca  consists  of  large  trunks 
ramifled  into  smaller  ones. — The  intestinal  canal  of  some  of  the  infusoi'ia  is  furnished 
throughout  its  whole  length  with  numerous  caeca,  no  other  organ  corresponding  to  a 
stomach  appearing  to  exist. 

C.S:DM0N,  the  flrst  Anglo-Saxon  writer  of  note  who  composed  in  his  own  language, 
and  of  whom  there  are  any  remains.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  his  death 
occurred  about  680  a.d.  He  was  originally  a cowherd  attached  to  the  monastery  of 
Whitby,  and,  according  to  Bede,  “even  more  ignorant  than  the  majority  of  his  fellows, 
so  that  in  the  evenings,  when  the  domestics  assembled  in  the  hall  to  recreate  themselves 
with  music  after  the  labors  of  the  day,  C.  was  frequently  obliged  to  retire  in  order  to 
hide  his  shame  when  the  harp  was  moved  towards  him.”  One  night,  however,  as  he 
was  sleeping  in  the  stable  loft,  a stranger  appeared  to  him,  and  commanded  him  to  sing. 
C.  declared  his  ignorance,  but  the  stranger  would  take  no  refusal,  and  imposed  on  the 
poor  cowherd  the  sublime  task  of  hymning  the  glories  of  creation.  Suddenly  a poetic 
inspiration  seized  him,  and  he  began  to  pour  forth  verses.  When  he  awoke  from  his 
dream  the  words,  remained  fast-rooted  in  his  memory,  and  were  recited  by  him  to  others 
with  new  confldence.  The  abbess  Hilda,  and  the  learned  men  who  were  with  her  in 
the  monastery,  immediately  declared  that  he  had  received  the  gift  of  song  from  heaven. 
He  was  now  educated,  became  a monk,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  composing  poems 
on  the  Bible  histories  and  on  miscellaneous  religious  subjects,  many  of  which  nave  been 
preserved,  and  are  altogether  in  bulk  nearly  equal  to  the  half  of  Paradise  Lost. 
to  parts  of  which  some  of  them  bear  a striking  resemblance.  Satan’s  speech  in  hell  is 
characterized  by  a simple  yet  solemn  greatness  of  imagination,  which  may  possibly  have 
influenced  at  some  period  of  his  life  the  more  magnifleent  genius  of  Milton. 

C.ffiLATTT'KA.  See  Chasing. 

C-^'LIUS  AURELIA'NUS,  a physician  of  Numidia  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Roman 
empire,  and  author  of  a valuable  medical  work.  He  divided  disease  into  two  great 
classes,  acute  and  chronic,  devoting  his  work  of  ten  books  to  their  elucidation. 

C^LIUS  MONS,  one  of  the  seven  hills  of  Rome.  See  Rome,  ante, 

CAEN,  the  chief  t.  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  France— formerly  the  capital  of 
lower  Normandy — is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Orne,  about  9 m.  from  its  mouth, 
122  m.  w.n.w.  of  Paris.  C.  is  built  in  the  middle  of  a fertile  plain ; its  streets  are  wide 
and  clean,  it  has  several  flne  squares,  and  many  noble  specimens  of  ancient  Norman 
architecture.  Among  the  best  examples  are  the  churches  of  St.  Etienne,  founded  by 
William  the  conqueror,  and  which  contained  his  monument,  erected  by  William  Rufus, 
and  destroyed  by  the  Huguenots  in  1562;  La  Trinite,  called  dXso  Ahhaye  aux  Dames, 
founded  by  Matilda,  wife  of  the  conqueror;  St.  Nicholas,  nowr  a cavalry  fodder-store; 
St.  Pierre  and  St.  Jean.  The  castle,  founded  by  the  conqueror,  and  "finished  by  Henry 
I.  of  England,  was  partially  destroyed  in  1793.  There  are  several  beautiful  promenades 
in  the  city,  which  has  manufactures  of  lace,  blonde,  crape,  cutlery,  cotton-yarn;  brew- 
eries, dye-works,  wax -bleaching,  and  ship-building  yards.  Its  Angora  gloyes,^  made 
from  the  unwashed,  undyed  fur  of  Angora  rabbits,  which  are  reared  in  the  district,  are 
celebrated.  Quarries  in  the  neighborhood  produce  an  excellent  stone,  called  Caen  stone 
(q.v.).  Trade  is  facilitated  by  a maritime  canal  connecting  the  port  wuth  the  sea,  and 
also  by  the  raihvay  connecting  it  with  the  Paris  and  Rouen  line;  those  to  Cherbourg, 
Tours,  and  Honfleur,  and  that  to  Flers,  opened  in  1867,  wdiich  affords  C.  communication 
with  Granville.  Nothing  is  known  of  C.  before  the  9th  century.  It  was  a place  of  impor- 
tance in  912,  when  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Normans,  under  whom  it  increased 
rapidly.  William  the  conqueror  and  his  queen  made  it  their  residence,  and  greatly 
improved  it.  In  1346,  it  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  the  English,  who  again  captured  it 
in  1417.  It  was  held  by  them  until  1450,  when  the  French  compelled  them  to  surrender. 


267 


Caecum. 

Caermarthenshlre* 


During  the  revolution  of  1793,  several  of  the  Girondist  chiefs,  proscribed  by  the  Jaco- 
bins went  to  C.,  and  organized  a revolt  against  the  Mountain,  which  proved  unsuccess- 
ful. ’ Pop.  ’76,  33,072. 

CAEN  STONE.  The  neighborhood  of  the  t.  of  Caen,  in  Normandy,  has  been  cele- 
brated for  its  stone  quarries  from  a very  early  period.  The  excellence  of  the  stone,  and 
the  facility  of  transport  by  sea,  led  to  C.  S.  being  very  extensively  used  in  England 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  In  1460,  the  abbot  of  Westminster  obtained  a 
license  to  import  C.  S.  for  the  repairs  of  the  monastery.  Later,  it  became  a regular 
article  of  importation,  and  in  1582  it  is  rated  at  the  custom-house  at  6s.  8d  the  ton. 
Winchester  and  Canterbury  cathedrals,  Henry  VII. ’s  chapel  at  Westminster,  and  many 
country  churches,  are  built  of  C.  S.,which  is  still  frequently  used  in  England.  The 
stone  is  an  oolite,  resembling  Stonesfield  slate,  but  without  its  slaty  structure.  The 
quarries  are  subterraneous,  and  the  stone  is  brought  up  through  vertical  shafts  in  blocks 
8 or  9 ft.  long,  and  about  2 thick. 

C^RE.  See  Cervetere,  ante. 

CAERLE'ON  (Castle  of  the  Legion),  a small  but  ancient  t.  in  Monmouthshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Usk,  2 m.  n.e.  of  Newport.  It  is  the  Isca  Silurum  of  the  Romans, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  Britannia  Secunda,  now 
Wales,  and  the  residence  of  the  famous  king  Arthur.  It  was  the  seat  of  an  ancient 
archbishopric,  which  was  reraoved  to  St.  Davids  about  519  a.d.  An  abbey  of  Cistercian 
monks  existed  here  before  the  reformation.  C.  was  an  important  place  in  the  12th  c., 
but  it  was  afterwards  ruined  by  the  frequent  wars  between  the  Welsh  and  Anglo- 
Saxons.  Many  Roman  relics  have  been  found  here,  as  aqueducts,  baths,  pavements,  altars, 
tiles,  coins,  inscriptions,  and  statues;  many  of  the  smaller  antiquities  are  deposited  in 
a museum  in  the  town ; besides  half-melted  ore  and  cinders,  and  the  remains  of  a fortress, 
with  walls  12  ft.  thick  and  1800  yards  long,  and  of  an  amphitheater,  called  king  Arthur’s 
round  table,  222  by  192  ft.  in  size.  Pop.  ’71,  1306.  The  chief  occupation  is  the  manu- 
facture of  tin-plates. 

CAERMAR'THEN  (Welsh,  Caer  Fyrddyn,  the  Maridunum  of  Ptolemy),  a seaport  t., 
capital  of  Caermarthenshlre,  South  Wales,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Towy,  9 m.  from 
Caermarthen  bay.  It  lies  in  a picturesque  situation,  but  the  streets  are  irregular,  steep, 
and  often  narrow.  The  Towy  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  200  tons  up  to  the  town,  and 
salmon  and  sewin  are  caught  in  the  river.  There  are  tin  and  iron  works  near  the  town. 
C.  exports  tin-plates,  cast  iron,  timber,  marble,  bark,  slates,  lead  ore,  bricks,  grain, 
butter,  and  eggs.  The  Welsh  language  is  used  in  most  of  the  churches.  C.  is  a co. 
borough,  having  a separate  jurisdiction  from  the  shire.  It  unites  with  Llanelly  in 
returning  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  ’71,  10,488.  There  is  a college  for  Welsh 
teachers.  Near  C.  are  the  remains  of  two  Roman  camps.  In  the  5th  c..  Merlin,  the 
Welsh  prophet,  is  said  to  have  been  born  here.  It  was  long  the  residence  of  the  native 
princes  of  South  Wales.  Caermarthen  castle  often  changed  hands  in  the  contests  of  the 
Welsh  chiefs  with  each  other,  and  in  the  subsequent  wars  with  the  Saxons  and  Nor- 
mans. 

CAEBMAR'THENSHIRE,  a maritime  co.  in  South  Wales,  on  the  Bristol  channel; 
bounded  n.  by  Cardigan,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Teify;  e.  by  Brecknock;  s. 
by  Glamorgan  and  Caermarthen  bay;  and  w.  by  Pembroke.  It  is  the  largest  of  the 
Welsh  counties;  length,  53  m.;  greatest  breadth,  33  m. ; area,  974  sq.m.,  nearly  a third 
of  which  is  waste.  The  county  is  mountainous  in  the  n.  and  e.,  and  is  characterized  by 
productive  though  narrow  valleys  and  deep,  wooded  glens.  Caermarthen  Van  or  Beacon 
rises  to  the  height  of  2596  ft.,  being  the  greatest  elevation  in  the  county.  The  coast  of 
C.  is  marshy,  and  is  all  situated  on  Caermarthen  bay,  which  washes  also  small  portions 
of  the  coasts  of  Glamorgan  and  Pembroke,  is  17  m.  across,  10  m.  deep,  35  in  circuit,  and 
receives  the  rivers  Taff  or  Tave,  Towy,  and  Lhoughor.  The  chief  rivers  of  C.  are  the 
Towy,  Cothy,  Taff,  and  Teify.  The  Towy  has  a course  of  60  m.,  of  which  50  are  in 
Caermarthenshire.  It  yields  plenty  of  salmon,  sewin,  trout,  eels,  and  lamprey,  and  is 
navigable  for  the  last  9 m.  of  its  course.  On  this  river  is  the  celebrated  vale  of  the  Towy, 
80  m.  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  2 miles.  C.,  n.  and  w.  of  the  Towy,  comprising 
three  fourths  of  the  county,  consists  of  lower  Silurian  clay-slate  and  grauwacke.  In  the 
s.e.  corner  of  the  county  is  a band  of  carboniferous  limestone  and  grit,  to  which  suc- 
ceeds a small  part  of  the  South  Welsh  coal-field  of  Glamorgan  and  Monmouth,  chiefly 
composed  of  stone-coal  and  culm.  The  mineral  productions  of  the  county  are  iron,  coal, 
copper,  lead,  slates,  lime,  dark-blue  marble.  These,  with  tinned  iron,  grain,  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  and  butter,  are  exported.  The  climate  of  C.  is  mild,  but  moist;  the  soil 
is  stiff  and  poor  in  the  uplands,  affording  pasturage  for  small  cattle;  but  the  rest  of 
the  county  is  well  wooded,  and  in  the  s.  part  along  the  rivers  very  fertile.  Oats  and 
barley  are  the  chief  crops.  The  chief  towns  are  Caermarthen  (the  county  town), 
Llanelly,  Llandeilo-vawr,  Llandovery,  Newcastle-in-Emlyn,  and  Kidwelly.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  woolens  and  hides.  Pop.  ’71,  115,710.  C.  sends  two  members  to 
parliament.  The  county  contains  so-called  Druidical  remains  and  Roman  roads, 
besides  many  baronial  and  ecclesiastical  ruins.  In  this  county  originated  the 
“Rebecca”  riots,  which  in  South  Wales,  in  1843-44,  were  directed  against  the  turn- 
pike-gates. 


Caernarvon* 

Caesar. 


268 


C^RNAR'VON  {Caer-yn-ar-Fon,  Fort  opposite  Mon  or  Anglesea),  a parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  and  seaport  in  North  Wales,  the  capital  of  Caernarvonsliire,  situ^ 
ated  near  the  s.  end  of  the  Menai  strait,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seiont,  245  m.  n.w. 
of  London.  C.  has  a castle  situated  at  the  w.  end  of  the  town,  the  building  of  which 
was  commenced  by  Edward  I.  in  1284.  It  is  one  of  the  noblest  ruins  in  the  king- 
dom, the  walls  being  still  entire,  and  inclosing  an  oblong  of  three  acres.  The  walls 
are  7 to  9 ft.  thick,  and  are  pierced  by  a covered  gallery,  with  loop-holes  to  discharge 
arrows.  There  are  thirteen  embattled  towers,  with  five,  six,  or  eight  sides,  and  sur- 
mounted by  turrets.  The  gateway  under  the  great  square  tower  has  four  portcullises. 
The  town  itself  was  once  surrounded  by  walls  and  round  towers.  These  walls,  with 
several  of  the  gates,  still  exist,  but  are  now  within  the  town.  The  streets  are  narrow,  but 
regular,  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  In  the  churches  and  chapels,  the  services 
are  in  Welsh  and  English.  C.  unites  with  Pwllheli,  Nevin,  Criccieth,  Conway,  and 
Bangor  in  returning  one  member  to  parliament.  In  1876,  939  vessels,  with  a burden  of 
73,275  tons,  entered,  and  1900  vessels,  with  a burden  of  144,584  tons,  cleared  the  port, 
chiefly  small-craft  and  steamers  to  and  from  Liverpool.  The  harbor  admits  of  ships  of 
400  tons.  The  chief  exports  are  copper  ore,  coal,  and  slates.  There  is  also  a great 
iron  and  brass  foundry.  C.  is  a bathing  place,  and  is  much  frequented  by  tourists, 
on  account  of  its  vicinity  to  the  grandest  scenery  in  North  Wales.  Many  families  of  the 
upper  ranks  reside  in  and  around  the  town.  Pop.  ’71,  9449.  Half  a mile  from  C.  are 
the  remains,  covering  seven  acres,  of  Segontium,  or  Caer  Seiont,  a Roman  station  or 
city.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  coins  and  ornaments,  and  other  Roman  relics,  have  been 
found  here.  There  is  a Roman  fort  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seiont,  still  almost  com- 
plete, with  walls  11  ft.  high,  and  6 ft.  thick,  and  with  parallel  rows  of  holes  3 in.  in 
diameter.  C.  was  the  seat  of  the  native  princes  of  North  Wales  down  to  873.  In  1284 
was  born  here  the  first  Anglo-Norman  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  the  unhappy  Edward 
II.  In  1294,  the  town  and  castle  were  burned,  and  the  English  inhabitants  massacred 
by  the  Welsh  under  Madoc,  the  illegitimate  son  of  Llewelyn,  a native  prince  of  Wales. 
From  a rocky  height  near  Uxbridge  hotel,  there  is  a fine  view  of  Snowdon  and  the 
island  of  Anglesea. 

CAERNAR  VONSHIRE,  a rraritimeco.  in  North  Wales,  bounded  n.  by  the  Irish  sea; 
e.  by  Denbigh,  with  the  Conway  between;  s.  by  Merioneth  and  Cardigan  bay;  and  w. 
by  Caernarvon  bay  and  the  Menai  strait,  the  latter  separating  it  from  Anglesea.  It  is  51 
m.  long;  greatest  breadth,  22  m. ; average,  9;  area,  544  sq.m.,  of  which  i is  in  pasture, 
and  only  Ajtli  in  tillage.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  is  traversed  by  the  grandest 
and  highest  ranges  in  South  Britain,  and  it  is  the  highest  and  most  mountainous  county 
in  North  Wales.  The  Snowdonian  or  chief  range  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  great- 
est length  of  the  county,  from  s.w.  to  n.e.,  and  is  very  bold  and  rocky.  It  attains  the 
greatest  elevation  in  Snowdon  (q.v.),  3571  ft.,  in  the  center  of  the  county,  and  the  high- 
est mountain  in  South  Britain.  Caernarvon  bay  is  30  m.  across,  15  long,  with  2 to  30 
fathoms  water,  and  communicates  with  the  Irish  sea  through  the  Menai  strait,  which  is 
17  m.  long,  and  ^ to  4 m.  broad.  The  rivers  of  C.  are  numerous,  but  small,  from  the 
nearness  of  all  parts  of  the  county  to  the  sea.  The  Conway,  navigable  for  10  m.,  which 
runs  along  the  e.  border,  is  the  chief.  Almost  all  the  streams  flow  through  small  lakes 
or  tarns — of  which  there  are  50  or  60  in  the  county — around  the  central  or  Snowdonian 
group  of  mountains.  There  are  many  flue  cataracts  on  these  streams.  The  mineral 
products  of  C.  are  copper,  lead,  zinc,  coal,  roofing  and  writing  slates,  slabs,  chimney- 
piers,  honestone.  The  slate  quarries  employ  many  thousands  of  workmen.  The  climate 
is  mild  in  the  peninsular  part  of  C.,  but  "severe  among  the  hills.  The  chief  branch  of 
rural  industry  in  C.  is  the  rearing  of  black  cattle  for  the  dairy,  and  of  small  sheep. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  raised  in  the  valleys.  Pop.  ’71,  106,121.  The 
chief  towns  are  Caernarvon  (the  county  town),  Bangor,  Pwllheli,  Conway,  Nevin,  and 
Criccieth.  In  addition  to  the  above  boroughs,  several  flourishing  towns  have  recently 
sprung  into  existence  in  the  county — Llandudno,  Tremadoc,  and  Bethesda  being  the 
principal.  It  returns  two  members  to  parliament — one  for  the  county,  and  one  for  the 
six  chief  towns.  Connected  with  C.  is  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  railway,  on  the  great 
route  from  London  to  Dublin,  which  crosses  into  Anglesea  by  the  Britannia  tubular 
bridge  over  the  Menai  strait.  C.  contains  the  remains  of  British  or  Celtic  camps  and 
hill-forts,  especially  around  Snowdon,  several  dolmens  and  stone  circles,  and  some 
ancient  castles.  The  Snowdonian  mountains  were  long  the  stronghold  of  the  Welsh 
against  the  Romans.  Saxons,  and  Normans  in  their  efforts  to  subjugate  Wales,  and  here 
the  Welsh  were  at  last  defeated  in  1283  by  Edward  I. 

CJESALPI'NIA,  a genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  leguminosm  the  type  of 

the  sub-order  cmalpiniecB.  This  sub-order  is  characterized  by  irregular  flowers,  which 
are  not  papilionaceous  (q.v.),  and  contains  upwards  of  700  known  species,  among  which 
many  are  notable  for  their  purgative  properties,  as  senna  (q.v.);  some  produce  eatable 
fruits,  as  the  tamarind  (q.v.),  the  carob  (q.v.),  and  the  West  Indian  locust  tree  (q.v.); 
some  yield  resinous  and  balsamic  products,  as  copaiva  (q.v.),  aloes-wood  (q.v.),  etc.; 
some  produce  important  dye-woods,  as  logwood  (q.v.),  Brazil  wood  (q.v.),  camwood 
(q.v.),  etc.;  and  some  are  trees  of  great  size,  and  very  valuable  for  their  timber,  as  the 
purple-heart  (q.v.)  and  the  wallaba  (q.v.),  trees  of  Guiana.  No  species  of  the  sub-order 


269 


Caernarvon. 

Ceesar. 


is  British,  and  it  generally  belongs  to  warm  climates. — The  genus  C.  contains  a number 
of  species,  trees  with  pinnate  or  bipinnate  leaves,  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia 
-and  America,  which  yield  the  Brazil  wood,  Pernambuco  wood  (see  Brazil  W ood),  and 
sappan  wood  (q.v.)  of  commerce,  also  the  astringent  pods  called  dividivi  (q.v.),  used  in 
tanning. 

C^SALPI'NUS,  or  CESALPINO,  Andreas,  1519-1603;  an  Italian  philosopher  of 
whose  family  or  descendants  nothing  is  known.  He  first  appears  as  professor  of  botany 
in  the  university  of  Pisa,  where  he  seems  to  have  studied,  and  perhaps  taught,  anatomy 
and  medicine.  In  his  first  work.  Speculum  Artis  Mediccs  Hippocraticum,  he  left  proof,  in 
a passage  often  quoted,  that  he  had  a clear  idea  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  at  least 
through  the  lungs.  In  botany  he  was  more  original,  and  his  works  are  highly  philosoph- 
ical and  valuable,  being  a rich  mine  from  which  Linnaeus,  Morrison,  and  others  took 
their  ideas  of  botanical  arrangement.  He  died  in  Rome  in  attendance  upon  pope 
Clement  VIII. 

C.ESAR,  the  name  of  a patrician  family  of  the  Julia  Gens,  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
Roman  state,  claiming  to  be  descended  from  lulus,  the  son  of  uEneas.  When  or  from 
what  cause  the  surname  of  C.  was  first  acquired,  is  in  the  highest  degree  uncertain. 
Spartianus,  in  his  Life  of  ^lius  Verus,  mentions  four  different  opinions  respecting  its 
origin:  1.  That  the  word  signified  an  elephant  in  the  language  of  the  Moors,  and  was 
^iven  as  a surname  to  one  of  the  Julii  because  he  had  killed  an  elephant;  2.  That  it  was 
given  to  him  because  had  been  cut  {ccesus)  out  of  his  mother’s  womb  after  her  death; 
3.  Because  he  had  been  born  with  a great  quantity  of  hair  {ccesaries) ; or,  4.  Because  he 
had  azure-colored  eyes  (ccesH).  The  opinion  to  which  we  most  incline  is  the  third  of 
these,  but  who  was  the  original  “shock-head”  of  the  gens  we  cannot  say;  the  first,  how- 
ever, mentioned  in  history  is  Sex.  Julius  Caesar,  praetor  in  208  b.c.  The  greatest  indi- 
vidual of  the  family,  and  one  of  the  greatest  men  the  world  has  ever  seen,  was 

C.ESAR,  Caius  (or  rather  Gaius)  Julius,  son  of  a Roman  praetor  of  the  same  name, 
was  b.  12th  July,  100  b.c.  Two  circumstances  conspired  to  determine  his  sympathies 
in  favor  of  democracy,  and  against  a republican  oligarchy:  the  first  was  the  marriage  of 
his  aunt  Julia  with  Caius  Marius;  the  second,  the  marriage  of  C.  himself,  in  83  b.c., 
with  Cornelia,  daughter  of  L.  Cinna,  one  of  the  principal  enemies  of  Sulla.  The  anger 
of  the  dictator  at  this  cost  C.  his  rank,  property,  and  almost  his  life  itself.  Feeling  that 
he  would  be  safer  abroad  for  a time,  he  went  to  Asia,  81  b.c.  ; but  on  learning  of  the 
death  of  Sulla  (78  b.c.),  he  hurried  back  to  Rome,  where  he  found  the  popular  party  in 
a state  of  great  ferment,  and  anxious  to  regain  what  it  had  lost  under  the  vigorous  des- 
potism of  the  aristocractic  dictator.  C.,  however,  took  no  part  in  the  attempts  of  Lepi- 
dus  to  overthrow  the  oligarchy,  but  he  showed  his  political  leanings  by  prosecuting  (77 
B.c.)  Cn.  Dolabella — a great  partisan  of  Sulla — for  extortion  in  his  province  of  Macedo- 
nia. To  improve  his  eloquence,  he  went  to  Rhodes  to  study  under  the  rhetor  Apollonius 
Molo.  In  74  B.C.,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  had  been  elected  pontifex,  and  now 
for  the  first  time  threw  himself  earnestly  into  public  life.  In  the  year  70  b.c.,  he  attached 
himself  to  Pompey,  whose  political  actions  at  this  time  were  of  a decidedly  democratic 
character.  In  68  b.c.,  C.  obtained  a questorship  in  Spain.  On  his  return  to  Rome  (67 

B. C.),  he  married  Pompeia,  a relative  of  Pompey,  with  whom  he  was  daily  becoming 
more  intimate.  In  66  b.c.,  he  was  elected  to  the  curule  sedileship,  and  lavished  vast  sums 
of  money  on  games  and  public  buildings,  by  vdiich  he  increased  his  already  great  pop- 
ularity. For  the  next  few  years,  C.  is  founa  steadily  skirmishing  on  the  popular  side. 
In  63  B.C.,  he  was  elected  pontifex  maximus,  and  shortly  after,  pretor.  During  the  same 
year  occurred  the  famous  debate  on  the  Catiline  conspiracy,  in  which  the  aristocratic 
party  vainly  endeavored  to  persuade  the  consul,  Cicero,  to  include  C.  in  the  list  of  con- 
spirators. In  62  B.  c.,  Pompey  returned  from  the  east,  and  disbanded  his  army.  Next 
year,  C.  obtained  the  province  of  Hispania  Ulterior..  His  career  in  Spain  was  brilliant 
and  decisive.  On  his  return,  he  was  elected  consul,  along  with  M.  Calpurnius  Bibulus. 
Shortly  before  the  passing  of  the  agrarian  law  (59  b.c.),  C.,  with  rare  tact  and  sagacity, 
had  reconciled  the  two  most  powerful  men  in  Rome,  who  were  then  at  variance,  Pom- 
pey and  Crassus,  and  had  formed  an  alliance  with  them,  known  in  history  as  the 
First  Triumrirate.  Both  of  these  distinguished  men  aided  C.  in  carrying  his  agrarian 
law;  and  to  strengthen  still  further  the  union  which  had  been  formed,  C.  gave  Pompey 
his  daughter,  Julia,  in  marriage,  though  she  had  been  promised  to  M.  Brutus;  while  he 
himself  also  married  Calpurnia,  daughter  of  L.  Piso,  his  successor  in  the  consulship. 
On  the  expiry  of  his  term  of  office,  he  obtained  for  himself,  by  the  popular  vote,  the 
province  of  Gallia  Gisalpina  and  lllyricum  for  five  years,  to  which  the  senate  added — 
to  prevent  the  popular  assembly  from  doing  so — the  province  of  Gallia  Transalpina. 
Nothing  could  have  been  more  favorable  for  C.’s  aims.  He  had  now  an  opportunity  of 
developing  his  extraordinary  military  genius,  and  of  gathering  round  him  an  army  of 
veterans,  whom  perpetual  victory  should  inspire  with  thorough  soldierly  fidelity  and 
devotion  to  his  person.  This  was  the  very  thing  he  wanted  to  give  him  a reputation 
equal  to  that  of  his  coadjutors,  Pompey  and  Crassus,  whom,  in  genius,  he  far  surpassed. 
Leaving,  therefore,  the  political  factions  at  Rome  to  exhaust  themselves  in  petty  strifes, 

C. ,  in  58  B.C.,  after  the  banishment  of  Cicero,  repaired  to  his  provinces,  and  during  the 
next  nine  years  conducted  those  splendid  campaigns  in  Gaul,  by  which,  had  he  done 


Caesar. 


270 


nothing  else,  he  would  have  “built  himself  an  everlasting  name.”  C.’s  first  campaign 
was  against  the  Helvetii,  whom  he  totally  defeated  near  Bibracte  (Autun).  Out  of 
368,000  only  110,000  remained.  These  were  commanded  by  C.  to  return  home  and  cul- 
tivate their  lands.  The  eyes  of  the  Gauls  were  now  turned  upon  the  new  conqueror. 
His  help  was  solicited,  among  others,  by  Divitiacus,  an  ,^duan  chief.  This  involved 
C.  in  a second  war  with  a German  prince,  named  Ariovistus,  who  was  utterly  over- 
thrown; and  now  C.,  having  in  the  course  of  one  campaign  successfully  concluded  two 
important  wars,  led  his  troops  into  winter  quarters. 

Next  year  (57  b.c.)  occurred  the  Belgic  war,  in  which  C.  successively  routed  the 
Suessionee,  Bellovaci,  Ambiani,  and  Nervii,  who,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Roman 
arms,  had  entered  into  an  alliance  with  each  other  against  the  invaders.  When  the 
senate  received  C.’s  official  dispatches,  it  decreed  a thanksgiving  of  15  days — an  honor 
never  previously  granted  to  any  other  general.  During  the  winter  and  the  spring 
following,  C.  stayed  at  Lucca ; and,  after  spending  large  sums  of  money  in  hospitality, 
and  in  other  less  praiseworthy  purposes,  he  departed  for  Gaul,  where  the  flames  of  war 
had  burst  out  in  the  north-west.  The  Veneti,  a maritime  people  of  Brittany,  were  the 
chief  instigators  of  the  insurrection.  C.  ’s  plans  were  laid  with  consummate  skill,  and 
were  crowned  with  the  most  splendid  success.  The  Veneti  were  totally  defeated,  and 
most  of  the  other  Gallic  tribes  were  either  checked  or  subdued.  C.  wintered  in  the 
country  of  the  Aulerci  and  Lexovii  (Normandy),  having,  in  the  course  of  three  cam- 
paigns, conquered  Gaul.  Next  year  (55  b.c.),  Crassus  went  to  Syria,  and  Pompey  te 
Spain,  while  C.’s  provincial  government  was  prolonged  for  five  years.  He  now  under- 
took a fourth  campaign  against  two  German  tribes  who  were  about  to  enter  Gaul.  He 
was  again  successful ; and  pursuing  the  fleeing  enemy  across  the  Rhine,  spent  18  days 
in  plundering  the  district  inhabited  by  the  Sigambri.  He  next  invaded  Britain,  about 
the  autumn ; but  after  a brief  stay  in  the  island,  returned  to  Gaul.  The  Roman  senate, 
astonished  at  his  hardihood  and  his  successes  in  regions  where  no  Roman  army  had  ever 
been  before,  accorded  him  a public  thanksgiving  of  20  days.  In  54  b.c.,  C.  opened  his 
fifth  campaign  by  a second  invasion  of  Britain.  On  his  return  to  Gaul,  C.  was  compelled 
— on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  corn,  arising  from  drought — to  winter  his  army 
divisions.  This  naturally  aroused  the  hopes  of  the  Gauls,  who  thought  the  time  had 
come  for  recovering  their  independence.  An  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  n.e.  of  Gaul, 
which  was  at  first  partially  successful,  but  was  ultimately  crushed.  C.  resolved  ta 
winter  at  Samarobriva  (Amiens),  in  the  vicinity  of  the  malcontents.  In  53  b.c.,  C.  com- 
menced his  sixth  campaign.  It  was  chiefly  occupied  in  crushing  a second  insurrection 
of  the  Gauls.  C.  now  returned  to  northern  Italy,  that  he  might  be  able  to  communicate 
more  easily  and  securely  with  his  friends  at  Rome.  That  cit}-^  was  gradually  becoming^ 
more  anarchic,  the  evils  of  weak  government  more  apparent;  the  hour  for  decisive 
action  seemed  to  be  approaching,  and  doubtless  C.’s  heart  beat  with  expectation  of  the 
mighty  future,  when  all  at  once  the  plot  that  fate  was  weaving  in  his  favor  appeared  to 
be  completely  marred  by  a tremendous  rebellion  over  the  whole  of  Gaul,  headed  by  a. 
young  warrior  named  Vercingetorix.  It  was  in  the  dead  of  winter  when  the  news  came 
to  C.,  who  instantly  saw  that,  at  all  hazards,  he  must  preserve  his  fame  and  his  army. 
Leaving,  therefore,  Pompey  to  succeed  at  Rome,  he  hurried  to  meet  the  insurgent 
hordes.  His  great  difficulty  was  to  collect  his  scattered  legions.  First  crossing,  with 
some  cisalpine  and  provincial  troops,  the  mountains  of  Auvergne,  though  they  lay  6 ft. 
deep  in  snow,  he  suddenly  appeared  among  the  Arverni,  who,  terrified  at  his  unexpected 
approach,  sent  for  their  chief,  Vercingetorix,  to  come  to  their  assistance.  This  was 
what  C.  wished.  After  some  wonderful  exhibitions  of  military  skill  and  numerous 
successes,  Vercingetorix  was  shut  up  in  Alesia  (Alise  in  Burgundy)  with  all  his  infantry. 
C.  besieged  him,  and  though  harassed  by  nearly  300,000  Gauls  without,  who  attempted, 
but  in  vain,  to  break  through  the  well-defended  Roman  lines,  forced  Vercingetorix  to 
capitulate.  Many  of  the  tribes  now  hastened  to  submit  to  C.,  who  prudently  deter- 
mined to  winter  among  the  vanquished.  The  senate,  of  course,  voted  him  another 
public  thanksgiving.  Next  year  (51  b.c.),  C.  proceeded  to  quell  the  tribes  who  still  held 
out.  This  he  successfully  accomplished,  and  having  in  addition  reduced  the  whole  of 
Aquitania,  passed  the  winter  of  his  eighth  campaign  at  Nemetocenna,  in  Belgium, 
where  he  spent  the  time  both  in  a magnanimous  and  politic  manner.  The  Gallic  princes 
were  courteously  and  generously  treated;  the  common  people  were  spared  the  impo- 
sition of  further  taxes,  and  everything  was  done  to  render  it  possible  for  him  to  visit 
Italy  with  safety  in  the  spring.  TMs  he  did,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Ravenna, 
where  he  was  informed  of  everything  that  was  going  on  by  the  tribune  C.  Curio. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  at  this  moment  he  was  the  most  popular  man  in  the  state, 
while  his  soldiery  were  devoted  to  him  with  a loyalty  as  enthusiastic  as  that  which 
Bonaparte  inspired  when  fresh  from  his  Italian  victories. 

Meanwhile,  Pompey,  whose  vanity  could  not  endure  the  greatness  of  C.,  had  been 
gradually  veering  round  again  to  the  aristocracy,  whose  dread  of  the  new  conqueror  was 
hourly  increasing.  After  much  futile  diplomatic  finessing  on  all  sides,  the  senate 
carried  a motion  “that  C.  should  disband  his  army  by  a certain  day;  and  that,  if  he  did 
not  do  so,  he  should  be  regarded  as  an  enemy  of  the  state.”  The  tribunes,  Mark 
Antony  and  Q.  Cassius,  put  their  veto  on  this  motion ; but  they  were  violently  driven 
out  of  the  senate-chamber,  and,  fearing  for  their  lives,  they  fled  to  C.’s  camp.  The 


271 


Caesar. 


senate,  in  the  madness  of  their  terror,  now  declared  war,  and  intrusted  the  conduct  of 
dt  to  Pompey,  whose  pride  in  the  invincibility  of  his  military  prowess  hindered  him  from 
taking  the  necessary  measures  for  the  defense  of  the  state.  He  fancied,  that  his  name 
w^uld  bring  thousands  to  his  standard,  and  he  was  even  led  to  believe  that  C.  ’s  troops 
were  willing  to  desert  their  general : the  result  of  which  delusion  was,  that  when  hostili- 
ties formally  commenced,  he  had  hardly  any  soldiers  except  two  legions  which  had 
recently  been  in  the  service  of  his  rival.  C.,  on  the  other  hand,  perceiving  that  the  time 
for  decisive  action  had  at  length  come,  harangued  his  victorious  troops,  who  were  willing 
to  follow  him  anywhere;  crossed  the  Rubicon  (a  small  stream  which  separated  his 
province  from  Italy  proper),  and  moved  swiftly,  amid  the  acclamations  of  the  people, 
towards  Rome.  Pompey  tied  to  Brundusium,  pursued  by  C.,  but  contrived  to  reach 
Greece  in  safety,  17th  March,  49  b.c.  The  Italian  cities  had  everywhere  gladly  opened 
their  gates  to  the  conqueror  as  a deliverer.  In  three  months,  C.  was  master  of  all  Italy. 

C.  next  subdued  Pompey’s  legates  in  Spain,  who  were  at  the  head  of  considerable 
forces.  On  his  return,  he  took  Massilia,  where  he  learned  that  he  had  been  appointed 
-dictator  of  the  republic — a function  which  at  this  time  he  retained  only  for  11  days,  but 
these  were  honorably  distinguished  by  the  passing  of  several  humane  enactments. 
Pompey,  now  thoroughly  alive  to  the  magnitude  of  his  danger,  had  gathered,  in  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  the  east,  a powerful  army,  while  his  fleet  swept  the  sea.  C. , however, 
crossing  the  Adriatic  at  an  unexpected  season,  made  a rush  for  Dyrrhachium,  where 
Pompey’s  stores  were;  but  was  nevertheless  outstripped  by  his  opponent.  Pompey 
intrenched  his  army  on  some  high  ground  near  the  city,  where  he  was  besieged  by 
Gsesar.  The  first  encounter  was  favorable  to  Pompey,  who  drove  back  C.’s  legions 
with  much  loss.  The  latter  now  retreated  to  Thessaly,  followed  by  his  exulting 
enemies.  A second  battle  ensued  on  the  plains  of  PharSalia,  9th  Aug.,  48  b.c. 
Pompey’s  army  was  utterly  routed;  Pompey  himself  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was 
murdered.  See  Pompey. 

No  sooner  had  the  news  reached  Rome,  than  C.  was  again  appointed  dictator  for  a 
year,  and  consul  for  five  years.  He  was  invested  with  tribunicial  power  for  life,  and 
with  the  right  of  holding  all  the  magistricial  comitia  except  those  for  the  election  of  the 
plebeian  tribunes.  He  did  not,  however,  return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia, 
hut  went  to  Egypt,  then  in  a distracted  condition  on  account  of  the  disputes  regarding 
the  succession.  Out  of  love  for  Cleopatra  (who  subsequently  bore  him  a son),  he 
entered  upon  the  “Alexandrine  war,”  in  which  he  was  successful,  and  v/liich  he 
brought  to  a close  in  Mar.,  47  b.c.  He  next  overthrew  a son  of  Mithridates,  near  Cela,  in 
Pontus,  Aug.  2 of  the  same  year,  and  arrived  in  Rome  in  September.  He  was  once  more 
appointed  dictator,  and  the  property  of  Pompey  was  confiscated  and  sold.  Before  the 
nlose  of  the  year,  he  had  set  out  for  Africa,  where  his  campaign  against  the  Pompeian 
generals,  Scipio  and  Cato,  was  crowned  with  victory  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus,  6th 
April,  46  B.  c.  Cato  committed  suicide  at  Utica,  and  with  such  irresistible  celerity  was  the 
work  of  subjugation  carried  on,  that  by  the  end  of  the  summer  C.  was  again  in  Rome. 
Now  occurred  that  display  of  noble  and  wise  generosity  which  proves  C.  to  have  been 
possessed  of  a great  magnanimous  nature.  He  was  not  a man  that  could  stoop  to  the 
vulgar  atrocities  of  Marius  or  Sulla,  and  so  he  majestically  declared  that  henceforth  he 
had  no  enemies,  and  that  he  would  make  no  difference  between  Pompeians  and  Caesa- 
rians. His  victories  in  Gaul,  Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa  were  celebrated  by  four  great 
triumphs,  during  which  the  whole  Roman  populace  was  feasted  and  f^ted  by  the  mag- 
nificent liberality  of  the  dictator. 

He  now  proceeded  to  check,  by  wholesale  enactments,  as  far  as  in  him  lay,  the  social 
evils  which  had  long  flourished  in  the  city.  During  the  year  46  b.c.,  also,  he  conferred 
a benefit  on  Rome  and  on  the  world  by  the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  which  had 
been  greatly  abused  by  the  pontifical  college  for  political  purposes.  After  quelling  an 
insurrection  which  now  broke  out  in  Spain,  where  Pompey’s  sons,  Cneius  and  Sextus, 
had  collected  an  army,  he  received  the  title  of  “Father  of  his  Country,”  and  also  of 
imperator,  was  made  dictator  and  prcBfectus  morum  for  life,  consul  for  10  years;  his 
person  was  declared  sacred,  and  even  divine;  he  obtained  a body-guard  of  knights  and 
senators;  his  statue  was  placed  in  the  temples;  his  portrait  was  struck  on  coins ; the 
month  Quintilis  was  called  Julius  in  his  honor;  and  on  all  public  occasions  he  was  per- 
mitted to  wear  the  triumphal  robe.  He  now  proposed  to  make  a digest  of  the  whole 
Roman  law  for  public  use,  to  found  libraries  for  the  same  purpose,  to  drain  the  Pon- 
tine^ marshes,  to  enlarge  the  harbor  of  Ostia,  to  dig  a canal  through  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth,  and  to  quell  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians  on  the  eastern  frontiers ; but  in  the 
midst  of  these  vast  designs  he  was  cut  off  by  assassination  on  the  ides  (15th)  of  Mar., 
44  B.c.  The  details  of  this  crime — the  greatest  disaster  that  could  have  befallen  the 
Roman  world,  as  subsequent  events  showed — are  too  familiar  to  require  narration.  It 
is  sufficient  to  say  that,  of  the  sixty  aristocrats  who  were  in  the  conspiracy,  many  had 
partaken  of  C.’s  generosity,  and  all  of  his  clemency.  A few,  like  Brutus,  out  of  a 
weak  and  formal  conscientiousness,  based  on  theory  rather  than  insight,  were  probably 
offended  by  C.’s  desire  to  change  the  form  of  government  into  a hereditary  monarchy; 
but  the  most,  like  Cassius,  were  inspired  bj'^  a spleenful  hatred  of  the  dictator,  and  the 
base  ambition  of  regaining  power  at  all  hazards. 

C. , who  was  56  years  of  age  when  he  was  murdered,  was  of  a noble  and  kingly  pres- 


Caesar. 

Cag^liari. 


272 


ence,  tall  of  stature,  and  possessing  a countenance  which,  though  pale  and  thin  with' 
thought,  was  always  animated  by  the  light  of  his  black  eyes.  He  was  baldheaded  (at 
least  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life),  wore  no  beard,  and  though  of  a rather  delicate  con- 
stitution naturally,  he  ultimately  attained  to  the  most  vigorous  health.  His  besetting 
sin  was  sensuality;  but  without  meaning  to  detract  from  the  criminality  of  his  con- 
duct in  this  respect,  it  may  be  said  that  it  was  as  much  the  sin  of  the  times  in  which 
he  lived  as  his  own,  and  that  the  superlative  grandeur  of  his  position  gave  a prominence 
to  his  licentiousness  which  a more  humble  lot  would  have  escaped.  His  intellect  was 
marvelously  versatile.  In  everything  he  excelled.  He  was  not  only  the  first  general 
and  statesman  of  his  age,  but  he  was — excepting  Cicero — its  greatest  orator.  As  a his- 
torian, he  has  never  been  surpassed  and  rarely  equaled  in  simplicity  and  vigor  of  style, 
and  in  the  truthfulness  with  which  he  narrates  events  of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness. 
He  was,  in  addition,  a mathematician,  philologist,  jurist,  and  architect,  and  always  took 
great  pleasure  in  literary  society.  Most  of  his  writings  have  been  lost,  though  their  titles 
are  preserved ; but  we  still  possess  his  invaluable  Commentarii  (generally  known  as 
“ CtEsar’s  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  and  Civil  Wars  ”).  The  editio  'pi'inceps  was  printed 
at  Rome  1449.  C.’s  life  was  formally  written  in  ancient  times  by  Suetonius  and  Plu- 
tarch. There  are  modern  lives  by  Delorme,  Napoleon  HI.  (1865),  and  J.  A.  Froude  (1879). 

C^SAR,  Sir  Julius,  1557-1636;  an  English  statesman,  educated  at  Oxford  and 
the  university  of  Paris ; doctor  of  civil  and  canon  law.  He  was  master  of  the  rolls, 
and  held  other  high  otfices  under  Elizabeth  and  James  I.  He  was  noted  for  a gracious 
dignity  of  character,  and  for  wide  beneficence  to  the  poor. 

C.ESARE'A  (Turris  Str atoms),  called  by  the  natives  “Kaisari'yeh.”  This  once  proud 
and  splendid  seaport,  perhaps  one  of  Herod’s  most  magnificent  works — a Grecian  town 
with  its  temples,  amphitheater,  baths,  etc.,  imported  into  Syria — was  situated  on  the 
coast  of  Syria,  95  m.  s.  of  Beyrout,  and  37  m.  n.  of  Jaffa. 

In  65  A.D.,  Gessius  Florus,  the  worst  of  all  petty  tyrants  that  had  afflicted  Judea, 
was  appointed  governor  of  Caesarea.  About  that  time,  a terrible  revolution,  which 
commenced  at  C.,  broke  out  all  over  Judea.  It  arose  from  a dispute  between  the  Syrian 
and  Jewish  citizens  of  C.  as  to  which  of  them  the  city  really  belonged  to;  and  some  idea’' 
may  be  formed  of  the  extent  of  the  insurrection  from  the  fact  that  above  20,000  Jewa 
were  massacred  in  C.  in  the  space  of  one  hour;  13,000  in  one  night  at  Scythopolis; 
50,000  at  Alexandria;  8000  at  Joppa;  and  10,000  at  Damascus. 

C.  w^as  occupied  by  the  crusaders;  after  them,  it  seems  to  have  gradually  decayed 
into  nothingness.  It  is  now  a heap  of  half-buried  rums,  with  a few  miserable  stone 
houses  inhabited  by  fishermen. 

CJESARE'A  PHILIP'PI  {Panium).  This  town,  mentioned  in  Matt.  xvi.  13,  was 
situated  about  20  m.  n.  of  the  sea  of  Galilee.  It  was  distinguished  from  the  Caesarea  on 
the  coast  of  Syria  by  the  appendage  of  “ Philippi,”  given  to  it  in  honor  of  Philip  the 
tetrarch,  who  repaired  the  city.  It  is  now  a heap  of  ruins,  overgrown  with  bushes  and 
grass. 

C.S:SABEAN  OPERATION  (ccedo — ccbsus)  has,  from  very  ancient  times,  been  the  popu- 
lar name  for  hysterotomy  {hystera,  uterus;  tome,  section).  Pliny  distinctly  alludes  to  it 
in  his  Natural  History  (iih.  vii.  cap.  ix.),  saying  that  Caesar  was  so  called  from  being 
taken  by  excision  out  of  the  womb  of  his  mother,  and  that  such  persons  were  called 
Cmones  (Caesar  a caeso  matris  utero  dictus;  quS  de  causa  Ccesones  appellati).  In  his  case, 
the  mother  must  have  survived  the  operation,  as  Aurelia  was  alive  when  her  son  invaded 
Britain. 

The  pages  of  a popular  work  s carcely  allow  of  the  details  of  such  a proceeding,  but 
we  may  state  that  the  first  incision  is  made  exactly  in  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  to  the 
length  of  6 or  7 inches.  When  the  uterus  is  exposed,  it  must  be  carefully  opened, 
the  child  lifted  out,  and  then  the  after  birth.  The  uterus  now  contracts,  and  sinks  down 
into  the  pelvis,  the  wound  is  closed,  and  opium  is  given  to  the  patient  to  allay  pain  and 
nervous  irritability. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  C.  O.  has  been  rarely  performed,  most  likely  from  the  skill  of 
the  accoucheurs  rendering  such  a proceeding  unnecessary ; but  still  several  cases  are  on 
record  w’here  not  only  the  child,  but  the  mother,  was  saved.  Some  women,  indeed, 
seem  to  have  accepted  it  as  their  usual  method  of  delivery,  having  several  children,  each 
requiring  to  be  removed  through  an  abdominal  incision ; one  woman  submitted  to  it 
seven  times.  It  has  also  been  successfully  performed  in  most  unfavorable  circumstances. 
In  the  year  1500,  a sow-gelder  operated  successfully  on  his  own  wife;  an  illiterate  Irish 
midwife,  Mary  Donally,  operated  with  a razor  on  a poor  farmer’s  wife  in  Jan.,  1738, 
and  removed  a dead  child;  her  patient  completely  recovered,  so  as  to  be  able  to  walk  a 
mile  on  foot  on  the  27th  day  after  the  operation.  Nay,  a negro  w^oman  in  Jamaica  cut 
herself  open  with  a butcher’s  knife,  removed  her  infant,  and  recovered.  Practitioners 
are  not  quite  decided  as  to  the  circumstances  w^hich  justify  the  performance  of  this 
severe  operation  on  the  living  female,  but  all  agree  on  the  propriety  of  at  once  removing 
by  it  the  child  of  a recently  dead  woman.  Numa  Pompilius  decreed  that  every  preg- 
nant woman  who  died  should  be  opened;  and  the  senate  of  Venice,  in  1608,  decreed 
that  practitioners  should  perforin,  under  heavy  penalties,  the  C.  O.  on  pregnant  women 
supposed  to  be  dead.  In  1749,  the  king  of  Sicily  decreed  the  punishment  of  death  to 


273 


Caesau 

Cagliari. 


medical  men  who  omitted  to  perform  it  on  women  dying  when  advanced  in  pregnancy. 
Of  course,  to  be  of  any  use,  it  must  be  performed  immediately. 

C.ESIUM.  See  Rubidium. 

C^SU'RA,  a pause  or  division  in  averse;  a separation  by  the  ending  of  a word,  or 
by  a pause  in  reading,  of  syllables  rythmically  connected,  as  In  this  line:  “ These  part- 
ing num-bers,  ca-denced  by  my  grief.  ” 

CAF,  or  Kaf,  the  mountain,  or  range  of  mountains,  that  in  Arabic  and  Persian  fic- 
tion surrounds  the  earth.  The  pivot  on  wliich  the  mountain  rests  is  a great  emerald 
from  which  the  sky  receives  its  colors,  and  the  mountain  is  the  dwelling-place  of  giants 
and  genii.  “ From  Kaf  to  Kaf  ” signifies  from  one  to  the  other  end  of  the  world. 

CAFFA.  See  Kaffa. 

CAFFAREL'LI,  or  GAFFARELLI,  Gaetano  Majorano,  1703-83;  an  Italian 
vocalist  who,  when  a boy,  was  properly  qualified  for  singing  feminine  parts,  and  was 
deemed  the  first  soprano  of  the  age.  He  was  highly  successful  for  many  years,  having 
no  rival  excepting  possibly  Farinelli ; and  he  had  success  as  a composer  also.  On  return- 
ing to  private  life  he  built  a palace,  over  the  entrance  of  which  he  inscribed:  “ Amphion 
built  Thebes;  I this  house,”  alluding  to  the  story  that  the  walls  of  Thebes  rose  without 
hands  to  the  music  of  Amphion’s  lyre. 

CAFFEINE,  or  TheIne  (Ci6Hio04N4,2HO),  is  the  alkaloid  or  active  principle  of 
coffee  (q.v.)  and  tea  (q.v.).  When  isolated,  it  forms  beautiful  white  crystals,  with  a 
silky  luster,  which  are  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  It  is  present  in  coffee  to 
the  extent  of  about  1 per  cent,  and  in  ordinary  or  Chinese  tea,  from  to  6 per  cent; 
and  is  also  found  in  Paraguay  and  Guiana  teas.  It  may  be  extracted  from  coffee  or 
tea  by  making  a decoction  in  hot  water,  and  adding  acetate  of  lead,  which  causes  a pre- 
cipitate of  caffeotannate  of  lead.  When  the  latter  is  acted  on  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
the  lead  is  separated,  and  the  C.  left  in  solution.  On  evaporation  of  the  liquid,  and 
recrystallization  from  alcohol,  the  C.  separates  in  crystals. 

CAF'FER  BREAD,  a name  given  to  several  species  of  encephala/rtos,  trees  of  the  natu- 
ral order  cycadacem  (q.v.),  which,  like  many  others  of  that  order,  have  much  starch  in 
their  stems,  and  afford  food  to  the  natives  of  South  Africa.  They  are  also  called  bread- 
*trees. 

CAFFERS.  See  Kafirs. 

CAFFRA'RIA.  See  Kaffraria. 

CAFFRISTAN'.  See  Kafiristan. 

CAGAYAN*  SOOLOO',  an  island  of  the  Asiatic  archipelago,  in  lat.  6®  58'  n.,  and  long. 
118°  28'  ease.  It  is  about  20  m.  in  circumference,  well  wooded  and  elevated. — Cagayan 
is  also  the  name  of  a province,  river,  and  lake  on  the  island  of  Luzon,  one  of  the  Philip- 
pines. 

CAGLI,  a walled  t.  in  the  province  of  Urbino,  Italy,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Can- 
tiano  and  Busso,  where  there  is  an  old  Roman  bridge  over  the  former  river.  It  is  a 
bishop’s  seat,  and  has  several  monasteries,  in  one  of  which  is  a famous  fresco  by  Gio- 
vanni Sanzio,  the  father  of  Raphael.  Leather  manufacturing  is  the  chief  business.  Pop. 
10,213. 

CAGL'IARI,  a province  of  Sardinia,  occupying  the  s.  part  of  that  island ; 5224  sq.m. ; 
pop.  ’72,  393,208.  The  district  is  rough  and  mountainous,  but  the  cultivation  of  grain 
and  cattle-breeding  are  successfully  prosecuted.  There  are  mines  of  silver,  lead,  and 
iron. 

CAGL'IARI,  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  situated  on  the  side  of  a hill,  on  the 
n.e.  shore  of  a spacious  bay,  and  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  island,  in  lat.  39°  13'  n.,  long.  9° 
8'  east.  It  has  a spacious  and  safe  harbor,  defended  by  several  forts,  and  is  the  empo- 
rium of  all  the  trade  of  the  island.  The  town  contains  many  public  buildings  and 
churches,  and  has  a university  with  100  students ; but  its  streets,  for  the  most  part,  are 
very  narrow,  steep,  and  dirty.  C.  has  a pop.  of  (1872)  32,834.  It  has  also  a dockyard, 
and  a good  road  was  some  years  ago  constructed  from  C.  to  Sassari,  the  second  city  in 
the  island,  and  to  some  of  the  more  considerable  places.  Steamers  ply  very  frequently 
between  C.  and  Genoa;  and  it  is  now  united  to  the  continent  of  Europe  by  a line  of 
electric  telegraph. 

CAGL'IARI,  Paolo,  best  known  as  Paolo  Veronese,  an  Italian  painter  of  great  emi- 
nence, was  b.  at  Verona  in  1532.  He  first  studied  under  his  uncle,  Antonio  Badile,  a 
respectable  artist,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Venice,  where  he  rapidly  acquired  both 
wealth  and  reputation.  He  had  for  contemporaries  both  Titian  and  Tintoretto,  and  was 
held  in  equal  admiration  with  these  famous  painters.  The  church  of  San  Sebastiano,  in 
Venice,  contains  many  of  his  productions,  which  are  reckoned  the  most  important  of  his 
earlier  period — i.e.,  the  period  before  he  visited  Rome,  when  he  first  became  acquainted 
with  the  masterpieces  of  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo.  The  infiuence  of  the  Roman 
school  on  his  style  was  so  happy,  that,  on  his  return,  he  received  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood from  the  doge.  He  died  19th  April,  1588.  C.  is  remarkable  for  the  fertility  of  his 
U.  K.  111.-18 


Cagliostro. 

Caiaphas. 


274 


imagination.  His  design  is  generally  noble,  his  composition  rich,  and  his  execution 
truthful.  In  the  invention  of  details,  especially,  he  is  inexhaustible,  and  often  overloads 
his  pictures  with  ornament.  One  peculiarity  of  his  works  is  the  frequent  introduction 
of  splendid  architectural  backgrounds,  which,  however,  were  generally  painted  by  his 
brother  Benedetto.  The  most  celebrated  of  his  productions  is  the  “Marriage  Feast  at 
Cana  of  Galilee,”  now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris.  It  is  20  ft.  high,  and  30  in  length,  and 
contains  130  figures.  Besides  these  may  be  mentioned  “ The  Calling  of  St.  Andrew  to 
the  Apostleship,”  “The  Feast  of  Simon,”  and  the  “ Presentation  of  the  Family  of  Darius 
to  Alexander.” 

CAGLIOSTRO,  Count  Alessandro  di,  a notorious  impostor,  who,  in  the  latter  part  oi 
the  18th  c.,  traveled  through  Europe,  and  whose  £ Iventures  afford  considerable  insight 
into  the  social  characteristics  of  his  times.  He  was  born  at  Palermo,  of  poor  parentage, 
June  2,  1743,  and  his  true  name  was  Giuseppe  Balsamo.  Carlyle’s  picture  of  him 
when  a boy — “ brass-faced,  vociferous,  voracious” — is  probably  accurate,  and  already 
prophesies  the  bold  and  boisterous  quack.  When  13  ^ '^rs  old,  he  ran  away  from  the 
seminary  of  St.  Roch,  and  was  afterwards  sent  to  a moiic  ’tery  at  Cartagiore.  Here  he 
became  assistant  to  the  apothecary  of  the  monastery,  and  picked  up  that  scanty  knowl- 
edge of  chemistry  and  medicine,  which  was  afterwards  found  quite  sufficient  to  impose 
upon  so  many  respectable  individuals.  His  conduct  in  the  monastery  was  in  keeping 
with  his  character,  but  finding  it  too  contracted  a sphere  for  the  development  of  his 
ambitious  genius,  he  left  it,  or  was  ejected,  and  for  a time  led  “ the  loosest  life”  in 
Palermo.  When  26  years  old,  he  found  it  highly  advisable  to  leave  his  native  place.  In 
company  with  a certain  sage  named  Althotas,  C.  is  vaguely  represented  as  traveling 
first  in  some  parts  of  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Asia.  At  Rome,  “his  swart,  squat  figure  first 
becomes  authentically  visible  in  the  Corso  and  Campo  Vaccino.  He  lodges  at  the  sign 
of  the  Sun  in  the  rotunda,  and  sells  etchings  there,”  very  hard  up  at  this  time.  In 
Venice,  “the  bull-necked  forger”  contrived  to  marry  a very  pretty  woman  named  Lorenza 
Feliciana,  who  became  a skillful  accomplice  in  his  schemes,  and  captivated  many 
admirers,  while  C.  picked  their  pockets.  C.  now  made  the  tour  of  Italy  with  great  suc- 
cess as  a physician,  philosopher,  alchemist,  freemason,  and  necromancer!  Next,  he 
extended  his  victorious  career  through  some  parts  of  Germany,  and  especially  carried 
on  a lively  business  in  his  “elixir  of  immortal  youth,”  which  became  very  popular 
among  the  ladies.  By  virtue  of  this  fine  medicine,  the  count  assured  his  patients  that 
he  had  already  attained  his  150th  year,  while  his  young  and  charming  wife  often  talked 
affectionately  of  her  son  as  “ a commander  in  the  Dutch  navy.”  Through  Courland, 
the  count  and  his  accomplice  advanced  triumphantly  to  the  court  of  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  seems  to  have  first  made  a failure ; for  the  empress  Catharine,  aided  by  her 
Scotch  physician,  Rogerson,  a keen-witted  native  of  Annandale,  who  skeptically  exam- 
ined his  famous  “Spagiric  food,”  and  pronounced  it  “unfit  for  a dog,”  penetrated  his 
real  character,  and  made  him  the  subject  of  a comedy.  C.  soon  found  it  convenient  to 
vanish.  We  next  find  him  at  Warsaw,  discoursing  on  his  pet  Egyptian  masonry,  medi- 
cal philosophy,  and  the  ignorance  of  doctors,  but  he  has  the  misfortune  to  be  unmasked 
by  a certain  count  M.  This,  however,  had  little  effect  on  the  stupid  credulity  of  C.’s 
dupes — belonging,  it  must  be  remembered,  to  the  upper  classes,  who  in  that  age,  accord- 
ing to  Carlyle,  were  at  once  sensual,  infidel,  and  superstitious — so  that  they  persisted 
for  a time  in  “ distending  his  pockets  with  ducats  and  diamonds,”  which,  however,  his 
lavish  dissipation  soon  scattered  to  the  winds — for  this  prophet  of  a new  physical  and 
moral  regeneration,  and  inventor  of  an  “ invaluable  pentagon  for  abolishing  original 
sin,”  was  a desperate  gambler.  In  1780,  he  went  to  Strasburg;  and  soon  afterwards  we 
find  him  in  Paris,  still  founding  lodges  of  “Egyptian  freemasons,”  holding  nocturnal 
meetings  for  calling  “spirits  from  the  vasty  deep,”  etc.,  and  scandalously  simulating  the 
character  and  deeds  of  a philanthropist.  From  Paris  he  came  over  to  England,  where 
he  was  cordially  received  by  the  followers  of  Swedenborg.  On  his  return  to  Paris 
(1785),  he  became  distinguished  at  court,  was  intimate  with  the  weak  and  credulous 
cardinal  Rohan,  and  played  a prominent  part  in  the  affair  of  the  diamond  necklace  (q.  v.). 
This  lodged  him  in  the  Bastille ; but  he  cleared  himself  by  a statement  which  gained 
credit,  and,  after  being  liberated,  carried  on  his  adventures  once  more  in  England,  but 
feebly,  the  sunshine  of  success  now  obviously  growing  dim;  in  short,  the  count,  in  gloom 
and  foreboding,  disappeared  from  the  island.  But  the  market  in  Germany,  too,  was 
closed,  a general  distrust  having  been  excited  by  the  revelations  of  one  of  the  count’s 
dupes.  Elsewhere,  also,  these  began  to  fail  him.  “At  Aix,  in  Savoy,  there  are  baths,  but 
no  gudgeons  in  them at  Turin,  he  is  ordered  off  by  the  king ; a similar  fate  befalls  him  at 
Roveredo;  at  Trent,  we  catch  a glimpse  of  him,  “ painting  a new  hieroglyphic  screen,” 
which,  however,  attracts  no  more  the  gaping  crowd;  lower  still,  “ he  pawns  diamond 
buckles;”  finally,  his  wayworn  wife — in  whom,  perhaps,  because  of  her  womanhood, 
the  enormous  lie  and  quackery  first  breaks  up — “ longs  to  be  in  Rome  by  her  mother’s 
hearth,  by  her  mother’s  grave,  where  so  much  as  the  shadow  of  refuge  awaits  her.  ” In 
May,  1789,  he  entered  the  city;  on  the  29th  December,  the  holy  inquisition  detected  him 
founding  “some  feeble  ghost  of  an  Egyptian  lodge.”  He  was  imprisoned,  and  con- 
demned to  death  for  freemasonry.  His  sentence  was  commuted  to  imprisonment  for 
life  in  the  fortress  San  Leon,  where,  in  spite  of  his  “elixir  of  immortal  youth,”  he 


Cagliostro. 

^ Caiaphas. 

« 

died,  1795,  aged  52  years.  His  wife  ended  her  days  in  a convent.  His  Memoires  Authen- 
tiques,  posthumously  circulated  in  Paris,  were  not  authentic. — See  Carlyle’s  Miscellaneous 
Essays,  art.  Count  Cagliostro. 

CAGNOLA,  Luigi  Marchese,  a distinguished  Italian  architect,  was  b.  at  Milan  in 
1759 — d.  1833.  Belonging  to  an  ancient  and  wealthy  family,  he  could  afford  to  follow 
the  bent  of  his  own  inclination,  and  devoted  himself  earnestly  to  the  study  of  architec- 
ture. His  master-works  are  two  triumphal  arches.  The  first  is  the  famous  Arco  della 
Pace,  in  Milan,  commenced  in  1807,  but  not  finished  until  1838.  It  is  constructed  of 
white  marble,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Arc  de  VEtoile,  in  Paris,  is  both  the  largest 
and  noblest  structure  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  reaching  a height  of  78  feet.  On  the  top 
of  the  arch  is  a bronze  figure  of  Peace,  in  a car  drawn  by  six  horses,  while  the  sides  are 
richly  adorned  with  innumerable  bas-reliefs.  The  second  forming  the  Porta  di  Marenga, 
or  Porta  Ticinense,  is  also  a work  of  great  beauty,  and  is  much  admired.  Besides 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  campanile  (bell-tower)  at  Urgnano,  in  the  Bergamese. 

CAGOTS  is  the  name  given  to  a tribe  of  men,  of  manners  and  customs  akin  to  those 
of  the  gypsies,  who  are  found  scattered  through  various  parts  of  Bearn  and  Gascony,  in 
France.  They  are  usually  thought  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  Visigoths,  who  remained 
in  France  after  their  defeat  by  Clovis,  in  the  5th  century.  Until  t&  French  revolution 
of  1790,  they  received  even  worse  treatment  than  that  which  generally  falls  to  the  lot  of 
remnants  of  conquered  races.  They  were  forced  to  wear  a peculiar  dress,  were  forbid- 
den to  practice  all  but  the  most  menial  trades,  and  were  obliged  to  live  isolated,  either  in 
separate  villages  or  in  separate  quarters  of  the  towns.  So  complete  was  their  estrange- 
ment from  the  other  inhabitants,  that  they  were  forced  to  enter  the  churches  by  doors 
specially  set  apart  for  them.  Since  that  revolution,  they  have  been  placed,  as  regards 
the  law,  on  an  equal  footing  with  other  citizens,  but  socially  they  are  still  regarded 
as  a degraded  race.  Their  language  has  been,  so  far  back  as  is  known,  a corrupt  dia- 
lect of  that  spoken  in  the  surrounding  country ; but  their  blue  eyes,  fair  hair,  and  fair 
complexion,  mark  them  out  as  ethnologically  distinct,  and  speak  to  a Teutonic  origin. 
From  a great  liability  to  the  diseases  afflicting  cretins,  probably  caused  by  their  exposed 
manner  of  life  and  insufflcient  nourishment,  they  were  at  one  time  erroneously  thought 
to  belong  to  that  unfortunate  class.  Tribes,  whose  history  and  present  condition  greatly 
resemble  those  of  the  C. , are  to  be  found  in  Brittany,  where  they  receive  the  name  of 
“ Caqueux;”  and  in  Poitou,  Maine,  and  Anjou,  where  they  receive  the  name  of  “ Colli- 
berts.”  See  Michel’s  Histoire  des  Races  Maudites  de  la  France  et  de  VEspagne  (History  of 
Outcast  Races  in  France  and  Spain),  Par.  1847. 

CAGSA'NA,  a t.  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  with 
» population  of  about  13,000. 

CAHAW'BA,  a river  rising  in  Jefferson  co.,  Ala.,  flowing  s.w.  through  a region 
rich  in  coal,  and  joining  the  Alabama  8 m.  w.  of  Selma.  The  C.  is  navigable  by  small 
craft  for  about  100  miles. 

CAHEN,  Samuel,  1796-1862;  a French  Jew  noted  as  a Hebrew  scholar.  He  trans- 
lated the  Old  Testament  into  French  with  Hebrew  on  opposite  pages,  and  with  notes 
and  comments.  He  also  founded  the  Archives  Israelites,  a monthly  publication  devoted 
to  Jewish  questions  and  interests. 

CAHE'TE,  or  Caete,  a small  t.  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  about  250 
m.  n.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  town  is  tolerably  built,  has  some  churches,  a hospital, 
primary  school,  electoral  college.  Agriculture  and  mining  are  carried  on.  Pop.  about 
6000. 

CAHINCA,  the  Indian  name  of  the  plant  known  in  Brazil  as  the  raizpetra,  used  by 
the  natives  as  a purgative,  emetic,  or  diuretic  medicine. 

CA'HIR,  a t.  in  the  co.  of  Tipperary,  Ireland,  on  the  Suir,  beautifully  situated  at  the 
e.  end  of  a valley  between  the  Galtees  and  Knockmeledown  mountains,  8 m.  n.w.  of 
Clonmel.  In  the  town  is  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Glengall,  with  a park  which  extends 
along  the  river  for  2 m.  below  the  town.  Cahir  castle,  an  ancient  irregular  Norman 
structure  of  considerable  extent,  is  situated  on  a rock  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Suir. 
It  was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Essex  in  1599,  and  by  Cromwell  in  1650;  it  has  been  lately 
restored.  C.  has  extensive  flour-mills,  and  a pop.  of  (1871)  2694.  There  are  large  bar- 
racks near  Cahir. 

CAHORS  (anciently,  Divona),  a t.  in  the  department  of  Lot,  France,  is  situated  on  a 
small  rocky  peninsula,  formed  by  a bend  of  the  river  Lot — here  crossed  by  three  bridges 
—about  60  m.  n.  of  Toulouse.  The  streets  of  C.  are  steep  and  narrow,  and  present 
many  specimens  of  antique  architecture.  It  has  a fine  cathedral,  and  several  Roman 
remains,  including  those  of  a magnificent  aqueduct.  There  is  an  obelisk  to  Fenelon, 
who  was  a student  at  the  university  here.  The  town  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  Henri 
of  Navarre  in  1580,  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton-yarn,  woolens,  leather,  paper,  glass, 
etc. ; the  district  produces  wine  in  considerable  quantities.  The  pop.  in  1872  was  11,416: 
and  in  ’76,  12,190. 

CAI'APHAS,  high-priest  of  the  Jews  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius  Caesar,  at  the  beginning 
of  Qirisrs  ministry,  and  also  at  the  time  of  his  trial  and  crucifixion.  His  wife  was  the 


Caicos. 

Cairu. 


276 


daughter  of  Annas,  a former  high-priest,  who  still  had  great  influence  in  sacerdotal 
matters.  In  the  council  summoned  by  the  chief-priests  and  Pharisees  to  take  action 
upon  the  remarkable  spread  of  the  doctrines  of  Jesus,  Caiaphas,  was  decidedly  in  favor 
of  putting  him  to  death,  using  the  prophetic  language:  “Ye  know  nothing  at  all;  nor 
consider  that  it  is  expedient  for  us  that  one  man  should  die  for  the  people,  and  that  the 
whole  nation  perish  not.”  Christ  was  arraigned  before  Caiaphas,  when  the  effort  to 
convict  him  on  false  testimony  failed ; and  then  the  prisoner  was  called  as  a witness  and 
asked  if  he  was  indeed  the  Christ,  the  son  of  God,  The  answer  being  in  the  affirmative, 
the  high-priest  pretended  to  be  sorely  grieved  at  what  he  considered  blasphemy,  and 
appealed  to  Christ’s  enemies  to  say  if  that  was  not  enough.  The  answer  was  that  Chris 
deserved  death,  and  without  remonstrance  from  the  high-priest,  they  at  qnce  fell  upon 
the  prisoner  with  insult  and  injury.  But  the  high-priest  had  not  the  power  of  final  con- 
demnation, that  being  in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  governor  only. 

CAI  COS,  or  Cay'os,  or  Keys,  a term  applied  to  numberless  rocky  islets  of  the  West 
Indies,  and  that  generally  with  a reference  to  some  more  considerable  island  in  the 
neighborhood.  Thus,  to  take  the  Bahamas  as  an  instance,  there  are  the  Keys  of  Provi- 
dence, of  Eleuthera,  of  Abaco,  etc.  But  more  specifically  the  name  is  often  appropriated 
to  the  more  southerly  members  of  the  group  just  mentioned — North,  West,  East,  Grand, 
and  other  keys  together  covering  about  450  sq.m.,  and  containing  about  5000  inhabitants. 
They  lie  between  21°  and  22°  n lat.,  having  been  transferred,  with  a local  president, 
from  the  government  of  Bahama  to  that  of  Jamaica.  The  revenue  is  about  £8000.  The 
imports  are  valued  at  nearly  £30,000;  and  the  exports  (consisting  chiefly  of  salt)  at 
£25,000. 

CAI'FA,  or  Hai'fa,  a seaport  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  situated  exactly  opposite  Acre, 
upon  a spur  of  Mt.  Carmel,  and  on  the  s.  side  of  a wide  semicircular  bay,  4 m.  across 
It  is  the  ancient  Hefa,  or  Sycaminopolis.  It  covers  but  a small  space  of  ground,  and 
contains  no  edifice  of  any  note  except  a few  minarets.  The  houses  are  built  of  rough 
unhewn  sandstone,  plastered  over  with  lime — the  roofs  flat.  Pop.  about  2000 — Mos- 
lems, Christians,  and  Jews.  C.,  having  a better  anchorage  than  Acre,  is  fast  eclipsing 
that  city  as  a port,  and  in  recent  years  almost  all  the  trade  of  Acre  has  been  transferred 
to  it.  Consular  agents  from  England,  France,  etc.,  have,  within  twenty  years,  been  estab- 
lished at  C. ; and  among  other  improvements  are  a coffee-house  and  billiard-room,  things 
rare  in  Syria.  Several  cargoes  of  barley,  wheat,  and  sesame  seed  are  yearly  shipped 
at  C.,  and  exported  to  Great  Britain  and  France.  C.  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens 
of  palm,  olive,  orange,  citron,  fig,  mulberry,  and  pomegranate  trees. 

CAILLIAUD,  Frederic,  1787-1869;  a French  goldsmith  who  traveled  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor.  He  was  engaged  by  Mehemet  Ali  to  explore 
the  deserts  along  the  Nile  and  near  the  Red  Sea,  and  in  the  work  discovered  the  emerald 
mines  of  Mt.  Zabarah.  He  returned  to  France  with  a valuable  collection  of  antiquities, 
plants,  and  minerals,  and  published  Voyage  a V Oasis  de  Thebes,  etc.  He  went  again  to 
Egypt  and  made  explorations  in  the  eastern  deserts,  making  an  expedition  to  upper 
Nubia  with  Ismael  Bey.  In  1819-22,  he  published  Voyage  a Meroe.  Among  the  relics 
of  antiquity  brought  by  him  to  France  and  purchased  by  the  government,  was  a mummy, 
inscribed  with  hieroglyphical  characters  accompanied  with  a Greek  translation,  which 
proved  of  great  help  to  Champollion  in  the  study  of  the  ancient  language. 

CAILLIE,  Rene  or  Auguste,  a French  traveler,  noted  for  his  journey  to  Timbuctoo, 
was  born  19th  Sept.,  1799,  at  Mauze,  in  the  department  of  Deux- Sevres.  Having  gone 
to  Senegal,  and  engaged  in  trading  with  the  natives,  he  learned,  about  1826,  that  the 
geographical  society  of  Paris  had  offered  a premium  of  10,000  francs  to  the  first  traveler 
who  should  reach  Timbuctoo.  Provided  with  a stock  of  goods  for  barter,  C.  started  from 
Sierra  Leone,  Mar.  22,  1827,  and  after  some  delay  caused  by  illness,  he  reached  the  mys- 
terious city  in  April,  1828,  where  he  remained  14  days.  On  leaving  Timbuctoo,  he 
accompanied  a caravan  across  the  Sahara  desert,  reaching  the  coast  at  Tangier.  After 
hearing  and  examining  his  statements,  the  society  awarded  him  the  offered  prize,  with 
a pension  of  1000  francs,  and  the  order  of  the  legion  of  honor.  His  notes  of  travel, 
arranged  by  M.  Jomard,  were  published  under  the  title  Journal  d'un  Voyage  d lem- 
bouktou  et  d Jenne  dans  VAfriqrie  Gentrale,  etc.  (3  vols..  Par.  1830).  In  England,  doubts 
were  raised  as  to  the  veracity  of  C.,  but  without  just  grounds.  C.  died  at  his  estate,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  May  25,  1838. 

C AIM  AC  AN',  or  Kaimakam,  a Turkish  officer  corresponding  with  lieutenant  or  lieu- 
tenant-governor. The  caimacan  of  Constantinople  is  the  lieutenant  of  the  grand  vizier, 
whom  he  represents  in  processions.  Such  officers  also  act  as  governors  In  the  prin- 
cipal towns. 

CAIN,  the  first-born  of  Adam  and  Eve.  His  history,  as  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Genesis,  is  mysterious  and  inexplicable,  and  the  traditions  which  a later  superstition  has 
gathered  round  it,  have  thrown  no  light  whatever  on  its  dark  perplexity.  As  the  first 
murderer,  his  memory  has  always  been  profoundly  execrated  by  the  Christian  church; 
yet  such  is  the  perversit}--  of  human  nature,  that  one  sect — if  not  more — of  the  pseudo* 
Gnostics  found  his  actions  and  character  so  much  to  their  liking,  that  they  called  thent- 
selves  Cainites  (130  a.d.),  and  invented  an  explanation  of  his  alleged  crime,  which,  liko 


277 


Caicos* 

Cairn. 


f <t 

most  of  the  Gnostic  heresies  in  the  early  church,  sprang  out  of  the  deep-rooted  funda- 
mental error  of  the  “ two  principles.”  The  Cainites  believed  that  C.  was  the  oilspring  of  the 
intercourse  of  a superior  power  with  Eve,  and  Abel  of  an  inferior  power;  that  their 
characters  corresponded  to  their  paternal  parentage,  and  that  the  slaying  of  Abel  only 
symbolized  the  victory  of  the  superior  over  the  inferior  power.  The  subsequent  pun- 
ishments of  C.  were  regarded  as  the  persecutions  of  Abel’s  father — i.e.,  the  Jewish  God. 
For  the  same  reason,  they  highly  honored  all  the  reprobates  of  the  Old  Testament — such 
as  the  people  of  Sodom,  Esau,  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram — whom  they  looked  upon 
as  the  victims  of  the  hatred  of  Jehovah.  It  is  unfortunate  that  we  possess  only  distorted 
and  fragmentary  accounts  of  this,  as  of  all  the  other  heretical  sects.  The  Cainites  are  also 
said  to  have  denied  the  dogma  of  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  to  have  rejected  the  New 
Testament,  and  accepted  a gospel  of  Judas,  the  betrayer,  whom  they  also  reverenced  for 
the  singular  reason  that  his  crime,  by  procuring  the  death  of  Christ,  secured  the  salva- 
tion of  men. 


CAINOZO'IC  (Gr.  recent  life”),  a geological  term,  synonymous  with  tertiary,  intro- 
duced with  other  words  by  Mr.  Phillips,  to  avoid  the  confusion  wdiich  attended  the . 
use  of  the  terms  primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary,  owing  to  the  various  meanings  attached  ’ 
to  them  by  geologists. 


pA  lEA  (French  for  “It  will  go  on  I”),  the  well-known  refrain  of  the  song  beginning 
with — 


“Ah,  9a  ira,  9a  ira,  9a iral 

Les  aristocrates  a la  lantemel” 


which  must  always  be  remembered  as  associated  with  the  most  terrible  scenes  of  the 
French  revolution.  Like  the  Marseillaise,  the  Garmagnole,^  and  the  Ghant  du  Depart,  it 
became  a French  national  song,  and  was  styled  the  Garillon  National.  The  melody, 
taken  from  another  song,  is  said  to  have  been  a favorite  air  with  the  unhappy  Marie 
Antoinette. 

CAIRD,  James,  b.  1816;  an  agriculturist  of  Scotland,  author  of  High  Farming  as  the 
Best  Substitute  for  Protection.  In  1850-51,  he  visited  all  parts  of  England  as  agricultural 
writer  for  the  London  Times,  his  letters  being  afterwards  published  in  a volume.  In 
1858,  he  visited  the  United  States  and  wrote  an  account  of  the  western  territories.  While 
in  parliament  he  was  the  originator  of  agricultural  statistics,  now  annually  published  by 
the  British  government.  Since  then  he  has  been  a magistrate  in  the  co.  of  Wigton. 

GATED,  Rev.  John,  d.d.,  a minister  of  the  established  church  of  Scotland,  and  one 
of  the  most  eloquent  living  preachers  in  Great  Britain,  was  b.  at  Greenock  in  1820.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  in  1845  was  ordained  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
church  of  Newton-upon-Ayr,  whence  in  1847  he  was  translated  to  Lady  Tester’s,  Edin- 
burgh. Here  his  popularity  was  extraordinary,  but  the  demands  made  on  his  physical 
energies  were  so  great,  that  he  found  it  necessary  to  retire  to  the  country,  and  accepted, 
in  1849,  the  country  charge  of  Errol,  in  Perthshire.  A sermon  which  he  preached 
before  the  queen  in  1855,  in  the  church  of  Crathie,  and  which  was  published,  by  royal 
command,  under  the  title  of  The  Religion  of  Gommon  Life,  was  universally  admired 
throughout  Great  Britain;  translated  on  the  continent  under  the  auspices  of  chevalier 
Bunsen,  who  wrote  a preface  to  it,  and  suddenly  carried  the  fame  of  the  author  into  all 
parts  of  the  Protestant  world.  In  1857,  Dr.  C.  accepted  a call  to  Glasgow.  In  1858,  he 
published  a volume  of  sermons,  marked  by  beauty  of  language,  strength  of  thought,  and 
earnest  sympathy  with  mankind.  He  received  the  degree  of  d.d.  in  1860.  In  1862,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  divinity,  and  in  1873,  principal  of  Glasgow  university.  In 
1874,  he  published  The  Vnirersal  Religion,  a lecture  delivered  in  Westminster  abbey. 

CAIEN,  or  Carn,  a Celtic  word,  signifying  a protuberance,  a heap,  a pile.  In  that 
sense,  it  appears  in  the  names  of  hills  and  other  natural  objects  in  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Brittany.  It  is  also  applied  to  artificial  heaps  of  unhewn  stones, 
which,  among  archaeologists,  have  come  to  be  generally  known  as  “cairns.” 

There  are  several  kinds  of  cairns.  The  simplest  and  most  common  form  seems  to  be 
a conical  pile  of  stones  of  no  great  size.  Next  is  what  maybe  called  the  fence  or  ringed 
C. — a heap  of  stones  girdled  round  by  large  unhewn  stones  set  upright  in  the  ground. 
Some  cairns  have  two,  and  a very  few  have  three  such  concentric  girdles;  in  some 
instances,  there  are  concentric  rows  of  upright  stones  within  the  cairn.  Many  cairns 
are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  circles  of  unhewn  stone  pillars  which  antiquaries 
used  to  style  “Druidical.”  In  a few  instances,  cairns  are  found  at  the  end  of  an  avenue 
of  standing  stones.  Some  cairns  are  fenced  round  by  a narrow  ditch  and  a small  earthen 
rampart.  A very  few  cairns  have  unhewn  flat  stones  on  their  tops;  a still  smaller  num- 
ber are  surmounted  by  an  unhewn  stone  pillar.  A few  are  oblong  in  shape. 

Cairns  were  erected,  doubtless,  for  several  purposes.  It  appears  from  record  that  they 
were  often  raised  to  distinguish  the  marches  or  boundaries  of  lands.  One  C. , near  Balmoral, 
on  the  Highland  Dee,  is  said  to  have  been  erected  as  a mustering-place  for  the  men  of 
Strathdee,  who  took  its  name,  Gairn-na-cuimhne,  or  “C.  of  remembrance,”  for  their 
slogan  or  war-cry.  In  later  times,  places  where  great  crimes  had  been  committed  were 
Marked  by  cairns;  thus,  “Mushet’s  C.,”  in  the  Queen’s  park  at  Edinburgh,  shows  the 
spot  where  a wife  was  murdered  by  her  husband,  under  circumstances  of  peculiar  atroc- 


Cairnes. 

Cairo. 


278 


ity,  in  1720.  But  that  the  great  purpose  of  the  C.  was  sepulchral,  is  shown  by  the 
human  remains  found  in  so  many  of  them.  Disjectis  et  erutis,  ossa  inveniuntur,  et  qui- 
hiisdam  honor  nominis  adhuc  manet,"  says  Robert  Gordon  of  Straloch,  writing  of  Scotch 
cairns  in  1654.  “For  the  cairns  or  heaps  of  stones  in  several  parts  of  Ireland,”  wrote 
Thady  O’Roddy  in  1617,  “some  of  them  were  heaped  as  monuments  of  battles,  some 
made  in  memory  of  some  eminent  persons  buried  in  such  a place.”  A Highland  suppliant 
would  have  said  to  his  benefactor:  Curri  mi  clock  er  do  charne,  “I  will  add  a stone  to 
your  cairu.”  The  bones  found  in  cairns  are  generally  calcined  or  half-burned,  and 
inclosed  either  in  what  are  called  cists — small  rude  coffins  of  unhewn  stones — or  in  urns 
of  earthenware,  which,  again,  are  in  many  cases  protected  by  stone  cists.  Along  with 
the  bones  are  often  found  flint  arrow-heads,  flint  axe-heads,  stone  hammers,  stone  lings, 
glass  beads,  implements  of  bone,  bones  of  horses  and  oxen,  spear-heads,  and  other  weap- 
ons of  bronze.  In  some  instances,  human  bones  are  found  unburned,  inclosed  in  stone 
cists  about  3 ft.  long,  or,  more  rarely,  of  the  full  size  of  a man.  In  one  case,  as  many  as 
seventeen  stone  cists  were  found  in  one  cairn. 

Many  cairns  are  of  considerable  size.  Each  of  three  cairns  at  Memsie,  near  Fraser- 
. burgh,  in  Aberdeenshire,  was  about  300  ft.  in  circumference,  and  about  40  ft.  high.  A 
C,  in  the  parish  of  Minnigaff,  in  Galloway,  was  891  ft.  in  circumference.  Several  of  the 
larger  cairns  are  what  is  called  “chambered” — that  is,  have  internal  galleries  or  cells. 
Of  three  large  ringed  cairns  at  Clava,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nairn  river,  near  the  battle- 
field of  Culloden,  one  was  found  to  contain  a gallery,  about  2 ft.  wide,  leading  from  the 
s.  side  of  the  C.  to  a circular  chamber  in  the  center,  about  15  ft.  in  diameter,  built  of 
unhewn  and  uncemented  stones,  each  course  overlapping  the  other  so  as  to  meet  at  the 
top  in  that  sort  of  rude  dome  which  has  received  the  name  of  the  “beehive  house”  (q.v.). 
The  Boss  C.,  on  the  moor  of  Dranandow,  in  the  parish  of  Minnigaff,  had  two  galleries 
crossing  each  other — each  80  ft.  long,  4 ft.  wide,  and  3 ft.  high. 

But  of  all  the  “chambered  ” cairns,  the  most  remarkable  is  that  at  New  Grange,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Boyne,  near  Drogheda,  in  Ireland.  It  is  400  paces  in  circumference, 
and  about  80  ft.  high,  and  is  supposed  to  contain  180,000  tons  of  stones.  In  1699,  it 
was  described  by  Edward  Llhwyd,  the  Welsh  antiquary,  as  “a  mount  or  barrow,  of 
very  considerable  height,  encompassed  with  vast  stones,  pitched  on  end,  round  the  bot- 
tom of  it,  and  having  another,  lesser,  standing  on  the  top.”  This  last  pillar  has  disap- 
peared ; of  the  outer  ring  of  pillars,  ten  still  remain,  placed  at  about  ten  yards  one  from 
another.  “The  cairn,”  says  Mr.  Wakeman  in  his  Archmlogia  Hibernica  (Dublin,  1848), 

‘ ‘ in  its  present  ruinous  condition,  presents  the  appearance  of  a grassy  hill  partially 
wooded;  but,  upon  examination,  the  coating  of  earth  is  found  to  be  altogether  super- 
ficial, and  in  several  places  the  stones,  of  which  the  hill  is  entirely  composed,  are  laid 
bare.  The  opening  [which  is  nearly  square,  and  lined  by  large  flags]  was  accidentally 
discovered  about  the  year  1699.  The  gallery,  of  which  it  is  the  external  entrance,  com- 
municates with  a [dome-roofed]  chamber  or  cave  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  mound. 
This  gallery,  which  measures  in  length  about  50  ft.,  is,  at  its  entrance,  4 ft.  high;  in 
breadth  about  3 feet.  Towards  the  interior,  its  size  gradually  increases;  and  its  height, 
where  it  forms  the  chamber,  is  18  feet.  The  chamber  is  cruciform,  the  head  and  aims 
of  the  cross  being  formed  by  three  recesses — each  containing  a basin  of  granite.  The 
sides  of  these  recesses  are  composed  of  immense  blocks  of  stone,  several  of  which  bear  a 
great  variety  of  carving,  supposed  by  some  to  be  symbolical.  The  majority  of  these 
carvings  must  have  been  executed  before  the  stones  had  been  placed  in  their  present 
positions.  The 'length  of  the  passage  and  chamber  from  n.  to  s.  is  75  ft.,  and  the 

breadth  of  the  chamber  from  e.  to  w.  20  feet.  Of  the  urns  or  basins  in  the  recesses, 
that  to  the  e.  is  the  most  remarkable.  It  is  formed  of  a block  of  granite,  and  appears 
to  have  been  set  upon,  or  rather  within,  another  of  somewhat  larger  dimensions.”  The 
Irish  antiquaries  believe  that  the  chambered  C.  of  New  Grange — “the  cave  of  Achadh 
Aldai,”  as  it  was  called,  from  Aldai,  the  ancestor  of  the  Tuatha  De  Danaan  kings — was 
opened  and  rifled  by  the  Norsemen  in  862.  About  a mile  from  it,  on  either  side,  are 
other  two  cairns  of  nearly  equal  size,  named  Knowth  and  Dowth.  The  latter  was 
opened  in  1847,  and  found  to  contain  a gallery,  a cruciform  chamber,  a basin  or  sarcoph- 
agus, and  carved  stones,  all  of  the  same  type  as  those  of  New  Grange.  Engravings 
of  the  sculptures,  in  both  cairns,  are  given  in  Mr.  W.  R.  Wilde’s  Boyne  and  Blackwater, 
pp.  192-207  (Dublin,  1850),  and  some  of  them  are  obviously  of  the  same  character  with 
sculptures  found  in  Scandinavia;  at  Locmariaker,  and  at  Gavr  Innis,  in  the  Morbflian, 
in  Brittany;  in  one  of  the  cells  of  a tumulus  opened  in  1853  at  Pickaquoy,  near  Kirk- 
wall, in  Orkney;  among  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  fort  at  the  Laws,  near  Dundee;  at  the 
ancient  forts  at  Rowtin  Lynn,  and  Old  Bewick,  in  Northumberland;  and  on  one  of  the 
standing  stones  near  Penrith  in  Cumberland,  called  “Long  Meg  and  her  DaugMers.” 

Cairns  are  most  frequent  in  stony  countries.  Where,  as  in  many  parts  of  England, 
stones  are  scarce,  the  barrow  or  earthen  mound  came  in  place  of  the  C.,  from  which  it 
differs  only  in  the  materials  of  which  it  is  made.  So  also  in  Scandinavia.  Cairns,  or 
dysser,  as  they  are  there  called,  are  rare  in  Denmark,  but  of  more  common  occurrence 
in  Sweden  and  Norway. 

CAIRNES,  John  Elliott,  1824-75;  b.  Ireland;  educated  at  Trinity  college,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Irish  bar,  but  passed  most  of  his  time  in  writing  for  the 


279 


Calrnes. 

Cairo. 


press,  chiefly  upon  economical  questions  affecting  Ireland.  In  1856,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  political  economy  in  Dublin,  and  the  next  year  his  professional  lectures 
were  published  under  the  title  Character  and  Logical  Method  of  Political  Economy.  He 
next  wrote  for  Fraser's  Magazine  a series  of  essays  on  the  gold  question,  induced  by  the 
sudden  increase  of  supply  from  California  and  Australia,  In  1861,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  political  economy  and  jurisprudence  in  Queen’s  college,  and  in  the  next 
year  published  his  work  on  The  Slave  Power.  His  conclusions  were  to  a large  extent  veri- 
fied by  the  results  of  the  war  in  the  United  States  then  just  commenced.  In  1866,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  political  economy  in  University  college,  London.  His  later 
years  were  spent  in  collecting  and  publishing  his  numerous  papers,  and  in  writing  his 
chief  work.  Some  Leading  Principles  in  Political  Economy,  newly  Expounded.  He  is 
regarded  as  high  authority  on  subjects  connected  with  political  economy. 

CAIRNGORM'  STONE,  or  simply  Cairngorm,  a name  often  given  by  jewelers,  and 
particularly  in  Scotland,  to  brown  or  yellow  quartz  or  rock-crystal,  because  found  at 
Cairngorm,  in  Aberdeenshire.  The  same  mineral  is  found  in  many  other  localities,  as 
at  Olivet  near  Orleans,  in  Brazil,  and  in  Siberia.  In  Cairngorm  and  the  neighboring 
district  of  Mar,  it  occurs  both  in  the  granite  rock  and  in  the  alluvial  soil.  It  differs  from 
common  colorless  quartz  or  rock-crystal  only  in  the  presence  of  a very  little  oxide  of 
iron  or  manganese,  to  which  it  owes  its  color.  It  is  much  used  as  an  ornamental  stone. 
The  yellow  variety  is  not  unfrequently  called  topaz,  although  quite  different  from  the 
true  topaz,  which  it  resembles  chiefly  in  color,  having  neither  its  hardness  nor  its  bril- 
liancy. The  topaz  is,  however,  sometimes  found  along  with  it  in  the  granite  and 
gneiss  districts  of  Mar  and  Cairngorm.  The  brow-n  variety  is  sometimes  called  Smoky 
Quartz,  and  when  of  a good  and  uniform  color  is  by  some  preferred  to  the  yellow. 

CAIRO,  a city  in  Alexandria  co..  111.,  on  the  extreme  southern  point  of  the  state,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers,  147  m.  by  rail  s.e.  of  St.  Louis;  pop.  ’70, 
6267 ; in  ’80,  9026.  The  Illinois  Central  railroad  ends  here,  and  connects  by  ferry  with 
the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad  at  Columbus,  in  Kentucky.  All  the  steamers  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  make  C.  a stopping- place.  It  is  a port  of  entry,  and  has  a fine 
custom-house,  and  some  other  handsome  buildings.  The  founders  of  C.  anticipated  its 
becoming  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in  the  Mississippi  valley,  but  the  loca- 
tion was  unhealthy,  and  the  land  so  low  that  costly  dikes  were  necessary  to  protect 
it  from  inundation;  and  even  these  did  not  suffice,  for  in  1858  the  city  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  a ffood.  Since  then,  however,  ample  protection  has  been  provided. 

GAI'RO  (Arabic,  Musr  el  Kahirah,  “the  victorious  capital”),  the  capital  of  modern 
Egypt,  is  situated  in  lat.  30°  2'  n. , and  long.  31  ° 16'  e. , in  a sandy  plain  betwixt  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile  and  the  ridge  of  Mokattam,  and  near  the  point  of  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  From 
the  foundation  of  the  city  in  969,  the  Fatimite  caliphs  of  Africa,  who  brought  the  bones 
of  their  ancestors  with  them  from  Kairon,  reigned  for  ten  generations  over  the  land 
of  Egypt.  The  caliph  Hakem,  who  built  a mosque  near  Bab^-el-Nassr,  and  who  is  the 
supposed  founder  of  the  Druse  religion,  was  the  third  in  the  succession.  In  the 
year  1171,  Saladin  usurped  the  throne  from  the  last  of  the  Fatimites.  His  descend- 
ant, Moosa-el-Ashref,  was  deposed  in  his  turn  in  1250;  from  that  time  till  the  year  1517, 
when  the  city  was  stormed  and  taken  by  sultan  Selim,  0.  was  governed  by  a succes- 
sion of  Mameluke  kings. 

The  city  of  C.  occupies  about  3 sq.m.,  and  is  surrounded  by  a low  wall.  Of  late  years 
\t  has  been  greatly  improved.  It  is  lighted  with  gas,  and  many  fine  broad  streets  have 
been  opened  through  the  crowded  districts.  The  bazaars  are  well  and  richly  supplied. 
The  houses,  which  are  generally  two  or  three  stories  high,  are  all  built  of  variegated 
brick,  with  interlinings  of  wood,  and  have  fiat  roofs.  The  city  is  divided  into  different 
quarters,  one  quarter  being  appropriated  to  the  Turks,  one  to  the  Christians,  one  to  the 
Jews,  etc. ; so  that  every  religious  sect  has  its  own  quarter,  which  is  separated  from  the 
adjoining  one  by  strong  gates  at  the  end  of  the  streets;  these  are  closed  at  night,  and 
guarded  by  a porter,  who  opens  the  gate  when  any  one  wants  to  pass. 

_ The  most  remarkable  buildings  in  the  city  of  C.  are  its  minarets  and  mosques.  The 
minarets  are  the  most  beautiful  of  any  in  the  Levant,  of  a prodigious  height,  and  built 
of  alternate  layers  of  red  and  white  stone.  The  most  ancient  of  all  the  minarets  is  that 
attached  to  the  great  mosque  of  sultan  Tayloon.  This  mosque  was  built  in  the  year  of 
the  Hegira  265  (879  a.d.),  before  the  foundation  of  the  city,  and  consists  of  an  immense 
cloister  or  arcade  built  on  pointed  arches,  being  the  earliest  extant  in  that  form. 
Another  magnificent  mosque  is  that  of  the  sultan  Hassan,  situated  in  the  place  of  the 
Roumayli,  near  the  citadel,  and  which  was  finished  about  the  year  1362  a.d.  It  has  two 
very  elegant^  and  high  minarets,  and  the  mosque,  in  consequence  of  its  size,  and  the 
thickness  of  its  walls,  was  frequently  seized  and  made  use  of  as  a fortress  by  the  insur 
gents  in  the  numerous  rebellions  and  insurrections  which  were  always  taking  place  at 
C.  under  the  rule  of  the  Mameluke  kings.  Stains  of  blood  are  still  to  be  traced  on  the 
marble  walls  of  the  courtyard. 

The  population  of  C.  consists  of  the  ruling  class,  who  are  all  Turks;  Arabs,  the 
former  conquerors  of  the  land,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population,  all  the  petty  trades- 
men and  cultivators  of  the  soil  being  of  Arab  origin ; Copts,  who  are  descended  from 
the  original  lords  of  the  land,  the  ancient  Egyptians;  Jews,  Armenians,  Syrians,  Afri- 


Caisse. 

Cajetan. 


280 


cans,  and  Europeans.  Pop.  ’72,  350,000.  The  Copts,  a mere  fraction  of  the  popula- 
tion, completed,  in  1867,  a tine,  lofty,  spacious  church.  Since  1863,  the  part  of  C.  occu- 
pied by  Europeans  has  been  handsomely  rebuilt.  In  1876,  C.  was  connected  by  rail 
with  Ileluan,  one  of  the  numerous  bathing-places  lying  to  the  south. 

Of  objects  worthy  of  note  in  the  environs  of  C.,  there  may  be  mentioned  the  tomba 
of  the  caliphs,  situated  about  a mile  beyond  the  walls,  which  are  magnificent  and  impos- 
ing buildings,  forming  beautiful  specimens  of  Arabian  architecture.  The  mausoleum 
of  sultan  Bergook  is  a triumph  of  Saracenic  architecture.  The  public  gardens,  which 
consist  of  groves  of  orange,  citron,  palms,  and  vines,  arc  very  beautiful.  The  trade  of 
0.  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  exports  consist  mainly  of  native  products,  such  as  ivory, 
gum,  wood,  hides,  ostrich  feathers,  cotton,  and  sugar;  while  the  imports  are  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  prints,  hardware,  cloth,  furniture,  shawls,  indigo,  sheep,  tobacco,  etc. 
The  manufactures  of  C.  embrace  silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  gunpowder,  glass  lamps,  sugar, 
sal  ammoniac,  weapons,  and  iron  ware.  C.  is  a great  seat  of  learning,  and  popular  edu- 
cation has  recently  advanced.  The  government  college  and  the  national  schools  are 
largely  attended,  while  several  thousand  pupils  attend  the  theological  university  attached 
to  the  mosque  of  Ezher.  The  schools  comprise  a commercial  and  juridical  school  at 
the  Darb  AlgamSmiz,  a school  of  arts  and  industry  at  Boolak(q.v.),  and  military  schools 
at  the  Abbasseeyah.  The  language  spoken  at  C.  is  Arabic,  which,  though  not  the  pur- 
est, is  superior  in  pronunciation  to  that  spoken  in  Syria.  C.  is  the  official  residence  of 
the  khedive  of  Egypt,  and  the  residence  of  a consul-general  from  Great  Britain,  France, 
etc.  C.  has  railway  connection  with  Alexandria  and  Suez,  and  there  is  also  a line  to 
upper  Egypt. 

CAISSE,  a coffer,  box,  case,  or  chest;  in  finance,  a cash-box,  or  pay-ofl5ce,  or  fund  for 
payments.  In  anatomy,  the  drum  of  the  ear.  The  French  call  a savings  bank,  “caisse 
d’epargne.” 

CAIS'SON,  in  military  matters,  is  a name  sometimes  given  to  a tumbril  or  ammuni- 
tion wagon.  It  is  more  frequently  applied,  however,  to  a large  wooden  chest  or  frame, 
loaded  with  powder,  shells,  or  both,  and  buried  several  feet  deep  in  the  ground  under 
some  fortification ; this  destructive  combination  is  to  be  blown  up  if  there  be  danger  of 
the  enemy  approaching  and  taking  possession  of  that  particular  part  of  the  defense- 
work.  The  French  give  the  name  of  caisson  pour  les  vivres  to  a large  chest,  carried  with 
the  army,  and  capable  of  containing  800  rations. 

CAIS'SON,  in  relation  to  shipping,  is  an  apparatus  for  lifting  a vessel  out  of  the  water 
for  repairs  or  inspection.  It  is  usually  a hollow  structure,  sunk  by  letting  water  into  it. 
There  is  an  air-chamber  inside,  which  allows  it  to  sink  only  to  a certain  depth.  In  that 
state  it  is  hauled  under  the  ship’s  bottom,  the  traps  or  openings  are  closed,  the  water  ia 
pumped  out,  and  the  caisson  rises  with  the  ship  upon  it. 

In  another  arrangement,  a platform  is  sunk  to  a certain  depth  in  the  water,  and  is 
suspended  by  iron  screws  from  a strong  wooden  frame-work ; the  ship  is  fioated  upon 
the  platform,  steadied  by  shores,  and  lifted  high  and  dry  by  means  of  levers,  wheels, 
pinions,  and  screws. 

CAISSON  (ante),  in  engineering,  a hollow  box  of  iron  or  wood,  open  at  the  bottom, 
sunk  where  piers  are  to  be  placed.  The  largest  caisson  yet  sunk  was  for  the  tower  of 
the  Brooklyn  bridge  on  the  New  York  side.  At  the  bottom  it  was  172  ft.  long  and  103 
ft.  wide,  with  an  air-chamber  9^  ft.  high,  the  roof  22  ft.  thick,  and  the  sides  carried  up 
82  ft.  from  the  lower  edge.  It  had  a coffer-dam  in  the  upper  part ; was  built  of  timber 
lined  with  boiler-iron,  and  bolted  together.  In  its  construction  there  were  used  of  lum- 
ber, board  measure,  4,200,000  ft.,  and  of  iron,  including  bolts,  620  tons.  When  com- 
pleted, it  weighed  13,271  tons,  and  there  were  30,000  tons  of  masonry  laid  within  it. 
There  were  two  double  air-locks  extending  into  the  air-chamber,  in  which  were  steam- 
pipes  to  keep  an  even  temperature.  Two  shafts  passed  up  through  well-holes  in  the 
masonry,  with  an  elevator  in  one,  and  two  spiral  stairways  in  the  other.  Below  the 
lowest  edge  of  the  caisson  extended  two  water-shafts,  each  7f  ft.  in  diameter,  in  which 
dredges  and  scoops  grappled  the  stones  and  soil,  raising  their  loads  to  cars  above,  which 
conveyed  the  refuse  away.  At  the  same  time  sand  and  fine  dirt  were  blown  out  by  air- 
pressure  through  40  or  more  pipes  in  various  parts  of  the  structure.  The  interior  was 
illuminated  by  gas,  and  constant  communication  by  telegraph  was  kept  up  with  the 
workmen  inside.  There  were  four  shafts,  each  2 ft.  in  diameter,  for  the  introduction 
of  material  for  the  concrete  with  which  the  whole  interior  was  finally  filled.  The  cais- 
son was  sunk  78  ft.  below  mean  tide,  a work  that  required  a pressure  of  34  lbs.  per  sq. 
inch,  in  addition  to  the  normal  pressure  of  air;  and  to  supply  this  addition,  13  large 
compressors  were  used.  The  earliest  caissons  for  such  purposes  were  used  in  England 
in  1738-40  in  laying  the  foundations  of  the  Westminster  bridge  over  the  Thames. 

CAITH'NESS,  a maritime  co.,  the  most  northerly  on  the  mainland  of  Scotland.  It  is 
triangular  in  shape;  length,  from  n.  to  s.,  40  m. ; greatest  breadth,  30  m. ; area,  712  sq. 
miles.  Except  in  the  w.  and  s.,  where  the  mountain-range  (composed  of  granite  and 
gneiss)  dividing  C.  from  Sutherland  attains,  in  its  highest  point,  a height  of  more  than 
2300  ft.,  the  general  aspect  of  C.  is  level  and  bare,  bein^  in  great  part  moorland  and 
destitute  of  trees,  while  the  sea-coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  with  many  bays,  inlets,  promon- 


281 


Calsse. 

Cajetan. 


torics,  and  caves.  On  the  n.  coast  are  Dunnet  head  and  Duncansby  head;  and  on  the 
Av.  side  of  the  last-named  head  is  a spot  of  green  turf,  called  John  o’  Groat’s  house, 
Avhere  John  de  Groot  or  Groat  of  Warse  settled  with  his  brothers  in  James  IV. ’s  time, 
and  built  a house.  There  are  no  navigable  rivers  in  C.,  and  no  lakes  of  importance. 
The  climate  is  damp  and  chilly,  but  snow  rarely  lies  on  the  plains  above  a day  or  two 
at  a time.  Thunder  is  rare,  but  auror®  are  seen  almost  nightly.  There  are  no  manu- 
factures, properly  so  called,  although  weaving  is  carried  on  to  some  extent.  Coal  has 
not  been  found  in  C. ; the  common  fuel  is  peat.  The  chief  crops  are  oats,  bear,  turnips, 
and  potatoes.  The  parts  of  the  surface  under  tillage  are  generally  a deep  fertile  loam 
on  a strong  till  clay.  In  the  n.e.,  the  soil  is  sandy.  The  crops  are  20days  later  in  ripen- 
ing than  in  the  Lothians.  The  occupants  of  many  of  the  small  farms  divide  their  time 
between  farming  and  fishing.  There  are  herring,  ling,  cod,  salmon,  and  lobster  fish- 
eries. The  herring-fishery  in  July  and  August  employs  about  1500  boats,  a part  of  which 
come  from  other  parts  of  the  Scotch  coasts.  Wick  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  British  her- 
ring-fishery. The  average  number  of  barrels  cured  annually  in  the  ports  of  C,  may  be 
stated  at  200,000.  The  other  exports  are  cattle,  oats,  wool,  and  flag-stones,  of  which,  as 
well  as  of  freestone  and  slate,  C.  contains  quarries.  Wick  is  the  only  parliamentary 
borough  in  C. ; another  town  is  Thurso,  an  old  burgh  of  barony.  There  were,  when  the 
census  was  taken  in  1871,  7185  children  in  C.,  and  of  these,  6608  were  receiving  educa- 
tion. Pop.  89,992.  The  county  returns  one  member  to  parliament,  and  Wick  unites 
with  Kirkwall,  Dornock,  Dingwall,  Tain,  and  Cromarty,  in  returning  another.  A rail- 
way, completed  in  1874,  and  extending  to  Wick  and  Thurso,  connects  C.  with  the  south. 
In  early  times,  C.  is  supposed  to  have  been  inhabited  by  Celts;  these  afterwards  mixed 
with  Danes  and  Norwegians.  C.,  in  the  middle  ages,  was  subject  to  the  kings  of  Nor- 
way. David  II.  adopted  the  ’weights  and  measures  of  C.  for  all  Scotland.  The  Scandi- 
navian origin  or  mixture  of  the  people  of  C.  is  shown  by  their  tall  forms  and  soft  fair 
features,  and  their  speaking  English  instead  of  Gaelic.  C.  has  remains  of  Piets’  houses, 
round  towers,  etc. 

CAITH'NESS  FLAGSTONES  are  dark-colored  bituminous  schists,  slightly  micaceous 
and  calcareous,  valuable  on  account  of  their  great  toughness  and  durability  for  pave- 
ments, cisterns,  and  various  other  purposes,  and  accordingly  are  largely  exported. 
They  belong  to  the  old  red  sandstone,  and  contain  abundant  remains  of  fossil  fishes. 

CAIXJS,  Dr.  John,  the  person  from  whom  Caius  college,  Cambridge,  takes  it  name, 
was  b.  at  Norwich  in  1510.  His  real  name  was  Kaye  or  Key,  which  he  Latinized  into 
Caius.  He  was  educated  at  Gonville  hall,  university  of  Cambridge;  and  at  the  age  of 
20,  turned  into  English  Chrysostom’s  Method  of  Praying  to  Ood,  which  was  followed  by 
a translation  of  Erasmus  On  True  Theology.  He  next  went  abroad,  and  resided  in  Italy 
for  several  years,  studying  medicine.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  practiced  with 
success  at  Cambridge,  Shrewsbury,  and  Norwich.  Henry  VIII.  appointed  him  ana- 
tomical lecturer  to  the  company  of  surgeons  in  London.  In  1547,  he  was  elected  a fellow 
of  the  college  of  physicians,  of  Avhich  he  was  subsequently  made  president.  He  also 
became  physician  to  Edward  VI.,  queen  Mary,  and  queen  Elizabeth.  In  1557,  he 
obtained  permission  to  elevate  Gonville  hall  into  a college,  which  took  the  name  of 
Caius  college,  and  of  which  he  became  master.  This  office  he  held  till  his  death,  in 
July,  1573.  His  principal  work  is  A Poke  or  Counseill  against  the  Disease  commonly 
called  the  Sweateor  Sweatyng  Sicknesse,  Anno  Do.  1552.  C.,  however,  wrote  a great  num- 

ber of  works  on  a variety  of  subjects,  critical,  antiquarian,  and  scientific. 

CAIUS  COLLEGE.  See  Gonville  and  Caius  College. 

CAIVA'NO,  a t.  of  southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Naples,  and  8 m.  n.  of  the  city 
of  that  name.  It  was  a place  of  considerable  strength  in  the  middle  ages,  and  still 
retains  many  remains  of  its  walls  and  towers,  though  they  have  suffered  severely  in  the 
various  revolutions  of  Naples.  Pop.  10,000. 

CAJAMAR'CA.  See  Caxamarca,  ante. 

CAJATAM'BO,  a province  in  the  department  of  Junin,  Peru;  1500  sq.m.;  pop. 
24,750.  The  region  is  mountainous  and  comparatively  barren,  with  a severe  climate. 
There  are  many  remains  of  ancient  towns,  aqueducts,  etc.  The  chief  town,  of  the  same 
name,  has  a pop.  of  about  3200,  and  is  in  a fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  140 
m.  n.n.e.  of  Lima.  The  people  are  employed  in  spinning  wool  for  sale  at  Lima. 

CA'JEPUT,  Melaleuca  cajeputi  or  M.  minor,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  myrtacece, 
sub-order  leptospermea,  from  the  leaves  of  which  the  pungent,  aromatic,  volatile  oil, 
called  oil  of  cajeput,  is  obtained  by  distillation.  The  C.  tree  is  common  on  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Moluccas.  It  is  rather  a small  tree,  with  a crooked  trunk,  thick  spongy 
bark,  white  wood  (whence  the  name  C.,  properly  kayuputi,  signifying  white  w'ood), 
elliptical-lanceolate  alternate  leaves,  and  terminal  spikes  of  white  flowers.  The  greater 
number  of  the  species  are  natives  of  Australia,  some  of  them  very  beautiful  shrubs  and 
frequent  ornaments  of  British  hot-houses.  Much  of  the  oil  of  C.  of  commerce  is  pre- 
pared in  the  island  of  Banda.  It  is  said  that  two  sackfuls  of  leaves  yield  scarcely  three 
drams  of  the  oil,  which  is  green,  transparent,  limpid,  with  a strong  penetrating  odor, 
and  agreeable  only  when  much  diffused. 

CAJ'ETAN,  or  GAETANI,  Benedetto.  See  Boniface  VIII.,  ante. 


CKfetan. 

Calais. 


282 


CAJ'ETATT,  Tommabo  de  Vio,  1469-1534;  an  Italian  priest  of  the  Dominican  order, 
and  the  general  of  that  order.  In  1517,  Leo  X.  sent  him  as  legate  to  induce  Maximilian 
of  Germany  to  join  in  the  league  against  the  Turks,  and  especially  to  bring  the 
Lutherans  back  to  allegiance  to  the  church;  but  C.’s  arrogant  manner  defeated  the  pur- 
pose for  which  he  was  sent.  When  Rome  was  taken  by  the  imperialists  in  1527,  he 
was  made  a prisoner,  but  he  bought  his  freedom  for  5000  crowns.  He  made  a trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  with  commentary,  and  wrote  a treatise  on  the  authority  of 
the  pope  which  was  answered  by  the  faculty  of  the  university  of  Paris. 

CALABAR',  the  name  of  a coast  district  of  upper  Guinea,  Africa,  the  limits  of  which 
are  not  clearly  defined ; but  it  is  usually  understood  to  extend  between  the  river  Benin 
and  IS^ew  Calabar,  called  by  the  Portuguese  Rio  del  Rey,  and  as  far  n.  as  the  Kong 
mountains.  The  surface  is  low  and  fiat,  and  the  climate  unhealthy.  Yams,  which  are 
the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants,  are  raised  in  plenty,  and  also  the  sugar-cane,  and 
palms,  from  which  palm-oil  is  obtained  in  large  quantities.  The  inhabitants  are  polyg- 
amists, and  make  human  sacrifices  to  good  and  evil  spirits.  The  United  Presbyterians 
have  had  a mission  here  since  1846,  which  is  beginning  to  produce  beneficial  changes. 

CALABAR  (Old),  a river  of  this  district,  enters  the  bight  of  Biafra,  about  52  m. 
w.n.  w.  of  Fernando  Po,  by  an  estuary  about  9 m.  in  breadth.  It  is  navigable  by  steamers 
for  about  200  m.  above  its  mouth,  and  abounds  in  crocodiles.  The  chief  towns  on  its 
banks  are — Duke  Town,  situated  on  its  estuary;  Creek  Town,  further  up,  both  seats  of 
British  missions;  Acoono  Coono,  and  Omun. — Calabak  (New),  a branch  of  the  Niger, 
falling  into  the  Bight  of  biafra,  in  lat.  4°  30'  n.,  and  long.  7°  7'  e.  It  has  a bar  across 
its  mouth,  which  prevents  the  entrance  of  vessels  drawing  more  than  12  ft. ; but  some 
miles  up  it  has  an  average  depth  of  30  feet. 

CALABAR  BEAN,  a very  remarkable  medicinal  agent,  which  has  been  introduced  inta 
the  new  edition  of  the  British  Pharmacopoeia  (1867).  It  is  the  seed  of  physostigmor 
'ceneriosum,  a twining,  half-shrubby  plant,  a native  of  western  Africa,  of  the  natural 
order  legumiiioscB,  sub-order  papilionacem,  nearly  allied  to  the  kidney  bean,  but  of  a 
genus  distinguished  by  the  hood-shaped  stigma,  and  the  deeply-furrowed  liilum  of  the 
seed.  The  following  are  the  leading  characters  of  the  bean  itself:  “About  the  size  of 
a very  large  horse-bean,  with  a very  firm,  hard,  brittle,  shining  integument,  of  a brown- 
ish-red, pale  chocolate,  or  ash-gray  color.  Irregularly  kidney-shaped,  with  two'  fiat 
sides,  and  a furrow  running  longitudinally  along  its  convex  margin,  ending  in  an  aper- 
ture near  one  end  of  the  seed.  Within  the  shell  is  a kernel,  consisting  of  two  cotyledons, 
weighing  on  an  average  about  46  grains,  hard,  white,  and  pulverizable,  of  a taste  like 
that  of  the  ordinary  edible  leguminous  seeds,  without  bitterness,  acrimony,  or  aromatic 
flavor.  It  yields  its  virtues  to  alcohol,  and  imperfectly  to  water.”  It  is  used  in  the 
form  of  an  emulsion  by  the  natives  of  Africa,  as  an  ordeal  when  persons  are  suspected 
of  witchcraft.  About  twenty  years  ago.  Dr.  Christison  very  nearly  fell  a victim  to  his 
zeal  for  science  in  experimenting  on  some  specimens  of  this  bean  which  had  been  sent 
to  Edinburgh  by  some  African  missionaries,  dangerous  symptoms  having  been  produced 
by  12  grains  of  the  kernel  which  he  swallowed.  In  1861,  Dr.  Thomas  R.  Fraser  tried 
the  effects  upon  himself  of  doses  of  6,  8,  and  10  grains.  The  general  symptoms  were 
epigastric  uneasiness,  great  feebleness,  dimness  of  vision,  salivation,  giddiness,  and  irre- 
gular, feeble,  and  slow  heart’s  action.  About  the  same  time,  he  made  the  interesting 
discovery,  that  when  placed  on  the  eyeball  this  substance  contracts  the  pupil,  and  pro- 
duces near-sightedness;  and  it  is  now  frequently  employed  for  these  purposes  by  ophthal- 
mic surgeons.  In  1864,  50  children  w ere  poisoned  by  eating  these  beans,  which  were 
swept  out  of  a ship  at  Liverpool.  A boy  aged  six  years,  who  ate  six  beans,  died  very 
rapidly.  The  chief  symptoms  in  these  cases  were  griping,  vomiting,  and  contracted 
pupils;  the  face  was  pale,  the  eyes  bright  and  protruding,  and  in  trying  to  walk,  the 
children  staggered  as  if  they  were  drunk.  Dr.  Fraser,  in  a paper  which  he  communi- 
cated to  the  royal  society  of  Edinburgh  in  1866,  maintains  that,  in  mammals,  death  is 
generally  produced  by  a combination  of  syncope  (faintness)  with  asphyxia  (suffocation); 
the  symptoms  of  the  one  or  the  other  depending  on  the  dose,  which,  when  large,  at  once 
destroys  the  heart’s  action.  It  has  been  used  medicinally  in  small  doses  (one  to  ten 
grains  of  the  powder,  or  to  ^ of  a grain  of  the  extract)  in  chorea,  tetanus,  general 
paral3’"sis  of  the  insane,  and  other  diseases  of  the  nervous  system.  Being  now  a recog- 
nized medicinal  agent,  it  is  satisfactory  to  know  that  the  dangerous  and  even  fatal 
effects  of  excessive  doses  may  be  prevented  by  administering  belladonna,  (night-shade), 
or  its  active  principle,  atropia,  as  a oounter-poison.  This  fact  has  been  established  by 
Dr.  Fraser  in  a communication  to  the  royal  society  of  Edinburgh,  embracing  the 
results  of  500  experiments  on  dogs  and  rabbits.  So  unmistakable  is  the  power  of 
the  antidote,  that  it  can  prevent  even  three  times  a fatal  dose  of  the  kernel  from  caus- 
ing death  in  those  animals.  Belladonna  has  also  an  opposite  action  on  the  eje  to  that 
of  this  substance,  as  it  dilates  the  pupils  and  produces  long-sightedness.  When  the 
pupil  IS  contracted  by  Calabar  bean,  it  may  be  dilated  to  its  normal,  or  to  a greater,  size 
by  belladonna ; and  when  it  is  dilated  by  belladonna,  it  may  be  reduced  to  its  normal, 
or  to  a less,  size  by  Calabar  bean. 

CALABASH  TREE,  Grescentia  cujete,  a tree  found  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  the 


283 


CaJetaiA. 

Calais. 


tropical  parts  of  America,  of  the  natural  order  suborder  crescentiacecB. 

In  height  and  size  it  resembles  an  apple-tree,  and  has  wedge-shaped  leaves,  large  whitish 
fleshy  flowers  scattered  over  the  trunk  and  older  branches,  and  a gourd-like  fruit, 
sometimes  a foot  in  diameter.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  tough  and  flexible,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  coach-making.  But  the  most  useful  part  is  the  hard  shell  of  the  fruit, 
which,  under  the  name  of  calabash,  is  much  used  in  place  of  bottles  for  holding 
liquids,  and  for  goblets,  cups,  water-cans,  etc.  These  shells  may  even  be  used  as  kettles 
for  boiling  liquids,  and  they  will  bear  this  several  times  without  being  destroyed. 
They  are  sometimes  highly  polished,  carved  with  figures,  tinged  with  various  colors, 
and  converted  into  ornamental  vessels.  The  rinds  of  gourds  are  sometimes  similarly 
vi^ied,  and  called  calabashes. 

CA'LABA  TKEE.  See  Calophyllum. 

CALABO'ZO,  a t.  in  Venezuela,  120  m.  s.s.w.  of  Caracas,  in  the  plain  w.  of  the  river 
Guarico;  pop,  6000.  It  is  an  important  point  for  commerce,  but  is  subject  to  inunda 
tions  and  'extiemes  of  heat.  The  town  has  a college  and  a number  of  schools. 

CALA'BRIA^  the  s.w.  peninsula  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  bounded  n,  by  the  provinct 
of  Basilicata.  Its  greatest  length,  from  the  southern  border  of  Basilicata  to  cape  Sparti- 
vento,  is  about  160  miles.  In  its  northern  part  it  has  a breadth  in  some  places  of  more 
than  60  m. , which  suddenly  contracts,  between  the  gulfs  of  Sant’  Euf emia  and  Squillace, 
to  not  more  than  16.  Its  entire  area  is  nearly  7000  sq.m.,  and  its  pop.,  in  1871,  amounted 
to  1,206,302.  It  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire  length  by  the  Apennine  mountains 
<q.v.),  whose  summits  in  the  region  in  the  n.  of  C.,  known  as  La  Sila,  and  the  Aspro- 
monte,  in  the  s.,  are  crowned  with  pines,  while  forests  of  oak  and  beech  cover  their  sides. 
The  valleys  between  the  various  hills  afford  rich  pasture,  especially  in  the  n.,  to  which, 
in  spring-time,  whole  colonie«3  migrate  with  their  flocks  and  herds.  There  is  no  river  of 
any  importance  in  C. ; but  the  valleys  and  plains,  watered  by  such  streams  as  there  are, 
are  very  fertile,  yielding  wheat,  rice,  cotton,  licorice,  saffron,  the  sugar-cane,  etc.,  and 
also  the  vine,  orange,  lemon,  olive,  fig,  and  mulberry,  in  luxuriance.  Iron,  alabaster, 
marble,  gypsum,  and  antimony  are  among  its  minerals.  The  fisheries  of  its  coasts,  par- 
ticularly the  tunny  and  anchovy  fisheries,  are  important,  and  afford  employment  to  a large 
number  of  the  population.  Manufactures  are  in  a backward  state.  Silk  is  the  staple 
article.  The  district  is  very  subject  to  earthquakes.  For  purposes  of  administration,  C 
is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Cosenza,  which  has  a population  of  440,468— capital, 
Cosenza;  Catanzaro,  with  a population  of  412,226  —capital,  Catanzaro;  and  Keggio,  with 
a population  of  353,608 — capital,  Reggio. 

In  ancient  times,  the  name  C.  was  given  to  the  s.e.  peninsula,  nearly  corresponding 
to  the  modern  province  of  Lecce,  no  portion  of  which  is  included  in  modern  C.,  which 
answers  to  the  ancient  Bruttium.  The  name  C.,  as  applied  to  the  district  now  known 
by  that  name,  appears  to  have  originated  with  the  Byzantines  some  time  prior  to  the  con- 
quest of  the  country  by  the  Normans.  A colony  of  the  Vaudois  or  Waldenses  of 
Piedmont  was  founded  in  C.  in  1340,  and  for  some  time  enjoyed  great  prosperity,  but 
was  extirpated  in  1560-61.  The  destruction  of  this  colony  is  one  of  the  blackest 
passages  of  the  history  of  religion  in  Italy. 

The  Calabrians  are  a proud,  fiery,  and  revengeful  race.  They  were  long  celebrated 
as  among  the  fiercest  of  banditti;  but  the  crimes  which  in  former  times  made  them 
infamous  are  no  longer  frequent.  They  strenuously  resisted  the  power  of  Frazsce  during 
the  Napoleonic  campaigns,  and  were  not  finally  subdued  until  1810. 

CALA  DITIM:.  See  Cocco. 

CALAHOE'ItA,  a t.  in  Spain  in  the  province  of  Logrono,  24  m.  s.e.  of  the  chy  of  that 
name,  is  situated  on  the  small  river  Cidacos,  about  2 m.  from  its  confluence  with  the 
Ebro.  C,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Galagurris,  celebrated  in  classic  history  for  the 
obstinate  bat  unsuccessful  resistance  it  offered  (78  b.c.)  to  Afranius,  Pompey’s  legate, 
when  the  citizens  slaughtered  their  wives  and  children  for  food  rather  than  surrender. 
C.  was  the  birthplace  of  Quintilian  the  rhetorician.  It  has  an  old  cathedral,  and  atradej 
in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  rich  district  in  which  it  is,  situated.  Pop.  about  7000, 

CALAIS,  a city  and  port  of  entry  in  Washington  co.,  Me.,  on  St,  Croix  river  at  the 
head  of  tide  water,  and  opposite  to  St.  Stephen  in  New  Brunswick;  the  most  north, 
easterly  seaport  in  the  United  States;  75  m.  n.n.e.  of  Bangor;  pop.  ’70,  5944.  The  river 
is  crossed  by  several  bridges,  and  the  New  Brunswick  and  Canada  railroad  touches  a^ 
St.  Stephen.  The  St.  Croix  and  Penobscot  railroad  from  C,  to  Bangor  is  partially  built. 
There  is  a tide  at  C.  varying  from  20  to  30  ft.  and  steamers  of  the  largest  size  come  and 
go  freely.  The  St.  Croix  also  furnishes  abundant  water-power,  to  which  is  due  the  great- 
lumber  trade  of  the  city.  Nearly  100  mills  are  engaged  in  making  boards,  laths, 
shingles,  etc.  Ship-building  is  also  an  extensive  business,  and  there  are  founderies, 
machine  shops,  and  dry  dock,  flour  mills,  and  many  other  branches  of  mechanical 
industry.  Among  the  chief  buildings  are  a city  hall,  an  opera  house,  and  a dozcR 
churches.  The  city  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  Aug.,  1870,  since  which  time  it  ha?i 
been  rebuilt  in  a more  substantial  manner. 

CALAIS,  a seaport  t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  strait 
of  Dover,  near  its  narrowest  part,  the  distance  from  the  town  of  Dover  not  being  more 


ralamander. 

Calamy. 


284 


than  26  miles.  There  is  here  a lighthouse  190  ft.  high.  In  1879,  it  was  determined  to 
encircle  C.  with  vast  new  fortifications,  and  make  it  once  more  a fortress  of  the  first 
class.  On  the  s.  and  e.,  low  marshy  grounds,  which  those  in  the  city  have  the  means  of 
submerging,  stretch  up  almost  to  the  walls.  The  town,  adjacent  country,  and  port  are 
commanded  by  the  citadel,  which  is  situated  at  the  w.  end  of  the  town,  while  numerous 
forts,  by  their  cross-fire,  defend  the  weakest  points.  The  harbor,  which  is  nearly  dry  at 
low  tide,  and  which  has  rarely  more  than  from  15  ft.  to  18  ft.  of  water  in  it.  is  formed 
by  two  moles,  which  project  about  three  quarters  of  a mile  into  the  sea.  Being  one  of  the 
chief  ports  of  debarkation  for  travelers  from  England  to  France,  it  has  daily  steam 
communication  with  Dover — with  which  it  is  also  connected  by  submarine  telegraph — and 
with  London  and  Ramsgate  several  times  a week.  The  city,  which  is  entered  from  the 
sea  by  a drawbridge  and  gate,  erected  in  1685  by  cardinal  Richelieu,  is  square  in  form ; 
its  streets  are,  for  the  most  part,  broad  and  well  paved;  and  its  ramparts  form  pleasant 
promenades.  But  it  is  on  the  whole  a dull  place.  It  has  few  objects  of  interest,  the 
most  noticeable  being  the  cathedral,  wdth  a fine  picture  of  the  “ Assumption”  by  Yandyck. 
It  has  become  a manufacturing  town  of  some  importance.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
bobbin-net  (tulle)  and  hosiery.  Numerous  mills  have  been  built;  steam-engines  are 
multiplying;  and  the  inner  ramparts  have  been  removed  to  make  room  for  factories. 
Hats  and  gloves  are  extensively  made.  It  has  also  distilleries,  salt  refineries,  and  ship- 
building. C.  sends  many  boats  to  fish  for  herring  and  cod  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland  and 
Iceland.  Water,  which  used  to  be  scarce,  is  now  brought  in  abundance  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Guines.  Its  exports  consist  of  eggs,  corn,  wine,  brandy,  etc.  In  1873,  a 
school  of  artillery  was  established  in  C.  Pop.  ’76,  12,573. 

In  the  9th  c.,  C.  was  but  a small  fishing- village.  In  the  following  c.,  it  was  much 
improved  by  Baldwin  lY.,  count  of  Flanders,  and  enlarged  and  strengthened  by  Philippe 
of  France,  count  of  Bologne.  After  a long  siege,  it  was  captured  by  Edward  Tll.  of 
England,  whose  hard  terms,  and  the  self-devotion  shown  by  six  of  the  citizens,  who  were 
saved  by  queen  Philippa,  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  passages  of  history.  The 
English  retained  it  until  1558,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  duke  of  Guise,  since  which 
time  (with  the  exception  of  two  years,  1596-98,  when  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Spaniards)  it  has  remained  in  their  hands.  In  1659,  Charles  II.  of  England  resided  some 
time  here;  and  about  a quarter  of  a century  later,  James  II.  arrived  here  with  French 
troops  for  the  invasion  of  England,  which  the  destruction  of  the  French  fieet  prevented 
him  from  accomplishing.  Louis  XYIII.  landed  here  in  1814,  after  his  exile. 

CALAMANDEE  WOOD,  a cabinet- wood  of  the  greatest  value,  resembling  rose-wood, 
but  much  surpassing  it  in  beauty  and  durability.  The  tree  which  produces  it  is  diospyros 
Mrsuta  (see  Diospyros),  a species  of  the  same  genus  which  produces  ebony;  it  has  oblong 
obtuse  leaves,  which  are  downy  beneath,  and  flowers  without  stalks  and  crowded;  and 
is  a native  of  the  s.e.  of  India,  and  of  Ceylon,  particularly  of  the  forests  at  the  base  of 
Adam’s  Peak.  But  this  tree  “has  been  so  prodigally  felled,  first  by  the  Dutch  and 
afterwards  by  the  English,  without  any  precaution  for  planting  or  production,  that  it 
has  at  last  become  exceedingly  rare,”  so  that  wood  of  considerable  size  is  scarcely  to  be 
procured  at  any  price.  It  yields  veneers  of  unusual  beauty,  ‘ ‘ dark  wavings  and  blotches, 
almost  black,  being  gracefully  disposed  over  a delicate  fawn-colored  ground.”  Its 
density  is  very  great,  a cubic  foot  weighing  nearly  60  lbs.,  and  it  takes  an  exquisite  polish. 
The  name  C.  W.  is  supposed  to  be  a corruption  of  coromandel  wood. 

CAL'AMARY,  Squid,  or  Sleeve-fish,  LoUgo,  a genus  of  cephalopodous  mollusks  of 
the  order  dibrancMata,  and  family  teuthidce.  The  body  is  of  an  elongated  form,  firm, 
fleshy,  tapering,  and  flanked  towards  its  posterior  extremity  by  two  triangular  fins.  The 
body  contains  a gladius,  or  internal  shell,  which  is  horny  and  flexible,  narrow,  and  pen- 
shaped, with  the  shaft  produced  in  front.  The  mouth  is  furnished  with  eight  arms. 
Calamaries  have  the  power  of  diffusing  a dark-colored  fluid  around  them  in  the  water 
like  the  cuttle-fish.  The  different  species  are  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Several  are  found  in  the  British  seas.  In  some  seas,  however,  they  abound  much  more, 
and  form  a principal  part  of  the  food  of  some  of  the  larger  fishes  and  of  whales.  The 
common  C.  or  squid  {L.  mlgaris)  is  of  a bluish  color,  speckled  with  purple.  It  grows  to 
nearly  a foot  and  a half  in  length,  without  reckoning  the  head  and  arms,  ■which  add  to 
the  length  about  half  a foot  more.  See  Cephalopoda. 

CALAMAT'TA,  Luigi,  1802-69;  b.  in  Milan;  an  engraver  who  became  famous  by 
an  engraving  of  the  head  of  Napoleon  taken  after  his  death  at  St.  Helena:  and  also  for 
an  engraving  of  Ary  Scheffer’s  “Francesca  da  Rimini.”  His  widow,  Josephine,  is  a 
painter  of  religious  subjects. 

CALAM'BUCO,  a tree  found  only  in  the  n.  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  considered 
superior  to  teak  or  live  oak  for  shipbuilding.  It  is  dark  and  hard,  like  teak,  and  is  proof 
against  the  destructive  white  ant  of  the  Malay  region.  Warlike,  mechanical,  and  agri- 
cultural tools  and  implements  are  made  from  it.  The  same  name  applies  to  the  tree  that 
furnishes  the  eagle-wood  and  aloes-wood  of  commerce,  found  in  Siam  and  Sumatra. 
The  resin  which  it  yields,  is  supposed  to  be  produced  by  some  disease  in  the  tree,  and  is 
used  in  eastern  countries  for  incense. 

CALAMIA'NES,  a group  of  islands  in  the  Eastern  archipelago,  in  lat.  about  11“  25'  to 
12*  20'  n.,  and  long.  120°  east.  Calamianes,  the  name  of  the  largest  of  the  group,  is 


285 


Calainander. 

Calamy. 


about  85  m.  long,  and  15  m.  broad,  elevated  and  fertile,  with  abundance  of  animals, 
such  as  deer  and  hogs.  The  group,  with  the  northern  part  of  Palawan,  forms  the  Span- 
ish province  of  C.,  the  poorest  in  the  Philippines. 

CALAMICH'THYS,  a cylindrical  and  extremely  slender  ganoid  fish  in  the  waters  of 
w.  Africa,  allied  to  the  polypterus  of  the  Nile. 

CAL'AMINE,  an  ore  consisting  essentially  of  carbonate  of  zinc.  The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  Greek  and  Latin  calamus,  a reed,  because  when  fused  it  adheres  to 
the  base  of  the  furnace  in  a reed-like  form.  Its  primary  form  is  a rhomboid,  and  it 
occurs  in  small  obtuse-edged  crystals,  also  compact  and  massive.  It  is  white,  yellowish- 
white,  brown,  green,  or  gray;  is  sometimes  opaque,  sometimes  translucent;  is  brittle, 
and  has  an  uneven  conchoidal  fracture.  It  occurs  in  beds  and  veins  in  rocks  of  various 
kinds,  but  most  commonl}’-  in  limestone.  Mendip,  Matlock,  Alston  Moor,  Leadhills,  and 
Wanlockhead  are  British  localities.  C.  is  an  important  ore  of  zinc.  In  the  duchy  of 
Limburg,  in  the  Netherlands,  about  1,500,000  lbs.  of  it  are  annually  extracted  from  the 
mines. 

CAL'AMINT,  Calamintha,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  labiates,  nearly 
allied  to  balm  (q.v.)  (melissa).  The  Common  C.  {C.  officinalis,  formerly  mdissa  cala- 
mintha) is  not  unfrequent  in  England.  It  has  whorls  of  flowers  [vcrticillasters),  on  forked 
many-flowered  stalks,  and  serrated  leaves,  with  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor,  not  unlike 
that  of  some  kinds  of  mint.  It  is  used  by  the  country  people  to  make  herb-tea,  and  as 
a pectoral  medicine. — The  Lesser  C.  {C.  n&peta),  also  an  English  species,  is  used  in  the 
same  way. 

CAL'AMIS;  467-429  b.c.  ; a sculptor  of  Greece,  who  made  statues  in  bronze,  ivory, 
gold,  and  marble ; also  famous  for  his  representations  of  horses. 

CAL'AMITE,  a genus  of  fossil  plants  whose  true  position  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
ascertained.  They  appear  first  in  the  Devonian  rocks,  and  rise  through  the  interme- 
diate formations  to  the  oolitic  series,  where  they  are  represented  by  a single  species. 
They  reach  their  culminating  point  in  the  coal-measures,  where  39  species  have  been 
determined.  The  tall  straight  stems  rose  from  a swampy  clay  soil  in  profusion  in  the 
forests  of  sigillaria,  and  formed  a striking  and  characteristic  feature  in  the  coal  flora, 
though  they  supplied  little  material  for  the  structure  of  coal.  They  are  hollow-jointed 
cylinders,  with  longitudinal  furrows,  giving  the  fossil  the  appearance  of  equiseta;  from 
this  resemblance,  botanists  have  generally  considered  them  as  huge  “horsetails. 
Hooker  has  been  unable  to  detect  any  traces  of  structure,  in  carefully  prepared  speci- 
mens, or  the  presence  of  those  siliceous  stomata  which  characterize  equiseta,  and  which 
would  have  been  preserved  in  the  fossil  state,  and  Fleming  has  shown  that  the  furrows, 
are  markings  on  the  interior  cavity.  While,  therefore,  it  is  certain  that  they  are  not 
“ horsetails,”  the  absence  of  fructification  makes  every  attempt  to  give  them  their  posi- 
tion but  guess-work.  Hooker  supposes  them  nearly  allied  to  ferns,  or  club-mosses; 
Brongniart  ranks  them  among  gymnospermous  dicotjdedons.  The  upper  part  of  the 
stem,  and  the  foliage,  if  any,  have  not  been  noticed.  The  root  termination  was  conical, 
the  joints  decreasing  downwards  in  size  and  length.  From  the  scars  on  the  upper  portion 
of  each  joint,  there  proceeded  filaments,  which  were  supposed  to  be  leaves,  but  are 
really  roots.  These  are  shown  in  the  species  figured — a species  common  in  the  English 
coal-field. 

CAL'AMTJS,  the  reed  pen  which  the  ancients  used  in  writing,  was  made  of  the  stem 
of  a reed  growing  in  marshy  places,  probably  avundo  donax  (see  Reed),  of  which  the 
best  were  obtained  from  Egypt.  The  stem  was  first  softened,  then  dried,  and  cut  and 
split  with  a knife  {scalprum  librarium),  as  quill  pens  are  made.  To  this  day,  the  orien- 
tals generally  write  with  a reed,  which  the  Arabs  also  call  kaldm. 

CALAMUS,  a genus  of  palms.  See  Rattan  and  Dragon’s  Blood. 

CALAMUS,  a name  sometimes  given  to  the  sweet  flag  {acorus  calamus).  See  Acorus. 
See  also  next  article. 

CAL'AMUS  AROMAT'ICUS,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a plant  to  which  they 
ascribed  important  medicinal  virtues.  It  is  by  no  means  ascertained  what  the  plant 
is;  the  most  probable  opinion  appears  to  be  that  of  Dr.  Royle,  who  supposes  it  to  be 
one  of  the  sweet-scented  grasses  which  yield  the  grass-oil  (q.v.)  of  India,  to  which  he 
has  given  the  name  of  andropogon  calamus  o,romaticus.  See  Lemon-grass.  The  C.  A. 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  came  from  the  east.  The  sweet  calamus  and  sweet  cane  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  (Exod.  xxx.  23,  and  Jer.  vi.  20)  are  probably  the  same  with  the  cala- 
mus aromaticus. 

CALAMY,  Edmund,  an  eminent  English  divine,  was  b.  in  London,  1600;  studied  at 
Pembroke  hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  attached  himself  to  the  Calvinistic  party;  and 
afterwards  became  domestic  chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  Ely.  In  1626,  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  but  resigned  his  office  when  the  order  to  read  the  Book 
of  Sports  began  to  be  enforced.  In  1639,  he  was  chosen  minister  of  St.  Mary’s,  Alder- 
manbury,  London.  He  now  entered  warmly  into  the  controversies  of  the  time,  and 
became  noted  as  a leading  man  on  the  side  of  the  Presbyterians.  He  had  a principal 
share  in  the  composition  of  Smectymnus,  a work  intended  as  a reply  to  bishop  Hall’s 


Calamy. 

Calatrava* 


286 


Dinm  Hiqht  of  Episcopacy,  and  one  of  the  most  able  and  popular  polemics  of  the 
day.  Like  the  mass  of  the  Presbyterian  clergy,  he  was  monarchical  and  not  repub- 
lican in  his  political  opinions.  He  disapproved,  therefore,  of  the  execution  of  Charles, 
and  the  protectorate  of  Cromwell,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  avow  his  attachment  to  the 
royal  cause.  He  was  one  of  the  deputies  appointed  to  meet  Charles  II.  in  Holland, 
and  congratulate  him  on  his  restoration.  His  services  were  recognized  by  the  offer  of 
a bishopric,  which  he  refused  from  conscientious  scruples.  The  increasing  tyranny 
and  intolerance  of  the  high  church  party  compelled  him  give  up  even  his  royal 
chaplaincy.  He  died  Oct.  29,  1666. — Two  of  his  sons  were  educated  for  a religious  pro- 
fession: the  one,  Dr.  Benjamin  C.,  became  a high  churchman,  and  wrote  A Discourse 
against  a Scrupulous  Conscience;  the  other,  Edmund  C.,  was  ejected  for  non-conformity, 
and  had  a son,  also  named  Edmund,  who  acquired  some  reputation  as  the  biographer  of 
the  ejected  clergy. 

CAL' AMY,  Edmund,  d.d.,  1600-1666;  an  English  non-conformist  clergyman,  who 
arranged  for  the  press  Baxter's  Life  and  Times,  and  wrote  Defense  of  Modern  Non-con- 
formity; The  Non-conformists'  Memorial;  and  published  many  sermons. 

CALAND,  or  Kaland,  a brotherhood  of  Roman  Catholics  devoted  to  charitable  and 
devotional  works,  dating  from  the  13th  c.,  and  of  considerable  extent  in  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  France.  It  degenerated  so  far  that  it  was  suppressed  before  the 
reformation,  its  property  being  confiscated  for  public  purposes. 

CALAND,  Pieter,  b.  Holland,  1826;  an  engineer,  and  son  of  an  engineer;  author 
of  works  on  encroachments  of  the  sea,  and  the  effect  of  the  sea  on  rivers;  but  better 
known  for  his  improvements  in  the  communication  of  Rotterdam  with  the  ocean, 
whereby  he  replaced  a tortuous  and  difficult  route  by  one  easy  and  direct. 

CALAN'DO,  in  music,  an  Italian  expression,  meaning  diminishing  by  degrees  from 
forte  to  piano;  it  differs  from  the  decrescendo  or  diminuendo,  as  the  tempo,  at  the 
same  time,  is  slightly  retarded,  but  not  so  much  as  in  ritardando.  The  proper  per- 
formance of  the  C.  is  purely  a matter  of  good  taste  and  feeling,  depending  on  the  per- 
former. 

CALAN'DRA.  See  Corn  Weevil. 

CALANDRONE',  a wind-instrument  used  by  the  Italian  peasants,  on  which  they  play 
simple  melodies,  and  also  sometimes  accompany  their  national  songs.  It  has  the  holes 
of  the  common  flute,  but  the  intonation  is  produced  as  in  the  common  pipe. 

CALA'NUS,  a Hindu  philosopher,  whose  real  name,  according  to  Plutarch,  was 
Sphines.  He  was  for  some  time  in  the  camp  of  Alexander  the  great,  but  having 
become  seriously  ill,  he  was  burned  alive  at  his  own  request. 

GALAS,  Jean,  a Frenchman,  remembered  as  the  unhappy  victim  of  fanaticism  and 
the  shocking  maladministration  of  justice,  was  b.  at  Lacapar^de,  in  Languedoc,  Mar. 
19,  1698.  He  lived  as  a tradesman  in  Toulouse,  where  he  had  a very  good  reputa- 
tion. One  evening  after  supper  (Oct.  13,  1761),  the  eldest  son  of  the  6.  family,  Marc 
Antoine,  a youth  addicted  to  gambling,  and  subject  to  fits  of  deep  melancholy,  was 
found  hanged  in  the  warehouse.  There  was  not  a shadow  of  a reason  for  doubting 
that  the  unhappy  young  man  had  committed  suicide;  but  popular  rumor  accused  the 
father,  or  other  members  of  the  C.  family,  of  murdering  the  eldest  son,  “ because  he 
had  contemplated  conversion  to  Catholicism.”  It  was  also  asserted  that  a young  man 
named  Lavaysse,  who  was  in  the  house  on  the  fatal  evening,  had  been  dispatched  “by 
the  Protestants  of  Guyenne  to  perpetrate  the  murder.  ” The  clergy  exerted  all  their 
influence  to  confirm  the  populace  in  their  delusion.  At  Toulouse,  the  White  Peni- 
tents celebrated  with  great  solemnity  the  funeral  of  the  young  man,  and  the  Dominican 
monks  erected  a scaffold  and  placed  upon  it  a skeleton,  holding  in  one  hand  a wreath 
of  palms,  and  in  the  other  an  abjuration  of  Protestantism.  The  family  of  C.  was,  in 
consequence  of  the  popular  excitement,  brought  to  trial  for  the  murder,  and  several 
deluded  and  (most  probably)  some  bribed  witnesses  appeared  against  them.  A Catholic 
servant-maid,  and  the  young  man  Lavaysse,  were  also  implicated  in  the  accusation.  C., 
in  his  defense,  insisted  on  his  uniform  kindness  to  all  his  children;  reminded  the  court 
that  he  had  not  only  allowed  another  of  his  sons  to  become  a Catholic,  but  had  also  paid 
an  annual  sum  for  his  maintenance  since  his  conversion.  He  also  argued  from  his  own 
infirmity  that  he  could  not  have  prevailed  over  a strong  young  man,  and  referred  to  the 
well-known  melancholy  moods  of  the  deceased  as  likely  to  lead  to  suicide;  and,  lastly, 
he  pointed  out  the  improbability  that  the  Catholic  servant-maid  would  assist  in  such  a 
murder.  But  all  his  arguments  proved  unavailing,  and  the  parliament  of  Toulouse 
sentenced  the  wretched  man — by  a majority  of  8 votes  against  5 — to  torture  and  death 
on  the  wheel!  With  great  firmness  and  protestations  of  his  innocence  to  the  last,  the 
old  man  died  on  the  wheel.  Mar.  9,  1762.  His  property  was  confiscated.  His  youngest 
son  was  banished  for  life  from  France,  but  was  captured  by  the  monks,  and  compelled 
to  abjure  Protestantism.  The  daughters  were  sent  to  a convent.  The  young  man 
Lavaysse  was  acquitted,  and  the  widow  of  C.  escaped  into  Switzerland,  where  she  was  so 
fortunate  as  to  excite  the  benevolent  interest  of  Voltaire,  wdio  brought  the  whole  affair 
before  the  public,  and,  in  his  book  Sur  la  Tolerance,  proved  that  C.  had  fallen  a victim 
to  religious  hatred  and  popular  fanaticism.  A revision  of  the  trial  followed,  and,  after 


287 


Calamy. 

Calatrava. 


full  investigation,  the  parliament  at  Paris  declared  (Mar.  9,  1765)  C.  and  all  his  family- 
innocent.  Louis  XV.  gave  to  the  bereaved  family  the  sum  of  30,000  livres;  but,  strange 
to  say,  neither  the  parliament  of  Toulouse  nor  the  fanatical  monks  were  ever  brought 
to  account  for  this  horrible  judicial  murder! 

CALASA'YA  BARK.  See  Cinchona. 

CALASCIBET'TA,  or  Calatas-Cibetta  (Saracenic  = Castle  of  Xibeth,  or  Scibet),  a 
t.  of  Sicily,  near  its  center,  54  m.  s.e.  of  Palermo,  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta.  The 
town  is  mean  and  dismal  looking,  and  is  built  on  a steep  and  isolated  height,  the  sum- 
mit of  which  is  2570  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  commands  a magnificent  view.  It  was 
founded  in  1080.  The  only  object  worthy  of  notice  is  the  tower  of  the  principal  church, 
which  is  of  early  architecture.  Pop.  5600. 

CALASIA'O,  a t.  on  the  island  of  Luzon  (Philippines),  with  a population  of  18,000» 
who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  straw  hats,  cigar  cases,  etc. 

CALA'SIO,  Mario  de,  1550-1620;  an  Italian  scholar,  doctor  of  theology  and  profes- 
sor of  Hebrew  in  Rome,  who  made  a Hebrew  dictionary  and  grammar.  He  devoted  40 
years  of  his  life  to  a great  work  called  Concordantm  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  HebraiccB,  which 
was  published  after  his  death. 

CALASPAR'RA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  40  m.  n.w.  of  the-  city  of 
that  name.  The  inhabitants,  numbering  5275,  are  chiefiy  engaged  in  agricultural  pur- 
suits. 

CALATABELLO'TA,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  and  27  m.  n.w.  of  the 
city  of  that  name.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  Triocala,  the 
chief  fortress  of  the  insurgents  in  the  second  Servile  war,  103  to  100  b.c.  Pop.  about 
6000. 

CALATAFI'MI,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Trapani,  situated  8 m.  s.w.  of 
Alcamo,  in  a very  fertile  district.  It  is  ill-built,  and  has  a ruinous  old  Saracenic  castle, 
Kalat-al-Fimi,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  There  is  a remarkable  Mosaic  altar  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce.  Here,  in  1860,  Garibaldi's  troops  defeated  the  Neapolitan  sol- 
diers. Pop.  9500. 

CALATAGIRONE',  or  Caltagirone',  a city  of  Sicily,  in  the  province,  and  34  m.  s.w. 
of  the  city,  of  Catania.  It  is  well  built,  with  wide  streets,  and  has  the  fame  of  great 
wealth.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  fabrics  and  pottery.  Pop.  ’72,  25,978. 

CALATANAZOR',  a t.  of  Aragon,  Spain,  about  10  m.  s.w.  of  Soria.  It  is  celebrated  for 
a great  victory  over  the  Christians  obtained  by  Al-Mansur  in  1001.  Pop.  1500. 

CALATAYUD',  a city  of  Aragon,  Spain,  situated  on  the  Jalon,  near  its  junction  with 
the  Jiloca,  about  48  m.  s.w.  of  Saragossa.  It  is  built  at  the  base  of  two  rocky  ridges,  and 
out  of  the  ruins  of  ancient  BilUlis,  which  lay  about  2 m.  to  the  east.  The  city  is  divided 
into  anew  and  old  portion,  the  former  of  which  is  composed  of  mean  old  buildings.  The 
latter  has  some  good  streets  and  handsome  squares.  C.  has  a noble  old  castle,  and 
among  its  other  most  noteworthy  public  edifices  are  the  two  collegiate  churches  and  the 
Dominican  convent.  In  the  neighborhood  are  some  curious  stalactitical  caves.  It  has. 
manufactures  of  linen  and  hempen  fabrics,  woolens,  paper,  leather,  etc.,  and  a trade  in 
agricultural  produce.  Pop.  11,037. 

CALATRA'VA,  an  order  of  knighthood  in  Spain,  instituted  at  Calatrava  (q.v.).  The 
statutes  of  the  order,  framed  by  the  chapter-general  of  the  Cistercian  monks,  were 
sanctioned  by  the  bishop  of  Toledo  in  1164,  and  afterwards  by  the  pope.  At  subsequent 
periods,  many  privileges  were  added.  After  the  death  of  the  king,  their  patron,  some 
of  the  knights  were  no  longer  willing  to  obey  the  abbot,  and  they  consequently  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  the  monks,  and  elected  a grand-master,  Don  Garcias  de  Redon. 
At  a later  period,  they  again  united  themselves  to  the  Cistercians,  after  they  had  gained 
rich  possessions  from  the  Moors  both  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  When  Castile  had  fallen 
into  anarchy,  and  the  other  kingdoms  were  exhausting  themselves  by  internal  feuds,  the- 
war  against  the  unbelievers  was  almost  entirely  carried  on  by  the  knights  of  Calatrava. 
Their  almost  uniform  success,  however,  gave  rise  to  rashness;  the  knights  were  defeated 
by  emir  Jacob  ben  Yusetl,  nearly  all  of  them  perished,  and  Calatrava  was  occupied  by 
the  Moors.  After  this  disaster,  the  knights  transferred  their  seat  to  the  castle  of  Salva- 
tierra,  by  the  name  of  which  they  passed  for  a long  time  afterwards.  A truce  of  12 
years  having  been  concluded,  during  which  the  order  revived,  the  knights  were  able,  _at 
the  battle  of  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa,  in  1212,  again  to  turn  the  tide  in  favor  of  the  ChriS' 
tians.  They  then  returned  to  Calatrava.  Notwithstanding  their  splendid  achievements^ 
the  knights  of  C.  never  possessed  the  vast  wealth  of  their  brethren  of  St.  James  of  Com- 
postella  (q.v.),  a fact  which  is  probably  to  be  accounted  for  by  their  having  ceded  a part 
of  their  conquests  to  the  orders  of  Alcantara  and  Aviz.  But  their  grand-masters,  who 
were  chosen  from  the  highest  families  in  Spain,  were  very  powerful,  and  exercised  a 
vast  influence  on  public  affairs.  They  did  not,  however,  escape  the  jealousy  of  the  crown. 
Two  of  them  were  accused  of  treason,  and  died  on  the  scaffold;  and  on  the  death  of  the 
13th  grand-master,  in  1489,  the  administration  of  the  order  was  transferred  to  the  king 
by  a bull  of  pope  Innocent  YIII.  By  way  of  compensation  for  the  loss  of  their  inde- 
pendence, the  knights  were  permitted  to  marry  once,  though  they  were  still  bound  to 


Calatrava. 

Calcination. 


288 


make  vows  of  poverty,  obedience,  and  conjugal  chastity;  and  latterly  to  pnofess  belief 
in  the  immaculate  conception.  Their  original  costume  consisted  of  a coat  of  white  mail, 
with  a white  scapulary,  a black  cap,  and  a pilgrim’s  hood;  but  this  dress  the  anti-pope 
Benedict  XIII.,  in  1397,  granted  them  permission  to  exchange  for  a civil  apparel.  Their 
present  costume  is  a white  mantle,  with  a red  cross  cut  out  in  the  form  of  lilies  upon  the 
left  breast;  while  the  cross  of  the  order  has  the  same  symbol  on  a silver  ground.  Two 
convents  for  nuns  were  attached  to  the  order,  and  were  at  one  time  richly  endowed. 
The  nuns,  attached  to  the  order  of  C.  in  1519,  wore  the  dress  of  Cistercian  nuns,  with 
the  cross  of  the  order  on  the  left  side  of  the  capocli,  fastened  to  the  scapulary. 

^ALATEAVA  LA  VIEGA,  a ruined  city  of  Spain,  situated  on  the  Guadiana,  about  13 
m n.e.  of  Ciudad  Real.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  a strongly  fortified  place,  but  nothing 
no  V remains  but  a single  tower.  Its  defense  against  the  Moors,  undertaken  by  Ray- 
mond, abbot  of  Fitero,  and  Diego  Velasquez  in  1158,  after  it  had  been  abandoned  by  the 
Templars,  is  famous  on  account  of  its  having  originated  the  order  of  the  knights  of 
Calatrava,  long  one  of  the  most  honorable  in  Spain.  The  town  was  called  C.  la  Viega, 
or  Old  Calatrava,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  convent  of  the  knights  of  the  order 
of  Calatrava,  erected  in  the  neighborhood  in  1314,  and  which  was  called  Calatrava  la 
Nueva. 

CALAVE'RAS,  a co.  in  n.  California,  on  the  Calaveras,  Stanislaus,  andMokelumne 
rivers,  and  the  Stockton  and  Copperopolis  railroad;  936  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  9094 — 1037 
Chinese.  Gold  and  copper  mining  are  the  leading  occupations,  with  agriculture.  The 
grove  of  big  trees  is  in  this  county.  Co.  seat,  San  Andreas. 

CALAVE'RAS,  a river  in  n.  California,  running  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  w.  to  the 
San  Joaquin,  on  the  border  of  Sacramento  county. 

CALBUR'GA,  a t.  of  the  Nizam’s  dominions  in  Hindustan,  about  110  m.  to  the  w.  of 
Hyderabad.  It  stands  on  a tributary  of  the  Beemah,  which  is  itself  a tributary  of  the 
Kistna  or  Krishna.  It  has  been  successively  the  capital  of  Hindu  and  Mohammedan 
sovereignties. 

CA.LCAIEE  GEOSSIEE  (Fr.  “coarse  limestone”),  the  French  representative  of  the 
Bracklesham  eocene  beds.  It  consists  of  compact  limestones,  with  seams  of  chert,  and 
intercalated  marls  and  freestones.  The  fossils  are  fresh  water  and  marine  mullusca;  so 
abundant  are  they  that  in  one  spot  near  Grignon  no  less  than  400  distinct  species  have 
been  procured.  Associated  with  the  fresh-water  remains  are  the  bones  of  reptiles  and 
mammalia. 

CALC  AIRE  SILICETJX  (Fr.  ‘ ‘ siliceous  limestone”)  is  the  French  representative  of  the 
Bembridge  eocsne  strata.  These  compact  siliceous  limestones  extend  over  a wide  area 
in  the  Paris  basin.  The  few  fossils  they  contain  are  fresh  water  and  land  shells. 

CALCAREOUS,  in  chemistry,  is  a term  applied  to  substances  containing  much  lime 
(Lat.  calx).  Thus,  G.  waters  are  those  which  hold  in  solution  much  carbonate  and 
sulphate  of  lime,  and  which  are  generally  known  as  hard  waters,  and  form  a deposit  in 
kettles  and  other  vessels  when  heated  therein.  C.  rocks  are  those  in  which  lime  forms 
the  prevailing  element.  They  may  be  chemically  formed  as  in  the  case  of  tufas, 
where  a saturated  solution  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  water  is  deposited  from  evapora- 
tion or  other  causes;  but  they  are  generally  aqueous  rocks,  the  materials  of  which  are 
supplied  by  animal  remains.  Thus,  many  rocks,  like  the  mountain-limestone,  are 
composed  of  shells,  corals,  and  encrinites;  while  others,  like  chalk,  consist  of  foramin- 
ifera  and  fragments  of  other  minute  testacea.  A crystalline  structure,  varying  in 
degree  from  the  partially  crystallized  carboniferous  limestones  to  the  saccharine  statuary 
marble,  is  produced  in  calcareous  rocks  by  metamorphic  action.  Oolite  is  a variety 
of  limestone  composed  of  small  egg-like  grains  resembling  the  roe  of  fish.  The  existence 
of  lime  in  rocks  can  always  be  detected  by  the  application  of  dilute  nitric  or  muriatic 
acid,  when  it  effervesces  from  the  liberation  of  the  carbonic  acid.  Pure  lime  is 
obtained  from  calcareous  rocks  by  calcining  them — i.e.,  by  driving  off  the  carbonic  acid 
and  other  volatile  matter  by  heat. — C.  soils  are  produced  from  the  disintegration  of 
calcareous  rocks.  When  the  rocks  are  perfectly  pure,  they  generally  yield  barren  soils, 
as  in  many  chalk  and  limestone  districts  of  Britain;  but  when  the  lime  is  mixed  with 
clay,  so  as  to  form  marl,  and  has  a little  vegetable  matter  added,  it  forms  an  excellent 
though  rather  light  soil.  Calcareous  soils  are  difficult  of  drainage,  owing  to  the  prop- 
erty that  soft  lime  has  of  retaining  water,  although  it  easily  yields  it  up  by  evaporation. 
Such  soils  are  consequently  soon  dry  at  the  surface  after  rain,  but  yet  rarely  suffer 
severely  from  drought. 

CALCAREOUS  SPAR,  or  Calc-spar,  the  name  usually  given  by  mineralogists  to  car- 
bonate of  lime,  rhombohedral  in  its  crystallization.  It  differs  from  arragonite  only  in 
crystallization.  See  Arragonite.  C.  S.  occurs  in  all  geological  formations,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  abundant  of  all  minerals.  It  often  completely  fills  cavities  in  rocks;  and 
although  i t has  been  prevented  by  want  of  space  from  assuming  a crystalline  form  is 
readily  divided  by  the  knife  and  hammer  into  rhomboids,  the  primary  form  of  its 
crystals  being  a rhomboid,  of  which  the  greatest  angles  are  105°  5'.  Its  secondary  forms 
are  more  numerous  than  those  of  any  other  mineral.  More  than  700  have  been  observed. 
One  of  the  most  common,  a rather  elongated  pyramid^  is  sometimes  called  dog-tooth  spar. 


289 


Calatrava. 

Calcination^ 


C.  S.  is  colorless  and  transparent,  except  in  consequence  of  impurities  which  may  be 
present  in  it;  and  when  perfectly  transparent,  it  exhibits  in  a high  degree  the  property  of 
double  refraction  of  light,  which  was  first  discovered  in  it  by  Bartholinus.  The  presence 
of  foreign  substances  frequently  renders  C.  S.  gray,  blue,  green,  yellow,  red,  brown,  or 
even  black. 

The  name  Iceland  spar  has  often  been  given  to  C.  S.,  at  least  to  the  finest  colorless 
and  transparent  variety,  because  it  is  found  in  Iceland,  massive  in  trap-rock.  Slate  spar 
is  a lamellar  variety,  often  with  a shining,  pearly  luster,  and  a greasy  feel,  of  which 
Wicklow  in  Ireland,  and  Glen  Tilt  in  Scotland  are  localities. 

CALCA'REOUS  SPRINGS,  springs  charged  with  calcareous  matter  which  is  depos- 
ited in  the  form  of  incrustations.  Such  deposit  is  called  calcareous  tufa,  and  takes  the 
form  of  other  substances  inclosed,  such  as  leaves,  twigs,  and  branches  of  trees.  When 
freshly  quarried  it  is  easily  shaped,  and  is  therefore  convenient  for  building.  The  tem- 
ples of  Paestum  are  of  this  material,  and  the  stone  has  acquired  great  solidity  and 
strength.  In  central  New  York  such  deposits  are  common,  forming  the  marl  below 
swamps  and  in  the  bottoms  of  ponds.  One  of  these  springs  at  Clermont,  France,  has 
formed  a deposit  of  white  concretionary  limestone  240  ft.  long,  16  high,  and  12  wide. 

CALCAEEOUS  TUFA,  Calc-tuff,  or  Tufaceous  Limestone,  a mineral  which  in  its 
chemical  composition  is  nearly  identical  with  limestone  and  marble;  but  is  distinguished 
by  its  spongy  and  cellular  structure.  It  is  generally  rather  soft,  brittle,  and  friable,  but 
sometimes  it  is  sufficiently  hard  to  be  used  as  a building-stone.  The  trarertino,  used  for 
building  at  Rome,  is  a hard  calcareous  tufa.  The  color  of  C.  T.  is  generally  yellowish- 
gray,  sometimes  yellow  or  yellowish-brown.  It  occurs  massive,  or  assumes  many 
uncrystalline  forms,  as  tubular,  botryoidal  (like  clusters  of  grapes),  cellular,  etc.  Some- 
times it  incrusts  animal  and  vegetable  remains.  It  is  frequent  in  the  neighborhood  of 
calcareous  springs.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  a filtering-stone. 

CALCAR,  or  KALCKER,  John  de,  1499-1546;  a painter,  disciple  of  Titian  at 
Venice,  and  perfected  by  studying  Raphael;  so  good  an  imitator  of  Titian  that  his  works 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  those  of  that  master.  One  of  his  pieces  is  a 
“ Nativity”  representing  angels  around  the  infant  Savior,  so  arranged  that  the  light  by 
which  they  are  seen  comes  wholly  from  the  child. 

CALCASIEU,  a parish  in  s.w.  Louisiana,  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  Texan  border; 
5000  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  6733 — 1457  colored;  in  ’80,  12,488.  The  surface  is  level  in  broad 
savannahs,  and  the  soil  very  productive  in  corn,  sugar,  molasses,  and  cotton.  Chief 
town.  Lake  Charles  Court-house. 

CALCASIEU,  a river  in  Louisiana,  about  200  m.  long,  running  into  the  gulf  of 
Mexico.  Near  its  mouth  is  a broad  expansion  called  C.  lake.  The  river  is  not  navi- 
gable. 

CALCED'ONY.  See  Chalcedony. 

CALCEOLA'EIA  (Lat.  calceolus,  a little  shoe),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
scrophulariacece  (q.v.),  of  which  there  are  numerous  species,  natives  of  South  America, 
chiefly  of  that  part  of  the  Andes  which  is  more  than  9600  ft.  above  the  sea,  a few  of 
them  reaching  almost  to  the  utmost  limits  of  vegetation;  although  some  are  found  in 
lower  and  warmer  situations,  and  some  in  the  southern  extremity  of  the  American  con- 
tinent. They  abound  so  much  in  some  parts  of  Chili  and  Peru,  as  to  give  a peculiar 
aspect  to  the  landscape.  The  calyx  in  this  genus  is  4-partite ; the  corolla,  2-lipped ; the 
lower  lip  remarkably  inflated,  so  as  to  form  a bag;  and  the  shape  of  the  whole  in  some 
species  considerably  resembling  that  of  a slipper.  There  are  only  two  fertile  stamens, 
and  the  capsule  is  semi-bivalvular  with  bifid  valves.  Some  of  the  species  are  shrubby, 
some  herbaceous,  almost  all  the  herbaceous  species  being  perennial.  Many  of  them 
have  corymbs  of  numerous  showy  flowers.  Yellow  is  the  color  which  chiefly  prevails 
in  the  flowers  of  the  original  species,  and  next  to  it  purple;  but  the  art  of  the  gardener 
has  succeeded  in  producing  varieties  and  hybrids  which  exhibit  many  other  rich  and 
delicate  tints.  Calceolarias  have  been  florists’  flowers  since  about  1830,  the  curious 
appearance  of  the  flowers  combining  with  their  beauty  to  render  them  attractive,  and  in 
no  genus  is  the  production  of  hybrids  more  easily  or  frequently  effected.  They  are  easily 
propagated  by  cuttings.  Few  plants  require  more  liberal  supplies  of  water.  They  are 
generally  treated  in  Britain  as  half-hardy  or  as  greenhouse  plants. — Some  of  the  species 
are  used  in  South  America  for  dyeing.  The  roots  of  G.  araehnoidea,  a parent  of  many 
of  the  hybrids  in  our  gardens,  are  largely  employed  in  Chili,  under  the  name  of  relbum^ 
for  dyeing  woolen  cloths  crimson. 

CALCHAS,  a Greek  soothsayer  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war  who  foretold  the 
length  of  the  siege,  and  when  the  fleet  was  detained  at  Aulis  by  adverse  winds,  demanded 
the  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia.  He  is  said  to  have  died  from  vexation  on  being  surpassed  in 
prophecy  by  another  soothsayer  called  Mopsus. 

CALCINA'TION,  or  Calcining  (see  Calx),  is  the  process  of  heating  or  roasting  in 
furnaces  or  in  heaps  the  various  metallic  ores.  It  is  resorted  to  as  the  first  stage  in  the 
extraction  of  the  majority  of  the  common  metals  from  their  ores,  and  is  essentially  a 
process  of  oxidation. 

U.  K.  III.— 19 


f!!alcium. 

Calculus. 


290 


CALCIUM  is  the  metal  present  in  chalk,  stucco,  and  other  compounds  of  lime.  It 
may  be  obtained  by  passing  a powerful  current  of  voltaic  electricity  through  fused  chlo- 
ride of  C,  (CaCl),  when  the  metal  separates  in  minute  globules.  It  is  a yellowish-white 
metal,  can  be  rolled  into  sheets,  and  hammered  into  leaves,  and  is  intermediate  between 
lead  and  gold  in  hardness.  It  is  represented  by  the  symbol  Ca,  has  the  atomic  weight 
or  equivalent  30  (new  system,  40),  and  has  the  density  1.578,  or  nearly  half  as  heavy 
again  as  water.  At  ordinary  temperatures,  it  slowly  tarnishes  by  oxidation;  and  when 
placed  in  contact  with  water,  it  rapidly  decomposes  the  water  (HO),  forming  lime  (CaO), 
whilst  hydrogen  escapes.  To  be  retained  bright,  C.  must  be  kept  under  the  surface  of 
naphtha.  At  a red  heat,  it  melts  and  burns  with  a dazzling  white  light,  accompanied  bv 
scintillations.  See  Lime. 

CALCOTT,  Sir  Augustus  Wall,  r.a.,  a distinguished  English  landscape  painter, 
was  b.  at  Kensington,  London,  in  1779.  In  1803,  he  devoted  himself  to  landscape  paint- 
ing; in  1810,  he  was  made  a member  of  the  royal  academy;  was  knighted  in  1837;  and 
in  1844,  made  conservator  of  royal  pictures.  His  landscapes  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty,  clear  definition  of  objects,  good  drawing,  and  truthful  natural  coloring.  He  has 
been  called  the  English  Claude,  a designation  to  which  he  is  not  altogether  unentitled. 
He  died  Nov.,  1844. 

CALCOTT,  John  Wall,  a distinguished  musical  composer,  elder  brother  of  the 
above,  was  b.  at  Kensington,  1766.  Too  nervous  to  be  a surgeon,  for  which  he  was 
intended,  he  devoted  his  attention  to  music,  and  in  1785  won  three  of  the  four  gold 
medals  annually  given  by  the  Catch  club,  the  admired  0 Sovereign  of  the  Willing  Soul 
being  one  of  the  successful  pieces.  During  the  next  ten  years,  he  obtained  twenty  of 
the  medals  given  by  the  same  society.  In  1785,  he  was  made  bachelor,  and  five  years 
afterwards,  doctor  of  music  at  Oxford.  In  1805,  he  published  his  Musical  Orammar;  in 
the  following  year  his  mind  gave  way  under  the  continuous  strain  to  which  it  had  been 
subject.  He  recovered  again,  but  only  for  three  years,  when  he  relapsed,  and  continued 
insane  until  his  death  in  May,  1821.  He  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  composers  belong- 
ing to  the  British  school  of  music,  and  especially  celebrated  for  his  glee  compositions. 
His  choicest  productions  were  published  in  two  volumes  by  his  son-in-law,  Mr.  Horsley, 
in  1824. 

CALCRAFT,  William,  d.  1879;  the  oflacial  executioner  or  hangman  of  London  , a 
person  of  quiet  and  even  gentle  manners,  who  was  looked  upon  by  the  ignorant  as  some 
fearful  being  quite  out  of  the  natural  order  of  humanity.  As  public  executions  were 
stopped  in  1860  his  fame  declined,  and  little  was  heard  of  him  except  through  the  exag- 
gerated reports  of  the  ignorant.  The  price  for  hanging  is  fixed  in  Britain  at  14s.  M.,  of 
which  7s.  M.  is  the  fee,  4s.  6c?.  for  stripping  the  body,  and  2s.  6c?.  for  the  use  of  the 
shell  (coffin).  C.  received  that  price  regularly;  he  made  much  more  by  traveling 
expenses,  perquisites,  etc.  He  died  in  financially  comfortable  circumstances.  Bull, 
(prenomen  unknown),  the  first  English  hangman  whose  name  survives,  lived  in  the  16th 
century.  The  first  person  hanged  in  England  was  Maurice,  a nobleman’s  son.  He  was 
executed  in  1241,  for  piracy.  Before  C.,  Jack  Ketch  was  the  most  famous  of  execution- 
ers. He  executed,  among  others,  lord  William  Russell  and  the  duke  of  Monmouth. 
C.  had  retired  from  office  some  years  before  his  death  on  account  of  advancing  age. 

CALC'-SINTER,  a mineral,  chemically  identical  with  the  purest  marble  and  calcareous 
spar,  but  peculiarly  characterized  by  its  fibrous  structure.  ^ It  is  formed  from  water 
holding  carbonate  of  lime  in  solution,  and  occurs  generally  incrusting  the  roofs,  w'alls, 
and  floors  of  caves,  particularly  those  in  limestone  rocks;  often  assuming  curious  and 
even  fantastic  forms.  Macalisters  cave,  in  the  isle  of  Skye,  and  the  limestone  caves  of 
Derbyshire,  are  the  most  celebrated  British  localities.  But  the  stalactitic  cave  of  Anti- 
paros,  in  the  Grecian  archipelago,  is  a far  more  famous  locality  for  this  mineral,  which 
Is  often  called  calcareous  alabaster,  and  used  for  the  same  purposes  with  the  true  alabas- 
ter (q.v.),  to  which  it  is  in  some  respects  preferable,  particularly,  as  not  being  liable  to 
injury  from  exposure  to  the  air.  Volterra,  in  Tuscany,  is  another  very  famous  locality 
for  calc-sinter. 

CALCULATING  MACHINE.  The  most  remarkable  application  hitherto  made  of 
machinery,  is  perhaps  that  through  which  it  has  been  used  to  relieve  the  scientific 
inquirer  to  a very  great  extent  of  the  fatigue  of  manipulating  figures,  which  consumes 
so  much  of  his  time  and  energies.  Various  machines  have  been  constructed  for  this 
purpose,  differing  in  the  extent  of  their  faculties — to  use  words  more  suitable  to  thi^- 
ing  beings  than  to  engines — and  somewhat  in  the  principles  of  their  construction.  By 
the  arithmometer,  for  instance,  a machine  invented  by  M.  Thomas  of  Colmar,  all  ordi- 
nary arithmetical  operations  are  executed  without  fatigue  to  the  operator;  and  by  a 
machine  contrived  by  M.  M.  Scheutz,  which  rests  on  the  principle  of  differences  (q-j  h 
on  the  turning  of  a wheel,  the  successive  terms  of  any  series  whose  law  may  be  confided 
to  it,  are  produced — the  machine  at  the  same  time  pHnting  a large  proportion  of  its 
results,  and  thus  providing  for  the  accuracy  of  its  tables.  It  is  a fact  of  which  the 
nation  should  be  proud,  that  our  countryman,  Mr.  Babbage,  is  universally  acknowledged 
as  the  instigating  and  guiding  genius  in  the  progress  of  these  remarkable  invention^ 
Among  his  inventions  was  a diff'erence  engine,  of  very  comprelnfnsive  powers,  indeed 


291 


Calcium. 

Calculus. 


capable  of  managing  series  so  complex  that  the  differences  of  its  terms  do  not  reach 
zero  until  we  ascend  to  the  seventh  order  {vide  art.  Differences,  Calculus  of).  An 
immense  range  of  nautical  and  astronomical  tables  lie  within  the  limits  just  defined; 
and  the  machine  further  tabulates  approximately  any  series  whatever  that  can  be  treated 
by  the  method  of  differences.  While  engaged  in  constructing  the  difference  machine,  Mr. 
Babbage,  probably  through  his  increased  experience  of  the  capabilities  of  machinery^ 
was  led  to  form  a new  conception — that,  namely,  of  the  analyticak  machine.  He  actually 
succeeded  so  far  as  to  devise  the  means  of  making  his  machine  perform  all  the  elementary 
operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division;  and  it  is  clear  that  all 
changes  that  can  be  produced  on  quantity  are  merely  combinations  of  these.  If,  then, 
he  could  but  have  made  his  machine  perform  these  operations  at  command,  and  accord- 
ing to  any  special  order,  it  could  have  clearly  developed  any  function  whatever  whose 
law  is  ascertained  and  fixed.  A solution  of  this  difficulty  was  suggested  by  the  Jac- 
quard loom  (q.v.),  in  which  the  cards  oblige  a machine  capable  of  working  any  pattern 
to  work  out  one  particular  pattern;  and  Mr.  Babbage  having  succeeded  so  far  as  to 
form  a machine  capable  of  executing  any  development,  expected,  by  means  of  cards  of 
operations,  to  compel  his  C.  M.  to  work  according  to  one  fixed  law,  and  no  other.  Gov- 
ernment, however,  did  not  see  its  way  to  make  the  further  grants  required  for  this 
machine,  and  at  Mr.  Babbage’s  death  in  1871,  nothing  further  had  been  done  towards 
its  completion.  The  difference  machine  is  now  lying,  an  unfinished  curiosity,  in  the 
museum  of  King’s  college,  London.  Both  machines  will  be  found  described  in  the 
third  volume  of  Taylor’s  Scientijic  Memoirs.  The  difference  engine,  constructed  by  Grant 
for  the  university  of  Pennsylvania,  is  said  to  be  less  expensive  than  Babbage’s,  and  less 
complicated  than  Scheutz’s,  though  provided  like  it  with  an  apparatus  for  printing  the 
results. 

CALCULUS,  or  Stone  (in  medicine),  a hard  concretion  formed  within  the  animal 
body,  in  consequence  of  the  deposition  in  the  solid  form  of  matters  which  usually 
remain  in  solution.  See  Concretion.  The  concretions  most  commonly  termed  calculi 
are  those  formed  in  the  kidneys  or  bladder  {urinary  G.)\  and  those  formed  in  the  gall- 
bladder or  biliary  ducts  {biliary  C.).  Both  of  these  give  rise  to  very  painful  symptoms, 
and  may  even  threaten  life. 

Biliary  G.,  or  gall-stone,  may  generally  be  presumed  to  exist  when  excessively  severe 
pain  suddenly  arises  in  the  right  side  beneath  the  border  of  the  ribs,  and  when  in  a few 
hours  jaundice  comes  on,  showing  that  some  obstruction  has  existed  to  the  outward 
flow  of  the  bile.  But  the  absolute  proof  that  these  symptoms  depend  on  0.  is  often 
wanting.  The  pain  is  fortunately  transitory,  but  is  more  severe  while  it  lasts  than 
almost  any  other  known  form  of  suffering,  unless  it  be  that  of  a C.  in  the  kidney  and 
ureter.  It  may  be  relieved  by  large  doses  of  opium,  but  the  remedy  requires  to  be  cau- 
tiously^ given,  as  even  in  medical  hands  fatal  accidents  have  occurred.  Gall-stones, 
when  impacted  in  the  ducts,  sometimes  have  proved  fatal;  but  much  more  frequently 
they  find  their  way,  sooner  or  later,  into  the  intestines.  They  are  almost  invariably 
composed  of  cholesterine  (q.v.),  with  coloring  matter  and  mucus,  arranged  in  layers  in 
a semi-crystalline  disposition. 

Urinary  G.  is  a disease  of  all  age^,  I)ut  most  common  in  advanced  life  and  in  the 
male  sex.  It  is  also  very  frequent  in  gouty  persons,  or  among  those  who  pursue  seden- 
tary occupations  and  live  freely.  It  is  rare  among  those  who  live  much  in  the  open  air, 
or  who  take  much  violent  exercise,  and  use  little  animal  food  and  wine.  Among  sail- 
ors, it  is  peculiarly  rare.  In  certain  parts  of  the  country,  the  disease  is  said  to  be  fre- 
quent, as  in  Norfolk,  and  perhaps  along  the  e.  coast  of  Scotland.  In  India,  too,  where 
some  of  the  predisposing  circumstances  mentioned  above  can  hardly  be  said  to  prevail, 
stone  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the  predisposing 
causes  of  C.  are  still  very  imperfectly  understood.  In  its  early  stages,  the  disease  usu 
ally  presents  itself  in  the  form  of  grarel,  shown  by  the  passage  of  numerous  very  small 
portions  of  gritty  concretions,  which  may  be  observed  in  the  urine  as  a deposit  like 
sand,  or  like  small  grains  of  Cayenne  pepper.  When  such  deposits  occur  frequently, 
especially  if  they  are  present  at  the  time  of  passing  the  urine,  and  not  merely  after  it 
has  cooled,  there  is  reason  to  apprehend  the  formation  of  calculus.  If,  in  these  circum- 
stances, there  are  pains  of  a dull  character  in  the  loins,  with  occasional  twinges  of 
sharper  suffering,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  seeking  medical  advice.  If  a fit  of  very 
severe  pain  should  occur  in  a person  for  some  time  affected  with  gravel,  if  the  urine  be 
bloody,  if  agonizing  tvringes,  commencing  in  the  loins,  sting  downwards  into  the  thigh 
or  the  groin,  it  is  probable  that  a stone  has  already  formed  in  the  kidney,  and  is  being 
displaced  towards  the  bladder.  C.  in  the  bladder  is  at  first  attended  with  little  suffer- 
ing, as  compared  with  that  caused  by  the  stone  in  its  passage  downwards  from  the 
kidney;  but  unless  removed  or  evacuated,  the  C.  is  sure  to  enlarge,  and  it  then  becomes 
the  cause  of  one  of  the  most  painful  diseases  that  afflict  humanity.  The  existence  of  a 
stone  in  the  bladder,  however,  should  never  be  taken  for  granted  without  a surgical 
examination,  as  all  the  symptoms  are  deceptive  in  certain  cases.  The  most  striking, 
and  perhaps  the  most  trustworthy  evidence  of  stone  in  the  bladder,  apart  from  the  use 
of  the  sound  (see  Lithotomy),  is  smarting  and  burning  pain  experienced  after  the  blad* 
der  has  been  emptied,  together  with  occasional  temporary  stoppage  in  the  flow  of  urine. 


Calculus. 


292 


The  correct  appreciation  of  all  the  symptoms,  however,  demands  considerable  famil- 
iarity with  such  cases. 

The  discovery  of  the  tendency  to  urinary  C.  at  an  early  period  of  its  growth,  has 
been  greatly  aided  by  the  use  of  the  microseope  and  of  chemical  tests.  Generally  speak- 
ing, it  may  be  said  that  whenever  the  urine,  after  standing  for  a few  hours,  can  be 
observed  to  contain  more  sediment  than  a very  slight  cloudiness  towards  the  bottom  of 
Uie  vessel,  there  is  room  for  careful  inquiry  into  the  existence  of  some  derangement  of 
Uie  health.  But  all  sediments  are  not  equally  apt  to  determine  C.,  nor  is  the  treatment 
©f  the  different  kinds  of  sediment  at  all  similar;  care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  deter- 
mine, from  time  to  time,  whether  the  character  of  the  sediment  may  have  undergone  a 
<phange,  so  that  the  treatment  may  be  adapted  accordingly. 

The  chief  varieties  of  urinary  C.  are — 1.  Uric  acid  (red  sand);  2.  Urates  of  ammonia, 
eoda,  lime,  etc.  (brick-dust  sediment);  3.  Phosphates  of  ammonia  and  magnesia  lime, 
etc.;  4.  Oxalate  of  lime;  5.  Carbonate  of  lime  (chiefly  in  domestic  animals);  6.  Cystine; 
7.  Xanthic  oxide  (a  very  rare  form,  discovered  by  Dr.  Marcet).  Calculi  are  frequently 
found  to  be  composed  of  numerous  successive  layers,  having  a perfectly  distinct  chemical 
composition.  Urates  and  phosphates  in  particular  frequently  succeed  each  other,  and 
form  what  is  called  an  alternating  caleulus. 

When  C.  has  once  fairly  formed  in  the  urinary  passages,  it  seems  probable  that  no 
absolute  cure  exists  except  the  removal  of  it,  if  possible,  from  the  body  (see  Lithotomy 
and  Lithotrity)  ; but  in  the  stage  of  gravel,  and  still  more  in  the  earlier  stages  detected 
by  careful  examination  of  the  urine,  much  may  be  done  to  check  the  tendency  to  this 
distressing  and  dangerous  malady.  The  chief  remedies  consist  in  careful  regulation  of 
the  diet  and  mode  of  living,  together  with  the  use  of  solvents  adapted  to  the  particular 
form  of  deposit  found  to  be  habitually  present.  See  Urine. 

CALCULUS,  The  Infinitesimal,  otherwise  sometimes  called  the  transcendental 
analysis,  is  a branch  of  mathematical  science  which  commands,  by  one  general  method, 
ihe  most  difficult  problems  in  geometry  and  physics.  The  merit  of  the  invention  of  this 
powerful  mathematical  instrument  has  been  claimed  for  Leibnitz,  but  is  undoubtedly 
due  with  equal  justice  to  Newton,  who  laid  the  foundations  for  it  in  that  celebrated 
section  of  his  Principia,  in  which  he  demonstrates  the  chief  theorems  regarding  the  ulti- 
mate values  or  limits  of  the  ratios  of  variable  quantities.  The  view  of  one  class  of 
writers  is,  that  these  distinguished  men  invented  the  C.  simultaneously  and  independ- 
ently; and  it  is  the  fact  that  Leibnitz’s  system  is  unfolded  from  premises  differing  some- 
what from  those  of  Newton.  See  Fluxions.  Another  class  of  writers  hold  that  New- 
mn  is  the  real  inventor,  and  that  to  Leibnitz  no  more  can  be  conceded  than  that  he  was 
/he  first  who,  using  the  suggestions  of  Newton’s  genius,  gave  a systematic  statement  to 
ihe  principle  of  the  transcendental  analysis,  and  invented  its  appropriate  symbolic  lan- 
guage. He  had  the  doetrine  of  limits  before  him  when  he  wrote,  and  did  little  more 
than  unfold  more  fully  the  logic  of  the  processes  therein  suggested,  and  exhibit  them  in 
algebraical  forms. 

The  infinitesimal  G. , both  in  its  pure  and  applied  forms,  whether  of  geometry  or 
mechanics,  is  a branch  of  the  science  of  number;  its  symbols  are  of  the  same  kind,  are 
operated  on  according  to  the  same  laws,  and  lead  to  analogous  results.  It  differs  from 
the  other  branehes  of  the  science  of  number,  such  as  arithmetic  and  algebra,  in  regard- 
ing number  as  continuous — i.e.,  as  being  capable  of  gradual  growth  and  of  infinitesimal 
increase,  whereas  they  deal  with  finite'  and  discontinuous  numbers.  It  differs  from 
ordinary  algebra  in  another  respect.  In  the  latter,  the  values  of  unknown  quantities, 
and  their  relations  with  eaeh  other,  are  deteeted  by  aid  of  equations  established  between 
these  quantities  directly;  in  the  C.,  on  the  other  hand,  the  equations  between  the  quanti- 
ties are  not  directly  established,  but  are  obtained  by  means  of  other  equations  primarily 
established,  not  between  them,  but  certain  derivatives  from  them,  or  elements  of  them. 
This  artifice  is  most  fertile,  for  it  can  be  shown  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the 
relations  of  quantities  coneerned  in  any  problem  may  more  easily  be  inferred  from 
equations  between  these  their  derivatives  or  elements  than  between  themselves. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  C.  created  a new  notion  of  number — as  continuous  or 
Rowing.  It  is  now  necessary,  in  order  to  a proper  conception  of  it,  that  a precise 
idea  should  be  formed  of  a differential.  The  simplest  idea  of  a differential  is 
unquestionably  that  got  by  considering  number  as  made  up  of  infinitesimal  elements, 
and  a differential  or  “ infinitesimal”  as  being  the  value  of  the  difference  between  a num- 
ber at  one  stage  of  its  growth  and  as  another  vei'y  near  it.  Every  finite  number 
being — in  the  view  of  the  C.  as  first  conceived  by  Leibnitz — composed  of  an  infinite 
number  of  these  infinitesimal  elements,  certain  axioms  at  once  present  themselves 
regarding  infinitesimals;  as,  for  instance,  “ that  a finite  number  of  them  has  no  value  at 
all  when  added  to  a finite  quantity.”  Many  other  sueh  axioms  readily  follow,  from 
which,  on  this  view,  the  whole  theory  of  the  infinitesimal  C.  may  be  constructed.  But 
there  are  logical  objections  to  this  mode  of  forming  the  theory  of  the  transcendental 
analysis,  and  of  three  views  that  have  been  propounded,  that  now  universally  aceepted 
as  the  most  logical,  and  as  being  capable  of  the  easiest  application,  is  that  founded  on 
the  method  of  limits,  already  referred  to  as  the  invention  of  Newton.  The  meaning 
gf  a differential  on  this  view  will  now  be  explained. 


293 


Calculus* 


It  is  clear  that  the  C.  can  be  applied  only  where  numbers  may  have  the  continuous 
character — i.e.,  where  they  are  or  may  be  conceived  as  being  variable.  If  two  unknown 
quantities  are  connected  by  a single  equation  only,  we  clearly  have  the  condition  satis- 
fied, as  where  y and  x are  connected  by  the  equation 

(1)  y = m, 


where  is  a sign  denoting  some  function  of  x,  as  tan.  x,  cos.  x,  x^,  etc.  This  equality 
may  be  satisfied  by  innumerable  values  of  y and  x.  One  question  which  the  C.  solves 
is,  how  does  y vary*  when  x varies?  To  solve  it,  and,  at  the  same  time,  show  how  the 
doctrine  of  limits  affects  the  definition  of  a differential,  suppose  x,  y,  and  x-\-Dx,  y-f- 
Dy,  to  be  two  pairs  of  values  of  the  variables  which  satisfy  the  above  equation ; then 


(2)  y = F{x),  and  (3)  y-{- Dy  =F{x-{-I>x). 
From  (2)  and  (3)  we  have,  by  subtraction, 

(4)  Dy  = F(x-]-Dx)-F(x); 


"Whence  we  have  the  ratio 


Dy  __  JF\x-\-Dx)—Fx) 
Dx~  Dx 


This  ratio  will  generally  change  in  value  as  Dx  and  Dy  diminish,  till,  as  they  both 

vanish,  which  they  must  do  simultaneously,  it  assumes  the  form  Taking  this  form, 

it  ceases  to  have  a determinate  actual  value,  and  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  the  method 
of  limits,  to  ascertain  the  value  to  which  it  was  approaching,  as  Dx  and  Dy  approached 
zero.  Let,  then,  dx  and  dy  be  any  quantities  whose  ratio  is  equal  to  the  limiting  ratio 
of  the  increments  Dx,  Dy,  so  that 


dy 

dx 


limit 


Dx 

Dy 


as  Dx  and  Dy  approach  zero.  Then  dx  and  dy  are  the  differentials  of  x and  y.  It  may 
be  observed  that  where  x and  y are  connected  as  above,  they  cannot  vary  independently 
of  one  another.  In  the  case  assumed,  x has  been  taken  as  what  is  called  the  independent 
variable,  the  question  being,  how  does  y vary  when  x varies.  If  y were  made  the  inde- 
pendent variable,  it  would  be  necessary  to  solve  the  equation  y = F{x),  if  possible,  so  as 
to  express  x in  terms  of  y.  The  result  would  be  an  equation  x = q){y).  This  being 
dx  Dx 

obtained,  we  should  find  -j—  = limit  as  before.  It  will  be  seen  that  on  this  view 
dy  Dy 

differentials  are  defined  merely  by  their  ratio  to  one  another.  Their  actual  magnitude 
is  perfectly  arbitrary.  This,  however,  does  not  render  an  equation  involving  differen- 
tials indeterminate,  since  their  relative  magnitude  is  definite,  and  since,  from  the  nature 
of  the  definition,  a differential  cannot  appear  on  one  side  of  an  equation  without  another 
connected  with  it  appearing  on  the  other. 

The  idea  of  a differential  being  once  comprehended,  the  reader  will  be  able  to  under- 
stand, in  a general  way,  the  main  divisions  of  the  C.,  which  we  shall  now  briefiy  delin- 
eate. So  much  is  clear  from  what  has  been  stated,  that  there  must  be  two  main  divisions 
— one  by  which,  the  primary  quantities  being  known,  we  may  determine  their  differen- 
tials; and  another  by  which,  knowing  the  differentials,  we  may  detect  the  primary 
quantities.  These  divisions  constitute  the  differential  C.  and  integral  C.  respectively. 

1.  The  Differential  Calculus. — Recurring  to  the  formula  already  given  we  know 


= limit  ^ = limit 
dx  Dx 


F\x  -i-  Dx)  - F\x) 
Dx 


It  is  clear  that,  in  the  general  case. 


F{x  4“  Dx)  — F{x) 
Dx 


at  the  limit  will  still  be  some 


dv 

function  of  x.  Calling  it  F\x),  we  have  generally  = F'(p^),  F'(x)  is  called  the  first 

ctx 

differential  coefficient  of  y or  F(x).  Being  a function  of  x,  it  may  be  again  differenti- 
ated. The  result  is  written 


being  the  second  differential  coefficient  of  y or  F{x);  and  again  maybe  a 
function  of  x,  and  so  capable  of  differentiation.  Now  it  is  the  object  of  the  differential 
C.  to  show  how  to  obtain  the  various  differentials  of  those  few  simple  functions  of 
quantity  which  are  recognized  in  analysis,  whether  they  are  presented  singly  or  in  any 
form  of  combination.  Such  functions  are  the  sum,  difference,  product,  and  quotient  of 
variables,  and  their  powers  and  roots;  exponentials,  logarithms;  and  direct  and  inverse 
circular  functions.  The  C.  so  far  is  complete  as  we  can  differentiate  any  of  those  func- 
'tions  or  any  combination  of  them — whether  the  functions  be  explicit  or  implicit;  and 
with  equal  ease  we  may  differentiate  them  a second  or  any  number  of  times.  This  C. 


Calcutta. 


294 


IS  capable  of  many  interesting  applications  as  to  problems  of  maxima  and  minima,  the 
tracing  of  curves,  etc.,  which  cannot  here  be  particularly  noticed. 

2.  The  Integral  Calculus  deals  with  the  inverse  of  the  former  problem.  The 
former  was^  Given  F{x),  to  find  F'{x),  F"{x\  and  so  on.  The  present  is  in  the  simplest 

case — viz.,  that  of  an  explicit  function-  Given  = F\x),  to  find  F{x).  The  methods 

of  the  integral  C.,  instead  of  being  general,  are  little  better  than  artifices  suited  to 
particular  cases;  no  popular  view  can  be  given  of  these.  In  many^cases,  integration  is 
quite  impossible.  The  explanation  of  integration  by  parts,  by  a^pproximation,  definite 
integrals,  and  singular  solutions,  is  far  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  work.  The  reader 
is  referred  to  any  of  the  numerous  text-books  on  the  subject.  The  integral  C.  has  appli 
cations  in  almost  every  branch  of  mathematical  and  physical  science.  It  is  specially  of 
use  in  determining  the  lengths  of  curved  lines,  the  areas  of  curved  surfaces,  and  the 
solid  contents  of  regular  solids  of  whatever  form.  The  whole  of  the  lunar  and  planetary 
theories  may  be  described  as  an  application  of  the  integral  C.,  especially  of  that  branch 
of  it  which  deals  with  the  integration  of  differential  equations  It  is  applied,  too,  in 
hydrostatics  and  hydrodynamics,  and  in  the  sciences  of  light,  sound,  and  heat.  In 
short,  it  is  an  instrument  without  which  most  of  the  leading  triumphs  in  physical  science 
could  never  have  been  achieved. 

Calculus  op  Variations. — The  foundation  of  this  C.  is  a method  of  differentiation, 
but  of  quite  a peculiar  kind.  As  above  explained,  the  object  of  the  differential  C.  is  to 
determine  the  form  which  a function,  such  as  F\x),  will  assume  if  x receive  an  indefi- 
nitely small  increment,  such  as  Dx.  In  the  C.  of  variations,  the  object  is  to  ascertain 
and  lay  down  the  laws  of  the  changes  supervening  on  a slight  alteration  of  the  form  of 
the  function,  or  should  F{x)  become  F'^x.  This  C.  commands  with  ease  a class  of  proth 
lems  called  problems  of  isoperimeters,  which  were  formerly  insoluble.  It  has  also 
power  over  mechanical  problems,  and  many  departments  of  high  physics  cannot  be 
touched  without  its  aid  Mr.  Airy  and  prof.  Jellet  have  both  written  works  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  may  be  consulted. 

Calculus  op  Finite  Dipperences,  Calculus  op  Functions. — For  brief  notices 
of  these  growths  from  the  original  transcendental  analysis,  see  the  articles  under  the 
headings  Dipperence  and  Functions. 

CALCUTTA  {Kali  Ghatta,  the  ghaut  or  landing-place  of  the  goddess  Kali),  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  Bengal,  and  metropolis  of  British  India,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  Hoogly,  an  arm  of  the  Ganges,  in  22°  35'  n.  lat.,  and  88°  27'  e.  long.,  about 
100  m.  from  the  sea  by  the  river.  C.  was  founded  by  governor  Charnock  in  the  year 
1686,  by  the  removal  hither  of  the  factories  of  the  East  India  company.  In  1700,  three 
villages  surrounding  the  factories  having  been  conferred  upon  the  company  by  the 
emperor  of  Delhi,  in  recognition  of  a present  made  to  Azim,  a son  of  Aurungzebe,  they 
were  forthwith  fortified,  and  received  the  name  of  fort  William,  in  honor  of  the  reigning 
king;  but  the  place  was  subsequently  termed  Calcutta,  the  name  of  one  of -the  villages. 
In  1707,  C.  had  acquired  some  importance  as  a town,  and  was  made  the  seat  of  a presi- 
dency. In  1756,  however,  a great  misfortune  befell  the  rising  town;  it  was  unexpectedly 
attacked  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  the  nawaub  of  Bengal,  and  being  abandoned  by  a number 
of  those  whose  duty  it  was  to  defend  the  place,  it  was  compelled  to  yield  after  under- 
going a two  days’  siege.  Only  146  men,  however,  fell  into  the  enemy’s  hands;  but  these 
were  treated  with  heartless  cruelty.  Cast  at  night  into  a confined  cell,  about  20  ft.  square — 
the  notorious  “ Black  Hole”  (q.v.)— they  endured  the  most  unheard-of  sufferings,  and  in 
the  morning  it  was  found  that  only  23  out  of  146  had  survived  the  horrors  of  that  night. 
The  city  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  until  eight  months  afterwards,  when  Clive 
arrived  in  the  country  from  England.  In  conjunction  with  admiral  Watson,  Clive  suc- 
ceeded in  recapturing  the  town,  and  afterwards  concluded  a peace  with  the  nawaub. 
Soon  after  this,  and  subsequent  to  the  important  victory  of  Plassey,  the  possessions  of 
the  East  India  company  were  greatly  extended  by  means  of  grants  made  by  the  emperor 
of  Delhi,  and  C.  once  more  resumed  its  career  of  progress,  and  advanced  rapidly  in 
prosperity.  In  1852,  C.  was  erected  into  a municipality,  the  proprietors  paying  assess- 
ments, and  erecting  commissioners  to  apply  the  proceeds  of  these  assessments  in  cleans- 
ing, improving,  and  embellishing  the  town.  In  1837,  the  population  of  the  town  propei 
amounted  to  229,700;  in  1872,  it  had  increased  to  447,601,  or  with  Howrah  and  suburbs, 
892,429  (1876,  without  Howrah,  776,579).  Besides  these,  thousands  of  the  three  and  a 
half  millions  who  sleep  at  night  in  the  surrounding  districts  of  Hoogly  and  the  24  per- 
gunnahs,  flock  during  the  day  to  C.,  on  foot,  by  boat,  or  by  railway,  to  their  daily  toil. 
'The  inhabitants  are  mostly  Hindus;  but  there  is  also  a good  proportion  of  Mohamme- 
dans. About  20,000  are  Europeans;  20,000  Eurasians,  or  the  progeny  of  white  fathers 
with  native  mothers;  and  there  is  a considerable  number  of  Armenians,  Greeks,  Jews, 
Parsees,  and  negroes.  The  city  extends  for  about  5 m.  along  the  river,  and  is  somewhat 
less  than  2 m.  in  breadth  at  its  broadest  part,  the  area  being  about  8 sq.m.,  and  comprised 
for  the  most  part  between  the  river  and  the  circular  road,  a spacious  roadway  which 
marks  the  landward  boundary  of  the  city  proper.  Beymnd  this  road  there  lie  extensive^ 
suburbs,  the  chief  of  which  are  Chitpore  on  the  n. , Nunden  Baugh,  Bahar-Simleah,  Seal-’' 
dah,  Entally,  and  Ballygunge  on  tbe  c.,  and  Bhowaneepore,  Allipore,  and  Kidderpoi^ 


295 


Calcutta. 


"on  the  south.  The  villages  of  Sulkeah,  Howra,  and  Seehpoor  are  situated  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  and  contain  the  salt-golahs  or  warehouses  of  the  government,  extensive 
manufactories,  dock}^ards,  and  ship-building  establishments.  The  appearance  of  the 
city  as  it  is  approached  by  the  river  is  very  striking;  on  the  left  are  the  botanical  gardens, 
destroyed  by  the  cyclones  of  1867  and  1870,  but  since  replanted,  and  the  bishop’s  college, 
a handsome  Gothic  edifice,  erected  by  the  society  for  the  propagation  of  the  gospel  in 
foreign  parts;  on  the  right  is  the  suburb  of  Garden  Reach,  with  its  handsome  country- 
seats  and  beautiful  gardens ; further  on  are  the  government  dockyards  and  the  arsenal ; 
beyond  these  is  the  Maidan  esplanade,  which  has  been  termed  the  Hyde  park  of  India, 
being  the  favorite  place  of  resort  of  the  elite  of  C.  for  their  evening  drive.  Here,  near  the 
river,  lies  fort  William,  the  largest  fortress  in  India,  having  been  constructed  at  a cost  of 
£2,000,000,  and  occupying,  with  the  outworks,  an  area  of  about  half  a mile  in  diameter. 
It  is  garrisoned  by  European  and  native  soldiers,  mounts  619  guns,  and  its  armory  con- 
tains 80,000  stands  of  small-arms.  Facing  the  esplanade,  among  other  fine  buildings,  is 
the  government  house,  a magnificent  palace  erected  by  the  marquis  of  Wellesley.  Beyond 
this,  extending  northwards  along  the  river  bank,  is  the  Strand,  2 m.  in  length,  and  40  ft. 
above  low  water,  with  various  ghauts  or  landing-places.  It  is  adorned  by  many  fine 
buildings,  including  the  custom-house,  the  new  mint,  and  other  government  ofiices,  and 
the  appearance  given  by  these  and  other  edifices  has  gained  for  C.  the  appellation  of 
“city  of  palaces.”  Among  its  other  places  of  interest,  mention  maybe  made  of  the 
Sudder  Dewanee  Adawlut,  the  principal  court  of  justice;  the  town-hall,  a fine  building; 
the  Bengal  club,  writers’  buildings,  bank  of  Bengal,  Jesuits’  college,  medical  college, 
university,  theater,  besides  various  churches,  mosques,  Hindu  temples,  and  pagodas  and 
numerous  bazaars.  There  are  a number  of  monuments  throughout  the  city,  the  most 
noticeable  being  those  erected  to  the  marquis  of  Wellesley  and  sir  David  Ochterlony. 
Although  the  European  quarter  of  the  town  is  distinguished  for  its  fine  public  buildings 
and  commodious  dwelling-houses,  the  quarters  occupied  by  the  natives  present  a very 
different  appearance,  their  houses  being  in  most  instances  built  of  mud  or  bamboo  and 
mats,  and  the  streets  narrow  and  unpaved.  Considerable  improvements  have,  however, 
been  effected  of  late ; new  and  wider  streets  have  been  opened  through  crowded  quarters ; 
brick  houses  are  fast  replacing  the  huts,  and  an  extensive  system  of  drainage  has  been 
carried  out,  to  the  no  small  advantage  of  the  inhabitants.  The  cyclone  of  Nov.,  1867, 
•destroyed  30,000  native  houses,  and  that  of  June,  1870,  was  likewise  very  destructive. 

The  water  supply  of  C.  has  recently  been  very  much  improved.  Formerly,  the  water 
was  kept  in  large  tanks,  interspersed  throughout  the  city,  whence  it  was  borne  by  water- 
carriers  or  bahisties  in  large  leather  bags.  But  within  the  past  five  years,  a supply  of 
excellent  water  has  been  obtained  from  the  Hoogly,  about  15  m.  above  C.,  where  it  is 
filtered  and  sent  down  by  pipes  in  the  usual  way.  The  result  of  this  has  been  a marked 
improvement  in  the  health  of  the  city.  Gas  has  now  taken  the  place  of  the  oil-lamps  which 
were  formerly  in  general  use  for  lighting  the  streets  at  night.  Tramways  have  been 
recently  tried  in  some  of  the  principal  streets,  but  as  yet  with  little  success,  A canal 
^irds  a part  of  the  city  beyond  the  circular  road 

The  communications  of  C.  afford  great  facilities  for  its  extensive  commerce.  There 
are  several  lines  of  railway  to  various  parts  of  India;  the  East  Indian  to  Benares,  Delhi, 
and  Multan,  its  present  terminus,  whence  it  is  to  be  continued  to  Kurrachee ; the  Eastern 
Bengal,  the  extension  of  which  to  Gulundu  was  opened  in  1871;  and  the  Calcutta 
and  South-eastern  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges.  The  great  Indian  Peninsula 
railway  branches  off  from  the  East  Indian,  and  connects  C.  with  Bombay  and 
Madras.  C.  is  also  connected  by  electric  telegraph  with  the  principal  towns  of  India, 
and  can  communicate  with  England  by  three  different  lines.  Uninterrupted  communi- 
cation is  kept  up  with  Great  Britain  by  numerous  and  well-appointed  steamers  and  sail- 
ing-vessels. This  intercourse  has  been  greatly  facilitated  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
canal.  Navigation  on  the  Hooghly  is  dangerous,  owing  to  the  shifting  sands;  and 
though  much  has  been  attempted,  little  has  been  effected  in  the  way  of  remedying  the 
•evil.  The  river,  adjacent  to  the  city,  varies  in  breadth  from  a quarter  of  a mile  to 
nearly  a mile.  Ships  of  2000  tons  can  ascend  to  Calcutta. 

The  growth  of  scientific  and  literary  societies,  here  and  elsewhere  in  India  among 
the  native  communities,  indicates  a degree  of  progress  and  intellectual  activity  very 
hopeful  for  the  future  of  India.  The  principal  of  these  in  C.  are  the  Bengal  Asiatic 
society,  founded  in  1784  by  sir  W.  Jones,  possessing  a fine  library,  and  a valuable  and 
extensive  museum ; the  Bethune  society,  for  the  promotion  of  intercourse  between  Euro- 
pean and  native  gentlemen ; the  Dalhousie  institute,  for  the  literary  and  social  improve- 
ment of  all  classes  of  the  community;  the  Bengal  social  science  association,  and  others. 
The  university  of  C.  was  founded  in  1857,  on  the  same  basis  as  the  London  university, 
tmd  exercises  functions  over  Bengal,  the  North-west  Provinces,  Oude,  and  the  Central 
Provinces.  Colleges  have  been  instituted  to  prepare  intending  students.  In  1877,  of 
^425  candidates  for  admission  to  the  university  of  C.,  1355  passed  the  required  exam- 
inations. Other  educational  institutions  are  numerous  in  Calcutta.  The  principal  places 
for  religious  instruction  are  Bishop’s  college,  intended  chiefly  for  the  education  of  mission- 
aries and  teachers,  and  the  institutions  of  the  established  and  free  churches  of  Scotland 
for  the  same  purpose,  all  which  are  ably  conducted. 

C.  may  be  regarded  as  the  great  commercial  center  of  Asia.  One  third  of  the  whole 


Cftldani. 

Caldwell. 


296 


trade  of  India  is  done  here.  In  1877,  the  exports  amounted  to  £26,596,018,  exclusive 
of  treasure,  and  the  imports  to  £16,693,813.  The  chief  exports  are  jute,  cotton,  rice, 
sugar,  indigo,  coffee,  tea,  saltpeter,  linseed,  shellac,  buffalo  horns,  hides,  castor-oil, 
cutch,  gunny  bags,  etc.  The  jute  exported  in  1872  was  valued  at  £4,000,000,  the  indigo 
at  £2,500,000,  and  the  tea  at  £1,400,000.  In  the  same  year  658  sailing-vessels  and  301 
steamers,  with  a total  tonnage  of  999,614,  arrived  in  the  Hooghly;  and  637  sailing-ves- 
sels and  301  steamers,  with  a total  tonnage  of  957,523,  sailed.  The  principal  industries 
are  sugar  refining,  cotton  manufacturing,  flour,  saw,  and  oil  mills,  and  ship-building 
docks.  Several  newspapers  are  published.  There  are  a few  banks  and  numerous 
insurance  and  other  companies,  with  a chamber  of  commerce.  Living  is  comparatively 
cheap,  and  most  of  the  luxuries  of  life,  as  well  as  its  necessaries,  are  to  be  had  in  the 
unpretentious  shops  of  C.  as  readily  as  in  most  European  towns.  The  annual  fall  of 
rain  averages  64  in. ; the  temperature  in  the  shade  ranges  in  July  from  78°  to  87°,  and 
in  Dec.  from  60°  to  79°. 

C.  is  the  headquarters  of  the  governor-general  of  India,  and  the  seat  of  the  gov- 
ernment, the  supreme  courts  of  justice,  and  of  the  court  of  appeal  for  the  province  of 
Bengal. 

CALDA'NI,  Leopoldo  Marco  Antonio,  1725-1813;  an  anatomist  and  physician,  b. 
at  Bologna,  assistant  to  Morgagni,  the  celebrated  anatomist  of  Padua,  after  whose  death 
C.  was  chosen  his  successor  in  the  professorship.  At  the  age  of  76  he  published  a val- 
uable series  of  anatomical  plates.  He  had  long  before  published  Elements  of  Pathology 
and  Physiology. 

CALDAS,  or  Caldetas  (Lat.  callidus,  hot),  the  Spanish  for  warm  springs  {aquas, 
waters,  being  understood),  which  are  very  abundant  in  the  Peninsula,  where  a great 
number  of  places  have  received  their  names  from  the  presence  of  these  mineral  waters; 
such  as  C.  de  Malavella,  C.  de  Estrac,  and  C.  de  Mombuy,  in  Catalonia;  C.  de  Reyes, 
C.  de  Cuntis,  and  C.  de  Tuy,  in  Galicia;  C.  de  Tai'pas,  C.  de  Faveios,  C.  de  Rainhas, 
and  C.  de  Renduse,  in  Portugal.  The  name  has  also  passed  into  the  topography  of 
the  new  world.  There  is  a C.  in  Brazil,  which  is  noted  for  its  hot  sulphur  springs. 

C AIDER,  a river  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  It  rises  in  a marsh  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Lancashire,  near  Burnley,  runs  tortuously  e.  in  the  deep  valley  of  Todmorden, 
past  Halifax,  Dewsbury,  and  Wakefield.  It  then  runs  n.e.,  and  after  a total  course  of 
40  m.,  it  joins  the  Aire  near  Pontefract,  that  river  falling  into  the  Ouse.  The  C.  is 
important  as  forming  a considerable  portion  of  the  canal  route  through  Yorkshire  and 
Lancashire,  between  the  e.  and  w.  coasts  of  England. 

CALDER,  Sir  Robert,  1745-1815;  a Scotch  baron  of  an  ancient  family,  second  son 
of  sir  Thomas  Calder  of  Muirton.  He  served  long  and  honorably  in  the  British  navy, 
and  as  captain  of  the  fleet  took  part  in  the  battle  off  cape  St.  Vincent  in  1797,  for  which 
lie  received  a baronetcy  and  the  thanks  of  parliament.  He  was  a rear-admiral  in  active 
service  during  the  expected  invasion  of  England  by  Napoleon,  received  both  praise  and 
blame,  and  was  tried  by  court-martial.  He  was  acquitted  of  disaffection  and  coward- 
ice, but  reprimanded  for  not  having  done  more  to  renew  an  indecisive  engagement. 
Three  years  before  he  died  he  was  restored  to  command. 

CALDERON  (Don  Pedro)  De  la  Barca  Henao  y Riano,  was  b.  in  Madrid,  in  the 
year  1601,  and  received  his  early  education  in  the  Jesuits’  college  at  Madrid.  After- 
wards, at  Salamanca,  he  studied  chiefly  history,  philosophy,  and  law.  His  poetical 
genius  was  precocious.  Before  he  was  14  years  old,  he  had  written  a drama,  El  Carro 
del  Cielo  (The  Celestial  Chariot).  In  early  life  he  gained,  by  his  poetry,  and  also  by  his 
fertile  invention  of  decorations,  etc.,  for  festive  occasions,  the  patronage  of  several  dis- 
tinguished persons,  and,  on  leaving  Salamanca,  1619,  was  well  received  by  the  courtiers 
at  Madrid.  Love  of  military  adventure  induced  him  to  enter  the  army,  1625;  and,  after 
serving  with  distinction  in  Milan  and  the  Netherlands,  he  was  recalled  to  the  court  of 
Philip  IV.,  a prince  fond  of  theatrical  amusements,  by  whom  he  was  employed  to  super- 
intend various  court  amusements,  and  especially  to  invent  dramas  for  the  royal  theater. 
In  the  following  year  C.  was  made  knight  of  the  order  of  San  Jago,  and  took  part  in 
the  campaign  in  Catalonia.  Peace  brought  him  back  to  poetry.  The  king  gave  him  a 
pension,  contrived  to  let  him  cultivate  uninterruptedly  his  fertile  dramatic  genius,  and 
spared  no  cost  in  securing  for  his  plays  a splendid  initiation  on  the  stage.  In  1651,  C. 
received  from  the  head  of  the  order  of  San  Jago  permission  to  enter  the  church,  and,  in 
1653,  was  appointed  to  the  chaplaincy  of  the  archepiscopal  church  of  Toledo;  but,  as 
this  post  removed  him  too  far  from  the  court,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  in  the  royal 
chapel  at  Madrid,  1663,  and  received,  with  other  favors,  a pension  charged  on  the  reve- 
nue of  Sicily.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  a priest  in  the  brotherhood  of  San 
Pedro,  and  shortly  before  his  death,  was  elected  by  his  brethren  as  their  caplan  mayor . 
He  died  May  25,  1681,  leaving  his  considerable  property  to  the  fraternity  of  San  Pedro, 
by  whom  a splendid  monument  to  his  memory  was  raised  in  the  church  of  San  Salvador 
at  Madrid.  Fame  and  pecuniar}^  prosperity  had  accompanied  his  career.  The  chief 
cities  of  Spain — such  as  Toledo,  Seville,  and  Granada — had  paid  him,  from  tirne  to  time, 
large  sums  of  money  for  writing  their  Autos  Sacrament  ales,  or  Corpus  Uiristi  pieces. 
In  these  compositions,  C.  excelled  all  his  predecessors,  and  esteemed  them  more  highly 


297 


CaldanL 

Caldwell* 


than  all  his  other  works,  though  in  many  respects  the  latter  display  the  author’s  genius 
quite  as  remarkably. 

Spain  numbers  C.  among  its  greatest  poets,  and  criticism  must  allow  that  many  of 
the  defects  in  his  works  are  to  be  ascribed  to  circumstances,  and  the  times  in  which  he 
lived,  rather  than  to  the  native  tendencies  of  his  genius.  He  is  characterized  by  bril- 
liancy of  fancy,  elegance  of  versification,  and  a richness  of  detail,  which  from  its  very 
abundance  often  becomes  tedious.  His  collected  dramatic  works — including  many  pieces 
of  intrigue,  heroic  comedies,  and  historical  plays,  of  which  some  deserve  the  title  of 
tragedy — amount, to  128.  Among  his  romantic  tragedies,  the  Constant  Prince  {El  Prin- 
cipe Constante)  holds  the  first  rank.  Besides  these,  he  wrote  95  Autos  Sacramentales;  200 
Loas  (preludes);  and  100  Saynetes  (divertissements).  His  last  play,  Hado  y Divisa,  was 
written  in  his  80th  year.  His  shorter,  poems  have  perished ; but  his  dramas  have  held 
their  place  on  the  stage  better  than  those  of  Lope  de  Vega  himself.  The  most  complete 
edition  of  his  dramas  appeared  at  Madrid  (9  vols.,  1683-89);  another  was  published  by 
Apuntes  (10  vols.,  Madrid,  1760-63).  Goethe  and  Sclilegel  have  made  him  popular  in 
Germany,  but  in  Britain  he  is  not  well  known,  and  in  France  not  cared  for. 

GALDEEON,  Don  Serafin  Estebanez,  a Spanish  poet,  was  b.  at  Malaga  about  the 
commencement  of  the  century,  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Granada,  and  in  1822 
became  professor  of  poetry  and  rhetoric  there.  A volume  of  poems  which  he  published 
shortly  after  procured  for  him  some  distinction.  Subsequently,  he  became  an  advocate 
in  his  native  city,  but  still  continued  faithful  to  the  muses.  In  1830,  he  went  to  Madrid, 
where  he  published  anonymously  his  Poesias  del  Solitario  (1833).  He  also  wrote  several 
articles  on  Andalusian  manners  for  the  Cartas  Espaflolas,  the  only  literary  journal  at 
that  period  in  Spain.  In  1836,  he  was  appointed  civil  governor  of  Logrono,  but  an  acci- 
dent obliged  him  to  return  to  Madrid,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  collecting  MSS.  of 
the  old  national  literature,  to  be  the  basis  of  a great  critical  edition  of  the  Candoneros 
and  Bomanceros.  C.  wrote  likewise  a fine  novel,  Cristianos  y Moriscos.  To  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Spanish  Moors  he  paid  great  attention.  His  Escenas  Andaluces  (1847)  are  a 
series  of  lively  sketches  of  Andalusian  life.  At  his  death  in  Feb.,  1867,  he  left  behind 
him  a work  on  the  Expediciones  y Aventuras  de  los  Espafioles  en  Africa.  The  Spanish 
government  purchased  his  very  valuable  library. 

CALDERWOOD,  David,  an  eminent  Scottish  divine  and  ecclesiastical  historian, 
descended  of  a good  family,  was  b.  in  1575,  and  about  1604  was  settled  as  Presbyterian 
minister  of  Crailing,  Roxburghshire.  Opposed  to  the  designs  of  James  VI.  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  Episcopacy  in  Scotland,  on  that  monarch’s  visit  to  his  native  country  in 
1617,  he  and  other  ministers  signed  a protest  against  a bill,  then  before  the  Scots  parlia- 
ment, for  granting  the  power  of  framing  new  laws  for  the  church  to  an  ecclesiastical 
council  appointed  by  the  king,  and  in  consequence  he  was  summoned  before  the  high 
commission  of  St.  Andrews.  Refusing  to  submit,  he  was  committed  to  prison  for  con- 
tumacy, and  then  banished  the  kingdom.  He  retired  to  Holland,  and  in  1623  published 
there  his  celebrated  controversial  work,  entitled  Damascenum,  etc.,  in  which  he 

rigorously  examined  the  origin  and  authority  of  Episcopacy.  In  1622,  a pretended 
recantation  of  his  protest  was  published  at  London  by  a venal  writer,  Patrick  Scott. 
While  on  the  continent,  0.  was  known  by  the  quaint  appellation  of  Edwardus  Dido- 
clavius,  being  an  anagram  on  his  name  Latinized.  After  king  James’s  death  in  1625,  he 
returned  to  Scotland,  and  for  some  years  was  engaged  collecting  all  the  memorials  relat- 
ing to  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Scotland,  from  the  beginning  of  the  reformation  there 
to  the  death  of  James  VI.  In  1638,  he  became  minister  of  Pencaitland,  near  Edinburgh ; 
and  in  1643  was  appointed  one  of  the  committee  for  drawing  up  the  Directory  for  Public 
Worship  in  Scotland.  He  died  at  Jedburgh  in  1651.  From  the  original  MS.  of  his  His- 
tory  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  preserved  in  the  British  museum,  an  edition  was  printed 
for  the  Wodrow  society,  in  8 vols.,  8vo  (Edin.  1842-45),  edited  by  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Thomson. 

CALDIE'RO  (ancient  Caldarium),  a decayed  town  of  n.  Italy,  about  nine  m.  e.  of 
Verona.  Its  thermal  springs  were  in  repute  as  early  as  the  1st  c.  of  the  Christian  era, 
and  continued  to  enjoy  popularity  until  the  commencement  of  the  16th  c.,  after  which 
they  gradually  became  neglected,  and  are  now  little  visited.  The  Austrians  repulsed  the 
French  here  in  1796. 

CALDWELL,  a co.  in  w.  Kentucky;  250  sq.m.;  pop.  80,  11,280 — 2186  colored;  gen- 
erally level,  and  good  pasture  land.  Iron  and  coal  are  found.  Chief  productions,  corn, 
tobacco,  wool,  etc.  The  Elizabethtown  and  Paducah  railroad  is  projected  through  this 
county.  Co.  seat,  Princeton. 

CALDWELL,  a parish  in  Louisiana,  on  the  Washita  river;  528  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
5770 — 2897  colored.  Surface  hilly,  producing  corn,  cotton,  etc.  Chief  town,’ 

Columbia. 

CALDWELL,  a co.  in  n.w.  Missouri,  on  the  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph  railroad ; 435 
sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  11,390 — 284  colored;  in  ’80,  13,654.  Products,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  but- 
ter, wool,  etc.  Surface  level,  and  soil  rich.  Co.  seat,  Kingston. 

CALDWELL,  a co.  in  n.w.  North  Carolina,  on  Catawba  river  and  the  Western 
rsorth  Carolina  railroad;  450  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  10,288 — 1600 colored.  Surface  rough  and 


Caldwell. 

Calendar. 


298 


'partly  mountainous,  including  a portion  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  Productions,  corn,  wheat,, 
oats,  and  tobacco.  Co.  seat,  Lenoir. 

CALDWELL,  a co.  in  s.e.  Texas,  e.  of  the  San  Marcos  river;  535  sq.m.;  pop,  ’70, 
6572 — 2531  colored;  in  ’80,  11,757.  Main  business  agriculture  and  stock-raising;  an 
undulating  surface,  well  wooded  and  fertile.  Co,  seat  Lockhart,  near  which  are  about 
20  springs  of  some  celebrity. 

CALDWELL,  a village  and  seat  of  justice  of  Warren  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  a delightful 
situation  at  the  s.  end  of  lake  George — a place  much  frequented  by  t«urists.  Near  by 
are  the  ruins  of  fort  St.  George  of  the  French  and  Indian  and  revolutionary  wars, 
and  on  the  site  of  fort  William  Henry  is  an  immense  hotel.  Pop.  of  township,  '80, 1223. 

CALDWELL,  Charles,  1772-1853;  a native  of  N.  C.,  celebrated  as  a physician,, 
and  writer  on  medical  subjects.  He  published  Blumenbach’s  Elements  of  Physiology 
translated  from  the  Latin,  edited  the  Port  Folio,  edited  Cullen’s  Pi'actiee  of  Physic,  pub- 
lished the  Life  and  Campaigns  of  General  Oreene;  was  professor  of  medicine  in  Transyl- 
vania university;  made  a tour  in  Europe;  established  medical  institutions  in  Louis- 
ville ; wrote  Memoirs  of  the  Bev.  Dr.  Horace  Holley,  and  left  his  own  memoirs  ready  for 
publication  after  his  death. 

CALDWELL,  James,  1734-81;  a native  of  Va. ; graduated  at  the  college  of  New 
Jersey;  became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  in  Elizabethtown.  He  was  a zeal- 
ous patriot  during  the  revolution,  and  became  obnoxious  to  the  tories  of  the  region, 
who,  in  1780,  burned  his  house  and  church.  Soon  afterwards  a British  force  from 
Staten  Island  fell  upon  the  village  of  Connecticut  Farms,  where  C.’s  wife  and  children 
were  temporarily  resident,  and  the  wife  was  killed  by  a shot  while  praying  with  her 
children.  It  is  of  C.  that  the  story  is  told  of  his  distributing  hymn  books  to  the  soldiers 
short  of  wadding,  with  the  exhortation  “Now,  boys,  put  Watts  into  them.”  C.  was 
shot  and  killed  by  a patriot  sentinel  at  Elizabethtown  Point  during  a dispute  about  a 
package  that  the  soldier  declared  it  his  duty  to  examine.  The  soldier  was  tried  by  the 
civil  authorities  for  murder,  convicted,  and  executed.  A fine  monument  to  “The 
Soldier  Parson  ” was  dedicated  at  Elizabethtown  on  the  64th  anniversary  of  his  death, 

CALDWELL,  Joseph,  d.d.,  1773-1835;  a native  of  N.  C.;  graduated  at  the  college 
of  New  Jersey,  and  a tutor  there  from  1791-96;  then  chosen  professor  of  mathematics 
in  the  North  Carolina  university,  and  in  1804  was  made  president  and  professor  of  moral 
philosophy.  He  wrote  a Treatise  on  Geometry  and  letters  on  internal  improvements. 

CALEDO'NIA,  a kind  of  poetical  name  applied  to  Scotland,  being  a resumption  of 
that  given  by  the  Romans  to  the  country  n.  of  the  wall  of  Antoninus,  which  ran  between 
the  firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde.  Among  the  chief  tribes  of  this  region  were  the 
Caledonii,  whence  the  whole  country  has  been  called  Caledonia.  Tacitus  speaks  of  the 
Caledonians  as  having  red  hair,  large  limbs;  being  naked  and  barefooted;  living  in  tents, 
without  cities;  supporting  themselves  by  pasturing  cattle,  by  the  chase,  and  by  certain 
ferries;  addicted  to  predatory  warfare;  and  fighting  in  chariots  with  shields,  short 
spears,  and  daggers.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been  of  Gaelic  or  Celtic  origin,  and  to 
have  painted  their  bodies,  whence  the  name  Picti  or  Piets,  by  which,  according  to 
many  writers,  they  were  afterwards  known.  Agricola  was  the  first  Roman  gen.  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  Caledonians.  In  84  a.d.  he  defeated  them,  now  united  to 
repel  a common  enemy,  under  their  chief  Galgacus,  at  the  Mons  Grampius  (or  Graupius), 
the  site  of  which  has  not  been  determined.  The  Romans  overran  the  n.e.  of  Scotland  as 
far  as  the  Moray  firth,  and  formed  maiw  encampments  (of  which  remains  still  exist), 
but  they  never  reduced  the  country  to  a Roman  province.  Roman  coins  and  military 
relics  Jiave  been  found  in  connection  with  these  camps.  The  name  of  Caledonii  disap- 
pears about  the  beginning  of  the  4th  c.,  when  the  inhabitants  of  Scotland  begin  to  be 
spoken  of  as  Scots  (q.  v.)  and  Piets  (q.v.). 

CALEDONIA,  a co.  in  n.e.  Vermont,  on  the  New  Hampshire  border,  intersected  by 
the  Connecticut  and  Passumpsic  River  railroad;  650  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  23,607.  It  is  an 
agricultural  region,  with  streams  that  furnish  abundant  water-power,  and  has  quarries 
of  granite  and  limestone,  and  sulphur  springs.  Co.  seat,  St.  Johnsbury. 

CALEDONIAN  CANAL,  a chain  of  natural  lakes  united  by  artificial  canals,  running 
across  the  n.  of  Scotland  in  a straight  line  from  n.e.  to  s.w.,  from  the  North  sea 
to  the  Atlantic,  through  Glenmore,  or  the  Great  Glen  of  Albin,  in  Inverness-shire,  and 
touching  Argyleshire  at  the  s.  end.  The  sea  and  fresh  water  lochs  in  this  line  are 
Beauly,  Ness,  Oich,  Lochy,  Eil,  and  Linnhe.  The  canal  was  formed  to  avoid  the  dan- 
gerous and  tedious  navigation  of  ships,  especially  coasting  vessels,  round  by  the  Pent- 
land  firth,  cape  Wrath,  and  the  Hebrides;  the  distance  between  Kinnaird’s  head  and  the 
sound  of  Mull  by  this  route  being  500  m. , but  by  the  canal  only  250,  with  an  average 
saving  of  9^  days  for  sailing  vessels.  The  C.  C.  begins  in  the  Beauly  firth,  near  Inver- 
ness, whence  a cut  of  7 m.  joins  loch  Ness,  which  is  24  by  mile.  A cut  of  6 m. 
joins  loch  Ness  and  loch  Oich,  which  is  34  by  4 mile.  Another  cut  of  2 m.  joins  loch 
Oich  and  loch  Lochy,  which  is  10  by  1 m. ; and  a fourth  cut  of  8 m.  joins  loch  Eil  at  the 
village  of  Corpach,  2 m.  n.  of  fort  William.  This  ship  communication  is  604  ni.  long, 


299 


Caldwell, 

Calendar. 


m.  being  through  natural  lochs  or  lakes,  and  23  m.  by  artificial  cuts.  Each  cut  ia 
120  ft.  broad  at  surface,  and  50  at  bottom,  and  17  deep.  The  highest  part  is  loch  Oich, 
which  is  94  ft.  above  the  sea.  There  are  in  all  28  lochs,  each  170  to  180  ft.  long,  and  ‘40 
wide,  with  a rise  or  lift  of  water  of  8 feet.  Eight  of  the  locks,  called  Neptune’s  stair- 
case, occur  in  succession  near  the  w.  end  of  the  canal.  Some  large  mountain  streams 
between  lochs  Eil  and  Lochy  are  conducted  in  huge  culverts  under  the  canal ; and  by  a 
new  cut,  the  Lochy  water  is  turned  into  the  Spean.  The  practicability  of  this  great  work 
was  first  shown  by  a survey  under  government  in  1773  by  the  celebrated  James  Watt; 
but  it  was  not  till  1803  that  it  was  begun  under  Mr.  Telford.  The  whole  line  was 
opened  for  ships  in  1823.  After  three  years  of  repair,  it  w’as  reopened  in  1847.  Ships 
of  500  to  600  tons,  fully  laden,  can  pass  through  the  canal.  The  canal  and  tonnage 
rates  for  sailing  vessels  are  each  a farthing  per  mile  per  ton,  and  a half  of  this  for  vessels 
under  125  tons.  Steamers  pay  2s.  a ton.  Of  £1,368,203  expended  on  this  canal,  from 
1803  to  1856,  £1,242,387  were  voted  by  parliament,  and  £90,748  were  from  canal  dues. 
Heavy  gales  and  rains  in  Dec.,  1848,  and  Jan.,  1849,  did  much  damage  to  the  canal, 
which  was  repaired  by  a government  grant  of  £10,000.  For  the  year  ending  April, 
1876,  the  total  income  of  the  canal  was  £6741,  whereas  the  expenditure  amounted  to 
£9307 — a state  of  accounts  by  no  means  exceptional.  There  is  regular  steam  commu- 
nication by  the  canal  between  Glasgow  and  Inverness.  The  scenery  is  wild  and  roman- 
tic on  both  sides  of  the  canal,  and  has  many  other  objects  of  interest  to  the  tourist,  such 
as  fort  William,  Ben  Nevis,  Inverlochy  castle.  Tor  castle,  the  ancient  seat  of  Cameron 
of  Locheil,  Glen  Spean,  Glen  Roy,  with  its  parallel  roads,  fort  Augustus,  the  fall  of 
Foyers,  and  Inverness. 

CALEDONIA  (NEW).  See  New  Caledonia. 

CALEDONIA  SPRINGS,  in  Prescott  co.,  province  of  Ontario,  40  m.  from  Montreal. 
They  are  strongly  alkaline,  with  additions  of  bromine  and  iodine,  and  are  much  fre- 
quented by  persons  afflicted  with  scrofulous,  cutaneous,  and  rheumatic  disease. 

CALEF,  Robert,  d.  April  13, 1719;  a merchant  of  Boston,  who  wrote  More  Wonders 
of  the  Invisible  Woiid,  in  answer  to  Cotton  Mather’s  book  of  similar  title.  C.’s  book  was 
so  obnoxious  to  the  witch-persecutors  of  the  time,  that  it  was  publicly  burned  at  Harvard, 
by  order  of  Increase  Mather,  the  president  of  the  college,  but  it  was  of  much  value  in 
•ending  the  witchcraft  delusion. 

CAL'EMBOUBG,  or  Cal'embour,  the  French  name  for  a pun  (q.v.). 

CALENDAR  (from  Cleands,  q.v.),  the  mode  of  adjusting  the  months  and  other 
divisions  of  the  civil  year  to  the  natural  or  solar  year.  The  necessity  of  some  division 
and  measurement  of  time  must  have  been  early  felt.  The  phases  or  changes  of  the 
moon  supplied  a natural  and  very  obvious  mode  of  dividing  and  reckoning  time,  and 
hence  the  division  into  months  (q.v. — see  also  Week)  of  29  or  30  days  was,  perhaps,  the 
earliest  and  most  universal.  But  it  would  soon  be  observed  that,  for  many  purposes, 
the  changes  of  the  seasons  were  more  serviceable  as  marks  of  division ; and  thus  arose 
the  division  into  years  (q.v.),  determined  by  the  motions  of  the  sun.  It  was  soon, 
however,  discovered  that  the  year,  or  larger  division,  did  not  contain  an  exact  number 
of  the  smaller  divisions  or  months,  and  that  an  accommodation  was  necessary;  and 
various  not  very  dissimilar  expedients  were  employed  for  correcting  the  error,  that 
arose.  The  ancient  Egyptians  had  a year  determined  by  the  changes  of  the  seasons, 
without  reference  to  the  changes  of  the  moon,  and  containing  365  days,  divided  into 
twelve  months  of  30  days  each,  with  five  supplementary  days  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  Jewish  year  consisted,  in  the  earliest  periods,  as  it  still  does,  of  twelve  lunar 
months,  a thirteenth  being  from  time  to  time  introduced,  to  accommodate  it  to  the  sun 
and  seasons;  this  was  also  the  case  with  the  ancient  Syrians,  Macedonians,  etc.  The 
Jewish  montlis  have  alternately  29  and  30  days;  and  in  a cycle  of  19  years  there  are 
seven  years  having  the  intercalary  month,  some  of  these  years  having^  also  one,  and 
some  two  days  more  than  others  have,  so  that  the  length  of  the  year  varies  from  353  to 
385  days. — The  Greeks,  in  the  most  ancient  periods,  reckoned  according  to  real  lunar 
months,  twelve  making  a year ; and  about  594  b.c.,  Solon  introduced  in  Athens  the 
mode  of  reckoning  alternately  30  and  29  days  to  the  month,  accommodating  this  civil 
year  of  354  days  to  the  solar  year,  by  occasiona  introduction  of  an  intercalary  month. 
A change  was  afterwards  made,  by  which  three  times  in  eight  years  a month  of  30 
days  was  intercalated,  making  the  average  length  of  the  year  365^  days.  See  Metonic 
Cycle. 

The  Romans  are  said  to  have  had  originally  a year  of  10  months;  but  in  the  times 
of  their  kings,  they  adopted  a lunar  year  of  355  days,  divided  into  12  months,  with  an 
occasional  intercalary  month.  Through  the  ignorance  of  the  priests,  who  had  the  charge 
of  this  matter,  the  utmost  confusion  gradually  arose,  which  Julius  Caesar  remedied,  46 
B.C.,  by  the  introduction  of  the  Julian  Calendar,  according  to  which  the  year  has 
ordinarily  365  days,  and  every  fourth  year  is  a leap-year  of  366  days — the  length  of  the 
year  being  thus  assumed  as  365:1-  days,  while  it  is  in  reality  365  days,  5 Hours,  48  min- 
utes, and  50  seconds;  or  11  minutes,  10  seconds  less.  Caesar  gave  to  the  months  the 
number  of  days  which  they  still  have. 


Calendar. 

Calends. 


300 


So  comparatively  perfect  was  the  Julian  style  of  reckoning  time,  that  it  ixrevailed; 
generally  among  Christian  nations,  and  remained  undisturbed  till  the  renewed, 
accumulation  of  the  remaining  error  of  eleven  minutes  or  so  had  amounted,  in 
1582  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  to  ten  complete  days;  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on 
the  11th  instead  of  the  21st  of  Mar.,  as  it  did  at  the  time  of  the  council  of  Nice,  325 
years  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  This  shifting  of  days  had  caused  great  disturbances, 
by  unfixing  the  times  of  the  celebration  of  Easter,  and  hence  of  all  the  other  movable 
feasts.  And  accordingly,  pope  Gregory  XIII.,  after  deep  study  and  calculation, 
ordained  that  ten  days  should  be  deducted  from  the  year  1582,  by  calling  what, 
according  to  the  old  calendar,  would  have  been  reckoned  the  5th  of  Oct.,  the  15th  of 
Oct.,  1582;  and,  in  order  that  the  displacement  might  not  recur,  it  was  further  ordained 
that  every  hundredth  year  (1800,  1900,  2100,  etc.)  should  not  be  counted  a leap-year, 
excepting  every  fourth  hundredth,  beginning  with  2000.  In  this  way  the  difference 
between  the  civil  and  natural  year  will  not  amount  to  a day  in  5000  years.  In  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  part  of  Italy,  the  pope  was  exactly  obeyed.  In  France,  the  change  took 
place  in  the  same  year,  by  calling  the  10th  the  20th  of  Dec.  In  the  Low  Countries,  the 
change  was  from  the  15th  Dec.  to  the  25th ; but  it  was  resisted  by  the  Protestant  part 
of  the  community  till  the  year  1700.  The  Catholic  nations,  in  general,  adopted  the 
style  ordained  by  their  sovereign  pontiff;  but  the  Protestants  were  then  too  much 
inflamed  against  Catholicism  in  all  its  relations,  to  receive  even  a purely  scientific 
improvement  from  such  hands.  The  Lutherans  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  and,  as 
already  mentioned,  of  the  Low  Countries,  at  length  gave  way  in  1700,  when  it  had 
become  necessary  to  omit  eleven  instead  of  ten  days.  A bill  to  this  effect  had  been 
brought  before  the  parliament  of  England  in  1585,  but  does  not  appear  to  have  gone 
beyond  a second  reading  in  the  house  of  lords.  It  was  not  till  1751,  and  after  great 
inconvenience  had  been  experienced  for  nearly  two  centuries,  from  the  difference  of  the 
reckoning,  that  an  act  was  passed  (24  Geo.  II.,  1751)  for  equalizing  the  style  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  with  that  used  in  other  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  then  enacted, 
that  eleven  days  should  be  omitted  after  the  2d  of  Sept.,  1752,  so  that  the  ensuing  day 
should  be  the  14th.  A similar  change  was  about  the  same  time  made  in  Sweden  and 
Tuscany;  and  Russia  is  now  the  only  country  which  adheres  to  the  old  style;  an  adher- 
ence which  renders  it  necessary,  when  a letter  is  thence  addressed  to  a person  in  another 
country,  that  the  date  should  be  given  thus: — April  or  ; for  it  will  be  observed,, 

the  year  1800,  not  being  considered  by  us  as  a leap  year,  has  interjected  another  (or 
twelfth)  day  between  old  and  new  style. 

The  C.  of  the  French  republic  remains  to  be  noticed,  which  was  adopted  in  conse- 
quence of  a decree  of  the  national  convention  in  1793.  The  midnight  preceding  the 
autumnal  equinox  of  1792  was  fixed  upon  as  the  new  epoch,  from  which  the  years  were 
to  be  reckoned  as  the  year  1,  the  year  2,  etc.  The  year  was  divided  into  12 
months,  each  of  30  days,  to  which  new  names  were  given,  as  Venderrdaire  (vintage 
month),  Brumaire  (foggy  month),  etc. ; and  instead  of  weeks,  each  month  was  divided 
into  periods  of  10  days,  called  Primidi,  Duodi,  Tridi,  etc.  Five  complementary  days 
were  added  at  the  end  of  each  year,  which  were  the  Mte  du  Oenie,  Fete  du  Travail, 
etc.  By  Napoleon’s  command,  this  new  system  was  abolished,  and  the  use  of  the 
Gregorian  C.  resumed  on  Jan.  1,  1806. 

CALENDAR,  French  Revolutionary.  The  French  nation,  in  1792,  while  reform- 
ing so  many  other  of  the  world’s  customs,  undertook  the  task  of  making  a new  calen- 
dar, professedly  upon  philosophical  principles.  The  new  era  began  with  the  republic  at 
midnight  of  Sept.  21,  1792,  and  the  months,  seasons,  and  festivals  were  arranged  as 
follows: 


AUTUMN. 


Vendemiaire 

Brumaire 

Frimaire 

WINTER. 

Nivose 

Pluviose 

Ventose 

SPRING. 

Germinal 

Floreal 

Prairial 

20  May  to  18  June. 

SUMMER. 

Messidor 

Fervidor,  or  Thermidor. . . 
Fructidor 

301 


Calendar* 

Calends. 


SAITSCTJLOTIDES,  OR  FEASTS  DEDICATED  TO. 

Les  Vertus The  Virtues- 17  Sept. 

Le  Genie Genius 18  Sept. 

Le  Travail Labor 19  Sept. 

L’Opinion Opinion 20  Sept. 

Les  Recompenses Rewards 21  Sept. 

This  calendar  existed  until  the  10th  Nivose,  year  of  the  republic  XIV.  (Dec.  31, 1805), 
when  the  old  system  was  restored  by  Napoleon. 

CALENDAR  of  PRISONERS,  in  the  practice  of  the  criminal  law  in  England,  is  the 
technical  name  given  to  the  list  of  all  prisoners’  names  in  the  custody  of  the  sheriff 
of  each  county,  "prepared  for  the  assizes.  When  the  business  is  over,  and  the  trials 
concluded,  the  clerk  of  assize  makes  out  in  writing  four  lists  of  all  the  prisoners,  with 
separate  columns,  containing  their  crimes,  verdicts,  and  sentences,  leaving  a blank  col- 
umn, in  wdiich,  if  the  judge  has  reason  to  vary  the  course  of  the  law,  he  writes  opposite 
the  names  of  the  capital  convicts — to  he  reprieved,  respited,  transported,  etc.  These  four 
calendars,  being  first  carefully  compared  together  by  the  judge  and  the  clerk  of  assize, 
are  signed  by  them,  and  one  is  given  to  the  sheriff,  one  to  the  jailer,  and  the  judge 
and  the  clerk  of  assize  respectively  keep  another.  If  the  sheriff  receives  afterwards 
no  special  order  from  the  judge,  he  executes  the  judgment  of  the  law  in  the  usual 
manner,  agreeably  to  the  directions  of  his  calendar.  In  every  county  this  important 
subject  is  settled  with  great  deliberation  by  the  judge  and  the  clerk  of  assize,  before 
the  judge  leaves  the  assize-town ; but  probably  in  different  counties,  with  some  slight 
variation,  as  in  Lancashire,  no  calendar  is  left  with  the  jailer,  but  one  is  sent  to  the 
home  secretary. 

CALENDERING  is  the  term  applied  to  the  process  of  finishing  by  pressure  the  sur- 
face of  linen,  cotton,  and  other  textile  fabrics,  It  is  usually  done  by  passing  the  fabric 
between  cylinders  pressed  together  with  great  force;  hence  the  origin  of  the  term,  which 
is  a corruption  of  cylindering. 

The  familiar  domestic  processes  of  starching  and  ironing  afford  the  simplest  illus- 
trations of  the  object  and  result  of  calendering.  The  domestic  mangle  effects  the 
same  object  as  the  flat  iron,  and  is  a near  approach  in  construction  to  the  C.  engines  of 
the  manufacturer,  no  traversing- box  of  stones  being  used  in  the  new  patent  mangles. 

The  cylindrical  C.  machine  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  this  country  by  the 
Huguenots,  driven  here  by  persecution.  The  cylinders  were  originally  of  wood,  but  the 
liability  to  warping  is  a strong  objection  to  them. 

The  modern  calender  usually  consists  of  4,  5,  or  6 cylinders  or  “bowls,”  set  verti- 
cally in  a strong  iron  frame,  with  suitable  driving  gear,  and  furnished  with  weights  sus- 
pended over  a pulley  to  produce  the  required  pressure.  This  sometimes  amounts  to,  or 
even  exceeds,  20  tons,  including  the  weight  of  the  rollers.  In  a 5-roller  machine,  the 
arrangement  is  this : The  center  roller  is  of  iron  or  copper;  made  hollow  for  the  admis- 
sion of  steam  or  a red-hot  heater,  the  one  immediately  above  and  that  directly  below 
it  are  of  paper;  and  the  remaining  two,  one  at  the  top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom,  are 
of  cast-iron.  At  least  one  of  the  rollers  is  always  of  paper,  as  it  has  more  elasticity  than 
metal,  and  is  not  liable  to  warp,  like  wood.  It  consists  of  sheets  of  brown  paper  or 
pasteboard,  densely  packed  and  compressed  on  an  iron  axis.  The  edges  of  these  form 
the  surface  of  the  roller,  which  is  turned  and  polished,  an  operation  of  some  difficulty. 

Before  the  final  rolling  in  the  C.  machine,  the  fabric  is  first  lightly  smoothed  by 
passing  over  warm  cylinders.  Cotton  goods  are  starched  with  a starch  prepared  from 
flour,  and  the  starch  is  sometimes  thickened  with  plaster  of  Paris,  porcelain  clay,  or  a 
mixture  of  these,  to  give  a fictitious  appearance  of  stoutness,  which  of  course  vanishes 
when  the  article  is  washed.  For  ordinary  C.  the  fabric  is  then  simply  passed  between 
plain  cylinders,  which  produces  the  desired  effect  by  flattening  the  otherwise  round 
threads.  When,  by  means  of  a hot  cylinder,  with  a pattern  raised  upon  it,  the  amount 
of  this  flattening  is  unequal  on  different  parts  of  the  cloth,  the  beautiful  effect  known 
as  “ watering”  is  the  result.  Glazing  is  produced  by  combined  rubbing  and  pressure; 
the  rollers,  one  of  which  is  heated,  being  made  to  move  with  different  velocities,  so  that 
one  side  of  the  fabric  is  rubbed  as  well  as  pressed  by  the  roller  whose  surface  moves 
with  the  greater  rapidity.  Before  the  invention  of  these  rubbing  cylinders,  glazing  was 
effected  by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  fabric  with  a polished  flint.  Calendering  is  done 
on  a very  large  scale  in  some  manufacturing  towns,  such  as  Manchester  and  Glasgow. 
In  Dundee,  where  half  a century  ago  it  was  not  the  custom  to  calender  the  linen  at  all, 
there  are  now  more  than  1000  hands  employed  in  this  branch  of  industry.  Machines 
similar  to  the  one  above  described,  but  with  all  the  rollers  of  iron,  and  also  called  cal- 
enders, are  used  for  rolling  india-rubber  into  sheets  for  coats,  shoes,  etc. 

CAL'ENDS.  The  Romans  made  a threefold  division  of  the  month  into  calends, 
nones,  and  ides.  The  C.  always  fell  upon  the  1st  of  the  month;  the  nones  in  Mar., 
May,  July,  and  Oct.,  on  the  7th;  and  the  ides  on  the  15th;  and  in  the  remaining  months, 
the  nones  on  the  5th,  and  the  ides  on  the  13th.  The  C.  were  so  named  because  it  was 
an  old  custom  of  the  college  of  priests  on  the  first  of  the  month  to  call  (or  assemble)  the 


Ualenture. 

Calico-printing^. 


302 


people  together  to  inform  them  of  the  festivals  and  sacred  days  to  be  observed  during 
the  month;  the  nones  received  their  name  from  being  the  ninth  day  before  the  ides, 
reckoned  inclusively;  and  the  ides  from  an  obsolete  verb,  signifying  to  divide,  because 
they  nearly  halved  the  month.  This  threefold  division  also  determined  the  reckoning 
of  the  days,  which  were  not  distinguished  by  the  ordinal  numbers  first,  second,  third, 
etc.,  but  as  follow's • Those  between  the  C.  and  the  nones  were  termed  the  days  before 
the  nones;  those  between  the  nones  and  the  ides,  the  days  before  the  ides;  and  the  remain- 
der, the  days  before  the  G.  of  the  next  month.  Thus,  the  ides  of  Jan.  happening  on  the 
13tli  of  that  month,  the  next  day  would  not  be  termed  by  a Latin  writer  the  14th,  but 
the  IWi  before  the  C.  of  Feb.,  reckoning  inclusively,  i.e.,  reckoning  both  the  14th  of  Jan 
and  the  1st  of  Feb.,  and  so  on  to  the  last,  which  was  termed  jn'idie  calendas. 

Ad  calendas  Oroecas,  a Roman  proverbial  saying,  practically  equivalent  to  "never.” 
The  Roman  C.  were  often  appointed  as  days  for  payment  of  rent,  interest,  etc. ; but 
as  the  Greeks  had  no  C.,  a postponement  of  payment  ad  calendas  Grcecas,  simply  meant 
a refusal  to  pay  altogether.  It  is  said  that  the  emperor  Augustus  frequently  used  the 
phrase,  which  afterwards  became  a proverb. 

CAL  ENTURE,  a Spanish  term  {calentura)  applied  to  a species  of  temporary  delirium 
or  fever  occurring  on  board  ship  in  hot  climates,  and  probably  due  to  the  effect  of 
exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  descriptions  of  the  disease  seem  rather  fan- 
ciful and  contradictory,  and  the  term  is  nearly  obsolete,  Dictionnairedes  Sciences 
MMicales. 

CALEPI'NO,  Ambrogio,  1435-1511,  an  Augustine  monk  who  devoted  his  life  to 
making  a polyglot  dictionary.  The  latest  edition  comprises  11  languages,  some  of  them 
added  by  Passerat  and  others. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  n.e.  Alabama,  on  Coosa  river,  and  Selma,  Rome  and  Dalton 
railroad;  1170  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  19,591 — 5440  colored.  Surface  uneven  and  in  some  parts 
mountainous.  Productions  agricultural.  Marble,  limestone,  lead,  and  iron  abound,  and 
some  gold  has  been  discovered.  Co.  seat,  Jacksonville. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  s.  Arkansas,  on  the  Washita  and  Moreau  rivers;  600  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  5671—2088  colored.  Surface  rolling  or  level,  and  soil  good;  productions  agri- 
cultural. Co.  seat,  Hampton. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  w.  Florida,  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  w.  of  Appalachicola  river; 
464  sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 1579— 396  colored.  Surface  level  and  fertile,  producing  corn,  tobacco, 
etc.  Co.  seat,  Abe’s  Spring. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  s.w.  Georgia;  300  sq.m.;  pop  ’80,  7024 — 4670  colored.  It  is 
level,  with  fertile  soil,  but  little  cultivated.  Co.  seat,  Morgan. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  s.w.  Illinois,  between  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers;  260 
sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  7471.  Near  the  rivers  the  land  is  low  and  subject  to  inundation;  in 
other  parts  marked  by  high  bluffs  and  table-lands.  Productions  agricultural.  There 
are  coal-fields  in  the  w.  section.  Co.  seat,  Hardin. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  w.  Iowa,  on  Coon  river  and  the  Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  rail- 
road; 600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  1602;  in  ’80,  5595.  Productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat.  Lake 
City. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  s.w.  Michigan,  on  St.  Joseph  river  and  the  Peninsular  and 
Michigan  Central  railroads;  720  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  38,452.  Soil  rich;  surface  generally 
level;  productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Marshall. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  n.  Mississippi,  on  the  Yallabusha  river;  800  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
13,492—3301  colored.  Productions,  corn,  cotton,  butter,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Pittsboro. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  s.e.  Texas,  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  including  Matagorda 
island;  684  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  1739—548  colored.  Surface  level,  and  soil  poor  with  little 
timber.  The  San  Antonio  and  Gulf  and  the  Indianola  railroads  traverse  the  county. 
Co.  seat,  Indianola. 

CALHOUN,  a co.  in  w.  West  Virginia,  on  the  Little  Kanawha  river;  300  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’70,  2939 ; in  ’80,  6074.  An  agricultural  region.  Co.  seat,  Grantsville. 

CALHOUN,  John  Caldwell,  an  eminent  American  statesman,  descended  from  an 
Irish  family  who  founded  the  Calhouns’  settlement  in  South  Carolina,  was  b.  at  Abbe- 
ville, S.  C.,  Mar.  18,  1782.  Having  gained  distinction  at  the  bar,  he  sent  to  con- 
gress in  1811,  where  he  soon  made  himself  the  leader  of  the  war-party  against  England. 
Author  of  the  tariff  of  1816,  so  favorable  to  his  native  state,  he  in  1817  was  named  min- 
ister of  war  by  president  Monroe,  and  reduced  the  confused  state  of  affairs  m his 
department  to  order,  and  made  a great  reduction  in  the  expenditure  of  the  army  without 
sacrificing  its  efficiency.  ^ ^ ^ i • u i • 

The  early  part  of  C.’s  career  was  marked  by  broad  and  patriotic  views,  to  which  h^ 
subsequent  preference  of  southern  interests  presented  an  unfavorable  contrast.  The  tariff 
of  1828  not  being  very  favorable  to  the  southern  states,  C.  still  adhered  to  the  govern 
ment,  hoping  that  the  president,  Jackson,  would  veto  the  measure;  but  as  this  hope  was 
disappointed,  C.  went  to  South  Carolina,  and  there  (1829)  carried  in  the  legislature  tlie 
notorious  resolution,  ^‘that  any  state  in  the  union  might  annul  an  act  of  the  Federal 


303 


Calenture. 

Calico-printing, 


government.”  To  this  decision,  Virginia,  Georgia,  and  Alabama  gave  in  their  adhe- 
sion, and  threatened  the  dissolution  of  the  union.  President  Jackson  promptly  used 
energetic  measures  to  make  this  resolution  of  no  effect.  C.  lost  popularity,  and 
despairing  of  reaching  the  presidency,  resigned  his  vice-presidency;  but  soon  afterwards 
was  elected  to  the  senate.  In  1838,  he  delivered  his  famous  speech  on  slavery,  and  con- 
tinued to  agitate  on  behalf  of  the  slave-holding  interest  and  for  a dissolurion  of  the 
union,  both  with  voice  and  pen,  until  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Washington,  Mar. 
31,  1850.  In  his  private  character,  C.  was  blameless;  but  in  his  career  as  a statesman  he 
is  understood  to  have  implanted  in  the  minds  of  his  partisans  those  principles  which 
culminated  in  the  late  war  for  the  dissolution  of  the  union.  During  many  years,  he 
had  been  employed  in  writing  his  work  on  The  Philosophy  of  Government,  in  which  he 
vindicates  the  doctrine  of  state  sovereignty,  and  which,  along  with  other  works,  was 
posthumously  published. 

CALIA'NO,  a small  t.  of  the  Austrian  Tyrol,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige, 
about  9 m.  s.  of  Trent.  It  figures  in  history  as  the  place  where  the  Austrian  archduke, 
Sigismund,  won  a signal  victory  over  the  Venetians  in  1487.  Being  a plaoe  of  consid- 
erable military  importance,  it  was  also  contested  in  the  campaigns  of  1797  and  1809. 

CALIBEE,  or  Caliber,  is  a technical  name  for  the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  a fire-arm, 
whether  a piece  of  ordnance  or  a small-arm.  The  ordnance  from  which  solid  shot  are 
projected  are  usually  denoted  by  the  weight  of  each  shot,  as  24-pounder,  68-pounder, 
etc.;  but  mortars,  and  such  guns  as  project  shell  or  hollow  shot,  are  more  usually 
denoted  by  the  C.,  such  as  13-inch  mortar,  10-inch  shell-gun,  etc.  The  C.  of  the  chief 
kinds  of  fire-arm  will  be  noticed  under  the  proper  headings;  but  it  may  here  be  observed, 
generally,  that  the  C.  of  English  ordnance  has  been  greatly  increased  within  the  last 
fifty  years,  partly  by  boring  up  old  guns,  and  partly  by  casting  new. 

CALICO-PRINTING  is  that  department  of  the  art  of  dyeing  which  takes  cognizpce  of 
the  production  of  a colored  pattern  on  cloth.  It  appears  to  have  been  first  practiced  at 
Calicut  in  India — hence  the  term  calico;  and  the  pallampoors,  or  large  cotton  chintz 
counterpanes,  which  have  been  manufactured  in  the  East  Indies  for  centuries,  are  evi- 
dence of  the  successful  practice  of  the  art  in  that  country.  From  the  East  Indies,  the 
art  spread  to  Asia  Minor  and  the  Levant,  thence  to  Augsburg  in  Bavaria ; from  whence, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c.,  it  spread  to  Alsace  in  France,  to  Switzerland,  and  ulti- 
mately to  England  and  Scotland.  The  term  is  strictly  applicable  to  the  production  of 
colored  patterns  on  cotton  cloth  or  calico ; but  as  now  employed,  it  includes  all  the  pro- 
cesses followed  in  the  formation  of  a colored  pattern  on  cotton,  linen,  worsted,  and  silk 
goods,  as  also  mixtures  of  two  or  more  of  these,  such  as  the  fabric  called  de  laine,  which 
is  composed  of  cotton  and  worsted. 

The  first  operation  connected  with  the  printing  of  cloth  is  the  removal  of  the  surface 
hairs  or  minute  threads  which  communicate  a fibrous  down  or  nap  to  the  surface  of  the 
cloth,  and  if  allowed  to  remain,  would  interfere  with  the  uniform  application  of  the 
colors.  The  surface  down  is  got  rid  of  by  the  process  of  singeing,  during  which  the 
cloth  is  drawn  over  a red-hot  iron  or  copper  bar  or  plate,  or  through  a series  of  gas  jets. 
The  apparatus  generally  used  for  hot-plate  singeing  consists  of  a furnace  surmounted  by 
a rnetal  plate,  which  is  sometimes  ridged  on  the  surface.  The  cloth  having  previous!}'- 
been  joined  at  the  ends,  to  make  a long  length,  and  been  placed  on  a winch-roller,  is  first 
brought  in  contact  with  roller  brushes,  which  raise  the  nap  on  the  cloth,  then  passes  over 
the  white-hot  metal  cylindrical  bar,  and  is  wound  on  to  a second  winch-roller.  The  pro- 
cess is  repeated  twice  on  the  face  of  the  cloth,  being  the  surface  to  be  printed  on,  and  once 
on  the  back.  Gas-singeing  is  accomplished  by  drawing  the  cloth  through  brushes,  and 
then  over  a horizontal  pipe,  perforated  with  rows  of  small  holes,  or  slit  from  end  to  end, 
so  that  the  gas  issuing  therefrom  burns  as  a narrow  sheet  of  fiame.  The  cloth  is  not 
only  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  the  burning  gas,  but  the  flame  is  transmitted 
through  the  cloth,  and  a suction-apparatus  is  often  placed  immediately  above,  so  as  to 
draw  the  flame  through  more  effectually.  When  well  singed,  the  cloth  undergoes  the 
process  of  bleaching  (q.v.),  and  is  thereafter  calendered.  See  Calendering. 

There  are  several  modes  of  applying  the  colors  to  cloth,  and  these  are  respectively 
named— 1.  The  madder  style;  2.  The  padding  style;  3.  Topical  style;  4.  Resist  or  reserve 
style;  5.  Discharge  style;  and  6.  China  blue  or  pottery  style.  These  various  processes 
are  at  one  in  being  intended  to  fix  upon  the  cloth  the  different  colors;  but  they  differ 
from  each  other  more  or  less  in  the  several  steps  through  which  the  cloth  is  passed, 
though  occasionally  there  is  little  or  no  line  of  separation ; and  at  times  the  cloth  is 
treated  by  one  method,  and  subsequently  by  another  style. 

The  madder  style  is  that  in  which  a certain  fixing  agent  or  mordant  is  printed  on  the 
cloth,  which  is  then  introduced  into  the  coloring  matter  in  a dye-vat,  when  the  mordant, 
having  an  attraction  alike  for  the  fiber  of  the  cloth  and  for  the  coloring  matter,  acts  the 
part  of  glue  or  paste,  and  cements  the  color  to  the  cloth.  Originally,  madder  was  the 
only  coloring  substance  employed  in  this  style ; but  nowadays,  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber of  dyestuffs,  vegetable  and  animal,  including  cochineal,  logwood,  etc.,  are  attached 
to  cloth  in  this  manner.  The  fixing  agents  or  mordants  generally  employed  are  different 
strengths  of  red  liquor  (acetate  of  alumina),  iron  liquor  (acetate  of  iron),  and  mixtures  of 
these.  These  are  thickened  with  wheat-starch,  potato-flour,  roasted  starch  or  dextrine. 


Calicut. 


304 


and  gum-arabic,  so  that  the  mordant  may  not  run  when  it  is  placed  on  the  cloth  by  the 
pattern-block  or  by  the  printing-machine.  After  the  mordant  has  been  imprinted  on 
the  cloth,  the  latter  is  hung  in  a warm  airy  room,  where  it  can  easily  dry,  but  where  it 
is  at  the  same  time  surrounded  by  a moist  atmosphere.  The  result  is,  that  the  mordant 
IS  decomposed,  the  acetic  acid  is  evolved,  and  the  alumina  or  iron  is  left  attached  to  the 
fiber  of  the  cloth  in  the  state  of  an  insoluble  sub-salt,  which  cannot  be  dissolved  by 
water.  As  some  of  the  mordant  is  still  left  in  its  original  soluble  condition,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  wash  the  cloth  free  from  this,  else,  during  the  dyeing  operation,  the  soluble  part 
of  the  mordant  would  run  on  to  those  parts  of  the  cloth  not  intended  to  be  colored,  and 
thus  produce  a blotted  appearance.  To  obviate  this,  the  cloth,  having  undergone  the 
process  of  drying  and  aging,  is  then  introduced  into  a vat  containing  water,  through 
which  is  diffused  some  cow-dimgj  dung  substitute — a preparation  of  bone  ash,  sulphuric 
4icid,  carbonate  of  soda,  and  glue — or  bran.  The  result  of  this  process  of  dunging  is  the 
removal  of  the  soluble  part  of  the  mordant,  as  also  the  starch  or  thickening  agent,  leav- 
ing the  decomposed  or  insoluble  mordant  adhering  to  the  fiber.  The  terms  dang-^xmg, 
^abstitute-fixmg,  and  bran-fLxmg,  have  reference  to  the  employment  of  one  or  other  of 
these  agents  at  this  stage  of  the  operation.  When  the  cloth  has  been  well  washed  from 
the  dunging,  it  is  introduced  into  the  vat  or  dye  beck  containing  the  coloring  matter. 
The  whole  is  heated  by  steam-pipes,  and  the  cloth  being  placed  on  a sparred  reel  kept  in 
motion,  is  repeatedly  wound  out  of  the  vat,  and  returned  thereto.  The  result  is,  that 
wherever  the  mordant  adhered  to  the  cloth,  the  coloring  matter  is  attached  thereto,  and 
little  or  no  trace  of  color  adheres  to  the  unmordanted  parts.  The  last  operation  is  the 
clearing  or  brightening,  during  which  the  colored  cloth  is  introduced  into  warm  baths  of 
w'ater  containing  soda,  soap,  or,  for  the  more  delicate  tints,  bran,  and  is  thereafter  acted  on 
by  weak  acid  solutions.  The  object  is  to  clear  the  colors,  and  at  the  same  time  to  confer 
upon  them  the  property  of  resisting  the  fading  action  of  the  air  and  sun  for  a much 
longer  time.  The  different  shades  of  color  which  can  be  obtained  from  the  same  mad- 
der beck  or  vat,  with  different  mordants,  are  very  numerous,  and  include  reds,  lilacs, 
purples,  chocolates,  and  blacks.  Thus,  when  a weak  solution  of  red  liquor  (acetate  of 
alumina)  is  employed  as  the  mordant,  a light  red  tint  is  procured ; wdth  a stronger  alumin- 
ous mordant,  a deep  red  is  formed  on  the  cloth ; with  a more  or  less  dilute  solution  of 
iron  liquor  (acetate  of  iron),  the  cloth  is  colored  lilac,  violet,  or  purple;  with  a strong 
solution  of  iron  liquor,  black  is  obtained.  Indeed,  the  same  piece  of  cloth  stamped  in 
different  places  with  the  various  strengths  of  aluminous  and  iron  mordants,  and  mix- 
tures of  these,  and  immersed  in  the  madder-bath,  will  be  obtained  dyed  with  all  the 
shades  mentioned ; and  in  this  manner  many  of  the  beautiful  variegated  colored  dresses 
and  handkerchiefs  are  prepared  for  market. 

The  padding  style  in  calico-printing  is  intended  mainly  for  the  impregnation  of  cloth,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  with  mineral  coloring  substances.  When  the  cloth  is  to  be  entirely  colored, 
it  is  immersed  wholly  in  a vat  containing  the  mordant.  When  the  color  is  to  appear  as  a 
pattern  on  the  fabric,  the  mordant  is  applied  by  a pattern  block,  or  by  the  printing- 
machine.  In  either  case,  the  cloth  is  thereafter  thoroughly  dried,  and  washed  in  vari- 
ous solutions,  and  then  introduced  into  a vat  containing  the  substance  to  form  the  color. 
Thus,  if  a piece  of  cloth  is  to  be  entirely  impregnated  w4th  chrome  yellow,  it  is  first 
treated  or  padded  in  a solution  of  8 parts  of  bichromate  of  potash  (KO,2Cr03)to  a gallon 
of  water,  dried,  and  then  placed  in  a vat  containing  a solution  of  6 or  8 ozs.  of  acetate 
or  nitrate  of  lead  (PbOA,  or  PbONOs)  to  the  gallon  of  water.  The  result  is  that  the 
chromate  of  lead  (PbOCrOs)  is  formed  in  the  tissue  of  the  cloth;  and  when  the  latter  is 
washed  and  dried,  the  yellow  color  still  adheres  to  the  cloth  firm  and  fast.  To  print  a 
yellow  pattern  on  cloth,  7 to  9 ozs.  of  acetate  of  lead,  and  the  same  quantity  of  nitrate 
of  lead,  are  dissolved  in  a gallon  of  water,  thickened  with  starch,  and  placed  upon  the 
cloth  according  to  pattern.  After  drying,  the  cloth  is  first  immersed  in  w^ater  contain- 
ing a little  carbonate  of  soda,  and  ultimately  in  a solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  when 
the  pattern  becomes  fixed  in  bright  yellow,  insoluble  in  water.  To  produce  Prussiun 
blue  on  cloth,  it  is  treated  with  acetate  and  sulphate  of  iron,  dried,  washed  with  w'arm 
chalk-water,  and  immersed  in  a very  weak  solution  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash.  A 
pattern  in  Prussian  blue  is  produced  by  printing  a pattern  in  the  cloth  with  the  iron 
solutions  thickened  with  gum,  and  thereafter  proceeding  as  above.  Chrome  green  is 
produced  in  a similar  way,  by  using  sulphate  and  acetate  of  copper,  thickened  with 
glue,  and  thereafter  arsenious  acid  with  potash;  and  so  also  other  colors,  such  as  iron 
buff  or  chamois,  manganese  bronze,  etc. 

The  topical  style  in  calico-printing  is  the  process  whereby  certain  coloring  matters  which 
are  insoluble  in  water,  and  cannot  therefore  be  applied  to  cloth  by  the  modes  suggested 
under  the  madder  and  padding  stjies,  are  treated  at  once  with  the  mordant,  and  the 
mixture  by  one  operation  transferred  by  block,  or  otherwise,  directly  on  the  surface  or 
top  of  the  cloth,  and  hence  the  term  topical.  Indigo,  safflower,  and  arnotto  are  instances 
of  such  insoluble  coloring  substances;  and  when  these  and  other  dye-stuffs,  such  as  log- 
w’ood  and  Brazil  w*ood,  are  treated  with  w^ater,  thickened  with  starch  and  nitro-muriate 
of  tin  (knowm  as  spirits)  added,  with  occasionally  a little  of  other  salts,  such  as  nitrate 
of  copper,  the  result  is  the  formation  of  spirit-colors,  wiiich  can  be  printed  on  the  sur- 
face of  cloth,  and  possess  a certain  degree  of  fixity.  The  permanency  of  these  spirit- 
colors,  however,  is  very  much  increased,  and  the  general  appearance  improved,  by  after- 


805 


Calicut. 


"wards  subjecting  the  goods  to  the  action  of  steam  in  a wooden  chest  or  box,  when  tlie 
term  steam-colors  is  applied. 

The  resist  style  in  calico-printing  is  that  in  which  certain  materials  are  placed  on  the  sur- 
face of  cloth,  to  protect  it  from  the  adherence  of  the  mordants,  and,  consequently,  to  keep 
that  part  of  the  cloth  from  being  attacked  by  the  coloring  matter.  These  materials  are 
termed  resists,  reserves,  or  resist- pasters,  and  they  are  divisible  into  mechanical  and 
ohcmical.  The  mechanical  resists  are  such  substances  as  fats,  resins,  oils,  wax,  and 
pipe- clay,  A common  resist  for  silk  and  woolen  goods  is  a mixture  of  2^  of  resin  and  1 
of  suet;  and  it  is  principally  in  the  color-printing  of  silk  and  woolen  dresses  and  hand- 
kerchiefs that  mechanical  resists  are  employed,  though  they  are  occasionally  used  for 
the  printing  of  cottons.  The  chemical  resists  may  act  on  the  mordant  or  on  the  color. 
Thus,  if  it  be  desirable  to  remove  the  mordant,  and  thus  leave  certain  parts  of  the  cloth 
unable  to  attach  color,  the  printing  of  a pattern  with  some  acid  substance  on  the  cloth 
will  form  with  the  mordant  a soluble  salt,  which  can  be  readily  removed  by  washing, 
whilst  the  parts  which  have  not  been  so  acted  on  by  acid  are  not  dissolved  away  by  the 
washing,  and  still  retain  the  full  power  in  the  color-vats  to  cause  the  adhesion  of  the 
color.  For  this  purpose,  where  an  iron  or  aluminous  mordant  has  been  employed,  it  is 
customary  to  print  thereon  in  the  requisite  pattern,  lemon-juice  or  lime-juice  (containing 
citric  acid),  tartaric  or  oxalic  acid,  and  bisulphate  of  potassa,  or  a mixture  of  two  or 
more  of  these,  thickened  with  pipe-clay.  China-clay,  gum-arabic,  dextrine  (British  gum), 
4;um-senegal,  or  a mixture  of  these;  occasionally,  chloride  of  tin  is  employed.  Sulphate 
of  zinc,  sulphate  and  acetate  of  copper,  and  the  chloride  of  mercury,  are  used  to  resist 
the  adherence  of  indigo  blue. 

The  discharge  style  in  calico-printing  comprehends  the  employment  of  similar  materials 
to  those  used  in  the  resist  style,  but  after  the  cloth  has  been  colored  or  dyed,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  discharging  the  color,  or  bleaching  the  cloth  at  certain  parts,  according  to  pat- 
tern. The  dischargers  for  organic  coloring  matters  are  chlorine  and  chromic  acid.  The 
chlorine  is  employed  in  the  form  of  bleaching-powder  (q.v.),  and  the  cloth  already  dyed 
is  printed  with  a solution  of  tartaric  acid  (or  other  acid),  thickened  with  pipe-clay  and 
gum,  then  dried,  and  passed  through  a solution  of  bleaching-powder,  when  the  decolor- 
ation occurs,  as  already  explained  under  Bleaching.  The  chlorine  is  also  applied  by 
placing  a number  of  folds  of  colored  cloth  between  perforated  pattern-plates,  and  sub- 
jecting the  whole  to  great  pressure;  a solution  of  chlorine  (obtained  by  adding  an  acid 
to  a weak  solution  of  bleaching-powder)  is  allowed  to  percolate  down  through  the  per 
forations  of  the  plates,  and  the  cloth  immediately  underneath,  so  that  only  those  spots 
are  bleached,  while  the  rest  of  the  cloth  is  so  highly  compressed  as  to  keep  the  liquid 
from  coming  in  contact  therewith.  The  well-known  Turkey-red  handkerchiefs  are 
patterned  in  this  way.  The  chromic  acid  is  generally  employed  in  discharging  indigo 
color.  The  cloth,  already  entirely  blue,  is  soaked  or  padded  in  bichromate  of  potash, 
and  then  an  acid  discharger  printed  thereon;  and  wherever  the  acid  discharger  (tartaric, 
oxalic,  citric,  or  hydrochloric  acid)  comes  in  contact  with  the  blue  cloth  containing  the 
bichromate  of  potash,  chromic  acid  is  liberated,  and  destroys  the  color.  ‘Instead  of 
acting  upon  the  colored  cloth,  the  discharger  may  be  employed  to  carry  off  the  mordant. 
Thus,  cloth  treated  wholly  with  a mordant,  and  thereafter  printed  with  a pattern  in 
acid,  has  the  mordant  removed  at  those  parts  where  the  pattern  block  has  placed  the 
acid.  Mineral  colors  can  also  be  discharged  in  a similar  way. 

The  China  blue  or  pottery  stylem  calico-printing  is  a modification  of  the  topical  style, 
where  indigo  is  deposited  on  cloth  in  the  insoluble  state,  and  is  thereafter  manipulated 
with,  so  as  to  impregnate  the  cloth  with  the  indigo  more  or  less  strongly,  and  thus  pro- 
duce different  shades  of  blue. 

The  above  descriptions  of  the  various  operations  in  calico-printing  have  special  refer- 
ence to  cotton  cloth;  and  though  many  steps  of  the  manipulative  processes  apply  equally 
well  to  linen,  silk,  worsted,  and  de  laines  (worsted  and  cotton),  yet  considerable  modifi 
cations  in  mode  of  treatment  and  material  employed  are  required  in  the  successful 
color-printing  of  all  texture  containing  animal  fiber,  such  as  silk  and  wool.  Where 
the  printing  of  such  fabrics  differs  essentially  from  the  processes  already  indicated, 
special  reference  will  be  made  under  Silk  and  Wool.  The  different  coloring  mat- 
ters employed  in  calico-printing  being  identical  with  those  used  in  dyeing,  will  be 
considered  under  the  general  popular  title  Dye-stuffs;  and  the  mode  of  compounding 
these  into  the  various  colors  and  shades,  will  be  more  appropriately  introduced  under 
Dyeing. 

CALICUT,  a seaport  of  the  district  of  Malabar,  which,  though  on  the  w.  side  of  the 
peninsula  of  Hindustan,  yet  forms  part  of  the  presidency  of  Madras.  In  lat.  11°  15'  n., 
and  long.  75°  50'  e.,  it  is  distant  from  Goa  and  Bombay  respectively  300  and  566  miles. 
It  was  the  first  spot  in  India  visited  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  being  then  the  chief  emporium 
on  the  coast,  with  stately  dwellings  and  magnificent  pagodas.  So  populous  and  power- 
ful was  it,  that  it  twice  repulsed  the  Portuguese,  slaying  their  commander  in  1509,  and 
expelling  Albuquerque  himself,  g,fter  a momentary  success  on  his  part,  in  1510.  It 
stands  near  the  mouth  of  a small  river  of  the  same  name,  appearing  to  have  possessed 
at  one  time  a tolerably  good  haven.  Gradually,  however,  this  harbor  has  been  filled  up 
with  sand ; and  now  its  anchorage  is  merely  an  open  roadstead,  at  a distance,  at  least 
U.  K.  HI.— 20 


California. 


306 


for  large  vessels,  of  2 or  3 m.  from  land.  Independently  of  this  physical  disadvantage, 
the  ravages  of  war  and  the  competition  of  superior  localities  contributed  to  the  decay  of 
Calicut.  Accordingly,  in  1792,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  the  city  was 
little  better  than  a ruin.  Since  then,  it  has  made  considerable  progress,  and  in  1871  was 
found  to  have  47,962  inhabitants.  From  C.  calico  is  understood  to  have  derived  its 
name,  just  as  cambric  from  Cambrai,  in  the  n.e.  of  France. 

CALIFORNIA.  This  name  was  at  first  applied  to  a peninsula  on  the  w.  side  of  Mexico, 
but  was  gradually  extended  to  an  indefinite  portion  of  the  adjoining  continent,  as  far  n. 
as  the  parallel  of  42°.  The  original  C.,  however,  and  its  augmentation  were  distin- 
guished from  each  other  as  old  and  new,  lower  and  upper.  In  1848,  partly  by  conquest 
and  partly  by  purchase,  continental  C.,  down  to  the  parallel  of  32°  28',  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States.  After  existing  as  a territory  for  two  years,  it  was,  in  1850,  constituted 
one  of  the  United  States,  bounded  n.  by  Oregon,  e.  by  Nevada  and  Arizona,  s.  by  Lower 
C.,  and  w.  by  the  Pacific.  Between  the  two  Californias  of  the  present  day,  the  Ameri- 
can one  and  the  Mexican  one,  there  is  nothing  in  common  but  the  name. — 1.  Mexican  G. 
is  the  peninsula  above  mentioned,  which,  though  considerably  longer  than  Great  Britain, 
is  yet  so  narrow  as  to  be  very  little  larger  than  Scotland.  From  end  to  end,  it  is  one 
ridge  of  mountains,  which  here  and  there  rise  to  about  5000  ft.  above  the  sea.  A few 
favored  spots  yield  fruits  and  grains  in  abundance;  but,  generally  speaking,  the  produc- 
tions are  unimportant,  for  even  trees,  and  those  of  no  great  size,  are  found  only  towards 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  country.  The  population  does  not  exceed  25,000 — the 
oldest  and  most  considerable  town,  Loretto,  on  the  e.  side,  containing  barely  1000  inhab- 
itants. On  the  w.  side  is  the  magnificent  harbor,  peculiarly  valuable  on  a coast  so  desti- 
tute of  shelter,  formed  by  the  bay  of  Magdalena  and  the  island  of  Santa  Margarita. — 2. 
American  G.,  vaguely  claimed,  under  the  name  of  New  Albion,  by  Drake  for  England 
in  1579,  lay  unoccupied  till  1767,  when  it  was  invaded  by  Franciscan  friars,  the  succes- 
sors in  Mexico  of  the  newly  expelled  Jesuits.  These  zealous  apostles,  backed,  when 
necessary,  by  armed  coadjutors,  planted  various  missions,  bringing  under  their  infiu- 
ence,  such  as  it  was,  the  great  mass  of  the  aborigines.  Under  such  circumstances,  the 
new  province  became  pre-eminent,  even  in  Spanish  America,  for  everything  that  could 
paralyze  the  progress  of  a community.  Anglo-Saxon  speculators  engrossed  most  of  the 
trade;  American  trappers  walked  through  the  land  as  if  it  had  been  their  own;  the 
Muscovites  established,  in  the  n.,  a town  under  the  ominous  title  of  Hoss  or  Russia;  and 
a Swiss  adventurer  of  the  name  of  Sutter,  who  had  carved  out  for  himself  a New  Helve- 
tia, virtually  set  the  government  at  defiance.  But  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Sutter’s 
mill-race  during  1847,  and  the  political  transfer  of  1848,  taken  together,  changed,  as  if 
by  a miracle,  the  aspect  of  affairs.  The  matchless  harbor  of  San  Francisco  became  the 
grand  mart  on  the  Pacific,  presenting  a center  of  attraction  to  the  restless  and  energetic 
of  every  race  and  every  clime.  Between  1850  and  1855,  the  population  increased  from 
92,597  to  327,000;  in  1870,  it  was  560,247;  and  in  1875,  it  was  above  800,000,  of  whom 
75,000  werg  Chinese.  The  total  yield  of  gold  in  this  state  up  to  1875  was  about 
$1,000,000,000.  In  1874,  the  value  of  the  gold  and  silver  produced  was  $20,300,531, 
and  in  1875,  $17,753,151.  C.  possesses  the  richest  quicksilver  mine  in  the  world — that 
of  New  Almaden — which  at  one  time  produced  from  2,500,000  lbs.  to  3,500,000  lbs. 
per  annum.  It  now  yields  about  1,000,000  lbs.  In  1864,  15,000  tons  of  copper  were 
exported,  to  be  smelted  at  Swansea  and  Boston,  but  not  nearly  so  much  is  now  pro- 
duced. Platinum  has  been  found  in  many  of  the  placers.  There  is  coal  in  nearly  all 
the  coast  counties;  and  asphaltum  is  produced  by  many  springs  along  the  southern 
coast.  Other  mineral  products  are  iron,  tin,  and  borax.  The  yield  of  wheat  in  1870 
was  16,676,702  bushels;  of  barley,  8,783,490.  In  the  year  1875,  3,000,000  gallons  of 
wine  were  made,  the  product  of  30,000,000  vines.  Silk  culture  is  making  rapid  prog- 
ress; and  the  woolen  factories  of  C.  consume  nearly  6,000,000  lbs.  of  wool  annually, 
while  about  30,000,000  lbs.  are  exported.  Manufacturing  industr}^  has  lately  greatly 
increased,  the  chief  manufactures  being  woolen  goods,  flour,  iron,  glass,  wine,  sugar, 
and  silk.  The  amount  of  taxable  property,  real  and  personal,  as  assessed  in  1878,  was- 
$584,583,651.  The  state  debt  amounted  in  the  same  year  to  $3,403,000. 

The  country  is  mountainous,  and  is  cut  into  coast  and  interior  by  a subordinate  range 
from  Oregon.  The  interior  is  subdivided  into  the  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  the 
San  Joachim — two  rivers  from  the  n.e.  and  the  s.e.,  which  enter  the  noble  haven  of  San 
Francisco.  The  former  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  “diggings.”  Since  the  completion  of 
the  Pacific  railway,  terminating  in  San  Francisco,  C.  has  been  visited  by  many  pleasure- 
seekers,  attracted  by  its  magnificent  scenery.  The  most  celebrated  district  is  the 
Yosemite  valley  (q.v.).  C.,  with  a lovely  and  salubrious  climate,  produces  fruits  and 

grains  freely,  under  advantageous  circumstances  of  soil  and  situation.  In  the  growth 
of  timber,  however,  it  appears  to  be  almost  unrivaled.  Fremont  measured  one  tree 
tliat  was  21  ft.  in  diameter,  or  66  in  circumference;  and  another  has  been  seen,  which, 
with  a length  of  150  yards,  is  nearly  120  ft.  in  girth.  A sequoia  gigantea  in  IMariposa 
county  is  274  ft.  in  height.  Besides  San  Francisco,  the  state  contains  the  cities  of 
Sacramento  (the  capital),  Oakland,  Stockton,  San  Jose,  Los  Angelos,  Marysville,  and 
San  Diego,  with  the  second  best  port  in  the  state.  There  are  several  Protestant  and 
Catholic  colleges  in  C. , and  education  is  progressing. 


307 


California.  * 


CALIFORNIA  {ante).  This  name,  originally  given  to  a portion  of  western  North 
America,  was  apparently  taken  from  a Spanish  romance  published  in  1510,  in  which  the 
author  speaks  of  “ the  great  island  of  C.,  where  a great  abundance  of  gold  and  precious 
stones  is  found,”  The  coast  of  the  present  C.  was  explored  by  Cabrillo,  in  1542,  as  far 
up  as  cape  Mendocino,  in  42°  north.  In  1578,  sir  Francis  Drake,  who  was  plunder- 
ing Spanish  commerce,  coasted  along  as  far  as  48°  n.,  and  landed  to  refit  his  ships 
.either  in  sir  Francis  Drake’s  bay  or  the  bay  of  San  Francisco — probably  in  the  for- 
mer. In  1602,  the  bays  of  San  Diego  and  Monterey  were  discovered  by  Viscaino,  and 
then  came  an  interval  of  a century  and  a half  before  settlements  began  to  be  made.  The 
Jesuits,  who  had  missions  in  lower.  C.,  made  some  settlements  in  the  present  C.  about 
1760;  but  in  1767  they  were  expelled  from  the  country  by  the  order  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
and  their  property  was  turned  over  to  the  Franciscans,  who  established  a number  of 
missions,  and  prospered  well  until  Mexico  became  independent  (1822);  thenceforward 
they  rapidly  declined,  and  in  1840  were  broken  up  altogether.  The  treatment  of  the 
natives  by  these  missions  was  such  as  to  promote  their  worldly  welfare,  but  was  not 
.especially  notable  for  intellectual  improvement;  indeed,  it  is  charged  that  the  Indians 
were  little  better  than  slaves  under  this  rule.  There  were  in  all  21  missions,  the  first 
founded  in  1769,  the  last  in  1820.  They  were  all  on  or  near  the  coast  or  bay  of  San 
Francisco,  and  the  priests  displayed  excellent  judgment  in  selecting  for  their  settlements 
the  best  garden  spots  in  the  country.  The  Indian  population  was  large  until  about  the 
time  of  the  cession  to  the  United  States.  In  1734,  the  Indians  drove  out  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries, but  they  raturued  very  soon  and  succeeded  in  collecting  and  to  some  extent 
civilizing  many  of  the  natives,  so  that  40  years  ago  the  “ mission”  Indians  numbered 
about  30,000.  The  aborigines  in  northern  C.  were  much  superior  to  those  in  the  south. 
Under  Mexican  rule  the  Indians  were  recognized  as  owners  of  their  lands,  but  the 
United  States  never  acknowledged  the  right,  and  now  the  aborigines  are  homeless.  In 
1870,  there  were  29,000  Indians  in  all  the  states.  The  principal  tribes  were  the  Klamaths, 
the  Hoopas,  the  Ukies,  the  Redwoods,  the  Tules,  the  Tejons,  the  Siahs,  the  Wylackies, 
the  Concows,  the  Wichmunies,  the  Coweas,  and  the  Yokas. 

California  was  very  little  known  on  this  side  of  the  continent  until  within  the  past 
35  years.  Half  a century  ago,  about  all  the  trade  with  C.  was  from  Boston,  whose  mer- 
chants sent  out  groceries  and  cotton  goods  in  exchange  for  furs,  the  voyage  around  cape 
Horn  lasting  two  years  or  more.  Now  and  then  a wandering  American  or  Englishman 
w^ould  settle  in  C.,  and  a few  daring  adventurers  found  their  way  across  the  continent, 
so  that  by  1830  it  was  thought  there  were  as  many  as  500  foreigners  w.  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada. 

The  territory  was  once  seized  by  the  United  States,  but  was  relinquished  the  next 
day.  This  was  in  1842,  when  commodore  Jones  of  the  American  navy  captured  the 
fort  at  Monterey,  and  hoisted  the  stars  and  stripes;  but  the  next  morning  he  hauled 
down  his  flag,  and  apologized  for  the  mistake.  It  was  about  this  time  that  three  nations, 
the  United  States,  France,  and  England,  were  looking  with  peculiar  interest  at  the  Cali- 
fornias,  upper  as  well  as  lower.  Both  the  European  powers  were  suspected  of  coveting 
possession,  a thing  the  United  States  could  not  tolerate.  The  result  was  that  about  the 
time  war  was  declared  against  Mexico,  col.  Fremont,  who  was  conducting  a scientific 
expedition  on  the  Pacific  coast,  received — in  May,  1846 — certain  instructions  by  an 
officer  who  had  landed  from  a national  ship  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  crossed  the  land  to 
Mazatlan;  whereupon  Fremont  abandoned  his  investigations  and  made  his  way  to 
Sonoma,  where  he  organized  a battalion  of  mounted  riflemen,  and  on  the  5th  of  July 
recommended  a declaration  of  independence.  On  the  2d  of  that  month  commodore 
Sloat  in  a United  States  frigate  put  in  at  Monterey,  and  on  the  7th  hoisted  the  stars 
and  stripes  with  no  intention  of  imitating  his  predecessor’s  example  by  pulling  them 
down.  He  issued  a proclamation  declaring  C.  to  be  from  that  time  forward  a part  of 
the  United  States,  Some  little  fighting  was  had  with  the  Californians,  and  there  arose 
a bitter  discussion  among  army  and  navy  officers  concerning  their  part  in  the  conquest 
of  the  country,  Fremont  brought  trouble  on  himself  by  obeying  the  orders  of  commo- 
dore Stockton  (who  had  superseded  Sloat)  instead  of  those  of  gen.  Kearney,  who  ranked 
him  and  assumed  command.  Kearney  preferred  charges,  and  Fremont  was  tried  by 
court-martial,  which  found  him  guilty  of  “mutiny  and  disobedience  of  the  lawful  com- 
mand of  a superior  officer.”  The  president  rejected  the  finding  as  to  the  mutiny,  and 
remitted  the  penalty  on  the  other  count,  but  Fremont  refused  the  clemency  and  resigned. 
He  afterwards  conducted  several  famous  overland  expeditions,  which  met  great  suffer- 
ings, and  was  so  much  connected  with  Californian  affairs  that  the  people  almost  every- 
where considered  him  the  real  conqueror  of  the  territory. 

At  the  end  of  the  war  the  annexation  of  C.  to  the  United  States  came  with  the  treaty 
of  peace,  ratified  May  19,  1848,  and  then  the  question  became  pressing  whether  it  should 
be  a free  or  a slave  state — a question  hotly  discussed  long  before.  Up  to  the  adjourn- 
ment of  congress,  on  the  4th  of  Mar.,  1849,  nothing  had  been  done  towards  organizing 
either  state  or  territorial  government  except  making  San  Francisco  a port  of  entry,  and 
extending  the  customs  and  revenue  laws  over  the  country.  The  people  of  C.  then  took 
affairs  into  their  own  hands,  and  in  Sept,  of  that  year  held  a convention,  which 
framed  a state  constitution  in  which  slavery  was  expressly  forbidden.  On  the  7th  of 
Sept.,  1850,  a bill  was  passed  by  congress  admitting  C.  as  a state  without  slavery,  but 


California. 


308 


leaving  New  Mexico  and  Utah  (organized  into  territories  on  the  same  day)  open  to  its 
introduction.  This  legislation  was  the  “ omnibus  bill  ” and  a part  of  the  famous  com- 
promise measures  through  which  it  was  hoped  that  the  question  of  slavery  would  be 
permanently  settled,  or  at  least  removed  from  discussion  in  congress. 

The  discovery  of  gold  at  capt.  Sutter’s  mill,  in  Feb.,  1848,  attracted  towards  C.  a tide 
of  emigration  unparalleled  in  modern  times.  From  40,u00  a year  or  two  before  the  war, 
the  white  population  rose  to  323,000  in  1860,  and  500,000  in  1870.  The  gold  fever  was 
the  phenomenon  of  the  age.  The  emigrants  were  nearly  all  young  or  middle-aged  men, 
scarcely  a hundred  women  going  out  for  the  first  year  or  two.  Nine  tenths  of  the  adven- 
turers rushed  at  once  to  the  mines,  or  prospected  for  new  ones.  The  organization  of  so- 
ciety was  neglected,  and  in  many  places  the  only  law  was  the  momentary  decision  of  the 
people  themselves.  Fortunes  were  made  in  a day,  and  the  golden  stream  flowed  east- 
ward with  steady  and  rapid  increase,  so  that  the  gold  production  of  the  United  States 
for  the  17  years  from  1849  to  1875  averaged  $15,600,000  per  year.  In  1853,  the  product 
of  the  C.  mines  was  $65,000,000.  All  property  was  affected  by  the  fever;  lots  in  San 
Francisco  were  worth  gold  coin  enough  to  carpet  them ; speculation  ran  wild ; all  forms 
of  gambling  were  recognized  as  legitimate  business;  adventurers  and  criminals  flocked 
in,  and  society  became  chaotic.  Self-preservation  soon  demanded  order,  and  the  cele- 
brated vigilance  committee  enforced  it.  The  latest  of  those  committees  assumed  the 
proportions  of  a regular  government,  and  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  state  power  to 
disband  it;  but  formally  resigned  near  the  close  of  1856,  after  hanging  four  culprits, 
and  driving  hundreds  of  the  worst  from  the  state.  ' • 

C.,  popularly  called  the  “golden  state,”  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  Oregon,  the  line 
running  e.  on  the  42d  degree  to  the  120th  parallel,  thence  s.  to  the  3^h  degree,  thence 
s.e.  to  the  intersection  of  the  35th  degree  on  the  Colorado  river,  thence  along  that  river 
to  the  Mexican  or  lower  California  boundary  about  33°  n,,  and  thence  direct  nearly  w. 
to  the  Pacific.  The  extreme  length  from  s.e.  to  n.w.  is  about  750  m.,  and  the  breadth 
an  average  of  about  240  m.  The  area  given  in  the  census  of  1870  is  188,981  sq.m.,  but 
that  amount  is  probably  too  large  by  25,000  sq.m.  Near  the  coast  below  34°  are  the 
islands  of  San  Miguel,  Santa  Rosa,  Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Catalina,  San 
Nicolas,  and  San  Clementes,  but  none  of  them  are  important,  and  but  one  or  two  are 
under  cultivation. 

The  principal  harbors  on  the  Pacific  are  San  Francisco,  San  Diego,  Humboldt,  Santa 
Barbara,  Monterey,  Bodega,  San  Luis  Obisbo,  and  Tomales.  The  bay  of  San  Francisco 
is  the  finest  harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Entering  by  the  “ Golden  Gate,”  a strait  only 
a m.  wide  and  5 m.  long,  vessels  are  in  a land-locked  bay  about  9 m.  wide  by  50  in 
length,  sheltered  from  the  ocean  by  land  from  6 to  15  m.  wide.  The  bay  of  San  Pablo 
is  a portion  of  that  of  San  Francisco.  San  Diego,  in  the  s.,  is  also  an  important  harbor. 
The  surface  of  C.  is  generally  rough.  There  are  two  mountain  chains  running  through; 
the  Coast  range,  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  or  snowy  mountains,  the  latter  forming  in  some 
parts  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state.  Both  ranges  arc  united  at  the  n.  and  s.  end. 
The  Coast  mountains  are  comparatively  low,  seldom  showing  peaks  as  high  as  5000  feet. 
The  range  is  near  the  ocean,  and  there  are  but  few  available  harbors  along  the  700  m.  of 
coast.  The  bay  of  San  Francisco  pierces  this  range,  which  is  further  divided  by  valleys 
such  as  the  Napa,  Sonoma,  Los  Angeles,  and  Salinas.  In  breath  the  Coast  range  is 
from  20  to  40  miles.  The  plains  and  valleys  are  fertile,  and  generally  have  a delightful 
climate.  A lesser  chain,  the  Mount  Diablo  range,  is  about  150  m.  in  length  by  about  25 
wide.  One  of  the  prominent  natural  features  near  San  Francisco  is  the  Contra  Costa 
range  of  hills,  running  from  Carquines  bay  about  50  m.  in  a s.e.  direction.  Some  of  the 
higher  of  the  Coast  mountains  are : Mts.  Diablo,  3881  ft. ; Ripley,  7500  ft. ; Downie, 
5675  ft. ; and  San  Carlos,  4977  ft.  All  these  mountains  are  heavily  clothed  in  verdure, 
and  nearly  all  contain  minerals  of  value.  In  the  n.  part  of  the  state  numerous  branches 
of  the  Coast  range  and  the  Sierras  intermingle,  rendering  that  portion  extremely  rugged. 
The  Sierra  Nevada  range,  starting  from  Mt.  San  Bernardino,  about  34°  n.,  runs  n.w. 
and  n.,  and  reaches  the  Coast  range  again  at  41°  15'  by  a western  spur.  The  summits  of 
the  Sierra  mountains  are  in  many  instances  above  the  snow  line,  and  there  are  but  few 
available  passes.  The  range  is  about  450  m.  long,  and  from  50  to  80  m.  wide.  The 
mountains  are  thickly  wooded  as  far  as  trees  will  grow,  and  above  the  green  pines  shoot 
up  bare  and  snow-covered  granite  peaks.  Some  of  the  altitudes  are;  Shasta,  14,442  ft. ; 
Tyndall,  14,386  ft.;  Brewer,  13,886  ft.;  Dana,  13,277  ft.;  Castle,  13,000ft.;  Lassen, 
10,577ft.  The  Johnson  “pass”  over  this  range  is  6752  ft.,  and  that  of  the  Central 
Pacific  is  7042  ft.  above  tide.  Mt.  Diablo,  about  28  m.  n.e.  from  San  Francisco,  is  a 
lone  and  very  conspicuous  peak,  affording  from  its  summit  a comprehensive  and  pictur- 
esque view;  and  the  same  is  true  of  Mt.  Helena,  at  the  head  of  Napa  valley,  60  m.  n. 
from  San  Francisco. 

The  region  between  these  great  mountain  ranges  seems  to  have  been  once  the  bottom 
of  a lake.  It  is  now  called  the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin  valleys,  and  includes 
about  25,000  sq.m.,  reaching  400  m.  n.  and  s.,  and  having  a width  of  more  than  50  miles. 
The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers  drain  this  valley — the  former  the  northern  and 
the  latter  the  southern  portion.  Near  the  central  part  of  the  region  these  rivers  unite, 
and  find  an  outlet  through  the  coast  mountains  to  the  ocean.  In  the  extreme  s.  small 
lakes  and  marshes  cover  a considerable  extent.  The  land  in  this  vast  central  basin  is 


309 


California. 


remarkably  fertile,  and  level  near  the  large  streams,  but  rolling  and  hilly  towards  the 
mountains.  There  is  a plateau  or  table-land  in  the  n.  at  about  41°,  which  is  more  than 
100  m.  long  and  about  5000  ft.  above  tide.  This  high  plain  forms  a basin  by  itself, 
having  no  outlet  for  water.  In  the  s.  part  of  C.  is  another  basin  known  as  the  Colo- 
rado desert.  It  is  about  150  by  70  m.,  and  is  mostly  a barren  waste  of  sand. 

The  largest  river  is  the  Colorado,  which  forms  the  boundary  along  Arizona,  and  is 
navigable  beyond  the  C.  line.  The  Sacramento  is  navigable  as  far  as  the  city  of  Sacra- 
mento, and  the  San  Joaquin  is  available  for  light-draft  boats  nearly  to  the  sierras. 
Mountain  lakes  are  a feature  of  California.  Lake  Tahoe,  on  the  summit  of  the  sierras, 
6200  ft.  above  tide,  is  about  20  m.  long  and  1500  ft.  deep,  and  its  water  is  exceedingly 
pure.  The  overflow  passes  into  Truckee  river,  and  disappears  by  evaporation.  Other 
lakes  are  Clear,  Owen’s,  and  Mono,  the  latter  14  by  9 m.,  and  7000  ft.  above  the  sea.  In 
Lassen  and  Modoc  cos.  are  several  large  alkaline  lakes. 

The  wonderful  scenery  of  the  Yosemite  valley  is  known  the  world  over.  This  val- 
ley is  in  the  sierras,  about  150  m.  a little  e.  of  s.  from  San  Francisco.  The  valley  is 
nearly  4000  ft.  above  tide,  and  is  hemmed  in  by  almost  perpendicular  cliffs  from  2000  to 
more  than  3000  ft.  high.  The  cascades  in  and  around  the  valley  are  of  great  beauty  and 
variety.  Yosemite  creek  falls  2600  ft.  in  three  leaps,  the  highest  being  1500  feet.  The 
Merced  and  Nevada  falls  combine  nearly  as  great  heights  with  larger  bodies  of  water, 
and  are  surprisingly  grand.  A commanding  object  in  the  valley  is  the  Half  Dome,  a 
rocky  mass  rising  about  4750  ft.  above  the  level,  and  presenting  a vertical  face  of  1500 
feet.  Parallel  with  the  Merced  river,  which  flows  directly  through  the  valley,  and  a 
little  farther  n.,  is  the  Tuolumne,  noted  for  the  number  and  beauty  of  its  cascades,  and 
the  picturesque  scenery  along  its  course.  This  river  falls  4650  ft.  in  the  course  of  22 
miles.  Mt.  Dana,  over  13,000  ft.  high,  dominates  the  region  above  the  Yosemite,  and 
from  its  easily  accessible  summit  opens  a magnificent  panorama  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Mono  lake  is  7000  ft.  below;  beyond  are  the  lofty  and  in  some  instances  snow-clad  peaks 
of  the  great  basin,  while  volcanic  cones  are  visible  to  the  s.  of  the  lake. 

“ The  big  trees”  are  another  peculiar  and  remarkable  feature  of  California.  There 
are  several  groups  or  patches  of  these  forest  giants,  the  most  important  being  about  3^ 
m.  n.n.e.  of  Visalia.  They  are  called  sequoia  gigantea,  or  giant  red-wood,  and  vary 
from  the  height  of  a large  pine  to  nearly  400  ft.,  with  circumferences  at  a man’s  height 
from  the  ground  varying  from  25  to  more  than  100  feet.  One  is  still  standing  that  is 
reported  to  be  376  ft.  high  and  104  ft.  around;  and  remains  of  fallen  trees  show  that 
there  have  been  specimens  considerably  larger.  One  was  cut  down  which  was  more 
than  24  ft.  in  diameter  without,  and  about  27  ft.  with,  the  bark,  or  a circumference  of 
nearly  85  ft. ; its  age  was  nearly  1300  years.  Other  C.  timbers  are  pines  in  large  variety, 
black  oak,  ash,  hickory,  elm,  beech,  white  cedar,  spruce,  fir,  laurel,  tamarack,  cypress, 
yew,  juniper,  chestnut,  acacia,  poplar,  cottonwood,  walnut,  maple,  buckeye,  etc.  Of 
shrubs  the  more  remarkable  are  the  thorny  manzanita  and  the  chamiso,  which  form  the 
impenetrable  undergrowth  known  as  “ chaparral.” 

The  fauna  of  C.  is  varied  and  extensive,  and  may  be  headed  by  the  grizzly  bear 
(now  almost  extinct).  There  are  black,  brown,  and  cinnamon  bears;  sea-lions, 
whose  noises  and  gambols  around  Seal  Rock  in  San  Francisco  bay  attract  thousands  of 
sight-seers;  beaver  (rapidly  disappearing) ; ground  squirrels  (great  plagues  to  farmers  for 
their  burrows  in  the  soil) ; gophers  (a  similar  nuisance) ; mountain  squirrels ; elk  (once 
abundant  but  nearly  extinct);  deer;  antelope  (rapidly  thinning  out);  mountain  sheep 
(also  nearly  gone);  raccoons,  skunks,  badgers,  martens,  minks,  weasels,  wolves,  musk- 
rats, porcupines,  otters,  wild  cats,  coyotes,  foxes,  rabbits,  etc.  Birds  are  abundant; 
those  peculiar  to  the  region  are  the  road-runner,  nearly  allied  to  the  cuckoo,  but 
like  a pheasant  inhabit  of  running  and  inaptitude  to  fly;  the  C.  woodpecker,  which 
bores  holes  in  the  bark  of  trees  and  fills  the  cavities  with  acorns,  the  object  apparently 
being  to  collect  food  in  which  grubs  will  fatten  and  in  due  time  gratify  the  palate  of  the 
bird.  The  C.  vulture  is  the  largest  flying  bird  in  North  America;  the  sage  hen  is  a 
valuable  bird,  and  plentiful;  there  are  two  species  of  quail,  besides  eagles,  hawks,  owls, 
buzzards,  crows,  magpies,  ravens,  jays,  swallows,  humming-birds,  robins,  larks,  orioles, 
pigeons,  doves,  cranes,  bitterns,  herons,  coots,  snipe,  rails,  sandpipers,  curlews,  ducks, 
teal,  geese,  the  pelican,  albatross,  cormorant,  loon,  gull,  petrel,  etc.  The  rattlesnake  is 
the  only  dangerous  reptile,  but  there  are  many  other  serpents,  with  tortoises,  frogs,  toads, 
lizards,  and  salamanders.  Fish  are  abundant,  and  include  salmon,  eels,  mackerel, 
blackfish,  perch,  redfish,  flounders,  herring,  shad,  sturgeon,  sharks,  and  sunfish.  Oysters, 
clams,  scallops,  etc.,  with  lobsters,  crabs,  and  shrimps,  are  abundant. 

Nearly  all  the  gold  mines  are  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  in  a belt  of 
country  about  220  by  40  m. , or  nearly  9000  sq.m. , extending  n.  to  Oregon.  The  richest 
section  is  in  the  middle  of  this  auriferous  belt.  The  gold  is  in  a metallic  condition,  and 
mixed  with  silver  and  other  metals.  In  the  stream  and  alluvial  deposits  the  metal  is  in 
fine  scales,  with  occasional  lumps;  in  rock  it  is  in  veins  or  quartz  lodes.  The  gold  in 
the  soil  is  gotten  out  by  washing,  and  the  process  is  called  “placer  mining,”  from 
“placer,”  i.e.,  “ place  of  deposit.”  Rock  mining  is  more  expensive,  and  requires  heavy 
and  costly  machinery  for  crushing  or  grinding  the  quartz,  from  which  the  metal  is 
extracted  by  amalgamation  with  quicksilver.  From  a single  quartz  mill  in  1851,  the 
number  rose  to  421  in  1870.  Mercury  is  found  in  C.  in  the  form  of  sulphuret,  or  cinnabar. 


California. 


310 


which  is  plentiful  in  the  coast  range  in  the  s.  part  of  the  state,  particularly  at  New  Alma- 
den.  In  separating  gold  by  amalgamation,  the  crushed  ore  is  put  with  the  mercury  into 
a revolving  drum,  and  whirled  around  for  a time.  When  the  drum  is  opened  there  is 
found  a fluid  mass,  which  is  the  mercury,  appearing  lialf  congealed,  and  containing  all 
the  gold.  The  mixture  is  poured  into  a retort  and  heat  is  applied,  when  the  mercury 
distills  over,  leaving  the  gold  in  the  retort.  The  mercury  is  then  ready  for  future  use. 
Silver  has  been  found  in  many  places  in  C.,  but  not  much  attention  has  been  given  to 
it.  There  are  silver  and  copper  ores  in  combination  in  the  s.e.  part  of  the  state,  and 
very  superior  magnetic  iron  ores  in  the  coast  range  and  other  parts.  Copper  and  man- 
ganese have  also  been  found,  and  the  valuable  platinum  is  plentiful  in  the  valley  of  the 
Klamath.  Tin,  lead,  zinc,  plumbago,  and  antimony  are  found,  and  there  are  asphaltum 
and  petroleum  in  some  places.  There  are  hot  springs  impregnated  with  alum;  and  buhr- 
stone,  alabaster,  granite,  and  marble,  some  of  the  latter  flnely  variegated.  Gypsum, 
bismuth,  brick  and  porcelain  clay,  and  hydraulic  limestone  are  found.  There  is  bitumi- 
nous coal  in  Mt.  Diablo  and  the  neighboring  hills,  and  salt  in  several  places.  Very  rich 
deposits  of  sulphur  have  been  worked  in  one  locality.  One  of  C.’s  mineral  novelties  is 
biborate  of  soda,  or  borax,  found  in  Clear  lake,  the  water  of  which  is  impregnated  with 
the  mineral,  the  borax  being  crystallized  in  the  mud  that  forms  the  bottom  of  the  lake; 
and  near  another  borax  lake  there  are  a number  of  boiling  springs,  the  water  of  which  is 
impregnated  with  soda,  chlorine,  and  boracic  acid. 

The  state  possesses  some  valuable  advantages  of  climate,  the  leading  feature  being 
the  remarkable  uniformity  of  temperature.  Comparing  San  Francisco  with  Washington, 
we  find  the  mean  of  the  year  to  be  about  the  same;  but  the  summer  mean  is  60°  in  San 
Francisco  and  76.3°  in  Washington,  while  the  winter  mean  is  51°  in  San  Francisco  and 
36.05°  in  Washington.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  isothermal  lines  run  much  farther  n.  than 
on  the  Atlantic.-  The  line  that  passes  through  New  York  touches  the  Pacific  near  Van- 
couver island;  that  of  Halifax,  N.  S.,  reaches  n.  of  Sitka,  in  Alaska;  and  if  we  go 
s.  down  the  sea-coast  we  find  San  Diego  6 or  7 degrees  cooler  than  Charleston  and  Vicks- 
burg, which  are  in  nearly  the  same  latitude.  There  are  but  two  seasons  in  C.,  the  dry, 
and  the  rainy;  the  winds  are  remarkably  uniform,  and  in  the  hot  months  there  is  invari- 
ably a strong  cool  breeze  from  the  ocean.  Some  of  the  valleys  shut  from  the  wind 
endure  very  high  temperature,  often  as  much  as  120°  in  the  shade ; but  even  there  at 
night  the  radiation  is  so  intense  that  bed-blankets  are  needed.  In  the  s.e.,  C.  is  intoler- 
ably hot;  at  fort  Yuma  the  range  is  often  above  90°  day  and  night  for  weeks  together; 
but  this  is  an  exceptional  place.  ' 

The  volcanic  character  of  C.  is  manifested  by  the  mountain  formations,  and,  as  in  all 
such  regions,  there  are  occasional  earthquakes.  There  was  one  in  Mar. , 1872,  of  great 
violence,  giving  one  tremendous  and  many  lesser  shocks,  upheaving  and  cracking  the 
ground,  and  causing  the  destruction  of  30  lives  and  a vast  amount  of  property.  In  1861, 
there  were  heavy  floods  in  the  same  parts  of  the  state,  whereby  property  to  the  value  of 
millions  of  dollars  was  destroyed.  To  these  calamities  fire  added  enormously,  especially 
in  San  Francisco. 

Agriculture  in  C.  is  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  rain.  If  there  is  plenty,  excel- 
lent crops  are  the  result;  if  rain  fails,  the  crops  are  inferior  or  worthless.  Only  a small 
portion  of  C.’s  120,000,000  acres  are  available  for  farming,  and  the  census  of  1870 
returned  only  6,200,000  so  used.  Sowing  is  done  in  Nov.,  and  June  and  Julj^  are 
harvest  months.  Machinery  is  largely  employed  in  agriculture.  Fruits  are  important 
and  abundant.  Grapes  and  wines  from  C.  are  always  in  the  eastern  markets.  As  early 
as  1861,  a million  gallons  of  wine  were  made  in  C.  (see  American  Wines).  Apples, 
pears,  plums,  apricots,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  pomegranates,  olives,  and  almonds  are 
raised.  Cotton  and  the  sugar-beet  grow  well.  Wool-growing  is  a large  industry,  the 
hilly  parts  of  the  state  being  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of  sheep,  which  need  neither 
fodder  nor  shelter,  even  in  winter. 

C.  is  not  remarkable  for  manufacturing  industries,  though  they  are  increasing. 
Flour  and  grist  mills  and  lumber-mills  are  in  great  number.  Boots  and  shoes,  cigars, 
wagons,  woolen  goods,  gunpowder,  tanneries,  chemicals,  and  iron  may  be  mentioned. 
The  branch  mint  in  San  Francisco  turns  out  a large  coinage. 

The  heterogeneousness  of  the  population  of  C.  is  noticeable.  The  gold  excitement 
brought  people  from  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  every  slumbering  clime  awoke  and  sent 
onward  her  legions.  Of  560,247  inhabitants  in  1870,  209,848  were  born  in  the  following 
countries:  Africa,  48;  Asia  (not  including  China  and  Japan),  56;  Atlantic  islands,  943; 
Australia,  1593;  Austria,  1078;  Belgium,  291;  Bohemia,  90;  British  America,  10,670; 
Central  America,  126;  China,  48,826;  Cuba,  45;  Denmark,  1837;  France,  8068;  Ger- 
many, 29,701;  England,  17,699;  Ireland,  54,421;  Scotland,  4949;  Wales,  1517  (total  of 
British  subjects,  90,926);  Greece,  97;  Greenland,  1;  Holland,  472;  Italy,  4660;  Japan, 
33;  Luxembourg,  11;  Mexico  (the  native  Californians  were  naturalized  by  the  treaty), 
0339;  Norway,  1000;  Pacific  islands,  93;  Poland,  804;  Portugal,  2508;  Russia,  540; 
Sandwich  islands,  278;  South  America,  1956;  Spain,  405;  Sweden,  1944;  Switzerland, 
2927;  Turkey,  17;  West  Indies  (except  Cuba),  350;  at  sea,  142.  Everyone  of  the 
United  States  and  territories  was  represented.  The  largest  numbers  were  from  New 
York,  33,766;  Illinois,  10,695;  Maine,  11,261;  ^Massachusetts,  15,334;  Missouri,  16,050; 
Pennsylvania,  11,201;  others  ranging  from  10,000  down  to  7 for  Dakota,  Avkile  23  came 


311 


California. 


from  Alaska.  The  natives  of  C.  were  163,653,  not  quite  30  per  cent  of  all  natives.  Of 
the  entire  population  only  26,909  were  natives  of  the  United  States  born  of  native 
parents,  or  less  than  5 per  cent.  Males  largely  exceeded  females,  being  349,479  to 
210,768.  The  Chinese  are  the  cause  of  much  annoyance  to  many  of  the  people,  who 
urge  against  them  that  they  unduly  cheapen  labor,  and  that  they  bring  demoralization; 
and  strong  efforts  have  been  made,  both  by  legislation  and  by  popular  violence  or 
threat,  to  keep  them  out,  but  hitherto  without  effect.  The  problem  is  complex  and  dif- 
licult;  and  its  solution  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  yet  reached.  In  1870,  there  were 
11,703  Chinese  in  San  Francisco,  about  8 per  cent  of  the  total  population. 

The  chief  cities  and  towns  in  the  order  of  population,  in  1870,  are  San  Francisco, 
Sacramento  (the  state  capital),  Oakland  (across  the  bay  from  San  Francisco),  Stockton, 
San  Jose,  Los  Angeles,  Maryville,  Santa  Cruz,  San  Diego. 

C.  is  well  supplied  with  serial  literature.  At  the  beginning  of  1879  there  were  41 
daily  newspapers,  1 tri-weekly,  9 semi-weekly,  209  weekly,  1 semi-monthly,  19  monthly, 
1 bi-monthly,  and  2 quarterly  publications.  The  state  has  made  ample  provision  for 
education.  School  age  is  from  5 to  21;  persons  within  the  age,  205,475;  enrolled, 
154.079;  average  attendance,  94,696;  school-days  in  the  year,  144;  teachers  of  common 
schools,  3293;  school  fund,  $2,011,800;  income,  $3,820,661;  expenses,  $3,155,815;  value 
of  school  property,  $6,343,369.  There  is  a state  normal  school  at  San  Jose,  having,  at 
last  report,  90  students.  In  1879,  there  were  13  colleges,  viz. : Sacred  Heart,  St.  Igna- 
tius, and  St.  Mary’s,  all  in  San  Francisco,  and  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe,  at  Santa  Inez 
(all  Roman  Catholic);  0.  college,  at  Vacaville  (Baptist);  Hesperian,  at  Woodlawn,  and 
Pierce  Christian,  at  (College  City  (both  “Christian”);  Pacific  Methodist,  at  Santa  Rosa 
(Methodist  Episcopal,  South);  university  of  the  Pacific,  at  Santa  Clara  (Methodist);  St. 
Augustine,  at  Benicia  (Protestant  Episcopal);  the  university  of  C.,  at  Berkeley,  and  the 
university,  at  Washington  (both  non-sectarian).  The  Pacific  theological  seminary  (Con- 
gregational) and  the  San  Francisco  theological  seminary  (Presbyterian)  are  at  Oakland. 
Medical  education  is  provided  for  by  the  C.  college  of  pharmacy,  a medical  department 
of  the  university  of  C. , and  the  medical  college  of  the  Pacific,  all  in  San  Francisco. 
The  university  has  also  a law  department.  In  the  13  colleges  there  were  199  instructors 
and  3187  students;  in  the  theological  seminaries,  7 instructors  and  15  students  of  col- 
legiate grade;  in  medicine,  26  instructors  and  90  students;  and  in  law,  3 instructors  and 
103  students.  A special  course  of  three  years  is  provided  for  young  women  by  the 
Pacific  (Methodist)  college,  and  women  are  admitted  to  all,  except  the  Roman  Catholic 
colleges. 

The  railroads  in  California  at  the  beginning  of  1879,  and  the  number  of  miles  within 
the  state,  were:  Southern  Pacific,  from  San  Francisco  to  Colorado  river  (to  unite  with 
the  projected  Texas  Pacific  from  the  Mississippi  river),  712  m. ; Central  Pacific,  from 
San  Francisco  to  Ogden,  Utah,  615  m. ; Northern,  from  Oakland  to  Suisun,  113^ 
m. ; California  Pacific,  from  San  Vallejo  to  Sacramento,  113  m, ; San  Francisco  and  N. 
Pacific,  from  San  Rafael  to  Cloverdale,  94  m. ; N.  Pacific  Coast,  from  Sancelito  to  Mos- 
cow mills,  79f  m. ; Sacramento  and  Placerville,  from  Sacramento  to  Shingle  springs, 
49|  m. ; San  Pablo  and  Tulare,  from  Tracy  to  Martinez,  47  m. ; Stockton  and  Copper- 
opolis,  from  Stockton  to  Oakdale,  44j-  m. ; Vaca  Valley  and  Clear  Lake,  from  Elmira  to 
Madison,  30  m. ; S.  Pacific  Coast,  from  Dumbarton  to  Los  Galos,  29f  m. ; Los  Angeles 
and  San  Diego,  from  Florence  to  San  Diego,  27  m. ; Amador  Branch,  from  Galt  to  lone, 
27  m. ; Calfornia  Northern,  from  Marysville  to  Oroville,  26^  m. ; Nevada  County,  from 
Nevada  City  to  Colfax,  22i  m. ; Santa  Cruz,  from  Santa  Cruz  to  Vajaro  depot,  21^  m., 
and  nine  other  roads,  from  17  to  3^  m.  in  length;  there  being  2046  m.  of  railroad  in  the 
state. 

The  organic  law  of  C.  is  very  similar  to  that  of  New  York  and  other  old  states.  The 
constitution,  which  was  adopted  Nov.  13,  1849,  put  the  then  residents  on  the  same  stand- 
ing as  native-born  citizens  with  regard  to  property.  Public  debts  exceeding  $300,000  at 
one  time  cannot  be  incurred  unless  approved  by  popular  vote.  Voters  are  white  male 
citizens,  21  years  old,  resident  six  months  in  the  state,  and  30  days  in  the  voting  dis- 
trict. (The  15th  amendment  to  the  federal  constitution  makes  colored  citizens  also 
voters,  but  the  Chinese  are  not  permitted  to  vote.)  Elections  are  biennial,  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  September;  but  judges  and  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  are  voted 
for  at  special  elections  in  October.  A plurality  is  sufficient  to  elect.  The  assembly  has 
80,  and  the  senate  40  members,  who  are  paid  $10  per  day  for  sessions  limited  to  120 
days,  and  $3  for  every  20  m.  of  travel.  The  legislature  meets  biennially  at  Sacramento. 
The  chief  executive  officers  and  annual  salaries  are : Governor,  $7000 ; lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, $12  per  day  during  the  session  of  the  legislature,  and  $10  per  day  as  warden  of 
the  state  prison;  secretary  of  state,  $4000;  treasurer,  $4000;  controller,  $4000;  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  $3000;  adjutant-general,  $4000;  and  surveyor-general, 
$3000.  A chief  justice  and  four  associate  justices  of  the  supreme  court  are  chosen  for 
terms  of  ten  years,  having  salaries  of  $6000.  The  governor’s  veto  may  be  overcome  by 
a two-thirds  vote  in  the  legislature.  There  are  county  courts,  each  with  a single  judge, 
who  also  acts  as  surrogate,  except  in  San  Francisco.  The  wife  is  secured  in  both  real  and 
personal  property  had  before  or  acquired  after  marriage.  The  earnings  of  both  wife  and 
husband  are  common  property,  but  the  wife’s  earnings  are  not  liable  for  the  husband’s 
debts.  If  a wife  be  separated  from  her  husband,  her  earnings  and  those  of  her  miner 


California. 

Caligula. 


312 


children  are  her  own ; she  may  sue  and  be  sued  alone,  and,  by  leave  of  a court,  convey 
alone ; and  a married  woman  can  dispose  of  her  separate  estate  by  will.  Homesteads  to 
the  value  of  $5000  for  the  head  of  a family,  and  $1000  for  a single  person,  are  exempt 
from  levy.  Insolvent  debtors,  resident  and  non-resident,  can  be  discharged  from  debts 
upon  making  assignment  of  all  their  property,  and  publishing  notice  thereof.  The 
more  important  penalties  are:  For  treason,  and  murder  in  the  first  degree,  death;  mur- 
der in  the  second  degree,  and  robbery  from  the  person,  10  years  to  life  imprisonment; 
manslaughter,  10  years  or  less;  killing  in  a duel,  7 years  or  less;  mayhem,  14  years 
Ox  less;  rape,  from  5 years  to  life;  forgery  and  perjury,  14  years  or  less.  Chinese 
and  Indians  cannot  testify  in  court  against  white  persons,  and  special  taxes  are  imposed 
to  restrict  immigration  from  China  (but  this  is  believed  to  be  illegal  under  our  treaties 
with  China).  Any  rate  of  interest  agreed  upon  is  lawful.  Open  accounts  are  outlawed 
in  two  years;  notes  in  four,  and  judgments  in  five,  years. 

• This  constitution  was  in  force  until  1879.  In  that  year  (Mar.  3)  a state  convention, 
which  had  been  in  session  157  days,  reported  a new  constitution,  in  which  there  were 
many  novel  propositions  and  radical  changes  from  the  old  organic  law.  The  new  con- 
stitution was  vigorously  opposed,  but  in  the  vote  taken  May  7 there  were  77,959  in 
favor  and  67,134  opposed,  showing  an  affirmative  majority  of  10,825.  The  main  pro- 
visions of  the  new  constitution  are  the  following;  Trial  by  jury  may  be  waived,  by  con- 
sent of  parties,  in  criminal  cases  not  amounting  to  felony;  and  in  civil  cases  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  law.  In  civil  actions  and  misdemeanors  juries  may  consist  of  12,  or  less,  as 
parties  may  agree;  and  three  fourths  of  a jury  may  decide  a verdict  in  civil  actions.  No 
native  of  China,  no  idiot,  insane  person,  or  person  convicted  of  infamous  crime,  and  no  per- 
son hereafter  convicted  of  embezzlement  or  misappropriation  of  public  money,  may 
vote.  After  1880,  legislative  sessions  begin  on  the  first  Monday  after  Jan. 1, and  are  bien- 
nial. Senators  (40)  hold  4 years,  assemblymen  (80)  2 years;  legislative  elections  are  held 
on  the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  Nov.  Pay  of  members  continues  only  60 
days;  no  bill  can  be  presented  after  50  days  of  the  session  have  gone  by  except  on  con 
sent  of  two  thirds.  In  appropriation  bills  the  governor  may  veto  or  approve  special 
items.  Persons  holding  United  States  offices,  except  post-masters  who  have  les.s 
than  $500  salary,  cannot  hold  offices  of  honor  or  profit  in  the  state.  No  one  con- 
victed of  embezzlement  or  defalcation  of  public  money  of  the  union  or  of  any  state, 
county,  or  town,  is  eligible  for  office  in  California.  No  money  shall  ever  be  taken  from 
the  state  treasury  for  the  benefit  of  any  institution  not  under  the  state’s  entire  control ; 
but  the  legislature  may  grant  aid  to  orphans,  abandoned  children,  and  aged  poor.  Laws 
shall  be  passed  to  prohibit  lotteries,  gift  enterprises,  and  anything  in  the  nature  of  a 
lottery;  also,  to  regulate  or  prohibit  speculative  sales  of  stock;  and  all  contracts  for 
future  delivery  of  stock  are  void.  In  elections  by  the  legislature  the  members  shall  vote 
Dh'oa  mce.  Every  description  of  direct  or  indirect  appropriation  or  gift  of  property  for 
the  benefit  of  any  sect  is  forbidden,  not  only  to  the  legislature,  but  to  the  counties,  cities, 
towns,  school  districts,  and  corporations.  The  public  credit  shall  not  be  given  or  loaned 
in  aid  of  any  person,  association,  or  corporation ; nor  shall  the  state  or  any  political 
division  thereof  subscribe  for  stock  or  become  an  owner  in  any  corporation.  Extra 
compensation  to  public  officers,  agents,  contractors,  etc. , is  positively  forbidden.  Laws 
shall  be  enacted  regulating  charges  for  gas,  telegraphing,  and  storage  and  wharfage. 
Bribery  of  a member  of  the  legislature  and  lobbying  with  that  purpose  are  declared 
felony;  members  proved  guilty  of  receiving  bribes  are  disfranchised  and  can  never  hold 
offices  of  honor  or  trust.  Witnesses  in  examinations  for  bribery  shall  be  compelled  to 
testify.  ^ The  governor’s  term  is  four  years,  salary  $6000;  other  state  officers  $3000. 
The  legislature  may  reduce  but  cannot  increase  these  sums.  Fees  are  abolished  so  fai 
as  these  officers  are  concerned.  A governor  is  ineligible  for  U.  S.  senator  during  hi? 
term  of  office.  Among  the  judiciary  provisions  it  is  provided  that  after  July  1,  1880, 
no  judge  of  superior  or  supreme  court  shall  receive  salary  unless  he  swear  that  no 
cause  in  his  court  submitted  ninety  days  previous  remains  undecided.  Appropria- 
tions to  sectarian  schools  are  prohibited.  Counties,  towns,  and  cities  can  incur 
debt  only  by  the  consent  of  two  thirds  of  the  voters  at  special  elections.  Cities  and 
towns  have  power  to  regulate  the  price  of  water  and  artificial  light.  A stockholder 
ill  a corporation  is  liable  to  the  amount  of  his  shares  for  debts  incurred  while  he 
is  an  owner.  Directors  and  trustees  are  liable  to  stockholders  and  creditors  for  money 
embezzled  or  misappropriated.  The  acceptance  of  passes  from  railroads  or  other 
transportation  companies  by  members  of  the  legislature,  or  by  public  officers  except 
railroad  commissioners,  works  a forfeiture  of  office.  Lands  and  improvements  thereon 
shall  be  separately  assessed.  Cultivated  and  uncultivated  lands  of  the  same  kind  and 
situation  shall  be  assessed  at  equal  values.  Tax-payers  shall  make  return  under  oath  of 
their  real  and  personal  property,  and  provision  may  be  made  for  payment  of  real  estate 
taxes  by  installments.  Income  taxes  maybe  assessed  and  collected.  -There  is  a poll  tax 
of  $2  on  each  male  inhabitant  over  21  and  under  60  for  the  benefit  of  the  school  fund. 
Except  in  case  of  war,  invasion,  or  insurrection,  the  legislature  shall  not  create  a debt  of 
over  $300,000  unless  for  some  specific  object,  and  then  provision  for  payment  within 
20  years  shall  be  made;  and  such  special  debts  -shall  be  voted  upon  by  the  people. 

The  famous  Chinese  provisions  areas  follows:  Sec.  1.  The  legislature  shall  prescribe 
all  necessary  regulations  for  the  protection  of  the  siate,  and  the  counties,  cities,  and 


313 


California  > 
Caligula. 


towns  thereof,  from  the  burdens  and  evils  arising  from  the  presence  of  aliens  who  are  or 
may  become  vagrants,  paupers,  mendicants,  criminals,  or  invalids  afflicted  with  con- 
tagious or  infectious  diseases,  and  from  aliens  otherwise  dangerous  or  detrimental  to  the 
well  being  or  peace  of  the  state;  and  shall  impose  conditions  upon  which  such  persons 
may  reside  in  the  state,  and  provide  the  means  and  mode  of  their  removal  from  the  state 
upon  failure  or  refusal  to  comply  with  such  conditions;  provided,  that  nothing  contained 
in  this  section  shall  be  construed  to  impair  or  limit  tlie  power  of  the  legislature  to  pass 
such  police  laws  or  other  regulations  as  it  may  deem  necessary. 

Sec.  2.  No  corporation  now  existing  or  hereafter  formed  under  the  laws  of  this  state 
shall,  after  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  employ,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  any 
capacity,  any  Chinese  or  Mongolian.  The  legislature  shall  pass  such  laws  as  may  be 
necessary  to  enforce  this  regulation. 

Sec.  8.  No  Chinese  shall  be  employed  on  any  state,  county,  municipal,  or  other 
public  work,  except  in  punishment  for  crime. 

Sec.  4.  The  presence  of  foreigners  ineligible  to  become  citizens  of  the  United  States 
is  declared  to  be  dangerous  to  the  well  being  of  the  state,  and  the  legislature  stiali  dis- 
courage their  immigration  by  all  the  means  within  its  power.  Asiatic  coolyism  is  a 
form  of  human  slavery,  and  is  forever  prohibited  in  this  state,  and  all  contracts  for 
cooly  labor  shall  be  void.  All  companies  or  corporations,  whether  formed  in  this 
country  or  any  foreign  country,  for  the  importation  of  such  labor,  shall  be  subject  to 
such  penalties  as  the  legislature  may  prescribe.  The  legislature  shall  delegate  all' neces- 
sary power  to  the  incorporated  cities  and  towns  of  this  state,  for  the  removal  of  Chinese 
without  the  limits  of  such  cities  and  towns,  or  for  their  location  within  prescribed 
portions  of  those  limits;  also,  it  shall  provide  necessary  legislation  to  prohibit  the  intro- 
duction into  this  state  of  Chinese  after  the  adoption  of  this  constitution. 

Principals  and  seconds  in  duelling  or  challenging  to  a duel  are  disfranchised,  and 
cannot  again  hold  office.  The  property  of  husband  and  wife  shall  belong  separately  to 
each.  The  suffrage  shall  be  protected  by  adequate  laws.  Mechanics  and  laborers  have 
property  liens  for  the  value  of  labor  and  material  furnished.  Eight  hours  is  a day’s 
work.  No  person  shall,  on  account  of  sex,  be  disqualified  from  entering  upon  or  pur- 
suing any  lawful  business,  vocation,  or  profession.  There  are  no  more  judicial  districts; 
every  county  elects  a superior  judge  (San  Francisco  elects  12,  six  others  elect  two 
each).  Three  railroad  districts  were  created,  and  the  congressional  districts  were  newly 
arranged. 

At  the  time  the  vote  was  taken  on  this  constitution,  for  and  against  which  145,212 
votes  w^ere  cast,  there  were  154,638  votes  against  Chinese  immigration.  But  all  the 
enactments  on  that  subject  fall  to  the  ground,  since  they  are  in  conflict  with  the  treaty 
with  China,  and  the  federal  constitution  provides  that  treaties  shall  be  the  supreme  law 
of  the  land. 

The  first  votes  of  California  (4)  for  president  were  cast  in  1852  for  Pierce  and  King;  in 
1856,  for  Buchanan  and  Breckinridge ; in  1860,  for  Lincoln  and  Hamlin ; in  1864  (5  votes), 
Lincoln  and  Johnson;  in  1868,  Grant  and  Colfax;  in  1872  (6  votes).  Grant  and  Wilson; 
in  1876,  Hayes  and  Wheeler.  Of  high  federal  officers,  the  state  has  furnished  one 
supreme  court  justice.  (For  latest  statistics,  see  Appendix.) 

CALIFOBNIA,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  which  divides  the  peninsula 
above  described  from  the  rest  of  Mexico.  It  was  originally  known  as  the  sea  of  Cortez, 
having  been  discovered  under  his  auspices,  and  explored  by  himself ; and  it  has,  from 
its  shape,  been  occasionally  designated  the  Adriatic  of  the  new  world.  It  is  700  m.  in 
length,  and  varies  in  width  from  40  to  100  miles.  At  its  northern  extremity,  it  almost 
touches  the  territory  of  the  United  States,  receiving  therefrom  the  united  streams  of  the 
Gila  and  the  Colorado.  The  gulf  contains  many  islands,  particularly  towards  its  head, 
and  has  long  had  a pearl-fishery.  At  the  e.  side  of  its  entrance  stands  Mazatlan,  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  now  the  most  frequented  port  of  the  neighboring  regions. 

CALIFORNIA,  University  of,  established  in  1868  as  a non-sectarian  institution, 
an  outgrowth  of  the  college  of  California.  The  university  is  at  Berkeley,  4 m.  n.  of 
Oakland,  and  occupies  two  buildings.  In  1879,  it  had  38  professors  and  instructors,  and 
332  students  of  college  grade,  under  the  presidency  of  John  Le  Conte.  The  students  are 
enrolled  in  separate  colleges,  in  each  of  which  they  may  pursue  a regular  or  a special 
course.  The  college  of  letters  maintains  two  courses;  the  regular  classical,  which  leads 
to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  and  the  literary  course,  which  leads  to  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  philosophy.  In  both  courses  a liberal  amount  of  time  is  bestowed  upon  the 
principles  of  modern  science.  All  the  colleges  are  in  successful  operation,  including 
the  college  of  letters,  five  colleges  of  science,  and  three  professional  colleges  of  law, 
medicine,  and  pharmacy,  under  regular  faculties.  Students  of  both  sexes  are  admitted 
on  equal  terms.  The  university  is  entitled  to  the  avails  of  the  public  lands  given  to  the 
state  for  an  agricultural  college  by  the  act  of  congress  of  1862.  Tuition  is  free  in  the 
university  proper,  but  not  in  the  preparatory  department. 

CALIG'TJLA,  Caius  C^sar  Augustus  Germanicus,  Roman  emperor  (37-41  a.d.),  the 
youngest  son  of  Germanicus  (nephew  of  Tiberius)  by  Agrippina,  was  b.  31st  Aug.,  12 
A.D.,  at  Antium,  and  was  educated  in  the  camp,  where  the  soldiers  gave  him  the 
by-name  C.,  from  the  half -boots  {caligce)  which  he  wore.  On  the  death  of  his  brother 


Caliph. 

Calixtus. 


314 


Drusus,  he  was  made  au^ur  in  his  stead;  and  on  the  death  of  Tiberius  (37  a.d.),  who,  it 
was  suspected,  had  received  foul-play  at  his  hands,  it  was  found  that  he  had  been 
appointed  co-heir  along  with  the  grandson  of  Tiberius,  but  the  senate  and  the  people 
allowed  C.  supreme  and  sole  authority.  In  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  he  appeared 
hardly  likely  to  fulfill  the  threat  of  Tiberius,  who  had  talked  of  educating  C.  “ for  the 
destruction  of  the  Roman  people.”  He  was,  to  appearance,  lavishly  generous  and 
merciful,  pardoning  even  those  who  had  been  the  instruments  of  cruelty  against  his 
own  family.  But  this  ostentatious  magnanimity  was  itself  a disease,  an  unwholesome 
affectation,  founded  on  no  principle,  or  even  humanity  of  heart,  and  co-existed  with  the 
most  savage  voluptuousness  and  lust.  Consequently,  when  illness,  the  result  of  his 
vicious  life,  had  weakened  his  faculties,  the  lower  qualities  of  his  nature  obtained 
the  complete  mastery.  In  addition  to  the  senseless  prodigality  with  which  he  com- 
menced his  career — expending  in  one  year  the  enormous  w/ealth  left  by  Tiberius  (720 
millions  of  sesterces) — he  began  to  manifest  the  most  barbarous  propensities.  He  ban- 
ished or  murdered  his  relatives,  excepting  his  uncle  Claudius  and  sister  Drusilla  (with 
whom  he  carried  on  incestuous  intercourse);  filled  Rome  with  executions,  confiscating 
the  estates  of  his  victims;  amused  himself,  while  dining,  by  having  victims  tortured  and 
slain  in  his  presence;  and  uttered  the  wish  “that  all  the  Roman  people  had  but  one 
neck,  so  that  he  might  decapitate  Rome  at  a blow!”  To  vie  with  Xerxes,  he  made  a 
bridge  of  ships  over  the  bay  between  Baia3  and  Puteoli  (a  distance  of  three  Roman  miles 
and  600  paces),  and  celebrated  the  exploit  by  a costly  banquet  on  the  middle  of  the 
bridge,  and  by  collecting  on  it  great  numbers  of  people,  and  causing  them  to  be 
drowned.  His  favorite  horse  was  stabled  in  a palace,  fed  at  a marble  manger  with  gilded 
oats,  was  made  a member  of  the  college  of  priests,  and  afterwards  raised  to  the  consul- 
ship. As  a climax  to  all  his  absurdities,  he  declared  himself  a god,  and  had  temples 
erected,  and  sacrifices  offered  to  himself.  To  gratify  his  monstrous  desires,  he  shrunk 
from  no  infamy;  he  robbed,  plundered,  and  taxed  his  subjects  to  a degree  which  seems 
almost  incredible,  and  when  even  these  means  proved  insufficient,  he  established  a 
brothel  in  his  own  palace,  and  sent  out  his  slaves  to  solicit  the  public  patronage  for  it. 
At  length  a conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  and  he  was  assassinated  41  a.d. 

CA'LIFH  (Turk.,  a successor),  the  title  of  Mohammed’s  successors  in  temporal  and 
spiritual  power,  from  which  the  historians  of  the  middle  ages  designated  the  Arab 
empire  founded  by  these  princes  the  Caliphate.  This  empire,  for  two  or  three  centu- 
ries, exceeded  even  the  Roman  empire  in  extent.  As  Mohammed  died  without  leaving 
any  sons,  a contest  arose  concerning  the  inheritance  of  his  power,  which  terminated 
(632  A.D.)  in  the  triumph  of  Abubekr  (q.v.),  one  of  his  fathers-in-law,  over  Ali,  his 
nephew  and  son-in-law.  Abubekr  now  assumed  the  title  of  Caliphet-Resul- Allah — i.e., 
representative  or  deputy  of  the  prophet  of  God.  He  sent  forth  his  armies  for  the  exten- 
sion of  Mohammedanism,  and  after  several  victories  over  the  forces  of  the  Byzantine 
empire,  conquered  Syria.  He  was  succeeded  in  634  by  Omar,  another  father-in-law  of 
Mohammed,  by  whom  Egypt  and  Jerusalem  were  annexed  to  the  caliphate.  He  assumed 
the  title  of  jEmir-al-Mumenin — i.e.,  prince  of  the  faithful — a title  which  all  subsequent 
caliphs  retained.  Othman,  a son-in-law  of  the  prophet,  was  the  third  C.,  and  was  elected 
by  six  persons  appointed  by  Omar  before  his  death.  During  his  reign  (644^56  a.d.), 
the  Arabian  empire  grew  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  being  extended  into  Persia,  and 
westM^ard  along  the  n.  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  Ceuta.  The  Byzantine  emperors  recov- 
ered Egypt;  but  it  was  wrested  from  them  again  at  a prodigious  expense  of  blood. 
The  people  of  Medina  elected  Ali-ben-Abi-Taleb  as  C.  upon  the  death  of  Othman.  The 
Shiites  regard  him  as  the  first  true  imam  or  high-priest,  and  honor  him  and  his  son 
Hassan  almost  equally  with  Mohammed  himself.  Contests  against  rivals  prevented 
him  from  doing  much  for  the  extension  of  the  caliphate.  Moawijah,  the  governor  of 
Damascus,  having  made  himself  really  independent  during  Ali’s  life,  and  having 
extended  his  power  over  Syria,  Egypt,  and  part  of  Arabia,  became  C.  in  661,  and 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades,  making  the  caliphate  hereditary.  He  removed 
the  seat  of  the  caliphate  to  Damascus.  His  armies  ravaged  Asia  Minor,  and  laid  siege  to 
Constantinople,  but  could  not  take  it.  He  made  important  conquests,  however,  in 
Central  Asia.  The  caliphate  did  not  remain  long  in  the  family  of  Moawfijah,  and  it  fre- 
quently happened  that  in  one  or  other  of  the  subject  countries  a governor  raised  himself 
to  a temporary  independence;  and  rival  caliphs  frequently  contended  for  power.  Abdal- 
melek  (685-705  a.d.)  united  all  the  Moslems  under  his  dominion.  Under  his  son,  Walid 
I.,  the  caliphate  reached  its  zenith  of  prosperity,  the  Arabs  conquering  Turkestan  in  707, 
Galatia  in  710,  and  Spain  in  711.  Under  Hesham,  the  progress  of  the  Arabs  in  the 
west  was  arrested  by  Charles  Martel  at  Tours  (732  a.d.),  and  at  Xarbonne  (736  a.d.). 
The  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  in  Asia  terminated  with  Merwan  II.  in  752,  giving  place  • 
to  that  of  the  Abbasides.  But  a branch  of  the  Ommiades  founded  an  independent  cal- 
iphate at  Cordova,  and  another  founded  one  in  Arabia,  which  subsisted  till  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Abul-Abbas  (750-54  a.d.),  the  first  Abbaside  C.,  signalized  himself  by  his  cruelty 
and  the  torrents  of  human  blood  which  he  shed.  His  successor,  Abu-Jafar,  called  Al- 
Mansur,  a patron  of  the  arts,  but  a persecutor  of  Christians,  founded  Bagdad  (q.v.),  and 
removed  the  seat  of  the  caliphate  thither.  From  the  beginning  of  the  9th  c.,  the  Arab 
empire,  which  had  suffered  much  from  corruption  and  internal  disorganization 


315 


Caliph. 

Calixtus. 


under  the  last  caliphs  of  the  Ommiade  dynasty,  and  had  never  completely  recovered, 
showed  increased  signs  of  decay.  Even  under  the  C.  Harun-al-Raschid,  whose  praises 
the  eastern  poets  were  accustomed  so  much  to  celebrate,  independent  kingdoms  were 
established  (800  a.d.)  by  the  Aghlabides  in  Tunis,  and  the  Edrisides  in  Fez.  In  821, 
Taher,  the  governor  of  Khorassan,  made  himself  independent,  and  established  a dynasty 
there,  and  other  governors  of  provinces  followed  his  example.  But  under  the  C.  Al- 
Mamun,  the  Arabians  conquered  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  the  former  of  which  they  held  till 
it  was  taken  from  them  in  1035  by  the  Normans;  and  the  latter,  till  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Pisans  in  1051.  The  C.  Motassem  (833-42  a.d.)  was  the  first  to  employ  Turkish 
soldiers;  but  the  practice  was  followed  by  his  successors;  and  the  Turkish  body-guard 
soon  became  a formidable  power  in  the  caliphate,  and  about  the  middle  of  the  9th  c. 
assumed  the  right  of  deciding  the  succession  to  the  throne.  Many  of  the  caliphs,  mean- 
while, were  base  voluptuaries,  and  of  the  others,  some  were  of  little  capacity,  and  their 
power  rapidly  declined.  Ere  the  middle  of  the  10th  c.,  the  caliphs  themselves  exercised 
a mere  nominal  sovereignty,  whilst  the  emirs,  like  the  mayors  of  the  palaee  towards  the 
close  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  among  the  Franks,  possessed  all  real  power.  The 
princes  of  the  Fatimide  dynasty,  which  succeeded  that  of  the  Aghlabides  in  Tunis, 
having  made  themselves  masters  of  Egypt  in  970,  assumed  the  title  of  C.,  so  that  there 
were  now  three  caliphates— at  Bagdad, at  Cairo,  and  at  Cordova.  In  the  11th  c.,the  caliphs 
of  Bagdad  were  still, acknowledged  as  the  spiritual  chiefs  of  all  tli('  Moslems;  but  their 
temporal  power  scarcely  extended  beyond  the  walls  of  Bagdad.  Bagdad  itself  became 
the  prey  of  a Mongol  horde  in  1258,  and  the  representative  of  the  caliphs  fled  to  Egypt, 
where,  under  the  protection  of  the  Mamelukes,  who  had  made  themselves  masters  of  that 
country  in  1250,  he  retained  his  title  and  spiritual  power,  which  he  transmitted  to  his 
successors,  who  continued  to  reside  there  till  the  Turks  conquered  Egypt  in  1517,  when 
the  last  of  them  was  carried  to  Constantinople;  and  since  that  time  the  Turkish  sultans 
have  assumed  the  title  of  C.,  and  claimed  to  be  regarded  as  the  spiritual  chiefs  of  all  the 
Moslems,  a claim  to  which  little  respect  has  ever  been  paid  except  within  the  limits  of 
their  own  empire. 

CALIPPIC  CYCLE.  See  Pekiod. 

CALIPPUS,  or  Callippus,  an  astronomer  of  Greece,  in  the  4th  c.,  b.c.  He  corrected 
earlier  measurements  of  time  by  Meton’s  cycle  of  19  years,  which  he  found  to  be  six  hours 
too  long.  He  made  the  year  365|^  days. 

CALISTHENICS,  physical  exercise  designed  to  promote  strength  and  proper  bodily 
development.  The  usual  apparatus  includes  a pair  of  light  dumb-bells,  Indian  clubs, 
stout  wooden  rings,  a wooden  staff  about  4 ft.  long,  horizontal  bars,  bags  of  beans  for 
throwing  and  catching,  and  two  weights  running  upon  vertical  cords.  The  practice  of 
calisthenics  is  growing  among  schools  for  girls. 

CALI'TEI,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Avellino,  near  the  Ofanto,  and  about  7 m. 
e.n.e.  of  Conza.  It  has  a pop.  of  6200,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
Sheep  are  reared  to  a considerable  extent  in  the  vicinity. 

CAL'IVER  was  a matchlock  or  fire-arm  about  midway  in  size  and  character  between 
an  arquebuse  and  a musket ; it  was  small  enough  to  be  fired  without  a rest  or  support. 

CALIX'TINES,  a Bohemian  religious  sect,  so  named  from  the  Latin  calix,  a cup, 
because  they  contended  for  giving  the  cup,  as  well  as  the  consecrated  wafer,  to  the  laity. 
Their  confession  of  faith  (1421)  contained  the  following  articles:  1.  That  the  word  of 
God  ought  to  be  freely  and  regularly  preached  by  the  priests  of  the  Lord  throughout 
Bohemia;  2.  That  the  eucharist  in  both  kinds  ought  to  be  administered  to  all  burdened 
with  “no  mortal  sins,”  according  to  the  language  and  command  of  the  Saviour;  3.  That 
the  clergy  should  separate  themselves  from  secular  affairs ; 4.  That  all  ‘ ‘ mortal  sins,  ” and 
especially  public  ones;  such  as  debauchery  and  simony,  and  any  other  disorders  contrary 
to  the  law  of  God,  should  be  prevented  or  punished  by  those  who  were  the  lawful 
authorities  in  such  matters.  In  other  main  points  they  were  moderate  followers  of  John 
Huss,  and  were  opposed  to  the  more  extreme  sect  of  Taborites  (q.v.).  Their  peculiar 
articles  of  faith  were  conceded  by  order  of  the  council  at  Basel  (1433) ; and  having  pre- 
vailed over  the  Taborites  in  the  conflict  which  took  place  at  Boehmischbrod,  30th  May, 
1434,  they  became  the  dominant  party  in  Bohemia,  and  exercised  considerable  influence 
over  political  affairs.  Gradually,  however,  the  C.  lapsed  from  the  severity  of  their  four 
articles,  while  the  schism  of  the  energetic  Taborites,  and  later  of  the  Bohemian  brethren 
(q.v.),  rendered  them  completely  powerless.  At  the  beginning  of  the  16th  c.,  they  had 
ceased  to  possess  any  importance,  and  only  served  to  prepare  the  way  for  Protestantism, 

CALIX'TUS,  a name  borne  by  three  popes.  The  first  was  born  a slave,  and  is  said  to 
have  suffered  martyrdom,  223  a.d.  The  second  (d.  1124)  was  a son  of  the  count  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  a ruler  of  firmness.  He  expelled  the  anti-pope  Gregory  from  Rome  in  1120, 
stormed  the  castle  in  which  he  took  refuge,  and  made  him  a prisoner.  He  also  concluded 
the  concordat  with  Henry  V.,  of  Germany,  at  Worms;  broke  the  power  of  the  Cenci 
family,  and  demolished  their  castles.  The  third  was  of  the  Spanish  Borgia  family,  and 
his  leading  idea  was  to  institute  a great  crusade  against  the  Turks,  in  which  he  failed. 
He  died  in  1458,  and  was  succeeded  by  Alexander  VI.,  one  of  the  most  notorious  of  the 
Borgia  family. 


Calixtus. 

CaU. 


816 


CALIXTUS,  Geokg  (properly,  Callisen\  an  eminent  theologian  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
was  born  14th  Dec.,  1586,  at  Medelbye  in  Schleswig;  studied  at  Flensborg  and  Helm- 
stedt;  and,  in  1605,  became  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  latter  of  these  cities.  Two 
years  after,  he  betook  himself  to  theology,  and  attracted  great  attention  by  the  breadth 
and  originality  of  his  views.  After  traveling  for  some  time  in  Germany,  Holland,  Eng- 
land, and  France,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time, 
he  returned  to  Helmstedt  in  1613,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  theology.  His 
genius,  the  depth  of  his  knowledge,  and  his  large  experience  of  the  world  and  of  men, 
which  he  had  acquired  in  his  travels,  developed  in  him  a spirit  of  great  tolerance  towards 
all  who  held  their  religious  opinions  honestly,  whatever  these  might  be.  Although  his 
dissertations  on  the  Holy  Scripture,  transubstantiation,  communion  in  one  kind,  etc,, 
are  acknowledged  by  learned  Catholics  to  be  about  the  most  solid  and  admirable  which 
have  been  composed  by  Protestants  against  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Catholicism,  he 
was,  on  account  of  some  statements  in  his  work,  entitled  Be  Fmcipuis  Beligionis  Chris- 
tiance  Gapitihus  (Helmstedt,  1613),  which  seemed  favorable  to  Catholic  dogmas,  and  of 
others  in  his  Epitome  Theologice  Moralis  (Helmstedt,  1634),  Be  Tolerantia  lleformatorum, 
etc.  (Helmstedt,  1658),  which  approached  too  near  to  the  Reformed  or  Calvinistic  stand- 
point, declared  guilty  of  abominable  heresy  by  the  adherents  of  the  letter  of  the  Concor- 
dienformel — i.e.,  the  orthodox  and  dogmatically  rigid  Lutherans.  C.  felt  keenly  that  the 
polemical  harshness  of  Lutheranism  was  a serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a great 
Catholic  Christianity,  and  that  Protestantism  must  assume  another  form  before  it  could 
hope  to  become  the  religion  of  Europe.  Under  this  conviction,  B.  endeavored  to  show 
that  the  oldest  and  most  fundamental  articles  of  the  Christian  faith — viz.,  the  facts 
embodied  in  the  “Apostles’  Creed  ” — were  common  to  all  Christian  sects.  In  subsequent 
dissertations,  having  stated  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  less  distinctly  taught  in 
the  Old  than  in  the  New  Testament,  and  that  good  works  were  necessary  to  salvation; 
and  finally,  at  the  religious  conference  of  Thorn,  in  1649,  whither  he  was  sent  as  a 
mediator  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  having  been  on  more  intimate  terms  with  the 
Calvinistic  than  the  Lutheran  theologians,  C.  was  accused  of  apostasy.  Fortunately, 
however,  he  had  powerful  friends,  wdio  stood  firmly  by  him,  and  through  their  help  he 
was  enabled  to  retain  his  professorial  chair  till  his  death,  on  19th  Mar.,  1656. 

CALL,  a term  often  used  in  reference  to  various  theological  and  ecclesiastical  subjects. 
— 1.  The  command  or  invitation  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  is  designated  the  cotXl  of  God, 
or  the  gospel  call.  Calvinistic  theologians  make  a distinction  between  a general  call  and 
a special  or  effectual  call.  The  former  is.  addressed,  they  say,  to  all  to  whom  the  word  of 
God  comes;  but  it  is  insufficient  of  itself  to  induce  any  man  to  the  act  of  faith,  and 
requires,  in  order  to  its  efficacy,  that  it  be  accompanied  by  the  special  and  in’esistible 
grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  They  are  careful,  however,  to  state  that  the  general  or  out- 
ward calling  by  the  word  always  precedes  and  accompanies  the  special  and  effectual 
calling  by  the  Spirit.  The  notion  of  an  inward  call  by  the  Spirit  of  God  in  the  soul, 
unconnected  with  outward  calling  by  the  word,  belongs  not  to  Calvinistic,  but  to  mys- 
tic theology. — 2.  A call  to  office  in  the  church,  and  particularly  to  the  ministry  of  the 
gospel,  is  regarded  by  Christians  generally  as  proceeding  from  God;  and  the  church  of 
England  requires  of  candidates  for  ordination  an  express  profession  that  they  trust  they 
are  so  moved  of  the  Holy  Ghost. — 3.  A call  by  the  people  who  are  to  be  under  the  pas- 
toral care  of  a minister  has  been  generally  regarded  in  the  Christian  church  as  necessary 
to  the  establishment  of  the  pastoral  relation.  But  there  have  been  great  differences  of 
opinion  as  to  what  constitutes  a sufficient  call,  and  great  differences  of  practice  with 
regard  to  it.  Some  of  the  principal  ecclesiastical  dissensions  in  Scotland  have  had  their 
origin  in  this  question.  The  election  of  a pastor  by  the  Christian  people  of  his  parish  or 
congregation,  has  been  contended  for  by  many  as  the  true  call,  or  the  best  kind  of  it; 
others,  approving  of  patronage  with  certain  limitations,  contended  no  less  earnestly  for 
the  right  of  the  people  to  be  consulted,  so  that  without  their  concurring  by  a call,  the 
patron’s  presentee  should  not  be  held  entitled  to  be  inducted  into  the  pastoral  office ; and 
according  to  the  practice  of  the  church  of  Scotland,  this  concurrence  was  always  at 
least  formally  sought.  Questions  concerning  the  call  and  its  proper  value,  supposed  to 
have  been  determined  by  the  earl  of  Aberdeen’s  act,  passed  when  the  disruption  of  the 
church  of  Scotland  took  place  in  1843,  were  not  finally  settled  until  the  passing  of  the 
act  for  the  abolition  of  patronage  (1874),  which  gives  the  right  of  calling  to  the  congre- 
gation. See  Scotland,  Church  of;  Free  Church  op  Scotland;  and  Patronage. 

CALL,  a stipulated  sum  to  be  paid  towards  a share  in  a joint-stock  undertaking.  For 
example,  in  a £10  share,  there  are  usually  at  least  four  calls  of  £2  10s.  each,  the  calls 
being  made  at  intervals  of  not  less  than  three  months. 

CALL,  a military  musical  term  meaning  a signal  on  the  trumpet. 

CALL  is  a metal  whistle  used  by  the  boatswain  and  his  mate  on  shipboard.  Various 
strains  or  kinds  of  sound  produced  denote  signals  or  orders  for  hoisting,  heaving,  low- 
ering, veering,  belaying,  letting-go,  etc.  These  sounds  are  as  much  attended  to  by  sea- 
men, as  those  of  the  drum,  bugle,  and  trumpet  are  by  soldiers.  At  one  time,  a gold  call, 
with  a chain,  used  to  be  the  badge  of  an  admiral. 

CALL  A,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  aracece,  or,  according  to  some  bota- 
nists, of  the  natural  order  orontiacem,  wdiich  is  distinguished  from  aracece  only  by  having 


317 


Calixtus. 

Call. 


iiermaphrodite  flowers.  The  genus  calla  is  characterized  by  a flat  spatlie  (q.v.),  within 
which  is  a cylindrical  spadix  (see  Spathe)  covered  with  naked  flowers,  appearing  as  a 
mere  mixture  of  stamens  and  pistils,  and  a one-celled  ovary  with  6 to  8 erect  ovules.  The 
known  species  are  few,  and  natives  of  very  different  climates.  C.  palustris  is  found  in 
swamps  in  Europe,  Siberia,  and  North  America,  but  not  in  Britain.  It  has  a creeping 
root-stock,  and  heart-shaped,  stalked  leaves,  the  midrib  of  which  is  prolonged  beyond 
the  blade  into  a point;  the  spathe  is  white,  and  the  spadix  yellow.  The  root-stock  is 
extremely  acrid  and  caustic;  but  being  deprived  of  its  acridity  by  grinding,  boiling,  and 
macerating,  is  made  by  the  Laplanders  into  a kind  of  bread  called  missebroed,  which  they 
hold  in  high  estimation. — The  well-known  and  beautiful  Bichardia  Ethiopica  for- 
merly included  in  this  genus,  and  is  often  still  called  calla. 

CALLAHAN,  a co.  in  n.w.  Texas,  not  settled;  900  sq.  miles.  It  has  a rocky  and 
broken  surface,  with  little  timber,  but  good  for  grazing.  Pop.  ’80,  3453—34  colored. 

CAL'LANDER,  a village  in  Perthshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Teith,  16  m.  n.w.  of 
Stirling.  It  lies  in  a beautiful  and  romantic  situation,  surrounded  by  high  mountains 
and  Highland  lakes.  Hence  it  is  much  frequented  by  tourists,  who  make  this  place  a 
center  to  visit  Benledi,  the  Trosachs,  the  Bracklin  falls,  and  Lochs  Lubnaig,  Vennachar, 
Achray,  and  Katrine.  Pop.  ’71,  1870. 

CALLAO,  the  port  of  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru,  connected  with  that  city  by  a railway 
of  6 m.  in  length.  It  stands  in  lat.  12°  s.,  and  long.  77°  13'  w.  Fine  harbor- works,  with 
extensive  pier  and  dock  accommodation,  were  completed  in  1875.  The  roadstead  is 
large,  free  from  rocks,  and  safe,  being  sheltered  by  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo.  The 
exports  are  guano,  specie,  copper,  cotton,  bark,  and  hides  The  value  of  exports  and 
imports  is  about  £6,000,000  annually.  C.  contains  about  20,000  inhabitants.  The  pres- 
ent C.  dates  only  from  1746,  when  the  original  city  was  submerged  and  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake. 

CALLAWAY,  a co.  in  s.w.  Kentucky,  on  Tennessee  river;  450  sq.m.;  pop. ’70, 
9410 — 812  colored;  in  ’80,  13,333.  The  surface  is  varied,  and  soil  fertile,  producing 
corn,  tobacco,  etc.  Co  seat,  Murray. 

CALLAWAY,  a co.  in  e.  Missouri,  on  the  Missouri  river;  743  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
23,670 — 4402  colored.  The  soil  is  mainly  prairie,  and  fertile,  producing  corn,  tobacco, 
potatoes,  butter,  wool,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Fulton. 

CALL  TO  THE  BAR  is  the  formal  expression  by  which  the  admission  of  law-students 
to  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  degree  of  barristeV  in  England  and  Ireland  is  publicly 
announced.  In  Scotland  the  corresponding  expression  is  Passing  Admcate.  See  Bar- 
RiSTER ; Inns  op  Court  ; and  Advocates,  Faculty  of. 

CALLCOTT,  Sir  Augustus.  This  name  has  been  erroneously  spelled  Calcott  (q.v.). 

CALLCOTT,  John  Wall.  See  Calcott. 

CALLE'JA,  Don  Felix  DEL  Rey,  1750-1820;  count  of  Calderon,  commanding  the 
Spanish  forces  in  Mexico  during  the  Hidalgo  insurrection.  In  Jan.,  1812,  he  captured 
the  fortress  of  Zitacuaro  and  murdered  all  the  inhabitants;  and  in  the  same  year  he  cap- 
tured Hidalgo’s  successor,  the  priest  Morelos,  who  was  at  once  shot.  For  these  acts  he 
was  made  viceroy  and  ennobled. 

CALLERNISH,  a district  on  the  w.  coast  of  the  island  of  Lewis,  about  16  m.  from 
Stornoway,  remarkable  for  its  circles  of  standing  stones  (q.v.).  There  are  four  circles, 
at  no  great  distance  from  one  another,  but  without  any  visible  relation.  The  principal 
one,  is  of  a more  than  usually  elaborate  design.  “A  double  line  of  upright  stones 
run  parallel  to  each  other  in  a northerly  direction,  while  a single  line  of  similar 
stones  is  projected  from  the  s.,  e.,  and  w.  points,  thus  giving  a cruciform  figure  to  the 
structure.  A stone  of  larger  dimensions  than  any  of  the  others  occupies  the  center  of 

the  circle,  and  completes  the  whole That  the  position  was  chosen  and  laid  down 

from  astronomical  observation,  can  easily  be  demonstrated  by  visiting  the  spot  on  a 
clear  night,  when  it  will  be  found  that  by  bringing  the  upper  part  of  the  single  line 
of  stones  extending  to  the  south  to  bear  upon  the  top  of  the  large  stone  in  the  center 

of  the  circle,  the  apex  of  that  stone  coincides  exactly  with  the  pole-star The 

stones  themselves  are  not  columnar,  or  shaped  into  any  form ; they  are  simply  broad, 
flat  blocks  of  gneiss — the  all-prevailing  rock  from  the  Butt  of  the  Lewis  to  Barra 
Head.  The  following  are  their  dimensions:  diameter  of  circle,  about  40  ft.;  length 
of  west  line,  43  ft. ; length  of  east  line,  38  ft. ; length  of  south  line,  69  ft. ; length  of 
avenue,  270  ft.;  breadth  of  avenue,  27  ft.;  average  height  of  stones,  6 to  8 ft.;  height 
of  center  stone,  12  feet.  There  are  13  stones  in  the  circle,  including  the  center  one,  19 
in  the  avenue,  5 in  each  of  the  east  and  west,  and  6 in  the  south  arm.  The  measure- 
ments of  height  are  taken  from  the  present  level;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there 
is  a bed  of  peat-moss,  4 or  5 ft.  thick,  through  which  the  stones  rise  from  the  clay 
beneath;  this  gives  a height  of  16  to  17  ft.  to  the  center  stone,  and  from  10  to  13  ft.  to  the 
•others,  exclusive  of  the  foundation.” — Notice  of  the  Stone  Circle  at  Callernish,  communi- 
cated to  the  society  of  antiquaries  of  Scotland,  by  Mr.  Henry  Callender,  Mar.,  1857. 

CALL  OF  THE  HOUSE  is  an  imperative  summons  to  every  member  of  parliament  of 
either  house  on  some  particular  occasion,  when  the  sense  of  the  whole  house  is  deemed 


Calliclithys. 

Callot. 


318 


necessary.  In  the  house  of  lords,  when  any  urgent  business  is  deemed  to  require  the 
attendance  of  the  lords,  it  has  been  usual  to  order  the  house  to  be  called  over;  and  this- 
order  has  sometimes  been  enforced  by  fines  and  imprisonment  upon  absent  lords.  On 
some  occasions,  the  lord  chancellor  has  addressed  letters  to  all  the  peers,  desiring  their 
attendance,  as  on  the  illness  of  George  III.,  1st  Nov,,  1810.  The  most  important  occa- 
sion on  which  the  house  was  called  over,  in  modern  times,  was  in  1820,  for  the  trial  of 
queen  Caroline. 

' When  the  house  of  cmumons  is  ordered  to  be  called  over,  it  is  usual  to  name  a day 
which  will  enable  the  members  to  attend  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  interval 
between  the  order  and  the  call  has  varied  from  one  day  to  six  weeks.  If  it  be  really 
intended  to  enforce  the  call,  not  less  than  a week  or  ten  days  should  intervene  between 
the  order  and  the  day  named  for  the  call.  The  order  for  the  house  to  be  called  over  is 
always  accompanied  by  a resolution  “that  such  members  as  shall  not  then  attend,  be 
sent  for,  in  custody  of  the  sergeant-at-arms.”  And  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to  desire 
the  speaker  to  write  to  all  the  sheriffs  to  summon  the  members  to  attend.  On  the  day 
appointed  for  the  call,  the  order  of  the  day  is  read  and  proceeded  with,  postponed,  or  dis- 
charged, at  the  pleasure  of  the  house.  If  proceeded  with,  the  names  are  called  over, 
according  to  the  counties,  which  are  arranged  alphabetically.  The  members  of  a county 
are  called  first,  and  then  the  members  for  every  city  or  borough  within  that  county.  The 
counties  in  England  and  Wales  are  called  first,  and  those  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  in 
their  order.  This  point  is  mentioned,  because  it  makes  a material  difference  in  the  time 
at  which  a member  is  required  to  be  in  his  place. — See  May’s  in  Pari.,  on  Attend- 

ance of  Members. 

CALLICHTHYS  (Gr.  halos,  beautiful,  ichthys,  a fish),  a genus  of  fishes  of  the  family 
siluridcB  (q.v.),  having  the  body  almost  entirely  covered  by  four  rows  of  large,  hard, 
narrow,  scaly  plates,  two  rows  on  each  side.  The  head  is  also  protected  by  a sort  of 
helmet.  The  mouth  is  small,  the  teeth  very  small;  two  long  barbules  hang  from  each 
angle  of  the  mouth.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  natives  of  warm  climates,  particu- 
larly of  South  America.  They  are  interesting  because,  when  the  streams  or  pools  which 
they  inhabit  dry  up,  they  make  their  T^ay  across  the  land  to  some  other  piece  of  water, 
even  although  at  a considerable  distance.  They  also  sometimes  bury  themselves  in  the 
mud  of  wet  meadows,  out  of  which  they  are  digged.  They  have  no  special  organs  for 
carrying  a supply  of  water  with  them,  like  the  climbing  perch,  but  are  supposed  to 
retain  a little  between  the  plates  of  their  body.  A still  more  interesting  part  of  the  nat- 
ural history  of  these  fishes  is  their  making  regular  nests,  generally  of  leaves,  in  which 
they  deposit  their  eggs,  near  the  margin  of  the  water,  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  sea- 
son, the  male  and  female  uniting  in  watching  them  until  they  are  hatched.  These  habits 
are  shared  by  the  species  of  the  allied  genus  doras,  in  which  the  lateral  plates  are  broader, 
keeled,  and  each  ending  in  a spine. 

CALLIC'RATES,  a Greek  architect  in  the  5th  c.  b.c.,  who,  assisted  by  Ictinus,  was 
the  builder  of  the  Parthenon. 

CALLICRATTDAS,  the  successor  of  Lysander  in  command  of  the  Lacedemonian 
fleet  against  the  Athenians,  406  b.c.  After  two  successful  battles  he  was  defeated  in  a 
third,  thrown  overboard,  and  drowned. 

CALLIERES  BONNEVUE,  Louis  Hector,  Chevalier  de,  1639-1703;  a French 
army  officer,  governor  of  Montreal  in  1684,  and  in  1687  leader  of  the  advance  of  the 
forces  invading  the  lands  of  the  six  nations  in  New  York,  He  visited  France  to  urge 
the  seizure  of  the  city  of  New  York  as  a security  for  French  supremacy  in  Canada.  In 
1699,  he  was  made  governor-general  of  Canada. 

CALLIG'ONUM,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  polygoneoe  (q.v.),  having  a 
quadrangular  fruit  {achenium,  q.v.),  winged  at  the  angles.  The  best  known  species  is  G. 
pallasia,  a succulent  shrub  found  on  the  sandy  steppes  near  the  Caspian  sea,  and  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Volga,  where  its  acid  fruit  and  its  also  acid  shoots  often 
serve  to  allay  the  thirst  of  the  Kalmucks  and  of  weary  travelers.  Its  root  strikes  deep 
into  the  sand,  is  swollen  at  its  upper  part,  and  when  cut  there,  gives  out  a nutritious 
gum  resembling  tragacanth  (q.v.),  which  is  also  obtained  by  pounding  and  boiling  it, 
and  on  which  the  Kalmucks  feed  in  times  of  scarcity. 

CALLIM  ACHUS,  an  eminent  poet,  grammarian,  and  critic  of  the  Alexandrian  period, 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  3d  c.  b.c.  He  was  of  a distinguished  family  at 
Gyrene,  in  Libya;  taught  grammar  and  belles-lettres  in  Alexandria;  was  a favorite  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  his  successor  Ptolemy  Euergetes ; and  was  made  principal 
librarian  of  the  Alexandrian  library.  He  wrote  many  works  on  the  most  various  sub- 
jects (Suidas  mentions  800),  but  only  fragments  are  extant;  nor  have  we  many  of  his 
poems ; but  the  poems  which  we  have,  bear  the  marks  of  an  age  when  the  artificial  had 
obtained  a preference  over  the  natural.  • 

CALLIM'ACHUS,  an  architect  and  artist  of  Greece,  who  lived  about  400  b.c.,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  the  originator  of  the  Corinthian  column. 

CALLING  THE  DIET  is  the  Scotch  term  for  arraignment  (q.v.),  although  the  forms  are 
different.  In  Scotland,  excepting  in  cases  of  high  treason,  there  is  no  ^rand  jury,  but 
the  procedure  is  briefly  as  follows;  Before  a prisoner  can  be  tried,  a written  or  printed 


319 


Callichthys. 

Callot. 


«opy  of  the  indictment  preferred  against  him  must  have  been  served  15  days  before  the 
trial,  with  a copy  of  the  list  of  witnesses  to  be  examined  against  him,  and  also  of  the 
* panel.  When,  therefore,  he  is  placed  at  the  bar  of  the  court,  and  called  on  to 
plead,  he  is  presumed  to  know  the  nature  of  the  charge  made  against  him.  But  if  it  be 
desired  by  him,  or  by  his  counsel,  the  clerk  in  the  first  instance  reads  the  indictment 
^loLid  in  open  court — the  same  being  a well-prepared  syllogistic  statement  of  the  facts, 
which  the  prosecutor  is  prepared  to  prove.  He  is  then  called  upon  to  state  his  objec- 
tions to  the  relevancy,  and  to  have  such  relevancy  disposed  of  by  the  court,  before 
being  called  on  to  plead  to  the  fact.  If  the  judgment  of  the  court  is  in  favor  of  the 
objection,  the  prosecution  for  the  time  fails,  and  the  prisoner  is  sent  back  to  jail,  to 
abide  another  indictment,  unless  the  prosecutor  chooses  to  abandon  the  case  against  him 
altogether.  See  Indictment,  Verdict,  Defense. 

CALLINGER,  one  of  the  hill-forts  of  Bundelcund  (q.v.),  elevated  about  700  ft.  above 
the  adjacent  plain,  and  separated  from  a neighboring  range  of  mountains  by  a ravine  of 
1200  yards  in  width.  It  is  in  lat.  25°  n.,  and  long.  80°  32'  e.,  being  112  m.  to  the  s.  w.  of 
Allahabad.  From  its  position  and  size,  C.  must  at  one  time  have  been  a place  of  great 
strength.  It  was  stormed  by  the  British  in  1812.  At  the  s.e.  base  of  the  rock  stands  a 
town  of  the  same  name,  which,  though  it  is  now  much  decayed,  yet  bears  testimony  to 
its  ancient  extent  and  grandeur.  The  locality  is  famous  for  its  excavated  temples  of 
Siva. 

CALLI'NUS  OP  Ephesus,  reputed  to  have  been  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  poets,  lived 
about  700  B.c.  One  of  his  elegies  has  been  preserved  to  the  present  time. 

CALLIO'NYMUS.  See  Dragonet. 

CALLI'OPE  (i.e.,  the  sweet-voiced),  was,  according  to  the  ancients,  the  first  of  the 
Muses  (q.v.),  and  presided  over  epic  poetry,  or  over  poetry  in  general.  She  was  said  to 
be  the  mother  of  Orpheus,  of  the  Sirens,  etc.  She  was  usually  represented  with  a style 
and  wax  tablets. 

CALLIPERS,  a kind  of  compasses  with  curved  legs,  used  by  turners  and  other  work- 
men for  measuring  the  diameters  of  cylindrical,  spherical,  and  other  curved  work.  The 
C.  are  laid  over  the  work,  and  opened  or  closed  until  both  points  just  touch  the  periph- 
-ery;  then  the  C.  are  laid  upon  a rule,  and  the  extent  of  their  opening  measured,  or 
the  size  is  compared  with  a pattern. 

CALLIR'HOE,  a fountain  near  Athens,  called  the  fountain  of  nine  springs,  because 
its  waters  were  distributed  in  that  number  of  channels. 

CALLISTE'IA,  a Grecian  festival  at  which  a prize  was  awarded  to  the  most  beauti- 
ful woman.  But  among  the  Elians  men  were  the  competitors,  and  the  victor  received 
a suit  of  armor  which  he  dedicated  to  Minerva. 

CALLIS'THENES,  of  Olynthus,  was  the  son  of  Hero,  a cousin  of  Aristotle.  C.  was 
b.  about  360  b.  c.  ; he  was  educated  by  Aristotle  along  with  Alexander  the  great.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  natural  and  political  history,  and  accompanied  Alex- 
ander the  great  in  his  expedition  to  India.  He  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  courtiers 
and  royal  favorites,  and  of  Alexander  himself,  who  was  displeased  by  his  remonstrating 
against  his  intended  assumption  of  divine  honors,  and  in  general  by  his  bold,  indiscreet, 
•outspeaking  ways;  and  he  was  put  to  death  on  a pretended  charge  of  treason,  328  b.c. 
Only  a few  fragments  of  his  historic  works  remain,  and  these  are  not  valuable.  The 
History  of  Alexander  ascribed  to  him,  of  which  there  are  several  MSS.  in  the  Paris 
library,  is  evidently  a production  of  the  7th  c. , and  rather  a romance  than  a history. 

CALLIS'TRATUS,  an  orator  of  Athens  whose  eloquence  led  Demosthenes  to  devote 
himself  to  public  speaking.  For  surrendering  Oropus  (after  a heroic  defense)  to  the  The- 
bans, he  was  condemned  to  death,  361  b.c.,  b^ut  he  fled  to  Macedonia,  where  he  founded 
the  city  of  Datum,  afterwards  called  Philippi.  At  a later  period  he  returned  to  Athens 
and  was  put  to  death. 

CAL'LITHRIX.  See  Sagouin. 

CAL'LITRIS.  See  Sandarach. 

CALLOSITIES.  See  Corns. 

CALLOT,  Jacques,  one  of  the  most  eminent  artists  of  his  time,  was  b.  at  Nancy, 
1592.  Proceeding  to  Rome,  he  commenced  drawing  and  engraving  under  Thomassin  in 
his  eighteenth  year.  He  next  went  to  Florence,  where,  by  numerous  spirited  etchings, 
he  gained  great  fame,  and  engraved  for  Cosmo  II.,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  a series  of 
plates  of  court-festivals,  etc.  When  his  patron  died  (1621),  C.  returned  to  his  native 
place,  and  increased  his  reputation  by  a copious  series  of  etchings,  including  six  plates 
of  the  siege  of  Breda.  By  order  of  Louis  XIII.,  who  invited  C.  to  Paris,  etchings  of 
the  sieges  of  Rochelle  and  the  He  Rhe  were  executed;  but  C.  refused  to  commemorate 
by  art  the  capture  of  his  native  town,  and,  declining  the  pension  offered  by  the  king, 
returned  to  Nancy,  where  he  died,  1635.  His  activity  as  an  artist  was  marvelous.  Of 
his  engravings,  1800  are  still  preserved  at  Dresden.  As  helps  to  a vivid  conception  of 
■the  manners,  conditions  of  life,  events,  etc,,  in  the  17th  c.,  they  are  invaluable.  C.’s 
“ Mis^res  de  la  Guerre,”  a series  of  18  plates,  are  especially  celebrated. 


Calluna. 

Caloric. 


320 


CALLTJ'NA.  See  Heath. 

CALLUS.  This  term  was  employed  in  old  surgical  works,  and  is  still  used  popularly, 
to  indicate  the  exuded  material  by  which  fractures  of  bones  are  consolidated  together.  • 
If  the  broken  ends  are  accurately  adjusted  to  each  other,  there  is  no  projection  of  C., 
but  merely  a slight  deposition  of  it  between  the  two  surfaces;  if,  however,  the  adjust- 
ment is  not  accurate,  the  C.  is  effused  in  such  quantity  as  to  fill  up  any  interspaces  that 
may  exist,  and  as  often  to  form  a considerable  hard  swelling  round  the  seat  of  the  frac- 
ture ; any  excess  is,  however,  usually  absorbed  during  the  last  stage  of  the  repair  of  a 
fracture.  When  the  broken  ends  are  allowed  to  move  upon  each  other — which,  of 
course,  should  be  always  prevented,  if  possible — a ferule  of  new  bone,  encircling  both 
fragments  for  some  little  distance,  so  as  to  splice  them  together,  till  they  are  united  by 
a permanent  C. , is  formed ; this  is  termed  a pi'ovisional  callus. 

CALMAR.  See  Kalmar,  ante. 

CALMET,  Augustine,  an  exegetical  and  historical  writer,  and  learned  Benedictine, 
was  b.  at  Mesnil-la-Horgue,  near  Commercy,  Feb.  26,  1672,  and,  in  1689,  entered  the 
order  of  Benedictines.  In  1698,  he  was  appointed  teacher  of  philosophy  and  theology 
in  the  abbey  Moyen-Moutier;  in  1704,  sub-prior  of  a convent  of  learned  monks  at  Mun- 
ster, in  Alsace ; and  in  1706,  he  went  to  Paris,  to  superintend  the  publication  of  his 
Commentary  on  the  Bible.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  prior  at  Lay  (1715),  abbot  of 
St.  Leopold  (1718),  abbot  of  Senones  in  Lorraine  1728),  and  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  25, 1757. 
His  exegetical  writings  have  been  commended  and  studied  with  advantage  by  both 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants.  The  Commentary  on  the  Bible  (23  vols.,  Paris,  1707-16), 
though  marked  by  the  author’s  deficient  knowledge  of  the  oriental  languages,  contains 
valuable  researches  in  biblical  antiquities.  C.’s  Historical  and  Critical  Dictionary  of  th& 
Bible  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1722-28)  was  translated  into  English,  German,  and  other  languages, 
and  has  passed  through  many  editions.  His  other  works — a History  of  the  Bible,  and  of 
the  Jews  (1718),  and  a Universal  History  (1735-71) — are  mere  compilations;  but  his  His^ 
tory  of  Lorraine  is  founded  on  original  researches.  Solid  criticism  and  vigorous  intel- 
lect are  wanting  in  all  his  works.  ^ 

CALMS,  or  Calm  Latitudes,  are  those  parts  of  the  ocean,  near  the  equator,  which 
are  subject  to  total  absence  of  wind  for  long  periods  together.  The  part  of  the  ocean 
where  C.  are  most  looked  for,  is  between  the  region  of  the  trade-winds  and  that  of  the 
variable  winds.  See  Winds.  It  is  almost  as  much  dreaded  by  seamen  as  a region  of 
storms,  for  the  ship  is  unnavigable;  and  during  a calm  of  many  weeks,  food  and  water 
may  be  nearly  exhausted,  at  a point  too  far  from  land  for  boats  to  reach  it.  Where  a 
calm  occurs  unexpectedly,  it  is  likely  to  be  followed  by  violent  storms. 

CALMUCKS.  See  Kalmucks. 

CALNE,  a parliamentary  borough  and  ancient  t.  of  Wiltshire,  on  the  river  Harden,. 
31  m.  n.n.w.  of  Salisbury.  It  lies  in  one  of  the  many  valleys  of  the  chalk  escarpment 
3f  this  part  of  England,  with  the  plateau  of  the  Marlborough  downs  and  Salisbury 
plain  on  the  e.  and  south.  In  1863,  a branch  line  was  opened  to  C.,  6 m.  from  the 
Chippenham  station  of  the  Great  Western  railway.  The  principal  industry  is  the  cur- 
ing of  bacon ; and  there  are  also  flax,  paper,  and  flour  mills.  The  manufacture  of  wool- 
ens, formerly  of  importance,  is  now  almost  extinct.  There  is  also  a weekly  corn-mar- 
ket. Pop.  of  the  town  in  1871,  5315.  The  parliamentary  borough,  formerly  returning^ 
two  members  to  parliament,  but  now  only  one,  includes  part  of  Blackland  and  Cal- 
stone.  Many  Roman  remains  have  been  found  here.  The  West-Saxon  kings  had  a 
palace  at  Caine,  but  no  traces  of  it  now  remain.  At  a synod  held  here  by  St.  Dunstan 
in  977,  relative  to  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  the  floor  of  the  room  in  which  the  synod 
sat  gave  way,  precipitating  all  to  the  ground  but  St.  Dunstan,  who  presided.  On  an 
almost  perpendicular  declivity  3 m.  e.  of  C.  is  the  figure  of  a horse,  157  ft.  long,  in  a 
spirited  attitude.  It  was  cut  out  in  white  chalky  ground  in  1780  by  Dr.  Allsopp,  and  is 
visible  50  m.  off.  Dr.  Priestley  resided  at  C.  1770-80. 

CALO'EE.  See  Boehmeria. 

CALOMARDE,  Don  Francisco  Tadeo,  Count,  a Spanish  statesman,  was  b.  in  1775  at 
Villel,  in  Aragon.  He  studied  at  Saragossa,  where  he  passed  as  an  advocate.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  French,  and  the  return  of  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1814,  C.  was  among 
the  first  to  hurry  to  Aragon,  and  do  homage  to  him  as  an  absolute  monarch.  As  a 
reward  of  his  obsequious  celerity,  he  obtained  the  highest  oflSce  in  the  secretaria  general 
de  Indias,  but  lost  it  on  account  of  accepting  a bribe.  On  the  restoration  of  the  con- 
stitution in  1820,  he  unsuccessfully  courted  the  favor  of  the  liberals;  but  when  the 
French  army  in  1823  enabled  the  king  once  more  to  rule  despotically,  C.  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  cdmara  del  real  pair onato,  one  of  the  most  influential  offices  in  the  king- 
dom. Not  long  after,  the  king  made  him  minister  of  justice.  While  he  held  this  func- 
tion, he  persecuted  the  liberals  with  cold-blooded  savageness,  recalled  the  Jesuits, 
re-opened  the  monasteries,  and  closed  the  universities.  He  also  secretly  favored  the 
party  of  Don  Carlos;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  by  treating  any  unseasonable  outbreak 
with  a strictness  bordering  on  cruelty,  he  preserved  himself  from  the  suspicion  of  being 
implicated  in  their  schemes.  In  1833,  when  Ferdinand  w^as  supposed  to  be  on  his 
death-bed,  he  was  prevailed  on  by  C.  to  re-introduce  the  Salic  law,  by  wiiich  Christina 


321 


Calluiia. 

Caloric. 


was  excluded  from  the  throne,  and  Don  Carlos,  the  favorite  of  the  absolutists,  appointed 
his  successor.  This  excited  the  hatred  of  the  nation;  and  Ferdinand  recovering, 
abolished  the  law.  To  avoid  imprisonment,  C.  tied  to  France.  He  died  at  Toulouse 
in  1842. 

CALOMEL  is  the  popular  name  given  to  one  of  the  compounds  of  mercury  (Hg)  and 
chlorine  (Cl),  and  known  to  scientific  chemists  as  the  subchloride  of  mercury  (llgCl). 
It  is  prepared  by  taking  two  equal  portions  of  mercury,  dissolving  one  portion  in  hot 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  (SO3),  which  forms  sulphate  of  mercury  (HgOSOs),  there- 
after adding  the  second  part  of  the  metal,  and  triturating  the  whole  in  a mortar  till  the 
metal  becomes  incorporated  with  the  sulphate  of  mercury.  This  mixture  is  then  added 
to  one  half  its  weight  of  common  salt  (NaCl),  and  heated  in  a retort,  when  C._  sublimes, 
and  condenses  in  the  cool  part  of  the  receiver,  as  a fine  white  powder.  A minute  por- 
tion of  corrosive  sublimate  which  accompanies  it,  is  removed  by  washing  with  water.  C. 
is  very  dense.  It  is  not  soluble  in  water,  and  sparingly  so  in  acids.  It  turns  black  on 
the  addition  of  lime-water,  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia;  and  when  heated  in  an  iron 
spoon,  or  on  a knife,  it  does  not  char,  but  rises  in  vapor,  sublimes  unaltered,  and  readily 
condenses  again  on  any  cool  surface  held  near  it.  Although  C.  has  been  more  used  in 
British  practice  than  any  other  preparation  of  mercury,  it  is  not  known  to  have  been 
employed  before  the  17th  century.  Its  medicinal  virtues  will  be  treated  of  with  the  other 
mercurials.  See  Mercury. 

GALONNE,  Charles  Alexandre  de,  controller  general  o^  finance  in  France  under 
Louis  XVI.,  was  b.  Jan.  20,  1734,  at  Douay.  Possessing  superior  abilities,  he  studied 
law,  and  having  filled  successively  various  offices,  was  made,  in  1783,  controller  general 
of  the  treasury.  In  this  capacity  he  soon  gained  favor  among  the  courtiers,  who  had 
complained  of  the  parsimony  of  Turgot  and  Necker.  C.,  though  he  found  French, 
finance  in  a deplorable  state,  was  determined  not  to  seem  poor,  gave  brilliant  entertain- 
ments, paid  off  the  debts  of  his  patron  the  count  of  Artois,  supplied  the  queen  with 
sufficient  pocket-money,  granted  pensions  and  gratuities  to  his  supporters  and  favorites, 
paid  off  arrears,  and  purchased  the  residences  of  St.  Cloud  and  Rambouillet ! His 
means  of  raising  money  were  perfectly  simple — he  borrowed,  anticipated,  issued  chan- 
cery-edicts, and  prolonged  and  augmented  extradVdinary  taxations  in  a style  never 
known  before.  The  parliament  resisted  these  measures,  but  C.,  backed  by  royal  author- 
ity, carried  them  into  execution.  The  crisis  necessarily  arrived;  and  in  1786,  when  the 
people  could  bear  the  extraordinary  taxation  no  longer,  C,  advised  the  king  to  convoke 
the  assembly  of  the  notables,  and  proposed  to  abolish  the‘  privileges  (exemption  from 
taxes)  of  the  noble  and  wealthy,  to  take  the  duty  off  salt,  to~abolish  socage  (feudal  or 
compulsory  service  to  the  lord  of  the  manor),  and  to  distribute  the  burden  of  taxation 
more  equally.  The  people  and  the  aristocracy  demanded  a convocation  of  the  states- 
general,  instead  of  the  assembly  of  the  notables;  but  C.  boldly  proceeded  with  his  plan, 
opened  the  assembly  of  the  notables,  Feb.  2,  1787,  and  in  a pleasant  and  florid  oration, 
described  the  general  prosperity  of  French  industry  and  commerce  and  brought  his 
speech  to  a climax  by  confessing  that  the  annual  defi  cit  of  the  treasury  had  risen  to  115 
millions  of  francs,  and  that  during  the  time  from  1776  to  1786,  the  government  had  bor- 
rowed no  less  a sum  than  about  1250  millions  ! The  notables,  instead  of  proceeding 
with  C.’s  plan  of  reorganization,  demanded  from  him  a statement  of  acounts.  Not 
being  able  to  give  this  satisfactorily,  he  was  stripped  of  his  dignities,  and  banished  to 
Lorraine.  After  this,  C.  resided  chiefly  in  England,  until  in  1802  he  obtained  from 
Bonaparte  permission  to  return  to  France,  where  he  died,  in  very  embarrassed  circum- 
stances, Oct.  30,  1802. 

CALOPHYL'LTTM  (Or.  beautiful  leaf),  a genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  guttiferm 
(q.v.),  natives  of  warm  climates.  Some  of  the  species  yield  valuable  timber,  as  C. 
angustifoUum,  the  Piney  Tree,  which  grows  at  Penang,  and  in  the  islands  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  and  furnishes  the  beautiful  straight  spars  called  peon.  The 
resinous  products  of  some  species  are  valuable,  and  among  them  are  some  of  the  sub- 
stances known  by  the  name  of  tacamahaca  (q.v.).  G.  inophyllum,  which  yields  true  East 
Indian  tacamahaca,  is  a very  large  and  beautiful  umbrageous  tree,  often  planted  for  its 
shade  and  the  fragrance  of  its  flowers,  which  are  white  and  in  loose  axillary  racemes.  It 
is  one  of  the  rnost  valuable  timber-trees  of  the  South  Sea  islands.  The  timber  resembles 
mahogany,  being  of  equally  close  texture,  although  of  lighter  color,  and  very  durable 
The  leaves  are  oblong  and  obtuse;  the  fruit — which  in  all  this  genus  is  a globose  drupe 
or  stone  fruit — is  about  the  size  of  a walnut;  and  a fixed  oil  is  expressed  from  its  kernel, 
which  is  used  for  lamps,  etc,  A similar  oil  is  expressed  from  the  seed  of  C.  calaha,  the 
CalabaTree  of  the  West  Indies,  which  also  has  white  sweet-scented  flowers,  and  of 
which  the  timber  is  used  for  Various  purposes,  particularly  for  staves  and  cask-heading, 

CALOBIC,  a term  for  heat  (q.v.). 

CALOBIG  ENGINE.  This  was  the  name  given  by  capt.  Ericsson  to  his  latest  air- 
engine.^  There  seems  no  reason  for  the  change  of  name,  unless  it  were  meant  to  distin- 
guish itfrqni  the  previously  well-known,  though  hitherto  unsuccessful  air-enginesof  the- 
Messrs.  Stirling.  We  shall  in  this  article  treat  air  and  caloric  engine  as  synonymous 
terms. 

well-known  law,  applicable  to  all  thermo-dynamic  engines,  that  (presupposing 


Calori  meter. 
Calotype. 


322 


tlie  merely  meclianical  part  of  the  machine  to  be  perfect)  the  heat  converted  into 
work  bears  the  same  proportion  to  the  total  heat  given  to  the  fluid  that  the  range  of  tem- 
perature bears  to  the  highest  absolute  temperature  of  the  fluid.  Thus  supposing  an  engine 
to  receive  steam*  at  the  temperature  of  275°  F.,  and  discharge  it  at  that  of  120° F.,  the 


fraction  of  heat  which  it  can  convert  into  work  will  be 


275-120 

275-f461 


or  aoout  21  per  cent 


of  the  total  heat  of  the  fluid.  This  proportion  would  be,  of  course,  greatly  reduced 
ill  practice,  owing  to  imperfections  in  the  machinery,  but  these  being  equally  likely  to 
occur  in  all  prime  movers,  we  need  not  consider  them  here.  The  lowest  limit  of  tem- 
perature available  being  practically  constant,  fixed  either  by  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  that  obtainable  in  a condenser,  it  follows  that  greater  economy  can  only 
be  looked  for  in  the  direction  of  increase  of  initial  temperature.  In  ordinary  steam- 
engines,  in  which  the  pressure  and  temperature  increase  simultaneously,  the  latter  is 
limited  by  the  former,  which  in  its  turn  is  kept,  by  considerations  of  safety,  compara- 
tively. low.  When,  however,  superheated  steam  (steam  to  which  additional  heat  has  been 
imparted  without  the  corresponding  addition  of  pressure)  or  heated  air  is  used,  the  tem- 
perature is  limited  only  by  the  power  of  the  metals  composing  the  machine  to  resist  the 
destructive  action  of  heat,  or  the  chemical  action  of  the  fluid  at  that  temperature. 
Heated  air  possesses  the  advantage  over  superheated  steam  as  a motive  power,  that  with 
it  an  explosion,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word,  is  rendered  almost  impossible,  and  that, 
if  one  were  to  occur,  it  would  be  comparatively  harmless.  It  also,  of  course,  enables  the 
boiler  to  be  dispensed  with. 

Air-engines,  in  their  principal  working  parts,  are  very  similar  to  ordinary  steam- 
engines.  The  heated  air  is  introduced  into  a cylinder,  in  which  works  a tightly-fitting 
piston,  which  is  thus  compelled  to  move  up  and  down,  and  transfers  its  motion  to  a 
revolving  shaft  by  means  of  a piston  and  connecting  rod  in  the  usual  manner.  The 
motion  of  the  piston  results  in  all  cases  from  the  expansion  of  the  heated  air;  the 
air  is  heated  by  means  of  a furnace,  is  introduced  below  the  piston,  raises  it,  and 
then  is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere.  Air-engines  are  almost  invariably  single- 
acting;  they  are  sometimes  worked . simply  by  heated  air,  and  sometimes  with  the  air 
which,  having  passed  through  the  furnace,  is  mixed  with  all  the  gaseous  products  of 
combustion.  The  latter,  method  has  the  immense  advantage  that  it  utilizes  the  heat 
which  would  otherwise  be  rejected  into  the  chimney  The  total  efficiency  of  the 
machine  is  thus  increased,  although  the  efficiency  of  the  engine  proper,  between  the  given 
pair  of  temperatures,  remains  the  same. 

The  more  heat  carried  away  by  the  discharged  air — the  higher  its  temperature,  in 
other  words — the  smaller  evidently  is,  cmteris  paribus,  the  range  of  temperature  of  the 
machine,  and  the  less,  therefore  (as  already  explained),  will  be  its  efficiency.  The  dis- 
tinctive principle  of  the  Messrs.  Stirling’s  air  engine,  as  of  the  later  C.  E.,  consists  in 
utilizing  a great  part  of  this  wasted  heat,  and  thus  economizing  fuel.  This  is  effected 
by  means  of  a “regenerator,”  or,  more  properly,  “economizer,”  consisting  of  a chamber 
filled  with  metallic  sieves  of  wire-gauze,  through  which  the  hot  air  is  made  to  pass  out- 
wards from  the  cylinder,  after  having  performed  its  work  on  the  working  piston  of  the 
engine.  As  much  of  the  heat  of  the  escaping  air  is  taken  up  by  the  regenerator,  and 
its  temperature  thus  reduced,  the  range  of  temperature  of  the  machine  is  correspond- 
ingly increased.  The  fresh  air  entering  the  cylinder  for  the  next  stroke  was  compelled 
to  pass  inwards  through  the  regenerator,  and  abstracted  from  it  the  heat  left  in  it.  In 
this  way  it  did  not  require  to  receive  so  much  heat  in  the  furnace  as  would  otherwise 
have  been  the  case,  and  thus  economized  fuel. 

This  method  of  preventing  waste  of  heat  was  first  discovered  by  the  Kev.  Dr.  Stir- 
ling, who  obtained  a patent  for  it  in  1816.  In  working  with  air  at  the  ordinarv  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  however,  the  engine  was  found  to  require  to  be  of  large  dimensions 
as  compared  to  a steam-engine  of  the  same  power;  and  in  order  to  obviate  this  objec- 
tion, compressed  air  was  used,  the  idea  originating  with  Mr.  James  Stirling,  c.e.  Sev- 
eral other  difficulties  were  successfully  surmounted  by  the  Messrs.  Stirling,  and  event- 
ually two  improved  engines  were  constructed,  one  of  which  was  tested  to  fully  40  horse- 
power. This  latter  engine  did  all  the  work  of  the  Dundee  foundry  company  regularly 
for  upwards  of  3 years,  during  which  period  they  employed  no  other  motor.  At  the 
end  of  this  period  it  was  laid  aside,  principally  owing  to  the  repeated  failure  of  one  of 
the  heating  vessels. 

Capt.  Ericsson,  in  his  attempt  to  introduce  his  C.  E.  in  the  ship  which  bore  his 
name,  experienced  precisely  the  same  difficulties  and  disappointments,  and  tried  nearly 
the  same  remedies  as  the  Messrs.  Stirling.  There  seems  li.ttle  doubt,  however,  that  he 
actually  believed  his  “ regenerator”  was  to  make  the  same  heat  do  work  over  and  over 
again — to  be  a kind  of  perpetual  motion — and  under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  his  machines  (notwithstanding  some  not  very  creditable  maneuvering 
on  the  part  of  their  upholders)  entirely  failed,  and  that  in  2 years  (1855)  they  were 
replaced  by  steam-engines. 

Air  engines  have  recently  been  constructed,  in  which  the  solar  rays,  concentrated  by 


* The  law  is  the  same  for  steam,  air,  or  any  other  fluid  whatever. 


323 


Calorimeter. 

Calotype. 


means  of  an  arrangement  of  mirrors,  are  utilized  as  the  source  [of  heat  These  have 
been  called  solar  engines. 

CALORIM'ETER,  a measurer  of  the  degree  of  heat  (q.v.), 

CALOKIMO'TOll,  a powerful  galvanic  battery  devised  by  Dr.  Hare.  He  placed  a 
sheet  of  non-conducting  substance,  as  paste-board,  between  a sheet  ol  copper  an^ 
another  of  zinc,  rolled  the  whole  together,  and  plunged  the  bundle  into  a barrel  of 
acidulated  water.  As  there  was  but  one  pair  of  plates,  the  intensity  of  the  electricHy 
produced  was  feeble,  but  because  of  the  great  surface,  the  quantity  was  large;  effects 
which  depend  upon  quantity,  as  heat,  were  produced  in  an  intense  degree.  The  same 
result  is  now  attained  by  coupling  the  elements  of  many  small  cells  in  such  a way  that 
all  the  positive  plates  shall  be  united  in  one,  and  the  negative  plates  in  another. 

CALO'TROPIS.  See  Mudar. 

CALOTTISTES  {Le  Regiment  de  la  Calotte),  a society  of  witty  and  satirical  men,  in  the 
time  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  were  headed  by  two  officers  in  the  king’s  body-guard,  named 
Torsac  and  Aimon.  Their  name  was  taken  from  the  word  calotte  (a  “small  cap,”  worn 
by  monks  over  the  tonsure),  and  their  amusement  consisted*  in  sending  to  any  public 
character  who  had  exposed  himself  to  ridicule,  a “patent,”  authorizing  him  to  wear  the 
calotte  as  a covering  for  the  weak  part  of  his  head.  The  armorial  bearings  of  the  Regi- 
ment de  la  Calotte  consisted  of  various  symbols  of  folly,  with  the  motto,  “ C'est  regner  qua 
de  saxoir  rire”  When  Torsac,  its  first  “generalissimo,”  died,  the  society,  which  occu- 
pied a position  of  satirical  hostility  to  the  French  academy,  drew  up  a burlesque 
funeral  oration,  manufactured  out  of  the  pompously  eulogistic  phrases  that  the  acade- 
micians were  in  the  habit  of  using.  As  the  society  became  audacious,  and  did  not  spare 
even  royalty  itself,  it  was  dissolved  by  the  minister  Fleury.  The  Memoires  pour  servir  d, 
VHistoire  de  la  Calotte  (Basel,  1725)  is  an  amusing  little  book.  During  the  restoration, 
the  title  Regime  de  la  Calotte  was  applied  to  the  priestly  administration  of  affairs. 

CAL'OTYPE  PROC'E^  (Gr.  halos,  beautiful,  typos,  impression),  a title  comprehending 
a variety  of  methods  for  the  production  of  negative  photographs  on  paper;  and  so 
named  by  the  inventor,  the  late  Dr.  H.  Fox  Talbot,  who  exhibited  the  result  of  his 
experiments  in  the  year  1840.  The  principle  involved  in  the  C.  P.  depends  on  the  sus- 
ceptibility to  the  action  of  daylight  of  a surface  chemically  prepared,  and  the  practice 
consists  in  the  preparation,  and  exposure  in  the  camera,  of  a sheet  of  paper,  having  on 
one  surface  an  even  and  finely  divided  layer  of  iodide  of  silver,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  an 
organic  acid;  the  image  obtained  on  this  surface  being  subsequently  developed  with 
gallo-uitrate  of  silver.  It  will  be  unnecessary  here  to  describe  the  various  modifications 
which  have  been  introduced  with  the  object  of  imparting  a high  degree  of  sensibility  to 
the  paper;  one  process — the  best — will  suffice  to  describe  the  manipulation. 

Good  English  paper,  sized  with  gelatine,  should  be  chosen,  the  foreign  starch-sized 
papers  being  unsuitable,  on  account  of  the  solutions  sinking  in  too  deeply,  and  thus 
impairing  that  sharpness  of  outline  which  should  be  possessed  by  a good  negative.  The 
paper  is  then  floated  on  one  side,  and  for  a moment  only,  on  a solution  of  iodide  of 
silver  in  iodide  of  potassium ; prepared  by  adding  freshly  precipitated  iodide  of  silver 
to  a strong  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium.  It  is  then  dried,  and  plunged  into  a dish 
containing  distilled  water,  which,  by  removing  the  soluble  iodide  of  potassium,  precipi- 
tates the  iodide  of  silver  in  an  even  and  finely  divided  condition  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  paper,  which  in  this  state  will  keep  good  for  twelve  months.  It  is  now  ready  to 
receive  the  sensitive  coating;  this  operation,  which  is  called  exciting  the  paper,  is  per- 
formed in  the  following  manner : Two  solutions  are  prepared — one,  a saturated  solution 
of  gallic  acid  in  cold  distilled  water,  called  solution  A ; the  other,  a solution  of  50  grains  of 
nitrate  of  silver  in  1 oz.  of  distilled  water,  to  wffiich  1 dram  of  glacial  acetic  acid  has 
been  added;  this  is  called  solution  B.  The  iodized  paper  obtained  as  above  is  now  laid 
on  a board  having  a piece  of  clean  blotting-paper  on  it  a little  larger  than  the  paper  to 
be  excited,  and  the  following  solution  brushed  over  it  with  a clean  Buckle’s  brush: 
distilled  water,  1 oz. ; solution  A,  15  drops;  solution  B,  15  drops.  This  mixture,  pre- 
pared in  a chemically  clean  glass  vessel,  should  be  freely  applied,  and  the  excess 
absorbed  by  clean  blotting-paper.  The  paper  is  now  ready  for  exposure  in  the  camera, 
and  may  be  at  once  placed  in  the  dark  slide ; or  a stock  may  be  thus  sensitized  and 
preserved  between  folds  of  blotting-paper  until  required  for  use.  The  time  of  exposure 
— varying  from  three  minutes  to  a quarter  of  an  hour — is  determined  by  the  diameter 
and  focal  length  of  the  lens  employed,  the  aperture  of  the  diaphragm  or  stop,  and  the  ^ 
amount  of  light  prevailing  at  the  time.  The  development  of  the  latent  image,  an  operation 
which,  like  the  preceding,  is,  of  course,  conducted  in  a room  illuminated  only  by  yellow  ^ 
light,  is  accomplished  by  applying  freely  and  uniformly  over  the  whole  surface  solution 
A;  and  when  the  image  begins  to  appear,  applying  a second  quantity,  to  which  a few 
drops  of  solution  B have  been  previously  added,  to  increase  the  intensity.  The  whole 
operation  of  development  occupies  about  a quarter  of  an  hour;  and  when  the  details 
are  fully  out,  the  picture  should  be  washed  with  water,  and  fixed,  by  immersion  in  a 
solution  of  1 part  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  to  4 parts  of  water;  it  is  then  again  freely 
washed  in  frequent  changes  of  water  during  several  hours;  it  is  lastly  dried  and  waxed; 
when  it  may  be  regarded  as  a finished  negative,  from  which  positive  prints  may  be 
obtained,  having  the  lights  and  shadows  as  in  nature.  See  Positive  Printing. 


Calovius. 

Calvados. 


324 


CALO'VIUS,  Abkaham,  1612-86;  a Lutheran  minister,  rector  at  Dantzic,  and  pro- 
fessor at  Konigsberg  and  Wittenberg.  He  was  a strong  controvertist,  and  a vigorous 
supporter  of  his  sect. 

CALOY'ERS,  a general  name  for  the  monks  of  the  Greek  church.  The  name  is  a cor- 
ruption of  two  Greek  words,  kalos  and  geron,  and  signifies  “ good  old  men.”  The  C.  follow 
the  order  of  St.  Basil,  and  are  divided  into  three  ranks:  the  novices,  called  archari, 
the  ordinary  professed,  called  microchemi;  and  the  more  perfect,  called  megalochemi 
It  is  always  from  among  them  that  bishops  and  patriarchs  are  chosen,  because  they  ar* 
generally  members  of  the  m^st  distinguished  families  of  the  upper  and  middle  classes. 
The  C.  also  furnish  the  only  learned  theologians  in  Greece  at  the  present  day.  Theii 
monasteries  are  very  numerous.  The  most  celebrated  in  Asia  is  that  of  Mt.  Sinai, 
founded  by  the  emperor  Justinian,  and  endowed  with  a revenue  of  60,000  crowns.  In 
Europe,  Mt.  Athos  alone  has  twenty,  the  inmates  of  which  have  so  great  a reputation 
for  sanctity,  that  even  the  Turks  seek  an  interest  in  their  prayers.  The  C.  are  obliged 
to  labor  for  the  benefit  of  their  monastery  as  long  as  they  continue  in  it.  Their  religious 
services  occupy  an  unnaturally  large  portion  of  their  time,  beginning  at  midnight  and 
continuing  at  intervals  until  sunset.  They  observe  four  Lents:  the  first,  of  eight  weeks, 
in  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord;  the  second,  of  three  weeks,  in 
honor  of  the  holy  apostles;  the  third,  of  fourteen  days,  in  commemoration  of  the 
assumption  of  the  Virgin;  and  the  fourth,  in  commemoration  of  the  advent, — There  are 
also  female  C.,  or  Greek  nuns,  who  likewise  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil. 

CALTE.  See  Hercules,  Pillars  of,  ante. 

CALPEE,  a city  of  Jhansi,  one  of  the  n.w.  provinces  of  India,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jumna,  in  lat.  26°  T n.,  and  long.  79°  48'  east.  Pop.  ’72,  15,570.  It  is  an  entrepot 
for  the  cotton  of  the  neighboring  district.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  paper, 
and  is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  its  refined  sugar.  It  became  British  by  capture  and 
cession,  respectively,  in  1803  and  1806.  It  is  51  m.  s.w.  of  Cawnpore,  and  is  closely 
linked  with  it  in  the  history  of  the  insurrection  of  1857-58,  as  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Gwalior  contingent. 

CALPENTYN',  a long  and  narrow  peninsula  on  the  w.  side  of  Ceylon,  in  lat.  8°  14'  n., 
and  long.  79°  53'  east.  The  neck  is  so  low  as  to  be  overflowed  during  the  n.e.  monsoon,- 
so  that  it  is  transformed  into  an  island. 

CALPURNIUS.  The  Calpurnia  gens  was,  by  its  own  account,  one  of  the  oldest 
plebeian  clans  in  Rome ; but  it  does  not  figure  in  history  till  the  time  of  the  first  Punic 
war.  The  family  names,  in  the  time  of  the  republic,  were  Bestia,  Bibulus,  Plamma, 
and  Piso. — Marcus  Calpurnius  Bibulus  is  known  as  the  hostile  but  incapable  col- 
league of  Caesar  (q.v.)  in  the  consulate.  He  was  put  up  by  the  aristocratic  party,  who 
spent  vast  sums  to  carry  the  election.  He  finally  joined  the  Pompeian  party,  had  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  intended  to  prevent  Caesar’s  passage  to  Greece,  and  died  48  b.c.,  before 
the  battle  of  Dyrrhachium.  Among  the  Roman  women  of  this  family,  two  are  cele- 
brated— Calpurnia,  the  daughter  of  Calpurnius  Piso  (consul  58  b.c.),  and  the  last  wife 
of  Caesar,  who  seems,  from  the  scanty  notices  of  her  we  possess,  to  have  been  a quiet 
domestic  woman,  full  of  love  and  solicitude  for  her  great  husband;  and  Calpurnia, 
the  daughter  of  L.  Calpurnius  Bestia,  wife  of  P.  Antistius,  who  killed  herself  when  her 
husband  was  murdered  by  order  of  the  younger  Marius,  82  b.c. 

CALPUR'NIUS,  Titus  Julius,  surnamed  Siculus,  a pastoral  poet  who  lived  in 
Sicily  about  the  end  of  the  3d  century.  He  seems  to  have  been  an  imitator  of  Virgil, 
but  beyond  his  complaining  of  poverty  nothing  is  known  of  his  personal  history. 

CALTABELLO'TA  (a  Saracenic  name  = “the  castle  of  the  cork-trees”),  a t.  of  Sicily, 
Girgenti,  7 m.  n.e.  of  Sciacca,  most  picturesquely  situated  around  an  ancient  castle, 
which  crowns  a steep  rock  overhanging  a stream  (anc.  GHmisus),  of  the  same  name  as 
the  town.  Of  its  churches  the  Ghiesa  Matrice  is  a beautiful  relic  of  the  middle  ages, 
resembling  a mosque,  with  a single  row  of  columns  down  the  middle.  C.  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Saracens  in  840  a.d.  Pop.  6200. 

CALTANISET'TA,  a province  in  Sicily  s.  of  Palermo;  1455  sq.m. ; pop.  ’71,  230,066. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  producing  grapes,  olives,  almonds,  hemp,  cotton,  etc.  Marble,  agate, 
alabaster,  sulphur,  and  iron  ore  are  found.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  but  there 
are  foundries  and  manufactories  of  chemicals. 

CALTANISET'TA,  a fortified  t.  of  Sicily,  situated  on  a fertile  plain  near  the  Salso, 
about  28  m.  n.e.  of  Girgenti.  It  has  mineral  springs  and  extensive  sulphur-works. 
Pop.  ’72.  26,156. 

CALTAVUTU'RO,  a t.  of  Sicily,  province  of  Palermo,  and  37  m.  s.e.  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  on  a small  river,  the  Grande.  The  town  is  of  Saracenic  origin.  Jasper  is 
found  near  C.  Pop.  5000. 

CAL'THA.  See  Marsh  Marigold. 

CALTO'NICA,  a t.  of  Sicily,  about  15  m.  n.w.  of  Girgenti.  It  has  pretty  extensive 
sulphur-works  and  salt-works.  Pop.  7000. 

CALTROP,  Calthrop,  or  Calthorp,  in  military  warfare,  is  a four-pronged  piece  of 
iron,  each  prong  about  four  in.  in  length.  When  it  is  wished  to  check  the  approach  of 


325 


Calovius. 

Calvados* 


the  enemy’s  cavalry  over  a plain,  or  of  his  besiegers  in  the  ditch  of  a fortification,  cal- 
trops are  sometimes  thrown  down ; from  their  shape,  one  prong  is  sure  to  stand  upright, 
;and  may  work  terrible  mischief  to  the  enemy’s  horses  or  men. 

CALUIBE,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Rhone,  situated  on  the  left  bank 
-of  the  Saone,  about  3 m.  n.n.e,  of  Lyon.  It  has  three  annual  fairs.  Pop.  ’76,  7207. 

CALUMBA,  or  Colombo,  very  extensively  used  in  medicine,  is  the  root  of  cocculus 
palmatus,  a herbaceous  plant  of  the  natural  order  menispermacem  (q.v.).  It  is  said  to 
derive  its  name  from  Colombo  in  Ceylon,  although  the  C.  no’m  chiefly  in  use  is  the  pro- 
duce of  Mozambique.  The  flowers  in  this  genus  have  12  sepais  and  petals  in  all,  similar 
in  appearance,  and  disposed  in  four  rows.  The  male  and  female  flowers  are  on  sepa- 
rate plants.  C.  palmatus  has  nearly  circular  leaves  with  5 to  7 lobes,  on  long  hairy 
Toot-stalks,  and  solitary  axillary  racemes  of  small  green  flowers,  the  racemes  of  the  male 
plants  branching.  The  fruit  is  a drupe,  or  1-seeded  berry-like  fruit,  about  the  size  of  a 
Jiazel-nut,  densely  clothed  with  long  hairs.  The  stem  is  annual  and  twining;  the  root 
perennial,  consisting  of  clustered  spindle-shaped  fleshy  tubers,  with  a brown  warty  epi- 
dermis, and  internally  deep  yellow.  The  plant  is  not  cultivated : the  root  is  collected 
where  it  grows  wild  in  dense  forests.  It  is  dug  up  in  Mar.,  cut  into  slices  or  short  cylin- 
drical pieces,  and  dried  in  the  shade.  In  this  state  it  appears  in  commerce,  having  a 
greenish-yellow  tint,  a very  bitter  taste,  and  a faint  aromatic  odor.  Its  bitterness  is 
ascribed  to  a somewhat  narcotic  principle  called  calumbine,  and  to  herherine,  an  alkaloid 
originally  discovered  in  the  barberry  (q.v.),  which  is  also  present  in  it.  C.  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  useful  stomachics  and  tonics.  It  is  demulcent,  not  at  all  stimulant, 
and  capable  of  being  employed  in  cases  in  which  almost  every  other  tonic  would  be 
rejected  by  the  stomach.  It  is  sometimes  given  to  allay  vomiting.  It  has  been  found 
very  useful  in  diarrhea  and  dysentery.  It  is  administered  in  the  form  of  powder,  infu- 
sion, or  tincture.  Similar  properties  seem  to  reside  in  the  roots  of  the  species  of  cocculus 
generally. — The  very  poisonous  seed  known  by  the  name  of  cocculus  Indicus  (q.v.), 
belongs  to  a plant  of  a different  but  allied  genus. — The  root  of  frasera  walteri  is  some- 
times fraudulently  substituted  for  C.,  and  has  been  called  American  calumba  root.  It 
does  not  agree  with  C.  in  its  properties,  but,  besides  its  very  different  appearance,  it 
may  be  distinguished  by  its  undergoing  no  such  change  of  color  when  touched  with 
tincture  of  iodine,  as  in  true  C.  root  is  produced  by  the  presence  of  starch.  See 
Frasera. 

CALUMET,  the  “peace-pipe”  of  the  North  American  Indians,  is  a tobacco-pipe  hav- 
ing a stem  of  reed  about  two  feet  and  a half  long,  decorated  with  locks  of  women’s  hair 
and  feathers,  and  a large  bowl  of  polished  marble.  It  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
conclusion  of  treaties,  of  which,  indeed,  it  may  be  described  as  the  ratifler.  After  a 
treaty  has  been  signed,  the  Indians  fill  the  C.  with  the  best  tobacco,  and  present  it  to  the 
representatives  of  the  party  with  whom  they  have  been  entering  into  alliance,  themselves 
smoking  out  of  it  afterwards.  The  presentation  of  it  to  stangersis  a mark  of  hospitality, 
and  to  refuse  it  would  be  considered  an  act  of  hostility. 

CALUMET,  a co.  in  e.  Wisconsin,  on  Winnebago  lake;  360  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  16,631. 
It  is  a hilly  region,  but  with  abundance  of  timber  and  good  pasturage,  and  produces 
grain,  hay,  hops,  wool,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Chilton. 

CALUMET,  a t.  and  village  in  Houghton  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  Mineral  Range  railroad; 
pop.  of  township  ’80,  8291.  In  the  town  is  a copper-mine  supposed  to  be  the  richest  in 
the  world;  employing  from  1800  to  2000  men  and  yielding  annually  12,000  to  15,000  tons 
of  pure  copper.  There  are  some  manufactures  in  the  village. 

CALUMNY.  An  ancient  regulation  of  the  Scotch  law  obliged  litigants  to  give  their 
oath  of  C. — that  is,  they  swore,  either  by  themselves  or  by  their  counsel,  that  the  facts 
alleged  by  them  were  true,  although  in  practice  this  oath  was  not  usually  put  unless 
one  of  the  parties  required  it  of  his  adversary.  In  the  modern  practice,  however,  of  the 
<iourt  of  session,  this  oath  is  confined  to  actions  for  divorce,  and  other  consistorial  cases 
— the  object  being  to  guard  against  collusion  between  the  husband  and  wife.  Se« 
Divorce. 

CALUMNY,  Law  as  to.  See  Libel. 

CALU'SO,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  in  Piedmont,  province  of  Turin,  about  11  m.  s.  of  Ivrea, 
and  connected  with  Turin  by  railway.  Pop.  3500. 

CALVADOS,  a maritime  department  in  the  n.  w.  of  France,  bounded  n.  by  the  English 
channel,  and  e.,  w.,  and  s.  by  the  departments  of  Eure,  Manche,  and  Orne.  It  is  formed 
out  of  a part  of  the  old  province  of  Normandy.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Touques, 
‘Orne,  Dives,  Seulle,  Dromrae,  and  Vire.  The  coast,  which  has  few  bays  or  inlets,  is 
partly  formed  by  bold  ridges,  and  partly  by  sand-downs,  cliffs,  and  reefs.  The  reef 
extending  between  the  mouths  of  the  Orne  and  the  Vire,  called  Calvados,  after  one  of 
the  vessels  in  the  Spanish  armada  shipwrecked  here,  and  from  which  the  department 
takes  its  name,  is  very  dangerous  to  navigation.  The  soil  of  the  department  is  generally 
fertile,  especially  in  the  valleys,  supplying  rich  pasturage  for  horned  cattle,  sheep, 
horses,  and  swine,  which  constitute  the  principal  wealth  of  Calvados,  The  climate  is 
healthy,  though  changeable.  Iron,  marble,  slate,  and  coal  are  found.  There  are  various 
manufactures,  and  the  coast-fisheries  are  of  some  importance.  C.  has  an  area  of  2130 


Calvaert. 

Calvin. 


326 


sq.m.,  with  a pop.  in  1876  of  450,220,  and  is  divided  into  six  arrondissements.  Caen 
is  the  capital. 


CALVAERT.  Dionys,  called  also  Dionisio  Flammingo,  a distinguished  painter, 
especially  in  landscape,  was  b.  at  Antwerp  in  1555.  He  settled  early  at  Bologna,  where 
re-opened  a school,  and  had  among  his  students  the  celebrated  Domemchmo, 
and^Albani,  who  were,  afterwards,  however,  pupils  of  the  Caracci.  Many  excelle  t 
pictures  by  him  are  still  preserved  at  Bologna.  He  died  in  1619.  ^ 

CALVARY,  Mount,  the  scene  of  our  Savior’s  crucifixion,  is  an  eminence  which  lay 
at  the  n.w„  and  just  on  the  outside,  of  the  ancient  city  of  Jerusalem.  Calvary  or  Cal- 
varia  is  a translation  into  Latin  of  the  Hebrew  word  Golgotha,  signifying  a sku” 
either  because  the  mount  was  a place  of,  public  execution,  or  because  it  was  shaped  like 
a human  skull. 


uman  skuii.  . - . 4? 

CALVARY,  in  Roman  Catholic  countries,  is  a representation  of  the  various  scenes  of 
the  passion  and  crucifixion  of  our  Lord,  either  in  a cliapel.  or  external  to  church  a| 
at  St  Tacoues  at  Antwerp.  Is  consists  of  three  crosses  with  the  figuies  01  Christ  ana 
the^ideves,  usually  as  large  as  life,  surrounded  by  a number  ’ 

various  personages  who  took  part  m the  crucifixion.  At  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  C,  is  ^ 
church  on  the  top  of  a hill,  surrounded  by  twelve  sculptured  stunes,  each  marking  an 
event  which  took  place  on  the  journey  of  the  Savior  to  Mount  Calvary.  The  approach 
to  the  C.  is  called  the  Viob  Dolorosa,  each  of  the  stones  marking  what  is  called  a station, 
at  whicli  the  pious  say  a prayer  in  passing.  ^ 

CALVEL'LO,  a t.  in  the  province  of  Basilicata,  Ital3^  pleasantly  situated  on  a lull-slope 
about  13  m.  s.  of  Potenza.  It  has  two  convents.  Pop.  5650. 

CALVENTU'RA  ISLANDS,  ofl;  the  coast  of  Arracan,  in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  their  center 
being  in  iat,  16°  53'  n„  and  long.  94°  20'  east.  The  group  consists  of  two  divisions-oM 
to  the  s.e.,  which  is  composed  of  two  lofty  and  well-wooded  islets;  and  another  to  the 

n.w.,  which  presents  seven  bare  rocks,  chiefly  of  fantastic  shapes.  ,oa  -«a  koq  rcqc 

CALVERT,  a co.  in  Maryland,  on  Chesapeake  bay;  250  sq.m. ; pop.  80, 
colored.  Its  surface  is  rolling,  with  good  soil,  having  marl  in  abundance.  The  chief 
productions  are  tobacco,  corn,  and  oats.  Co.  seat.  Prince  Frederick. 

CALVERT,  George  and  Cecil.  See  Baltimore,  Lord. 


V J-iXt  A y VJTaLvXvU JCj  <XJJ.VA.  vy  • ^ 

CALVERT  George  Henry,  b.  Baltimore,  1803;  a graduate  of  Harvard,  and  or  a 
long  time  editor  of  the  Baltimore  American.  In  1832,  he  published  Illustrations  of  Ph^e-. 
nol%v  the  first  treatise  on  the  subject  issued  in  this  country.  Among  his  works  are  a 
Metrical  Version  of  SchilleVs  Don  Carlos;  Scenes  and  Thoughts  in  Europe;  Cahiro  a Don 
^anTc  poem  the  Social  Scien^s;  The 

Poems;  First  Tear  in  Europe;  Ellen,  a Poem.;  and  Goethe,  las  Life  and  Woi  ks.  In  1843, 
removed  to  Newport,  R.  I.,  of  which  city  he  was  chosen  mayor  in  1853. 

CALVERT,  Leonard,  1582-1647;  brother  of  the  second  lord  Baltimore  and  first 
e-overnoi  of  Maryland.  In  1633,  he  led  the  first  expedition  to  Maryl^d  in  two  small 
fessels  and  on  the  25th  of  Mar.,  1634,  at  St.  Clement’s  island  on  the 

lar  mass  was  celebrated.  Immediately  afterwards  they  settled  on  the  right  bank  of  a 
river  called  by  them  St.  George,  and  founded  the  prospective  city  of  St.  Mary,  no  signs 
S which  now  remain.  Aftef  much  dilRculty  with  the  people  of  Virginia  the  coloni^sts 
undlr  Calvert  were  fully  established,  and  in  1647  his  name  as  governor  of  the  piovmce 

was  recognized.  , 4: 

CAL'VI  a seauort  on  the  island  of  Corsica,  situated  on  a peninsula  in  the  gulf  of  Calvi, 
.nfu  w s w of  Bastia  lat  42°  85'  n.’  long.  8°  48'  east.  It  is  strongly  fortified, 

and  has  a good  port,  with  a hi’gh  light  at  its  entance,  and  ^ 1^^969 

C.  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1794,  after  a siege  of  51  days.  Jop.  196^ 

vill^mSun  McknLsTr'om  M 

u'nTtu‘'ous^o'fhe7ou^^^^^  “They  aTne?er%.ltogetp™te^^^^^  ol^traTberfy"  The  S 
;i?te?c".T^h5-pu\eX^^^^^^^^  rdSseTlp'le;  it  is  vely  extensively 

cultivated  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

CALVIN,  John,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  reformers  of  t^e  16th^^^ 

Noyon,  in  Picardy,  on  the  10th  of  July,  1509  His  father  was  oie  ^ 

procureur.fiscal  of  the  district  of  Noyon,  and  secretary  of 

six  children— four  sons  and  two  daughters.  All  the  three  so  . was  aiiuointed  to 

ecclesiastics ; and  the  reformer  himself,  while  still  only  12  j ears  of  ag  ■ ‘ g^pport 

WgreVTusmictTou  which  was  there  attainable.  He  was  entered  as  a pupil  in  the  college 


327 


Calvaert. 

Calvin. 


de  la  Marche,  under  the  regen^  of  Mathurin  Cordier,  better  remembered,  perhaps,  by 
his  Latin  name  of  Corderiiis.  It  was  under  this  distinguished  master  that  C.  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  own  wonderful  mastery  of  the  Latin  language.  During  this  early 
period,  he  was  distinguished  by  the  great  activity  of  his  mental  powers,  and  the  grave 
severity  of  his  manners.  His  companions,  it  is  said,  surnamed  him  the  “ Accusative.” 

For  awhile,  his  attention  was  directed  to  the  study  of  law.  His  remarkable  talents 
seemed  to  promise  great  success  in  this  branch  of  study,  and  his  father  sent  him,  with 
the  view  of  prosecuting  it,  to  the  university  of  Orleans,  then  adorned  by  Pierre  de 
I’Etoile,  one  of  the  most  famous  jurists  of  his  day,  and  afterwards  president  of  the 
parliament  of  Paris.  At  Orleans,  he  continued  the  same  life  of  rigorous  temperance 
and  earnest  studiousness  for  which  he  was  already  noted.  Beza  says  that,  after  sup- 
ping moderately,  he  would  spend  half  the  night  in  study,  and  devote  the  morning  to 
meditation  on  what  he  had  acquired.  His  undue  habits  of  study  seem  to  have  laid 
thus  early  the  foundation  of  the  ill-health  which  marked  his  later  years.  It  was  while 
a law-student  in  Orleans  that  he  became  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures,  and  received  his 
first  impulse  to  the  theological  studies  which  have  made  his  name  so  distinguished.  A 
relative  of  his  own,  Pierre  Robert  Olivetan,  was  there  engaged  in  a translation  of  the 
Scriptures;  and  this  had  the  effect  of  drawing  C.’s  attention,  and  awakening  within  him 
the  religious  instinct  which  was  soon  to  prove  the  master-principle  of  his  life.  We  can- 
not say  as  yet  that  his  traditionary  opinions  were  unfixed,  or  that  he  had  embraced  with 
any  decision  the  Protestant  opinions  that  were  spreading  everywhere;  but  the  seeds  of 
the  new  faith  were  now  beyond  doubt  sown  in  his  heart,  and  from  this  time,  although 
he  still  continued  for  awhile  longer  to  pursue  his  legal  studies,  his  main  interests  appear 
to  have  been  religious  and  theological.  From  Orleans  he  went  to  Bourges,  where  he 
acquired  the  knowledge  of  Greek,  under  the  tuition  of  a learned  German,  Melchior 
Wolmar,  to  the  influence  of  whose  spiritual  instructions  he  was  also  greatly  indebted. 
He  began  here  to  preach  the  reformed  doctrines,  and  passed  over  into  the  ranks  of 
Protestantism,  under  the  slow  but  sure  growth  of  his  new  convictions,  rather  than 
under  the  agitation  of  any  violent  feeling.  Here,  as  everywhere,  his  life  presents  a 
marked  contrast  to  that  of  Luther, 

He  proceeded  to  Paris  in  1533,  which  at  this  date  had  become  a center  of  the  “ new 
learning,”  under  the  teaching  of  Lefevre  and  Farel,  and  the  influence  of  the  queen  of 
Navarre,  sister  of  Francis  I.  The  Sorbonne  itself  had  not  escaped  the  infection.  There 
was  a growing  religious  excitement  in  the  university,  in  the  court,  and  even  among  the 
bishops.  This,  however,  was  not  to  last.  The  king  was  soon  stirred  up  to  take  active 
measures  to  quell  this  risipg  spirit ; and  the  result  was  that  C.  and  others  were  obliged 
to  flee  for  their  lives.  The  story  is  that  C.  narrowly  escaped,  having  descended  from 
his  window  by  means  of  his  sheets,  and  fled,  under  the  guise  of  a vine-dresser,  a friend 
of  his,  in  whose  clothes  he  concealed  himself.  After  this  he  repaired  for  a short  time 
to  his  native  place,  resigned  the  preferment  he  held  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and 
for  a year  or  two  led  a wandering  life,  sheltered  in  various  places.  We  find  him  at 
fiaintonge;  at  Nerac,  the  residence  of  the  queen  of  Navarre;  at  Angoul^me,  with  his 
friend  Louis  Tillet;  then  for  a brief  while  at  Paris  again,  strangely  enough  expecting  a 
meeting  with  Servetus,  who  had  expressed  a desire  to  see  and  confer  with  him.  Perse- 
cution against  the  Protestants  at  this  time  raged  so  hotly,  that  C.  was  no  longer  safe  in 
France;  and  he  betook  himself  to  Basel,  where  he  is  supposed  to  have  prepared  the  first 
edition  of  the  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,  and  whence  he  certainly  issued,  in  the 
year  1535,  the  famous  preface  addressed  to  Francis  I.  The  concentrated  vigor  of  this 
address,  its  intensity  of  feeling,  rising  into  indignant  remonstrance,  and  at  times  a 
pathetic  and  powerful  eloquence,  make  it  one  of  the  most  memorable  documents  in  con- 
nection with  the  reformation.  It  is  throughout  a noble  defense  of  the  righteous  charac- 
ter of  the  reformed  doctrines,  and  their  support  alike  in  Scripture  and  in  history.  The 
energetic  decisiveness  and  moral  zeal  of  the  future  teacher  and  legislator  of  Geneva, 
speak  in  every  page  of  it.  After  completing  this  great  service  to  the  cause  of  Protest- 
antism, he  made  a short  visit  to  Italy,  to  Renee,  the  duchess  of  Ferrara.  Finally,  he 
revisited  his  native  town ; sold  the  paternal  estate,  which  had  devolved  to  him  on  the 
death  of  his  eldest  brother;  and  bidding  it  adieu,  set  out  in  company  with  his  younger 
brother  and  sister  on  his  way  to  Strasburg.  The  direct  road  being  rendered  dangerous 
by  the  armies  of  Charles  V.,  which  had  penetrated  into  France,  he  sought  a circuitous 
route  through  Savoy  and  Geneva. 

The  result  of  this  journey  was  memorable  for  the  cause  of  the  reformation.  Arrived 
in  Geneva,  he  met  there  his  friend,  Louis  Tillet,  who  communicated  the  fact  of  his 
arrival  to  Farel,  then  in  the  very  midst  of  his  struggle  to  promote  the  reformation  in  the 
city  and  neighborhood.  Farel  hastened  to  see  him,  and  urge  upon  him  the  duty  of  re- 
maining where  he  was,  and  undertaking  his  share  of  the  work  of  God,  under  the  burden 
of  which  he  was  like  to  fail.  C.  did  not  at  first  respond  to  the  call.  He  was  given,  he 
himself  says,  to  his  “own  intense  thoughts  and  private  studies.”  He  wished  to  devote 
himself  to  the  service  of  the  reformed  churches  generally,  rather  than  to  the  care  of  any 
particular  church.  A life  of  intellectual  and  theological  labor  was  that  which  at  that 
time  was  most  congenial  to  him.  By  some  strange  insight,  however,  Farel  penetrated 
■to  the  higher  fitness  of  the  young  stranger  who  stood  before  him,  and  he  ventured,  in 
the  spirit  of  that  daring  enthusiasm  which  characterized  him,  to  lay  the  curse  of  God 


Calvin. 


328 


upon  him  and  his  studies  if  he  refused  his  aid  to  the  church  of  Geneva  in  her  time  of 
need.  This  seemed  to  C.  a divine  menace.  “It  was,”  he  said,  “as  if  God  had  seized 
me  by  his  awful  hand  from  heaven.”  He  abandoned  his  intention  of  pursuing  his 
journey,  and  joined  eagerly  with  Farel  in  the  work  of  reformation. 

Such  was  the  beginning  of  C.’s  great  career  in  Geneva.  Having  entered  upon  his 
task,  he  soon  infused  an  energy  into  it  which  crowned  the  struggling  efforts  of  Farel 
with  success.  The  hierarchical  authority  was  already  overturned  before  his  arrival;  the 
citizens  had  asserted  their  independence  against  the  duke  of  Savoy,  whose  alliance  with 
the  corrupt  episcopate,  which  was  the  direct  governing  influence  in  the  place  had  called 
forth  the  patriotic  as  well  as  the  religious  feelings  of  the  people.  The  magistrates  and 
people  eagerly  joined  with  the  reformers  in  the  first  heat  of  their  freedom  and  zeal.  A 
Protestant  confession  of  faith  was  drawn  out,  approved  of  by  the  council  of  two  hun- 
dred, the  largest  governing  board  of  the  city,  and  then  proclaimed  in  the  cathedral 
church  of  St.  Peter’s  as  binding  upon  the  whole  body  of  the  citizens.  Great  and  mar- 
velous changes  were  wrought  in  a short  time  upon  the  manners  of  the  people;  where 
license  and  frivolity  had  reigned,  a strict  moral  severity  began  to  characterize  the  whole 
aspect  of  society.  The  strain,  however,  was  too  sudden  and  too  extreme.  A spirit  of 
rebellion  to  the  rule  of  C.  and  Farel  broke  forth;  they  refused  to  yield  to  the  wishes  of  a 
party  animated  by  a more  easy  and  liberal  spirit  than  themselves,  and  known  in  the 
history  of  Geneva  under  the  nickname  of  Libertines;  and  the  consequence  was,  that 
they  were  both  expelled  from  the  city  after  less  than  two  years’  residence. 

C.  retreated  to  Strasburg,  where  he  had  meant  to  go  when  arrested  in  his  course  at 
Geneva.  Here  he  settled,  and  devoted  himself  to  theological  study,  and  especially  to 
his  critical  labors  on  the  New  Testament.  Here,  also,  in  Oct.,  1539,  he  married  the 
widow  of  a converted  Anabaptist.  The  marriage  appears  to  have  proved  a happy  one, 
although  not  of  long  duration. 

The  Genevans  found,  after  a short  time,  that  they  could  not  well  get  on  without 
Calvin.  His  rule  might  be  rigid ; but  an  authority,  even  such  as  his,  which  might  gall 
from  its  severity,  was  better  than  no  settled  authority  at  all;  and  the  libertine  party 
seem  to  have  been  unable  to  construct  any  efficient  and  beneficent  form  of  government. 
Accordingly,  they  invited  C.  to  return;  and  after  some  delay  on  his  part,  in  order  to 
test  the  spirit  in  which  they  were  acting,  he  acceded  to  their  invitation,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  1541,  after  three  years’  absence,  once  more  made  his  entry  into  Geneva. 

Now,  at  length,  he  succeeded  in  establishing  his  plan  of  church-government,  in  all  its 
forms  and  details.  By  his  college  of  pastors  and  doctors,  and  his  consistorial  court  of  dis- 
cipline, he  founded  a theocracy,  with  himself  at  the  head  of  it,  which  aimed  virtually  to 
direct  all  the  affairs  of  the  city,  and  to  control  and  modify  both  the  social  and  individual 
life  of  the  citizens.  Not  without  a struggle,  it  may  be  supposed,  did  he  succeed  in  his 
great  autocratic  scheme.  The  libertines,  although  dishonored  by  their  ineffectual 
attempts  to  maintain  order  in  the  city,  and  uphold  its  rights  and  dignity,  still  remained 
a strong  party,  which  was  even  augmented,  after  C.’s  return,  by  men  such  as  Amy  Perrin, 
who  had  strongly  concurred  in  the  invitation  to  C.,  but  who  were  afterwards  alienated 
from  him  by  the  high  and  arbitrary  hand  with  which  he  pursued  his  designs,  as  well 
as  by  their  own  schemes  of  ambition.  The  struggle  with  this  party  lasted  with  various 
fortune  for  no  less  a period  than  15  years,  and  was  only  terminated  in  1555,  after  a some- 
what ridiculous  emeute  in  the  streets.  Amy  Perrin  and  others,  driven  from  the  city, 
were  executed  in  effigy;  and  the  reformer’s  authority  from  this  date  confirmed  into  an 
absolute  supremacy. 

During  the  perjod  of  this  long  struggle  with  the  libertines,  C.  had  many  other  dis- 
putes, in  which  he  conducted  himself  with  no  less  heartiness  and  zeal.  The  most  remark- 
able of  these  were  his  controversies  with  Sebastian  Castellio,  Jerome  Bolsec,  and  above- 
all,  Michael  Servetus. 

C.  had  become  acquainted  with  Castellio  at  Strasburg.  They  entertained  at  first  a 
warm  friendship  for  each  other,  and  C.  showed  great  zeal  in  assisting  Castellio,  whose 
poverty  and  learning  had  attracted  his  sympathy.  When  he  returned  to  Geneva,  he 
invited  Castellio  to  join  him  there,  and  procured  for  him  the  title  of  regent  or  tutor  in  the 
gymnasium  of  the  city.  There  was  little  similarity,  however,  in  the  characters  of  the 
two  men,  and  the  diversity  of  their  tastes  and  views  soon  became  apparent.  The  learning 
of  Castellio  was  intensely  humanitic;  a classical  spirit  and  a somewhat  arbitrary  opinion- 
ativeness  molded  all  his  studies;  and  as  soon  as  he  began  to  apply  himself  to  theology, 
he  came  into  conflict  with  Calvin.  In  a letter  to  Farel  in  1542,  we  find  C.  speaking  of 
the  freaks  of  “our  friend  Sebastian,  which  may  both  raise  your  bile  and  your  laughter 
at  the  same  time.”  These  freaks  relate  to  Castellio’s  notions  of  scriptural  translation, 
and  his  refusal  of  C.’s  offer  to  revise  the  version  which  he  had  made  of  certain  parts  of 
Scripture.  Then,  two  years  later,  when  Castellio  desired  to  enter  into  the  ministry,  C. 
dissuaded  the  council  from  accepting  him,  on  account  of  some  peculiar  opinions  which 
he  held.  These  were  certain  rationalistic  views  as  to  the  authenticity  and  character  of 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  descent  of  Christ  into  hell,  and  also  about  election.  After  this, 
Castellio  left  Geneva  for  awhile,  but  soon  returning,  he  attacked  the  views  of  C.  openly. 
After  a violent  scene  in  church,  which  is  painted  in  C.’s  letters  very  strongly,  he  was- 
forced  to  leave  the  city.  The  two  old  friends,  now  declared  enemies,  did  not  spare  each 
other  henceforth.  The  fate  of  Servetus  drew  forth  an  anonymous  publication,  attacking 


329 


Calvin. 


with  keen  logic  and  covert  and  ingenious  sarcasm  the  Genevan  doctrines.  This  puhli- 
"Cation  was  attributed  by  both  0.  and  Beza  to  Castellio,  and  they  replied  to  him  in  no 
measured  terms,  stigmatizing  him  as  a “ deceiver  and  vessel  of  Satan.”  One  fact  really 
<3isgracef ul  to  C.  in  tlie  controversy  deserves  not  to  be  passed  over.  Sunk  in  great  poverty, 
Castellio  was  obliged,  in  his  old  age,  to  gather  sticks  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  at  Basel, 
as  a means  of  support.  0.  did  not  hesitate  to  accuse  him  of  stealing  the  sticks.  Such 
polemical  truculence  may  well  make  us  turn  away  in  disgust  and  indignation. 

The  controversy  with  Bolsec  belongs  to  a later  period.  Jerome  Bolsec  was  originally 
a Carmelite  monk,  but  he  had  thrown  aside  the  habit,  and  betaken  himself  to  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  in  Geneva.  He  was  led  to  attack  C.’s  doctrine  of  predestination.  As 
soon  as  C.  heard  of  this,  he  led  him  to  understand  that  he  was  not  at  liberty  to  question 
the  Genevan  docrine.  He  and  the  other  clergy  dealt  with  him;  but  after  repeated  dispu- 
tations Bolsec  was  found  incorrigible,  and  was  sentenced  to  banishment  from  the  city. 
Cast  out  of  the  theocratic  community,  he  ultimatety  re-joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
■church,  and  revenged  himself  in  a somewhat  mean  way  against  C.  by  writing  his  life  in 
a spirit  of  detraction  and  slander. 

Of  all  these  contests,  however,  the  most  memorable  is  that  with  Servetus.  A melan- 
choly interest  encircles  the  name  of  this  great  heretic,  which  the  criminal  tragedy  of  his 
death  keeps  always  fresh  and  vivid  in  the  minds  of  all  who  hate  intolerance,  and  who 
love  truth  rather  than  dogmatism.  The  character  of  Servetus  himself  has  little  to  do 
with  this  interest.  He  seems  to  have  been  more  of  a vain,  restless,  and  enthusiastic 
dreamer,  than  of  a calm  and  patient  inquirer.  In  his  very  dreams,  however,  and  the 
vague  audacities  of  his  speculation,  there  is  a kind  of  simplicity  and  unconscious  ear- 
nestness that  wins  sympathy.  He  had  entered  into  various  connections  with  C.,  even 
from  the  time  of  his  early  residence  in  Paris;  particularly,  he  had  sent  him  various  docu- 
ments containing  the  views,  fully  developed  in  his  work  subsequently  published  under 
the  title  of  Restitutio  Ghristianismi.  C.  never  concealed  his  abhorrence  of  these  views; 
.and  in  a letter  to  Farel  as  early  as  1546,  he  threatens  that  if  Servetus  should  come  to 
Geneva,  he  would  do  what  he  could  to  bring  him  to  condign  punishment : Nam  si  vene- 
rit,  modo  valeat  mea  authoritas,  mvum  exire  nunquam  patiar.  The  history  of  his  seizure 
and  condemnation  at  Vienne  by  the  Catholic  authorities,  and  especially  of  C.’s  share  in 
the  correspondence  which  led  to  his  seizure,  is  very  complicated  and  obscure.  It  has 
been  maintained  that  C.  was  the  instigator,  through  a creature  of  his  own  of  the 
name  of  Trie,  of  the  whole  transaction;  it  is  certain  that  he  forwarded  to  the 
^authorities,  through  Trie,  private  documents  which  Servetus  had  intrusted  to  him, 
with  a view  to  the  heretic’s  identification,  and  as  materials  for  his  condemnation. 
Servetus  was  sentenced  to  be  burned,  but  effected  his  escape,  and,  after  several 
months’  wandering,  he  was  found  at  Geneva.  It  was  his  intention  to  proceed  to 
Italy,  where  he  hoped  his  opinions  might  meet  with  some  degree  of  toleration,  and  he 
.arrived  at  Geneva  on  his  way.  This  is  the  explanation  of  an  event  otherwise  unaccount- 
able. Having  ventured  to  church,  according  to  the  common  account,  he  was  recog 
nized,  apprehended,  and  conveyed  to  prison  by  C.’s  order,  just  as  he  was  about  to  leave 
the  cifry.  The  particulars  of  his  trial  are  full  of  interest,  but  too  lengthened  to  be 
detailed  here.  It  lasted,  with  various  interruptions,  for  two  months.  He  attacked  C. 
with  the  most  foul  epithets,  and  C.  retorted  with  a virulence  and  foulness  quite  equal  to 
his  own.  At  length,  on  the  26th  of  Oct.,  1553,  sentence  was  passed  upon  Servetus,  con- 
demning him  to  death  by  fire.  C.  used  his  influence  to  have  the  mode  of  death  allevi- 
a,ted,  but  without  success.  On  the  very  next  morning,  the  sentence  was  put  into  execu- 
tion’. On  an  extended  eminence  at  some  distance  from  the  city,  Servetus  was  fastened 
to  a stake  surrounded  by  heaps  of  oak-wood  and  leaves,  with  his  condemned  book  and 
the  MS.  he  had  sent  to  C.  attached  to  his  girdle;  and,  amid  his  agonizing  cries,  the  fire 
was  kindled,  and  the  wretched  man  expiated  his  heresy  amidst  the  flames.  Whatever 
apologies  may  be  urged  for  this  memorable  crime,  it  must  remain  a moarnful  and  scan- 
dalous blot  on  the  history  of  the  reformation.  The  disgrace  of  lias  particularly 
attached  to  C.,  and  with  some  justice,  from  the  special  and  unhappy  relation  wfliich  he 
bore  to  the  whole  transaction;  but  most  of  the  reformers  are  no  less  implicated  in  it. 
The  wise  Biillinger  defended  it,  and  even  the  gentle  Melanchthon  could  only  see  cause  for 
gratitude  in  the  hideous  tragedy. 

After  the  execution  of  Servetus,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Libertines,  two  years  later, 
C.’s  power  in  Geneva  was  firmly  established,  and  he  used  it  vigorously  and  beneficently 
for  the  defense  of  Protestantism  throughout  Europe.  By  the  mediation  of  Beza,  he  made 
his  influence  felt  in  France  in  the  great  struggle  that  was  there  going  on  between  the 
hierarchical  party,  with  the  Guises  at  its  head,  and  the  Protestants,  led  by  Conde  and 
Coligny.  In  1561,  his  energies  began  to  fail.  He  had  been  long  suffering  from  bad 
health,  but  his  strength  of  will  and  buoyancy  of  intellect  sustained  him  amid  all  his 
bodily  weakness.  In  the  year  now  mentioned,  his  bad  health  greatly  increased,  and 
although  he  survived  for  more  than  two  years,  he  never  regained  any  vigor.  He  died 
on  the  27th  of  May,  1564. 

Very  different  estimates,  it  may  be  imagined,  have  been  formed  of  C.’s  character, 
according  to  the  point  of  view  from  which  it  is  contemplated.  None,  however,  can  dis- 
pute his  intellectual  greatness,  or  the  powerful  services  which  he  rendered  to  the 
cause  of  Protestantism.  Stern  in  spirit,  and  unyielding  in  will,  he  is  never  selfish  or 


Calvinism. 

Calyx. 


330 


petty  in  his  motives.  Nowhere  amiable,  he  is  everywhere  strong.  Arbitrary  and  cruel 
when  it  suits  him,  he  is  yet  heroic  in  his  aims,  and  beneficent  in  the  scope  of  his  ambi- 
tion. Earnest  from  the  first,  looking  upon  life  as  a serious  reality,  his  moral  purpose  is 
always  clear  and  definite — to  live  a life  of  duty,  to  shape  circumstances  to  such  divine 
ends  as  he  apprehended,  and,  in  whatever  sphere  he  might  be  placed,  to  work  out  the 
glory  of  God. 

He  rendered  a double  service  to  Protestantism,  which,  apart  from  anything  else,, 
would  have  made  his  name  illustrious : he  systematized  its  doctrine,  and  he  organized  its 
ecclesiastical  discipline.  He  was  at  once  the  great  theologian  of  the  reformation,  and  the 
founder  of  a new  church  polity,  which  did  more  than  all  other  influences  together  to- 
consolidate  the  scattered  forces  of  the  reformation,  and  give  them  an  enduring  strength. 
As  a religious  teacher,  as  a social  legislator,  and  as  a writer,  especially  of  the  French 
language,  then  in  process  of  formation,  his  fame  is  second  to  none  in  his  age,  and  must 
always  conspicuously  adorn  the  history  of  civilization.  Among  C.’s  most  important 
works  are:  Ghristianoe  Religionis  Institutio  (Basel,  1536);  De  Necessitate  Refoi'inandos 
Ecclesim  (1544);  Commentaires  sur  la  Concordance  ou  Harmonie  des  Evangelistes  (Gen. 
1561);  In  Novum  Testamentum  Gommentarii;  In  Libres  Psalmorum  Commentarii;  In 
Librum  Geneseos  Gommentarii.  The  first  edition  of  C.’s  whole  works  is  that  of  Amster- 
dam, 1671,  in  9 vols.  fol.  A complete  critical  edition  by  Baum,  Cunitz,  and  Reuss 
began  to  appear  at  Brunswick  in  1869.  By  the  “Calvin  translation  society,”  in  Edin- 
burgh, his  works  have  been  collected,  translated  into  English,  and  issued  in  51  vols.  8vo, 
1843-55  Besides  the  original  Vita  by  Beza,  there  are  lives  of  C.  by  Bolsec  (from  the 
Catholic  standpoint,  1577;  new  ed.  1875),  Audin(1840),  Bungener,  Viguet  and  Tissot  (1864) ; 
and  in  Germany,  by  Henry  (1844),  Stahelin  (1863),  and  Kamoschulte  (vol.  i.  1869). 

CALVINISM  is  the  system  of  religious  doctrine  associated  with  the  name  of  Calvin,, 
and  supposed  to  distinguish  the  churches  more  particularly  called  the  reformed,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  Lutheran  and  Anglican  churches.  'Calvin’s  doctrinal  views  are 
laid  down  at  length  in  his  InstiluUo  Christianoe  Religionis,  first  published  in  1536.  It 
was  not  till  many  years  later  howerer,  that  the  name  of  C.  came  to  be  attached  to  a cer- 
tain set  of  doctrinal  opinions,  and  not  till  the  rise  of  Arminius  (q.v.)  and  the  synod  of 
Dort  (q.v.)  in  1618,  that  these  opinions  may  be  said  to  have  been  polemically  marked  off 
from  others  with  which  they  are  generally  contrasted,  and  to  wdiich  they  are  recognized 
as  standing  in  opposition. 

The  difference  of  thought  expressed  in  the  Arminian  and  Calvinistic  systems  is  as  old 
as  the  history  of  Christian  doctrine.  In  almost  every  point,  Augustine  may  be  said  to 
have  anticipated  Calvin ; while  Pelagius  and  the  eastern  divines,  such  as  Chrysostom, 
represented  a type  of  opinion  upon  the  whole  consonant  to  that  which  in  more  modern 
times  has  been  opposed  to  Calvinism.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  since  the  reforma- 
tion, the  same  opposition  of  thought  has  presented  itself  in  the  famous  contest  of 
Jansenism  and  Jesuitism. 

The  main  point  of  distinction  in  the  two  systems  or  modes  of  Christian  opinion,  is  as 
to  the  operation  of  divine  grace  in  the  salvation  of  sinners.  In  the  one  system,  this 
operation  is  considered  as  predetermined  and  absolute ; in  the  other,  as  merely  prescient, 
and  in  some  sense  conditioned.  Predestination  and  irresistible  grace  are  the  great  key- 
notes of  C. — its  two  main  points.  Others  were  added  in  opposition  to  Arminianism — 
viz.,  original  Sin,  particular  redemption,  and  the  perseverance  of  the  saints;  but  the  first 
of  these  is  not  peculiarly  Calvinistic,  and  the  last  two  are  merely  corollaries  from  tho 
doctrines  of  predestination  and  grace.  Predestination  is,  in  fact,  the  one  distinguishing 
doctrine  of  the  system,  as  it  was  of  Augustinianism,  of  which  C.  was  merely  the  revival. 
The  divine  will,  apprehended  as  decretive  and  predestinating,  is  necessarily  irresistible  in 
its  efficacy,  select  in  its  objects,  and  persevering  in  its  results.  The  characteristic  of  C., 
therefore,  is  that  it  is  a speculative  Christian  system,  springing  from  a single  great  prin- 
ciple, carried  out  rigorously  into  albits  logical  consequences. 

The  church  of  EnglaiicC  in  its  earlier  history,  was  Calvinistic  in  its  creed,  although 
mediaeval  and  Catholic  in  its  -ritual.  Puritanism  was  nothing  else  than  a movement  to- 
reduce  it  altogether  to  a Calvinistic  model.  In  the  reaction  which  followed  this  move- 
ment, the  church  of  England,  while  retaining  its  original  articles,  nearly  parted  with  its 
Calvinistic  faith;  and  throughout  the  18th  c.,  its  chief  divines  are  conspicuously  Armin- 
ian or  latitudinarian.  But  with  the  revival  of  the  evangelical  party  in  the  end  of  the 
century,  C.  revived;  and  it  still  maintains,  if  not  an  absolute  sway,  yet  a powerful 
influence  over  many  minds  in  the  Anglican  establishment,  while  it  is  the  professed  creed 
of  a great  proportion  of  the  dissenters. 

The  church  of  Scotland,  along  with  the  other  Presbyterian  churches  in  this  country, 
and  the  large  and  numerously  increasing  bodies  of  Presbyterians  in  America,  all  hold  to 
the  Westminster  confession  of  faith,  the  most  elaborate  and  formal  expression  of  Calvin- 
istic doctrine  that  exists.  But  while  holding  to  the  same  Calvinistic  standard,  these 
churches  show  many  varieties  of  actual  opinion ; and  in  the  history  of  Presbyterianism, 
C.  has  shown  a tendency  in  its  logical  development  to  pass  into  rationalism  or  Unitarian- 
ism.  This  is  conspicuously  the  case  in  the  church  of  Geneva  itself,  and  some  of  the  old 
Puritan  churches  of  America.  It  still  remains,  however,  as  opposed  to  Arminian, 
Socinian,  or  any  cognate  forms  of  the  same  type  of  doctrine,  the  most  living  and  power- 
ful among  the  creeds  of  the  reformation. 


331 


Calvinism. 

Calyx. 


CALVINISTIC  METHODISTS,  in  Great  Britain,  are  in  three  divisions:  the  Whit- 
field Connection,  1741;  Lady  Huntingdon  Connection,  1748;  and  Welsh  Methodists,  1750. 

CALVrSIUS,  Sethus,  1556-1617;  an  astronomer  and  chronologist  of  Germany,  who 
organized  a system  of  chronology  embodying  the  history  of  the  world.  The  work  was 
commended  by  Scaliger  and  Casaubon,  but  was  condemned  in  the  Index  Expurgatorius. 
In  1612,  he  published  a work  on  the  Gregorian  calender,  undertaking  to  show  the  inade- 
quacy of  that  system  and  to  supplant  it  with  one  founded  upon  astronomical  principles. 

CALW,  or  Kalw,  an  important  manufacturing  t.  in  Wiirtemberg,  chief  seat  of  the 
Wiirtemberg  timber-trade  with  Holland,  and  capital  of  a bailiwick  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  circle  of  the  Black  forest,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Nagold,  on  both  sides  of  the  stream, 
over  which  are  two  stone  bridges.  Cotton  and  woolen  spinning,  dyeing  turkey-red, 
manufacturing  woolen  and  cotton  fabrics,  making  leather,  stout  shoes,  cigars,  etc.,  are 
the  principal  industries.  Though  the  streets  in  the  old  town  are  irregularly  built,  there 
are  many  large  and  beautiful  houses.  Pop.  ’71,  5582;  ’75,  4642;  nearly  all  Protestants. 

CALX  is  the  Latin  term  for  quicklime.  As  quicklime  is  produced  by  burning  lime- 
stone, the  alchemists  applied  the  term  C.  to  the  product  obtained  by  burning  any  ore  or 
other  mineral  substance;  and  calcination  (q.v.)  to  the  process. 

CALYCAN'THUS  (Gr.  calyx-flower),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  calycan- 
thacece,  an  order  allied  to  rosacece,  and  of  which  only  a few  species  are  known,  natives  of 
North  America  and  Japan — shrubs,  with  square  stems,  which  are  of  remarkable  struc- 
ture, having  around  the  central  woody  axis  four  smaller  imperfect  ones.  An  aromatic 
fragrance  characterizes  this  order.  In  the  genus  C.,  the  bark  and  leaves  possess  it  as 
well  as  the  flowers.  The  bark  of  C.  floridus,  a native  of  Carolina,  has  been  used  as  a 
spice  and  carminative,  and  has  acquired  the  name  of  Carolina  allspice,  or  American 
allspice.  The  fl  Dwers  are  of  a chocolate  color. 

CAL'YDON,  an  ancient  city  of  ^tolia,  7i  m.  from  the  sea  on  the  river  Evenns,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Calydon,  son  of  jEtolus,  to  have  been  the  scene  of  the 
hunting  of  the  Calydonian  boar  by  Meleager  and  other  heroes,  and  to  have  sent 
soldiers  to  the  Trojan  war.  In  391  b.c.,  it  was  in  possession  of  the  Achaeans,  and  so 
late  as  the  time  of  Pompey,  it  was  a place  of  importance.  In  31  b.c.,  Augustus  removed 
the  inhabitants  to  Mcopolis,  a city  then  founded  to  commemorate  the  victory  of  Actium. 

CALYDO  NIAN  BOAE.  Once  upon  a time,  according  to  a Greek  myth,  a certain 
<Eneus,  king  of  Calydon,  the  ancient  capital  of  ./Etolia,  omitted  a sacrifice  to  Diana, 
whereupon  the  goddess,  in  her  rage,  sent  into  his  fields  a frightful  boar,  which  com- 
mitted great  devastation.  No  one  had  the  courage  to  hunt  it  except  Meleager,  the  son 
of  CEneus,  who,  calling  to  his  help  the  bravest  heroes  of  Greece— Theseus,  Jason, 
Nestor,  and  others — pursued  and  slew  the  monster.  Later  writers,  however,  affirm  that 
lie  found  it  impossible  to  destroy  the  animal,  until  Atalanta,  his  mistress,  aided  him  by 
piercing  it  with  an  arrow. 

CALYM'ENE,  a genus  of  the  fossil  order  trilobites  (q.v.).  It  differed  from  the  other 
genera  of  the  order  in  the  individualshaving  the  power  of  rolling:  themselves  into  a ball, 
so  that  they  are  often  found  coiled  up  like  an  oniscus,  i.e.,  hog-louse — vulgo,  a slater. 
The  genus  is  characteristic  of  the  Silurian  formation.  The  species  we  figure  has  been 
long  known  as  the  “ Dudley  locust.”  It  is  remaniable  as  a very  long-subsisting  spe- 
cies, passing  from  the  Caradoc  beds  to  the  Ludlow  rocks.  Twenty  species  have  been 
described. 

CALYP'SO,  in  Grecian  legend,  was,  according  to  Homer,  the  daughter  of  Atlas,  and 
inhabited  the  solitary  wooded  isle  of  Ogygia,  far  apart  from  all  gods  and  men.  Ulysses 
being  thrown  upon  her  island  by  shipwreck,  she  treated  him  kindly,  and  promised  him 
immortality  if  he  would  marry  her.  He  was  fascinated  by  her  charms,  but  unwilling 
to  desert  his  wife  and  his  native  land ; she  detained  him,  however,  seven  years,  and  bore 
him  two  sons.  On  his  departure,  she  died  of  grief. 

CALYP'SO  BOREALIS,  an  orchid  with  heart-shaped  leaf,  and  beautiful  yellow, 
pink,  and  purple  flowers;  growing  in  the  bogs  and  moist  woodlands  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada. 

CALYPTR.ffi'A  (Gr.  kalyptra,  a head-dress;,  a genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of  the 
order  pectinibranchiata,  the  type  of  a family,  calyptrcddce,  formerly  included  in  the 
genus  patella,  or  limpet,  when  the  mere  form  of  the  shell  was  more  regarded  in  classi- 
fication than  the  structure  of  the  animal,  and  still  known  as  chambered  limpets,  cup- 
and-saucer  limpets,  bonnet  limpets,  and  slipper  limpets.  The  shell  is  limpet-shaped, 
but  the  apex  is  more  or  less  spiral,  and  has  a calcareous  process  from  its  inner  surface 
for  the  attachment  of  a principal  muscle.  The  calyptrceidcB  differ  much  in  shape,  some 
being  very  flat,  and  others  very  conical;  some  elongated  and  slipper-like.  The  species 
are  generally  natives  of  the  shores  of  warm  climates.  Only  two  are  British. — Calyp- 
tmidce  are  common  in  the  older  fossiliferous  rocks, 

CA'LYX  (a  term  originally  Greek),  in  botany,  the  outermost  of  the  circles  of  modi- 
fied leaves  which  surround  the  parts  of  fructification,  and  along  with  them  constitute 
the  flower.  Within  the  C.  there  is  generally  at  least  a second  circle  of  leaves,  called 
the  corolla  (see  Cobolla  and  Flower);  but  this  is  sometimes  wanting,  and  the  C.  is 


Cam. 

Cambaluc. 


332 


the  only  envelope  of  the  parts  of  fructification.  The  leaves  of  which  the  C.  is  com- 
posed are  called  sepals,  when  quite  separate  from  each  other;  but  they  often  grow 
together  into  a tube  at  the  base,  and  the  C.  is  then  said  to  be  monosepalous  or  gamosepalous 
{monos,  one;  gamos,  union).  The  sepals  are  generally  simple  and  without  stalks;  they 
are  generally  green,  and  differ  much  less  widely  from  ordinary  leaves  than  the  petals  or 
leaves  of  the  corolla;  sometimes,  however,  they  are  petaloid,  and  brightly  colored,  as  in 
fuchsia.  The  C.  and  corolla  of  many  endogenous  plants  resemble  one  another  almost 
completely,  and  the  common  texm.  perianth  (q.v.)  is  then  very  generally  employed.  In 
some  plants,  the  C.  passes  insensibly  into  the  corolla,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish- 
the  innermost  sepals  from  the  outermost  petals.  The  C.  is  in  such  cases  often  com- 
posed of  more  circles  of  leaves  than  one.  The  C.  occasionally  falls  off  when  flowering 
is  over  {deciduus),  as  in  ranunculus;  sometimes  even  when  it  commences  {caducous),  as 
in  the  poppy;  generally  it  remains  till  the  fruit  ij  ripe  {perdstent),  and  is  then  much 
enlarged  and  more  brightly  colored,  as  in  physalis.  It  often  becomes  fleshy,  and  forms 
the  seeming  fruit,  as  in  the  rose. — The  glumes  (q.v.)  of  grasses,  etc.,  used  to  be  regarded, 
as  a C.,  to  which,  however,  they  have  no  proper  analogy. 

CAM,  or  Granta,  a river  of  England,  which,  rising  in  Essex,  flows  n.e.  through 
Cambridgeshire,  and  after  a course  of  about  40  m.,  joins  the  Ouse  3|  m.  above  Ely.  It 
gives  its  name  to  the  town  of  Cambridge,  which  stands  upon  it,  and  below  which  it  is- 
navigable,  and  is  classic  on  account  of  the  boat-races  on  it  by  Cambridge  students. 

CAM,  in  machinery,  a curved  plate  or  groove,  by  which  motion  is  communicated 
and  controlled.  The  moving  plate  or  groove  is  a driver;  the  rod,  bar,  or  other  thing 
moved,  is  called  the  follower.  The  follower  is  held  against  the  driver  by  its  w^eight  or 
by  a spring,  or  other  device.  The  radii  of  the  driver  determine  by  their  length  the- 
motion  of  the  follower,  and  the  angles  which  they  make  with  some  one,  chosen  as  a 
base  of  calculation,  fix  the  time  at  which  change  of  motion  occurs.  For  example,  it 
may  be  desired  that  the  follow^er  shall  move  upward,  and  then  downward,  with  a uni- 
form velocity.  From  the  center  of  the  driver  any  convenient  number  of  radii  may  be 
drawn,  dividing  equally  the  360°  of  angular  space.*  On  one  of  these  radii  we  mark  the. 
distance  from  the  center  of  the  driver  at  which  the  point  of  the  follower  will  stand  when 
in  its  position  nearest  to  that  center.  Upon  the  opposite  radius,  distant  180°  from  the 
first,  the  point  is  marked  which  gives  the  farthest  position  of  the  follower;  the  differ- 
ence betw'een  these  radii  being  divided  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  we  have  made  angu- 
lar spaces  in  the  180°,  we  increase  the  length  of  each  radius  in  succession,  beginning 
with  the  shortest,  by  one  of  those  parts,  and  w^e  draw  a curve  connecting  the  ends  of  the- 
radii  so  terminated.  Of  course  the  greater  the  number  of  parts  chosen  for  the  division 
of  the  angular  space  and  of  the  di&rence  of  the  first  and  last  radii,  the  more  accu- 
rately will  the  curve  be  drawn.  The  edge  of  the  driving-plate  being  cut  to  this  curve, 
the  follower  being  made  to  press  constantly  against  it,  and  the  driver  being  turned  with 
a uniform  rotation,  the  follower  wdll  move  through  its  limited  space  with  an  equable- 
motion,  because  the  radii  of  the  driver  increase  by  constant  amounts,  at  constant  inter- 
vals of  time.  If  the  curve  is  reversed,  the  second  part  being  the  symmetrical  oppo- 
site of  the  first  part,  the  follower  will  descend  as  uniformly  as  it  rose.  The  cam  thu» 
drawn  is  one  of  frequent  use,  and  is  called  the  heart-shaped  cam.  To  avoid  friction 
the  end  of  the  follower  often  carries  a roller  which  works  against  the  surface  of  the 
cam;  in  this  case  the  cam-surface  is  found  by  drawing  a line  parallel  to  that  above 
described,  at  a constant  distance  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  roller.  If  we  wish  the  fol- 
lower to  rest  at  any  part  of  a cycle  of  motion,  the  radii  for  that  time  will  be  made  equal, 
and  the  corresponding  cam-surface  will  be  a circular  arc ; the  time  will  be  such  a part 
of  that  of  a complete  cycle,  as  the  angle  between  the  radii  of  the  ends  of  this  arc,  is  of 
360°.  The  cam-plate  has  sometimes  a groove  cut  upon  its  flat  side,  and  the  end  of 
the  follower  runs  in  the  groove.  A spiral  groove  may  be  cut  into  the  surface  of  a cylin- 
der as  in  a screw ; if  a follower  be  inserted  in  this  groove  it  will  be  driven  forward  as 
the  cylinder  turns;  when  the  groove  reaches  the  end  of  the  cylinder,  it  may  turn  back, 
and  cause  the  follower  to  return  with  the  same  motion,  or  if  the  pitch  of  the  groove  be 
made  shorter  or  longer,  the  return  of  the  follower  will  be  changed  accordingly.  By  a 
judicious  construction  and  arrangement  of  cams,  almost  every  variety  of  motion  may 
be  produced  with  the  greatest  precision  as  to  time  and  amount.  A cam-form  w^hicb 
does  not  make  a complete  revolution,  but  after  movisg  a short  distance  in  one  direction 
oscillates  in  the  opposite  direction,  is  called  a wiper.  A familiar  example  may  be  seen 
in  the  engine-room  of  a steamboat,  in  the  rocking  arms  which  raise  and  let  fall  the  valve 
rods. 

CAM,  Diogo,  a Portuguese  navigator  of  the  15th  c.,  who  continued  the  w.  African 
discoveries  commenced  by  Don  Henry.  He  had  sufficient  influence  with  the  king  of 
Congo  to  induce  that  monarch  to  permit  the  establishment  of  Christianity  in  his 
dominion. 

CAMAL'DOLITES,  a religious  order  founded  in  the  vale  of  Camaldoli,  near  Arezzo, 
in  the  Apennines,  in  1018,  by  St.  Romauld,  a Benedictine  monk,  and  a member  of  the 
noble  family  of  the  aukes  of  Ravenna.  From  Italy  it  spread  into  France,  Germany, 
and  Poland.  The  brethren,  who  wear  a white  garment,  are,  and  have  always  been, 
characterized  for  the  excessive  rigidity  of  their  monastic  rule ; but  except  to  show  to 


333 


Cam. 

Cambalutt. 


what  lengths  in  a cruel  mortification  of  natural  life  man  can  proceed,  they  have  been 
practically  useless  in  the  world.  The  order  is  now  almost  extinct. 

CAMABGUE.  See  Bouches  du  Rhone. 

CAMAEIL'LA,  a Spanish  word,  diminutive  of  camara,  literally  signifies  a little  cham- 
ber. As  camara  is  used  to  designate,  par  excellence,  the  chamber  of  the  king  of  Spain, 
the  royal  chamber,  so  C.  is  also  used  to  designate  his  private  chamber  or  cabinet,  the 
place  where  he  receives  his  most  intimate  friends,  courtiers,  sycophants,  and  all  the 
moral  refuse  that  naturally  gathers  round  a weak  throne.  Hence,  in  the  political  lan- 
guage of  modern  Europe,  it  has  come  to  signify  the  influence  exercised  on  the  state  by 
secret  and  unaccredited  councilors,  in  opposition  to  the  opinions  of  the  legitimate 
ministry,  an  influence  which  in  Spain  particularly  is  most  pernicious.  The  word  first 
obtained  this  meaning  in  the  time  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  who  was  excessively  addicted  to 
the  unkingly  habit  of  listening  to  the  insinuations  of  the  companions  of  his  pleasures. 

CAMARI'NA,  an  ancient  city  of  Sicily,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Hipparus,  20  m.  e. 
of  Terranova.  It  was  founded  by  Syracusans  in  the  6th  c.  b.c.,  but  soon  after  was 
destroyed,  because  it  had  thrown  off  its  allegiance.  It  was  restored  495  b.c.,  but  again 
depopulated,  being  finally  established  about  34  years  later.  In  258  b.c.,  most  of  its 
people  were  sold  by  the  Roman  consuls  as  slaves.  It  continued  to  exist  until  the  2d  c., 
but  since  then  has  been  in  ruins. 

CAMAY'ETT  and  Mon'ochbome  are  terms  by  which  painting  in  one  color  is  desig- 
nated. The  ancients  painted  thus  both  in  gray  grisaille)  and  in  red.  Pictures  of  sev- 
eral tints,  but  where  the  natural  colors  of  the  objects  are  not  copied,  are  said  to  be 
en  camayeu.  As  one  color  generally  prevails,  we  speak  of  blue,  red,  yellow,  green 
camayeu.  Polidori  Caravaggio,  for  example,  so  overlaid  his  other  colors  with  brown, 
that  his  works  give  the  impression  of  monochrome  paintings.  Drawings  in  Indian  ink, 
red  and  black  chalk,  pencil,  etc.,  as  well  as  engravings,  may  be  said  to  be  en  camayeu. 

CAMBACERES,  Jean  Jacques  Regis,  Duke  of  Parma,  and  high  chancellor  of  the 
French  empire,  under  Napoleon,  was  b.  at  Montpellier,  Oct.,  18,  1753.  In  1791,  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  criminal  court  in  his  native  place.  Aftewards,  as  member  of 
the  national  convention,  he  took  a prominent  part  in  sketching  the  new  code  of  laws, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  moderation.  He  denied  the  right  of  the  convention 
to  condemn  the  king,  and,  when  this  was  done,  argued  in  favor  of  a reprieve.  After 
the  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermidor  (July  27,  1794),  C.  was  elected  president  of  the  con- 
vention, and,  as  head  of  the  committee  of  public  safety,  was  active  in  procuring  peace 
with  Prussia  and  Spain.  His  enemies  having  succeeded  in  expelling  him  from  office, 
he  engaged  himself  in  legal  studies,  and  laid  before  the  council  of  five  hundred  the 
sketch  of  a civil  code  which  afterwards  formed  the  basis  of  the  Code  Napoleon.  In  1796, 
C.  was  for  a short  time  made  president  of  this  council.  After  the  changes  made  in  the 
directory,  he  was  made  minister  of  justice,  assisted  in  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Bru- 
maire  (Nov.  9,  1799),  was  made  second  consul,  and  faithfully  attached  himself  to  the 
interest  of  Napoleon,  by  whom  he  was  raised  to  the  office  of  high  chancellor  of  the 
empire,  and  in  1808  was  made  duke  of  Parma.  He  endeavored  to  dissuade  Napoleon 
from  the  projected  invasion  of  Russia,  but  in  this  instance  his  advice  was  vainly  given. 
In  1813,  when  Napoleon  took  the  field  against  the  allies,  C.  was  left  as  president  of  the 
regency,  and  in  this  capacity  accompanied  the  empress  to  Blois,  1814.  From  this  place 
he  sent  to  Paris  his  vote  for  the  abdication  of  Napoleon.  During  the  hundred  days, 
against  his  own  will,  he  was  made  minister  of  justice,  and  president  of  the  chamber  of 
peers.  After  the  second  restoration,  C.  lived  privately  in  Paris  for  some  time ; but  in 
1816  was  exiled  for  having  taken  part  in  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  In  1818,  his 
civil  and  political  rights  were  restored,  and  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  lived 
retired  to  the  time  of  his  death.  Mar.  5,  1824.  Among  the  men  of  the  revolution,  C. 
was  one  of  the  few  whose  activity  was  peaceable  and  truly  progressive.  His  services 
in  the  establishment  of  law  were  great.  His  nature  was  mild  and  candid,  and  his  intel- 
lect very  acute. 

CAMBA'LUC,  or  CAMBALU'  (Mongol,  Kaan-Baligli,  “city  of  the  Khan”),  the  city 
now  known  as  Peking.  It  was  captured  in  1215  by  Genghis  Khan,  and  in  1264  adopted 
as  the  imperial  residence  by  his  grandson  Kublai,  who  founded  a new  city  near  the  old 
one  of  Yenking.  The  new  city,  Ta-tu,  or  “ great  capital,”  was  a rectangle  about  5|-  by 
3|  m.,  or  more  than  18  m.  in  circumference,  surrounded  by  a colossal  wall  of  mud, 
having  an  inner  inclosure  for  the  palace  and  gardens  of  the  khan.  There  were  11  gates, 
and  the  streets  ran  towards  them  in  direct  lines.  It  was  the  residence  of  the  Mongol 
emperors  until  the  fall  of  their  power  in  1368.  Soon  afterwards  the  native  dynasty  gave 
it  the  name  of  Pe  king,  or  “north  court,”  by  which  name  it  was  known  to  the  early 
Jesuit  missionaries;  but  now  the  native  name  in  ordinary  use  is  King-Cheng  or  King-tu, 
signifying  “ the  capital.  ” The  restoration  of  Cambaluc  was  commenced  in  1409;  the 
size  was  diminished,  and  the  town  made  more  nearly  a square,  and  in  this  form  now 
constitutes  the  “ Tartar  city”  of  Pe-king.  The  walls  were  finished  in  437.  In  1544, 
the  “ outer  city”  was  formed,  the  portion  now  known  as  “ the  Chinese  city.”  The  whole 
city  under  the  name  Cambaluc  was  made  an  archiepiscopal  see  by  pope  Clement  V.  in 


Cambay. 

Cambridge. 


334 


% 

CAMBAY',  a city,  district,  and  gulf  at  the  n.w.  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindu- 
stan.— 1.  C.,  the  city,  stands  at  the  head  of  its  gulf,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Myhee, 
in  lat.  22°  18'  n.,  and  long.  72°  39'  e.,  being  76  m.  to  the  n.n.w.  of  Surat.  It  contains 
about  33,700  inhabitants,  having  been  at  one  time  much  more  populous — ruinous 
palaces,  mosques,  and  tombs,  and  an  excavated  temple  of  considerable  pretensions, 
attest  its  former  magnificence  and  extent.  The  main  cause  of  its  decay  has  been  the 
gradual  obstruction  of  its  seaward  navigation.  It  still  exports  grain,  cotton,  and  ivory, 
besides  its  renowned  manufactures  in  bloodstone  and  carnelian. — 2.  C.,  the  district, 
contains  an  area  of  350  sq.m.,  stretching  in  n.  lat.  from  22°  9'  to  22°  41',  and  in  e.  long, 
from  72°  20'  to  73°  5'.  It  is  attached  to  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  though  under  the 
government  of  a nawab  of  its  own.  Pop.  85,000. — 3.  C.,  the  gulf,  extends  in  n.  lat. 
between  21°  and  22°  10',  and  in  e.  long,  between  71°  50  ' and  72°  40',  measuring  80  m. 
in  length,  and  averaging  25  m.  in  breadth.  In  proportion  to  its  size,  it  receives  a vast 
quantity  of  freshwater — on  the  w.,  the  Gooma,  Oolowtee,  Gelya,  and  Setroonjee;  on  the 
n,,  the  Saburmuttee  and  Myhee;  and  on  the  e.,  the  Nerbudda  and  the  Taptee.  The 
inundations  of  so  many  rivers,  and  the  ebb  and  flow  of  tides,  which  fall  and  rise  30  ft., 
conspire  not  onlj^  to  elevate  the  bottom,  but  also  to  generate  movable  quicksands. 

CAM'BEE,  in  ship-building,  implies  a slight  arching  or  convexity  upwards.  A 
“cambered”  ship  is  one  in  which  the  floor  is  higher  in  midships  than  at  the  stem  and 
stern. — The  name  “camber”  is  also  given  to  a small  dock  in  a dockyard,  for  containing 
boats,  and  for  loading  and  unloading  timber. 

CAMBERT,  Robert,  1628-77;  the  first  composer  of  French  operas;  organist  of  the 
church  of  St.  Honore,  and  musical  superintendent  to  Anne  of  Austria,  the  mother  of 
Louis  XIV.  When  Lulli  was  made  musical  superintendent  to  the  king,  in  1673,  C. 
went  to  London,  where  Charles  II.  made  him  master  of  the  band.  His  chief  works 
were  Ariadne,  w the  Amours  of  Bacchus;  Pomona;  and  The  Pains  and  Pleasures  of  Love. 

CAMBEBWELL,  once  a rural  village,  now  a suburb  of  London,  on  the  s.  side  of  the 
Thames. 

CAMBERWELL  BEAUTY,  Vanessa  antiopa,  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
British  butterflies,  rare  in  Britain,  although  it  has  been  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  but  common  in  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Europe.  The  wings  are  of  a 
deep  brown  color,  with  a band  of  black  around  the  brown,  and  an  outer  band  or  margin 
of  pale  yellow,  the  black  band  containing  a row  of  large  blue  spots,  the  yellow  margin 
dappled  with  black  specks,  all  the  colors  rich  and  velvety.  The  margin  of  the  wings 
exhibits  tooth-like  angularities.  The  antennae  are  terminated  by  a knob.  The  cater- 
pillar feeds  on  the  willow\  It  is  black,  with  white  dots  and  a row^  of  large  red  spots 
down  the  back,  and  is  rough  with  soft  spines. — When  Camberwell  was  more  rural  than 
now,  and  abounded  in  willow^s,  this  butterfly  was  sometimes  taken  there. 

CAMBIO — CAMBIST.  The  former  of  these  two  w’ords  is  the  Italian  for  exchange;  the 
latter,  for  a money-changer.  Cambist  is  also  used  figuratively  as  the  title  of  a book  in 
which  the  moneys,  weights,  measures,  etc . . of  various  nations  are  given  in  the  equiva- 
lents of  some  particular  one.  For  instance,  Kelly’s  Universal  Cambist  gives  these  in 
English,  and  the  Cambista  Maltesa  in  Italian. 

CAMBIUM  (Lat.  camhio,  to  change),  in  botany,  a layer  of  mucilaginous  viscid  matter, 
particularly  abundant  in  spring,  interposed  between  the  woody  layers  and  the  bark  of 
trees  and  other  stems.  Delicate  cells  {cambium  cells)  are  formed  in  it,  which  certainly 
fulfill  important  functions  in  the  formation  of  new  wood,  although,  notwithstanding 
much  investigation  by  some  of  the  greatest  vegetable  physiologists  of  our  time,  the 
nature  of  these  functions  is  still  very  imperfectly  ascertained.  The  medullary  rays  are 
connected  with  the  C.  cells,  and  these  cells  gradually  elongate  into  the  shape  which 
belongs  to  those  of  w’oody  tissue.  The  C.  layer  is  found  only  in  exogenous  stems. 

CAMBO'DIA,  or  Cambo'ja  (native  name,  Kan-pou-chi),  an  extensive  country  of  the 
Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  now  a protectorate  of  France,  bounded  on  the  s.w.  by  the  gulf 
of  Siam,  on  the  s.e.  by  French  Cochin-China,  and  on  the  n.  by  Siam.  Area  about 
33,000  sq.m. ; pop.  about  900,000.  The  surface  is  mostly  flat,  and  tlie  soil  fertile.  There 
are  extensive  Wests,  w’^hich  shelter  elephants  and  deer;  there  are  abio  wild  cattle  and 
ponies,  and  the  rhinocerous  abounds.  Among  the  chief  products  are  rice,  betel,  areca- 
nuts,  gamboge,  spices,  sandal-wood,  and  ivory.  Iron  occurs.  See  Cochin-China. 

CAMBO'GE.  See  Gamboge. 

CAJyiBON,  Joseph,  1756-1820;  a French  financier.  He  was  a member  of  the 
national  convention  of  1792  and  of  the  committee  of  safety  of  the  next  year;  and  in 
1794  promoted  the  downfall  of  Robespierre.  He  is  credited  with  having  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  financial  system  of  France.  In  1816  he  was  exiled. 

CAMBORRE,  a t.  of  Cornwall,  11  m.  n.w.  of  Falmouth.  It  is  surrounded  by  very 
productive  copper,  tin,  and  lead  mines,  C.  church  has  a stone  inscription  of  the  10th 
centuiy.  Pop.  ’71,  7757. 

CAMBRAI,  a city  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Nord,  about  32  m.  s. s.e.  of 
Lille.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Scheldt,  is  strongly  fortified  and  well  built, 
with  tolerably  wide,  but  irregular  streets,  and  many  picturesque  old  houses.  The 


335 


Cambay. 

Cambridge. 


cathedral,  archiepiscopal  palace,  town-house,  and  theater  are  among  the  principal  public 
buildings.  The  city  was  greatly  injured  in  1793,  when  the  revolutionists,  among  other 
vandalisms,  razed  the  fine  cathedral.  They  also  disentombed  the  remains  of  Fenelon, 
who  was  archbishop  here,  and  melted  his  lead  coffin  into  bullets»  A monument,  how- 
ever, by  Davjd  the  sculptor  was  erected  (1825)  in  the  new  cathedral,  in  memory  of  the 
immortal  author  of  TeUmaque.  The  manufactures  of  the  city  are  important,  consisting 
of  cambric — so  called  from  its  manufacture  here — linen-thread,  lace,  cotton-yarn,  beet- 
root sugar,  soap,  starch,  leather,  etc.  It  has  also  a trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
The  pop.  in  1876  was  16,966. 

C.  was  known  to  the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Camaracum,  and  it  was  then 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Nervii.  It  was  fortified  by  Charlemagne,  and  was  long 
governed  by  its  own  bishops,  to  whom  Charles  the  Bald  ceded  it.  The  celebrated 
league  against  the  republic  of  Venice,  which  comprised  the  pope,  the  emperor  of 
Germany,  and  the  kings  of  France  and  Spain,  was  entered  into  here  in  1508,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  city.  Here  also  were  concluded  treaties  between  the  French 
king  and  the  German  emperor  in  1529,  and  in  1724-25,  between  Charles  VI.  and 
Philip  V.  of  Spain.  During  1815-18  it  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  British  army  of 
occupation. 

CAMBRIA,  a co.  in  s.w.  Pennsylvania,  drained  by  affluents  of  the  Susquehanna 
and  Alleghany  rivers,  and  intersected  by  the  Pennsylvania  railroad;  670  sq.m.;  pop. 
’80,  46,824.  It  is  a high  and  broken  table-land,  with  abundance  of  coal  and  iron. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat,  Ebensburg. 

CAM'BBIA,  the  ancient  name  of  Wales,  the  Britannia  Secunda  of  the  Romans.  The 
name  is  derived  from  that  of  Cimbri  or  Cymri*  by  which  the  Welsh  have  always  called 
themselves.  See  Bretts  and  Scots. 

CAMBEIAN  ROCKS,  the  name  given  by  prof.  Sedgwick  to  the  oldest  known  fossil- 
iferous  rocks,  on  account  of  their  extensive  development  in  North  Wales.  Their  true  lim- 
its have  been  the  subject  of  considerable  controversy.  When  Sedgwick  first  described 
them,  they  were  considered  inferior  to  the  Silurian  measures.  Subsequent  examination 
has  shown  that  they  are  the  equivalents  of  rocks  previously  described  by  Murchison  as 
lower  Silurian;  and  accordingly  geologists  generally,  following  the  classification  of  the 
government  geological  surveyors,  confine  the  term  to  an  extensive  series  of  gritstones, 
sandstones,  and  slates,  which  underlie  the  Silurian  lingula  beds.  In  Anglesea  these 
rocks  have  been  metamorphosed  in  one  place  into  chlorite  and  mica  schists;  in  another, 
into  gneiss,  and  all  traces  of  organisms  have  been  destroyed.  In  North  W ales  they  are  less 
altered,  but  have  as  yet  proved  unfossiliferous.  In  the  Longmynd  (Salop),  there  is  an 
apparent  thickness  of  26,000  ft.,  which  may  be,  however,  owing  to  folds *in  the  beds. 
A few  fossils  have  been  noticed  here,  consisting  of  a fucoid  plant  or  two,  the  tracks  of 
annelids,  and  the  fragments  of  a supposed  trilobite,  called  palmpyge  ramsayi.  In  Ire- 
land, similar  rocks  occur,  containing  two  species  of  a small  branched  zoophyte,  named 
oldJiamia,  and  numerous  tracks  and  burrows  of  sea-worms. 

CAMBRIAN  SYSTEM  (Cambrian  Rocks,  rocks  belonging  to  the  primordial 
division  of  palaeozoic  time,  and  comprising  the  oldest  part  of  the  lower  Silurian  age, 
appears  on  the  American  continent  in  Newfoundland,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  northern  New  York,  Vermont,  eastern  Massachusetts,  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tains, many  parts  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  and  under  the  secondary  and  younger  palaeo- 
zoic rocks  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  They  are  divided  by  American  geologists  into  the 
Acadian  and  Potsdam  groups : the  former  are  the  oldest  of  A merican  primordial  rocks, 
and  contain  a mass,  200^0  ft.  deep,  of  gray  and  dark  bhalee  with  some  sandstones;  the 
latter,  also  in  part  sandstone,  has  in  Newfoundland  a depth  of  5600  ft.,  but  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  St.  Lawrence  diminishes  to.  600  and  even  300  feet.  The  sandstone  beds  contain 
ripple  marks,  mud  cracks,  layers  indicating  the  wind-drift,  and  ebb  and  fiow  structure, 
and  animal  tracks.  The  Acadian  formation  yields  primordial  trilobites  of  the  genera 
paradoxides  conocoryphe,  agnostus,  and  some  others;  brachiopods  of  the  gQrxQT^ilingulella, 
discina,  oboxlla,  andw^Ms;  and  several  kinds  of  annelide  tracks.  The  Potsdam  rocks 
contain  a few  sponges,  the  earliest  forms  of  graptolite,  some  brachiopods,  including, 
besides  the  genera  in  the  Acadian  beds,  dbolm,  camarella,  and  orthisina;  some  pteropods, 
(hyoUtes  or  theca);  two  species  of  m'tJioceran;  annelide  tracks;  trilobites  of  the  genera 
conocoryphe,  agnostus,  dikelocephalus,  olenellus,  ptychaspis,  chariocephalvs,  aglaspis,  and 
illanurus.  Barrande  found  a remarkable  uniformity  in  the  organic  remains  of  those 
parts  of  this  system  which  he  investigated,  extending  through  Europe  and  America, 
and  named  by  him  the  primordial  zone. 

CAMBRIC,  a general  term  applied  to  the  finest  and  thinnest  of  linen  fabrics.  It  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  Cambrai,  wffiere  such  goods  were  first  made.  Some  of  the  finest 
cambrics  of  the  present  day  are  produced  in  Switzerland.  Scotch  C.  is  really  a muslin, 
being  made  of  cotton  with  the  fiber  twisted  very  hard,  to  imitatw  leal  or  linen  cambric. 

CAMBRIDGE,  a t.  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  Charles  river,  3 m.  to  the  n.w. 
of  Boston  (q.v.).  Here,  in  1638,  within  eighteen  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers,  was  founded  Harvard  university  by  the  Rev.  John  Harvard,  who  bequeathed 
it  a legacy  of  about  £780,  and  which  has  gradually  been  endowed  to  the  amount  of 


Cambridge. 


336 


1,000,000  dollars,  so  that  its  vested  income  must  be  at  least  60,000  dollars  or  £12.000. 
The  oldest,  it  is  also  generally  considered  the  best,  institution  of  the  kind  in  America. 
In  addition  to  the  coUegiate  department  proper,  tlie  university  includes  a theological, 
law,  scientific,  and  medical  school,  and  a department  for  such  as  wish  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  business  avocations  without  going  through  a classical  course.  • In  1875,  the 
students  amounted  to  1161.  The  town  of  C.  is  rapidly  advancing  in  population,  the 
census  in  1830,  1840,  and  1850  respectively  having  been  6072,  8409,  and  15,215;  that  of 
1870  was  39,634.  In  1874,  the  pop.  was  50,337. 

CAMBRIDGE  {ante),  a city,  and  one  of  the  co.  seats  of  Middlesex  co..  Mass.,  w.  of 
Charles  river,  which  separates  the  township  from  the  city  of  Boston,  of  which  C.  is 
practically  a part,  as  Brooklyn  is  of  New  York.  There  are  four  principal  divisions. 
North,  East,  Old  Cambridge,  and  Cambridgeport;  pop.  ’80,  52,740.  The  city  spreads 
over  a large  extent  of  territory,  and  is  handsomely  laid  out  in  broad  avenues  with, 
abundance  of  shade  trees,  among  the  most  interesting  of  which  is  the  elm  under  which 
Washington  assumed  command  of  the  revolutionary  forces  in  1775.  The  house  in 
which  Washington  dwelt  is  now  the  residence  of  Longfellow,  the  poet.  The  modern 
residences  are  generally  surrounded  with  handsomely  cultivated  grounds,  orchards,  and 
flower  and  fruit  gardens.  The  main  feature  of  C.  is  Harvard  college  (q.v.),  the  build- 
ings of  which  are  in  Old  C.,  3 m.  from  Boston,  occupying  a plot  of  14  acres  handsomely 
laid  out  and  shaded  with  ancient  elms.  At  a little  distance  n.e.  of  the  college  are  the 
museum  of  comparative  zoology,  founded  by  Agassiz,  the  botanical  garden,  and  the 
observatory,  noted  as  possessing  one  of  the  best  telescopes  in  the  country.  Near  the 
museum  are  the  Harvard  law  school  and  the  Lawrence  scientific  school.  Another  con- 
spicuous building  is  Memorial  hall,  erected  to  the  memory  of  Harvard  students  and 
graduates  who  fell  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion:  this  is  probably  not  exceeded  in 
grandeur  by  any  college  hall  in  the  world,  it  presents  three  apartments — a memorial 
vestibule,  the  Sanders  theater  for  great  academic  assemblies,  and  a dining-hall  with 
accommodation  for  1000  persons.  The  whole  structure  is  310  ft.  long  by  115  ft.  wide, 
with  a tower  200  ft.  high.  There  is  also  a granite  monument  near  the  college  erected  by 
the  city  in  honor  of  the  fallen  soldiers.  C.  also  contains  Mt.  Auburn,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  cemeteries  in  the  world.  It  occupies  125  acres  of  hill  and  valley,  laid  out  in 
a charmingly  picturesque  manner,  while  the  monuments  show  a great  variety  of  taste 
and  munificence.  This  is  the  oldest  of  the  splendid  burial  places  in  the  country,  having 
been  dedicated  in  1831.  Bridges  over  Charles  river  connect  C.  with  Boston,  Brighton, 
and  Brookline.  Horse  railroads  connect  with  all  adjacent  towns,  and  the  Boston  and 
Lowell  and  the  Fitchburg  railroads  pass  through  East  Cambridge.  The  streets  are  well 
drained,  an(^  lighted  with  gas.  C.  is  not  a business  place,  but  rather  a home  for  the 
business  people  of  Boston.  Still  there  are  manufactories  of  locomotives,  steam-engines, 
glass,  carriages,  marble,  chemicals,  brushes,  biscuit,  candles,  soap,  chairs,  cabinet  ware, 
etc.  The  Riverside  press  and  the  university  printing-office,  are  noteworthy;  the  last 
named  is  the  oldest  printing  establishment  in  the  country.  C.  has  a regular  city  govern- 
ment, vested  in  mayor,  aldermen,  and  common  councilmen,  with  the  usual  executive  and 
judicial  courts  and  functionaries.  Water  is  supplied  from  two  large  lakes  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, and  stored  in  large  reservoirs.  Under  the  influence  of  the  college  the  schools 
of  the  city  are  of  a high  order,  and  to  these  are  added  the  Dana  library  and  free  lectures 
at  the  Dowse  institute.  There  are  in  C.  three  or  four  newspapers  and  about  30  churches 
or  congregations.  The  first  settlement  here  was  in  1630,  and  was  called  Newtown,  and 
Winthrop  and  others  intended  it  to  be  the  chief  town  in  the  colony.  The  first  minister. 
Rev.  Mr.  Hooker,  was  settled  in  1632.  In  1636,  money  was  voted  to  establish  a public 
school,  which  was  further  aided  by  grants  from  the  Rev.  John  Harvard  of  Charlestown. 
The  city  charter  of  incorporation  was  granted  in  1846. 

CAM'BEIDGE,  the  chief  t.  of  the  co.  so  named,  lies  48  m.  n.n.e.  of  London.  It  takes 
its  name  from  the  river  Cam,  which  was  anciently  called  the  Granta.  By  the  Saxons, 
C.  appears  to  have  been  known  as  Grantabrycge,  which  is  found  with  many  slight 
variations  of  spelling,  and  probably  became  abbreviated  into  Cantbricge.  It  is  also 
supposed  that  C.,  and  not  the  adjacent  village  of  Grantchester,  was  the  Grantaceaster 
of  the  Saxons.  There  are,  however,  traces  of  a camp  at  Grantchester.  In  870,  the 
Danes  ravaged  the  country  hereabouts,  and  are  said  to  have  destroyed  the  town.  King 
John,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign  (1200  a.d.),  granted  a charter  to  the  town,  permit- 
ting it  to  have  a guild  of  merchants,  and  in  1207,  confirmed  the  burgesses  in  th<^ir  privi- 
leges in  perpetuity.  In  1225,  they  paid  a fine  of  50  marks  for  having  their  liberties; 
and  in  1227,  Henry  III.  confirmed  their  charters.  The  town  has  sent  two  members  to 
parliament  from  the  earliest  period.  The  university  sends  two  members  of  its  own. 
The  pop.  of  the  municipal  borough  in  1871  was  30,078,  that  of  the  parliamentary 
borough,  33,996.  C.  has  18  churches  belonging  to  the  church  of  England,  besides 
chapels  belonging  to  the  Baptist,  Congregationalist,  and  other  bodies.  The  most  curious 
church  is  that  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  which  is  one  of  the  few  in  England  that  have  a 
round  tower.  The  town  is  not  generally  pretty  or  picturesque,  but  the  gardens  at  the 
backs  of  the  colleges,  by  the  Cam,  are  extremely  beautiful  in  the  summer  months.  Its 
architectural  features  depend  chiefly  on  the  college  and  university  buildings. 


337 


Cambridg«. 


CAMBRIDGE,  Adolphus  Fredekick,  Duke  of,  1774-1850;  youngest  son  of  George 
III.,  and  uncle  of  queen  Victoria.  lie  served  as  an  ensign  in  the  army,  and  was  edu- 
cated afterwards  at  Gottingen,  returning  home  in  liis  20th  year.  In  the  Netherland 
campaign  of  1793,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French,  but  was  almost  immediately 
exchanged.  Thereafter  most  of  his  public  duty  was  in  Hanover  as  governor  and  vice- 
roy, until  the  separation  of  Hanover  from  the  British  crown  in  1837,  when  he  returned 
to  England,  mixing  no  further  in  public  affairs. 

CAMBRIDGE,  George  William  Frederick  Charles,  Duke  of,  b.  1819;  field- 
marshal  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  armies;  first  cousin  of  queen  Victoria, 
ion  of  Adolphus  Frederick,  duke  of  Cambridge;  succeeded  to  his  title  July  8,  1850. 
In  1837,  he  was  col.,  and  in  1854,  lieut.gen.  commanding  the  first  division  sent  in  aid 
of  Turkey  against  Russia.  He  led  the  troops  at  Alma  and  at  Inkerman.  In  conse- 
■quence  of  ill  health  he  returned  to  England,  and  in  1856  succeeded  viscount  Hardinge 
^is  commander-in-chief ; in  1862,  he  was  given  the  rank  of  field-marshal  The  duke  has 
never  married,  but  for  many  years  has  lived  with  Miss  Fairbrother,  once  known  as  a 
beautiful  actress,  by  whom  he  has  several  children. 

CAMBRIDGE,  University  op,  one  of  the  two  ancient  institutions  of  the  kind  existing 
in  England.  Overlooking  several  fabulous  accounts  of  its  origin,  its  true  history  may 
be  said  to  begin  at  the  opening  of  the  12th  century.  It  was  in  1110  that  Joffrid,  abbot 
of  Croyland,  sent  over  to  his  manor  of  Cottenham,  near  Cambridge,  Gislebert,  his  fel- 
low-monk and  professor  in  divinity,  with  three  other  learned  monks.  These  came  over 
to  Cambridge,  and  in  a hired  barn  taught  their  sciences,  and  in  a short  space  of  time 
<lrew  together  so  great  a number  of  scholars,  that  in  the  second  year  of  their  coming  no 
single  building  was  able  to  contain  them.  Perhaps  even  this  statement  is  doubtful.  At 
4iny  rate,  when  Alfred  of  Beverley  was  student  here — viz.,  1129  a.d. — there  were  as  yet 
no  public  halls  or  hostels,  but  each  one  lived  in  his  own  hired  lodging. 

The  first  regular  society  of  students  was  that  of  Peterhouse,  founded  in  1257.  About 
this  time,  students  began  to  live  together  in  hostels,  under  the  rule  of  a principal,  at 
their  own  charges.  These  hostels  were  named  after  the  saints  to  whom  they  were  dedi- 
<;ated,  the  churches  which  they  adjoined,  or  the  persons  who  formerly  built  or  possessed 
them.  In  the  year  1280,  there  were  as  many  as  34,  and  some  of  them  contained  from 
20  to  40  masters  of  arts,  and  a proportionate  number  of  younger  students ; but  all  these 
hostels  decayed  by  degrees  when  endowed  colleges  began  to  appear.  Trinity  hostel  sur- 
vived all  the  rest,  and  continued  to  1540.  The  hostels  were  the  beginning  of  what  may 
be  called  the  college  system,  which  distinguishes  the  sister-universities  of  Oxford  and 
•Cambridge  from  those  of  Edinburgh,  London,  and  the  continent.  See  Universities. 

It  was  between  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  and  the  close  of  the  16th  c.  that  all  these 
royal  and  religious  foundations  were  endowed  which  now  constitute  the  university. 
Hugh  de  Balsham  has  the  honor  of  being  the  first  benefactor  in  this  way.  Michael 
house  was  founded  by  Hervey  de  Stanton  in  1324,  and  King’s  hall  by  Edward  III.  in 
1332,  both  of  which  were  absorbed  into  Trinity  college  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1546.  Clare 
hall,  as  it  used  to  be  called,  one  of  the  earliest  and  now  one  of  the  prettiest  colleges  in 
Cambridge,  was  founded  by  the  countess  of  Clare  in  1326.  Henry  VI.  has  left  himself 
■an  imperishable  monument  in  the  splendid  foundation  of  King’s  college;  and  his  queen, 
Margaret,  commenced  the  foundation  of  Queens’  college,  which  was  added  to  by  Eliza- 
beth Widville,  queen  of  Edward  IV.  Lady  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond  dnd  Derby, 
mother  of  Henry  VII.,  founded  Christ’s  college  and  St.  John’s  at  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  c. , and  also  the  divinity  professorship  named  after  her.  Henry  VIII.  appropriated 
part  of  the  spoils  of  the  monasteries  to  the  foundation  of  Trinity  college,  and  queen 
Mary  augmented  the  endowment.  The  five  regius  professorships  were  endowed  by 
Henry  VIII.  Cambridge  was  frequently  visited  by  the  plague,  and  university  proceed- 
ings were  suspended  by  it  in  1642  and  1666.  In  1643,  Cromwell  took  possession  of  the 
town,  and  the  most  eminent  loyalists  were  expelled  from  the  university.  Almost  all  the 
-colleges  had  sent  their  plate  to  the  king  at  Nottingham.  As  riiight  be  expected,  little 
was  done  for  the  university  in  this  troubled  century;  indeed  no  new  colleges  were  added 
until  the  founding  of  Downing  college  in  1800. 

The  predominance  of  the  religious  element  in  the  college  discipline  is  to  be  attributed 
as  much  to  the  circumstances  and  manners  of  the  times  in  which  the  colleges  were 
founded,  as  to  the  piety  of  the  founders  themselves.  There  had  been,  from  very  early 
times,  “religious  houses,”  and  these  were  in  many  cases  united  with  the  new  collegiate 
foundations.  There  were,  for  example,  the  Dominicans,  or  preaching  friars,  whose 
house  is  now  turned  into  Emmanuel  college.  The  friars  who  lived  in  these  convents 
were  capable  of  degrees,  and  kept  their  “acts,”  or  exercises  for  degrees,  as  other  uni- 
versity men.  There  were,  however,  frequent  quarrels  between  them  and  the  other  stu- 
dents. To  the  same  cause  is  to  be  traced  the  condition  of  celibacy,  upon  which,  with 
few  exceptions,  the  fellowships  were  formerly  tenable.  Masters  of  colleges  and  profes- 
sors may  all  marry,  and  the  restriction  in  the  case  of  fellows  has  lately  been  removed  or 
relaxed  at  most  of  the  colleges.  In  like  manner,  the  obligation  to  take  holy  orders  as 
the  condition  of  holding  a fellowship,  has  been  greatly  relaxed  at  all  the  colleges. . At 
St.  Peter’s  there  are  11,  and  at  Trinity  hall  10  lay  fellowships. 

, U.  K.  III.-22 


Cambridge. 


338 


The  present  university  statutes  were  confirmed  by  queen  Victoria,  by  order  in  coun- 
cil, July  31,  1858.  The  governing  body  is-the  senate,  and  the  building  where  they  meet 
is  called  the  senate-house.  All  university  laws  are  approved  by  an  elected  body  called 
the  council,  before  they  are  submitted  to  the  senate.  The  executive  powers  are  intrusted 
to  a chancellor,  high-steward,  vice-chancellor,  commissary,  and  assessor.  The  public- 
orator  is  the  voice  of  the  senate  upon  public  occasions.  The  proctors  superintend  the 
discipline  and  morals  of  all  persons  in  statu  pupillari;  they  are  present  at  all  congrega- 
tions of  the  senate,  read  the  “ graces,”  and  take  the  votes.  The  registrary  is  responsible 
for  the  graces  being  offered  in  due  form,  and  has  charge  of  the  university  records. 
There  are  three  terms  in  this  university — the  Michaelmas  or  October  term,  the  Lent 
term,  and  the  Easter  term.  To  take  an  ordinary  b.a.  degree,  a student  must  reside  nine 
terms.  The  m.a.  degree  follows  three  years  after.  Dissenters  are  not  excluded  by  the 
terms  of  the  new  statutes  from  taking  degrees,  except  in  divinity. 

With  respect  to  the  admission  of  students,  their  university  course,  expenses,  and 
proceedings  in  degrees,  the  following  information  may  be  useful:  There  are  four  classes 
of  students — viz.,  felloio  commoners  and  noblemen,  pensioners,  sizars,  and  the  more  dis- 
tinguished students  who  are  elected  scholars  on  the  foundation  of  their  college.  The 
first  class  are  so  called  from  their  dining  at  the  fellows’  table ; they  wear  silk  or  em- 
broidered gowns,  and  pay  heavier  fees.  The  pensioners  are  the  great  body  of  students 
who  are  not  on  the  foundation,  and  who  pay  for  their  own  commons,  viz.,  dinners  in 
hall,  etc.,  and  for  their  chambers.  The  sizars  are  the  poorer  students,  who  are  admitted, 
at  lower  charges  than  the  pensioners,  but  w'ear  the  same  dress,  and  are  no  longer  subject 
to  the  performance  of  menial  offices  as  they  once  were.  Some  of  the  colleges,  especially 
St.  John’s  and  Trinity,  have  very  liberal  endowments  for  the  sizars,  and  very  consider- 
able pecuniary  assistance  is  given  to  the  more  deserving  of  them,  so  that  no  youth  of 
real  ability,  industry,  and  good  character,  need  be  deprived  by  poverty  of  the  advan- 
tages of  a university  education.  Non-collegiate  students  have  lately  been  admitted  to- 
the  university  under  special  rules.  The  scholars  are  elected,  by  examination,  from  the- 
pensioners  and  sizars;  they  are  on  the  foundation  of  the  college,  have  rooms  and  com- 
mons free,  and  other  emoluments.  The  fellows  are  subsequently  elected  from  the 
scholars  and  the  students  who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the  tripos  examinations. 
Vacancies  are,  as  a rule,  filled  up  from  members  of  the  college,  but  many  fellowships- 
are  open  to  the  competition  of  the  whole  university.  The  usual  age  of  admission  is 
from  17  to  20.  Before  a student  can  be  admitted,  he  must  obtain  a certificate  from 
some  master  of  arts  of  the  university  of  being  sufficiently  instructed  in  Latin,  Greek, 
and  mathematics;  this  certificate  must  be  sent  to  the  tutor  of  the  college,  along  with  the 
caution-money,  which,  in  the  case  of  a pensioner,  amounts  to  £15.  At  some  colleges 
there  is  an  examination  previous  to  matriculation  in  addition  to  the  above. 

Residence  is  commenced  in  the  October  term.  It  is  usual,  particularly  at  the  larger 
colleges,  to  have  the  name  entered  on  the  college  boards  for  a term  or  two  previous;  but 
this  is  not  necessary  now,  as  it  used  to  be,  in  order  to  keep  such  terms  with  a view  to 
the  degree.  When  the  undergraduate  comes  into  residence,  he  is  called  a “freshman;’^ 
in  his  second  year,  a “junior  soph;”  in  his  third  year,  a “ senior  soph.”  The  ordinary 
B.A.,  or  bachelor  of  arts  degree,  may  be  taken  in  the  ninth  term  of  residence — viz.,  in 
the  third  June  after  coming  up.  The  subjects  of  examination  are  partly  fixed,  partly 
variable.  They  are  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  Greek,  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  classic. 
The  History  of  the  English  Reformation;  Euclid,  books  i.,  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  and  proposition* 
1-6  of  book  vi. ; together  with  certain  parts  of  algebra,  mechanics,  and  hydrostatics. 
The  candidates  for  examination  for  degree  are  called  questionists. 

Candidates  for  mathematical  “honors”  dc  not  go  up  till  the  end  of  their  tenth  term 
— i.e.,  the  Christmas  three  years  after  commg  up.  The  examination  embraces  the 
whole  range  of  pure  mathematics,  and  mathematics  as  applied  to  natural  philosophy. 
The  successful  candidates  are  arranged  in  a tripos — i.e.,  in  three  classes,  called  respect- 
ively wranglers,  senior  optimes,  and  junior  optimes;  the  first  mathematician  of  the 
year  is  called  the  senior  wrangler.  The  Smith’s  prize  examination  for  the  best  mathe- 
matician sometimes  reverses  the  decision  of  the  tripos. 

The  examination  for  classical  “honors”  is  one  term  later  still,  and  the  candidates- 
are  arranged  in  a tripos,  and  distinguished  as  first,  second,  and  third  class.  Very  accu- 
rate scholarship  is  required  to  obtain  a good  place  in  this  tripos.  The  examinations  for 
degree  are  called  “great  go.”  The  previous  examination,  which  comes  in  the  second 
year  of  residence,  is  called  “little  go.”  Students  who  intend  to  graduate  in  classical 
honors,  are  required  to  take  mathematical  honors  in  little  go.  The  previous  examina- 
tion is  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  author,  one  of  the  gospels  in  Greek,  Raley’s  Evidences- 
of  Christianity,  and  elementary  mathematics.  After  passing  the  “ little  go,”  the  exam- 
inations for  the  ordinary  b.a.  degree  consist  of  a “general”  and  a “special”  examina- 
tion, the  subjects  in  the  former  being  similar  to  those  in  the  little  go.  The  special 
examination  is,  at  the  option  of  the  student,  in  theology,  moral  or  natural  or  applied 
science,  or  law.  The  following  are  the  professors:  Regius  professors  of  laws,  physic, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  divinity,  professor  of  moral  philosophy,  professor  of  chemistry, 
professor  of  anatomy,  professor  of  modern  histor}^,  professor  of  botany,  professor  of 
geology,  Jacksonian  professor  of  natural  philosophy.  Downing  professors  of  law  and 
medicine,  professor  of  mineralogy,  professor  of  political  economy,  professor  of  arclnaeol- 


339 


Cambridge. 


ogy,  profes  or  of  music,  a lady  Margaret,  a Hulsean,  and  a Norrisian  professor  of  divin- 
ity, two  Arabic  professors,  a Sadlerian  and  a Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics,  a 
Lowndean  and  a Plumian  professor  of  astronomy,  Slade  professor  of  fine  art,  professors 
of  Latin,  Sanscrit,  international  law,  zoology,  experimental  physics,  and  mechanism. 
Degrees  in  honors  are  given  in  law  and  in  natural  and  moral  science,  without  requiring 
further  proficiency  in  the  normal  studies  of  the  place,  classics  and  mathematics,  than  is 
ascertained  by  passing  the  little  go.  The  fees  for  the  different  degrees  will  all  be  found 
in  the  Cambridge  Calendar.  There  are  different  fees  at  the  different  colleges  in  addition 
to  the  university  fees.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  state,  that  for  the  b.a.  and  m.a.  degrees, 
the  fees  amount  to  about  £12  and  £25  respectively. 

The  great  prizes  at  the  university  are  the  fellowships,  of  which  there  are  about  360, 
some  open  to  all  candidates  without  restriction,  but  conditions  of  tenure  as  to  marriage 
and  holy  orders  vary  at  different  colleges.  Their  value  varies  from  £100  to  £300  per 
annum,' and  the  senior  fellowships  are  often  £500  or  more.  There  are  also  stipends 
attached  to  all  the  college  oflaces— e.g.,  those  of  dean,  bursar,  steward,  etc.  The  ofSce 
of  tutor  is  one  of  great  honor  and  emolument.  The  chancellor  gives  annually  two  gold 
medals,  open  to  the  competition  of  all  students  qualified  to  be  candidates  for  the  classi- 
cal tripos  of  the  year.  The  members  of  parliament  for  the  university  give  annually  four 
prizes  for  the  best  dissertations  in  Latin  prose.  There  are  numerous  other  university 
distinctions,  both  scholarships  and  of  other  kinds,  for  an  accurate  account  of  which  the 
Cambridge  Calendar  should  be  consulted. 

The  following  is  a list  of  the  colleges  in  the  order  of  their  antiquity.  A particular 
notice  of  each  college  (except  Cavendish)  will  be  found  in  its  alphabetical  place : 


Name. 

St.  Peter’s  college,  or  Peter-house. . . 

Clare  college 

Pembroke  college 

Oonville  and  Caius  college 

Trinity  hall 

Corpus  Christi,  or  Benedict  college 

King’s  college 

<^ueens’  college 

St.  Catharine’s  college  or  hall. 

Jesus  college 

Christ’s  college 

St.  John’s  college 

Magdalene  college 

Trinity  college 

Emmanuel  college 

Sidney  Sussex  college 

Downing  college 

Cavendish  college 


Founded. 

U ndergraduates 
in  1875. 

. 1257 

37 

. 1326 

85 

. 1347 

78 

. 1348 

139 

. 1350 

- 140 

. 1351 

144 

. 1441 

28 

. 1448 

38 

. 1473 

57 

. 1496 

144 

. 1505 

108 

. 1511 

381 

. 1519 

50 

. 1546 

522 

. 1584 

63 

. 1598 

46 

. 1800 

51 

. 1876 

Students  whose  names  are  not  on  the  boards  of  any  college,  and  are  allowed  to  pursue 
their  studies  and  proceed  to  degrees,  were  82  in  number  at  the  above  date. 

Few  of  the  colleges  present  an  imposing  fa9ade  to  the  streets — King’s  is,  perhaps,  the 
only  one  of  which  this  may  be  said — but  the  quiet  and  picturesque  beauty  of  the  courts 
in  the  interiors  is  very  pleasing.  Dr.  Whewell,  the  late  master  of  Trinity  college,  built 
a new  hostel  in  connection  with  Trinity,  which  is  considered  to  be  in  very  good  taste. 
Amongst  the  other  public  buildings  of  Cambridge  are  to  be  mentioned  the  senate-house, 
where  university  examinations  are  held,  degrees  conferred,  and  all  public  business  of 
the  university  conducted.  The  Fitzwilliam  museum  is  the  finest  of  the  modern  addi- 
tions to  the  university.  Viscount  Fitzwilliam  bequeathed,  in  1816,  £100,000  South-sea 
annuities,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  build  and  support  a museum.  He  left  also  a 
very  valuable  collection  of  books,  paintings,  etc.,  as  a nucleus  for  future  contributions. 
G.  Basevi  was  the  architect.  The  university  library  is  a fine  mass  of  buildings  of  differ- 
ent periods,  and  contains  at  present  more  than  170,000  volumes.  The  geological  museum 
•contains  the  original  collection  of  Dr.  Woodward,  which,  out  of  respect  to  the  founder, 
has  been  kept  in  its  original  state,  unmixed  with  more  recent  and  vastly  more  numerous 
and  interesting  acquisitions.  The  university  is  indebted  for  many  of  these  geological 
treasures  to  the  late  prof.  Sedgwick.  The  mineralogical  room  contains  the  valuable 
collections  of  the  late  sir  A.  Hume,  Charles  Brooke,  and  Henry  Warburton.  The  Pitt 
press  is  a Gothic  structure  built  in  honor  of  Mr.  Pitt,  who  was  educated  at  Cambridge. 
It  contains  the  university  printing-offices,  which  are  very  extensive.  There  is  also  a 
good  anatopaical  museum. 

There  is  a very  good  hospital,  founded  under  the  will  of  Dr.  Addenbrooke  in  1753. 
The  observatory  contains  some  very  fine  instruments,  amongst  which  is  a large  equato- 
rial telescope,  presented  by  the  duke  of  Northumberland  in  1835.  The  income  of  the 
university  is  about  £2000,  and  the  aggregate  income  of  the  colleges  about  £200,000  per 
annum. 

For  the  most  recent  information  about  the  university  studies,  etc.,  Cambridge 


Cambridge. 

Camden. 


340 


Calendar  for  the  current  year  should  be  consulted;  for  the  history,  biography,  and 
antiquity,  see  YuWqy's  History  of  Ga,rd)ridge;  Dyer;  Caius;  Le  Memorials;  Coop- 

er’s Annals;  Cooper’s  Athence  Cantahrigienses;  Oraduati  Gantahrigienses. 

CAMBRIDGE  PLATFORM,  the  system  of  church  discipline  agreed  upon  by  the 
representatives  of  the  New  England  churches  at  the  synod  held  in  Cambridge  in  1648. 
In  regard  to  doctrine  they  adhered  substantially  to  the  Westminster  confession,  though 
they  did  not  impose  that  on  the  churches;  but  they  did  not  accept  that  confession  which 
was  Presbyterian  with  respect  to  church  order  and  polity,  for  regulating  which  they 
constructed  the  Cambridge  platform,  which  declares  that  the  form  of  church  govern- 
ment is  one  and  immutable,  and  prescribed  in  the  word  of  God.  According  to  this 
platform,  the  church  in  general  consists  of  the  whole  company  of  the  redeemed;  but  the 
state  of  the  visible  church  militant  was  before  the  law  economical,  or  in  families;  under 
the  law,  national;  and  since  Christ,  only  congregational,  or  in  local  companies.  In 
number  a church  ought  not  to  be  greater  than  may  ordinarily  meet  together  conveniently 
in  one  place,  nor  fewer  than  can  conveniently  carry  on  church  work.  The  supreme- 
power  of  the  church  belongs  to  Jesus  Christ,  who  deputes  extraordinary  power  to^ 
apostles,  etc.,  and  ordinary  power  to  every  particular  church;  officers  are  necessary  to- 
the  well-being  but  not  to  the  being  of  a church.  Extraordinary  officers,  as  apostles,  are 
temporary;  the  ordinary,  which  are  bishops  (the  same  as  elders  or  pastors)  and  deacons, 
are  perpetual.  A deacon’s  official  acts  are  confined  to  temporal  affairs.  Any  church 
may  elect  and  depose  its  own  officers,  but  in  so  doing  the  advice  of  neighboring  churches- 
should  be  sought.  Ordination  is  the  solemn  putting  a man  into  his  office;  it  follows  his 
election.  In  respect  to  Christ,  the  head,  the  church  is  a monarchy ; in  respect  to  the 
body  or  the  brotherhood,  it  is  like  a democracy;  in  respect  to  the  presbytery,  or  com- 
pany of  ministers,  it  is  an  aristocracy.  Synods,  though  not  necessary  to  the  being,  are 
useful  to  the  well-being  of  the  churches;  but  synods  are  not  permanent  ecclesiastical 
bodies.  It  is  declared  that  local  churches  are  of  right  distinct,  equal,  self-governed 
under  Christ ; yet  that  they  should  be  gathered  and  should  proceed  in  communion  with 
each  other;  which  communion  they  are  to  exercise  by  mutual  care,  by  consultation,  by 
admonition,  by  sharing  in  acts  of  worship,  by  needful  transfer  of  members,  by  relief  and 
succor.  Synods  have  not  power  of  church-censure  and  discipline,  but  are  to  declare 
the  principles  on  which  such  acts  are  based,  and  their  decisions  are  to  be  submitted  to  if 
found  consonant  with  the  word  of  God.  The  platform  deals  also,*  as  its  date  required, 
with  the  relation  of  civil  magistrates  to  affairs  ecclesiastical.  The  platform  is  accepted 
and  largely  followed  by  the  congregational  churches  as  a useful  guide,  and  as  a strong 
presentation  of  the  principles  of  church  order  given  in  the  New  Testament;  but  its 
enforcement  upon  any  church  as  an  authoritative  rule  would  of  course  be  attempted  in 
vain. 

CAMBRIBGrESHIBE,  an  inland  co.  of  England,  in  lat.  52°  1'  to  52°  45'  n.,  long.  0° 
31'  e.,  and  0°  16'  west.  Its  greatest  length,  from  n.  to  s.,  is  about  50  m.,  and  its  breadth 
30  m.,  with  an  area  of  820  sq.  miles.  Pop.  ’71,  186,906.  About  three  fourths  of  the 
co.  consists  of  arable  land,  meadow,  and  pasture,  the  rest  being  fens.  The  surface 
of  C.,  except  in  the  s.,  which  is  somewhat  elevated  and  on  the  chalk  formations,  is 
marshy  and  flat,  thinly  wooded,  and  with  villages  and  churches  here  and  there  on  slight 
elevations,  called  “ eys”  or  islands.  The  upper  greensand,  which  in  some  places  near 
Cambridge  comes  to  the  surface,  yields  in  rich  abundance  the  curious  fossils  miscalled 
coprolites  (q.v.),  which  are  of  great  value  as  an  artificial  manure.  Their  value  is  in 
some  places  equal  to  that  of  the  land  itself.  The  northern  part  of  C.  forms  part  of  the 
Bedford  level.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Ouse,  which  crosses  the  middle  of  the  county 
from  w.  to  e.,  with  its  tributary  the  Cam;  the  Nene,  which  borders  the  co.  on  the 
n. ; and  the  Lark.  These  are  all  navigable  to  a certain  extent.  C.  is  an  agricultural 
county.  In  the  higher  parts,  the  land  produces  fine  crops  of  beans  and  wheat.  Many 
cattle  and  sheep  are  now  supported  on  the  thin,  chalky  soils.  The  black  spongy  soil  of 
the  fens  consists  of  mud  mixed  with  decayed  vegetable  matter,  and,  when  drained  and 
burned,  produces,  in  dry  years,  heavy  crops  of  cole-seed,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  hay, 
potatoes,  hemp,  and  flax.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigeons  are  also  reared  in  the  fens. 
The  isle  of  Ely,  part  of  the  fen-tract,  and  within  the  Bedford  level,  is  famed  for  garden 
vegetables;  and  the  meadows  of  the  Cam  yield  fine  butter  and  cream-cheese.  The  chief 
towns  of  C.  are  Cambridge,  the  co.  town;  Ely,  Wisbeach,  March,  Thorney,  Linton, 
Soham,  Newmarket,  and  Royston.  The  manufactures  of  C.  are  mostly  such  as  belong 
to  an  agricultural  county.  There  are  paper  and  parchment  mills,  and  coarse  earthen- 
ware is  manufactured.  Needle-making  is  also  carried  on  to  some  extent.  C.  returns  3 
members  to  parliament.  This  co.  was  anciently  the  seat  of  a powerful  tribe — the 
Iceni.  It  was  crossed  by  several  British  and  Roman  roads,  in  some  parts  now  covered 
by  several  feet  of  peat-soil.  Remains  of  Roman  camps,  sea-embankments,  ^nd  villas, 
occur,  and  Roman  antiquities,  as  coins  and  urns,  have  been  found.  There  are  some 
ancient — supposed  pre-Roman — ditches  miles  in  length.  One  of  these,  the  Devil’s  ditch, 
with  an  elevated  vallum,  having  a slope  of  52  ft.  on  one  side  and  26  ft.  on  the  other,  is 
about  100  ft.  broad.  In  the  9th  and  10th  c.,  C.  was  the  scene  of  severe  contests  between 
the  Danes  and  Saxons.  The  isle  of  Ely  and  its  monks  withstood  William  the  conqueror 
for  8 years.  C.,  and  especially  the  isle  of  Ely,  suffered  much  in  the  civil  wars  of  Stephen, 


341 


Cambridge* 

Camden. 


John,  Henry  III.,  and  Charles  I.  There  formerly  existed  36  religious  houses  in  Cam- 
bridgeshire. Since  Charles  I.’s  time,  much  fen-land  has  been  reclaimed  by  embanking 
rivers  and  cutting  new  channels. 

CAMBRONNE,  Pierre  Jacques  Etienne,  1770-1842:  a French  general  of  great 
renown  for  daring  bravery,  and  a devoted  servitor  of  Napoleon,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Elba.  He  was  in  command  of  the  imperial  guard  at  Waterloo,  and  when  entirely 
surrounded,  and  the  battle  utterly  lost,  he  contemptuously  refused  to  surrender,  but 
fought  until  literally  cut  down.  He  was  nearly  killed,  but  lived  to  go  to  London,  where 
he  heard  that  in  France  he  was  charged  with  an  attack  upon  his  own  country,  to  answer 
which  he  at  once  went  to  Paris  and  demanded  a trial.  This  was  granted,  and  he  was 
honorably  acquitted,  and  after  the  revolution  of  July  he  was  restored  to  his  rank  in  the 
army. 

CAMBUSLANGf,  a parish  and  mining  village  in  Lanarkshire,  celebrated  in  the  revivals 
of  1741.  See  Wiiitefield. 

CAMBY'SES,  second  king  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  was  the  son  of  Cyrus  and  Cas- 
sandane,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  the  monarchy,  529  b.c.  C.  is  the  Greek  form  of 
his  name,  the  ancient  Persian  name  is  Kabujiya.  In  525 b.c.,  C.  invaded  Egypt,  defeated 
Psammenitus,  the  king  of  Egypt,  at  Pelusium,  and  in  six  months  made  himself  master 
of  the  whole  country.  He  meditated  further  conquests,  but  was  not  permitted  to  carry 
his  designs  into  effect;  the  Tyrians,  upon  whom  his  maritime  power  depended,  refused 
to  serve  him  against  the  Carthaginians;  an  army  which  he  sent  to  take  possession  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon,  perished  in  the  desert;  and  one  which  he  led  in  person 
against  the  Ethiopians,  was  compelled  to  return  from  want  of  provisions.  C.  now 
addicted  himself  to  excessive  intoxication,  and  perpetrated  horrid  cruelties  in  Egypt; 
the  accounts  of  which,  however,  depending  upon  his  enemies  the  Egyptian  priests,  are^ 
doubtless  exaggerated.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  his  tendency  to  epileptic  tits,  along 
with  the  arbitrary  disposition  induced  by  success  and  power,  caused  him  to  indulge  in 
violent  and  capricious  acts  of  tyranny.  The  Egyptians  believed  him  to  be  mad.  A pre- 
tender to  the  Persian  throne  having  appeared,  C.  marched  against  him,  but  died  on  the 
way  in  Syria,  521  b.c. 

CAMDEN,  a co.  in  s.e.  Georgia,  on  the  ocean  and  the  Florida  border,  n.  of  St. 
Mary’s  river,  and  including  Cumberland  island  in  the  Atlantic;  600  sq.m.;  pop.  '80, 
6183—4092  colored.  It  is  level,  with  sandy  soil,  rice  being  the  chief  production,  Co. 
seat,  Jeffersonton. 

CAMDEN,  a co.  in  central  Missouri,  on  the  Osage  river,  and  touched  by  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacitic  railroad;  600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  7267—115  colored.  It  has  lead  mines,  and 
an  undulating  surface,  and  tolerably  fertile  soil,  producing  tobacco,  corn,  wheat,  etc. 
Co.  seat,  Lynn  Creek. 

CAMDEN,  a co.  in  s.  w.  New  Jersey,  e,  cf  Delaware  river,  traversed  by  tive  railroads, 
all  centering  at  Camden,  the  chief  town,  opposite  Philadelphia;  220  sq.m;  pop.  ’80» 
62,941.  Surface  mostly  level  and  fruitful,  producing  grain,  butter,  milk,  vegetables 
and  fruits  for  city  markets.  Co.  seat,  Camden. 

CAMDEN,  a co.  in  n.e.  North  Carolina,  n.  of  Albemarle  sound  and  e.  of  Pasquotank 
river;  280  sq.m.,  a portion  of  which  is  in  the  Dismal  Swamp;  pop.  ’80,  6274 — 2483  col- 
ored. The  Dismal  Swamp  canal  extends  in  this  county  to  the  Pasquotank  at  South 
Mills.  Productions — corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and  cedar  and  cypress  timber.  Co.  seat, 
Camden  Court-House. 

CAMDEN,  the  seat  of  justice  in  Wilcox  co.,  Ala.,  33  m.  s.w.  of  Selma;  pop.  ’70, 
3060 — 2225  colored.  The  village  is  on  an  eminence  4 m.  from  the  Alabama  river,  and 
is  the  center  of  an  important  trade. 

CAMDEN,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Washita  co..  Ark.,  82  m.  s.w.  of  Little  Rock,, 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Washita  river,  in  a good  situation  for  trade;  pop.  ’70, 
1612 — 612  colored.  The  place  was  formerly  a rendezvous  for  hunters. 

CAMDEN,  a city  of  New  Jersey,  U.  S.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Delaware  river,  oppo- 
site Philadelphia,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  4 steam-ferries.  It  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Camden  and  Amboy,  Camden  and  Atlantic,  and  West  Jersey  railways.  It  has  a 
court-house,  2 banks,  2 railway  depots,  15  churches,  ship-yards,  iron-works,  foundries, 
manufactories  of  machinery,  etc.  Pop.  ’70,  20,045. 

CAMDEN  {ante),  a city  in  New  Jersey,  opposite  Philadelphia,  87  m.  from  New  York, 
and  an  important  railroad  and  shipping  point;  pop.  ’80,  41,658.  The  streets  are  on  the 
rectangular  plan,  but  wide,  and  the  city  shows  many  fine  buildings,  including  the  rail- 
road depots,  opera  house,  etc.  There  are  iron  foundries,  chemical  works,  and  some 
other  manufactories.  C.  was  chartered  as  a city  in  1831. 

CAMDEN,  in  Kershaw  co.,  S.  C , 102  m.  n.w.  of  Charleston,  at  the  terminus  of 
the  C.  branch  of  the  S.  C.  railroad;  pop.  '80,  1780 — 555  colored.  Two  battles  were 
fought  in  the  vicinity  in  the  war  of  the  revolution;  the  first  on  Aug.  16,  1780,  when  the 
English  commander  Cornwallis  defeated  Gates  and  the  revolutionary  forces,  mortally 
wounding  baron  De  Kalb ; and  a less  important  engagement  a year  later,  when  Greene 
and  the  Americans  were  repulsed  by  the  English  under  Rawdon.  In  1825,  a monument. 


Camden. 

Camel. 


342 


was  erected  at  Camden  to  the  memory  of  De  Kalb,  the  corner-stone  of  which  was  laid 
by  Lafayette. 

CAMDEN,  a co.  in  s.e.  New  South  Wales,  Australia,  on  the  Pacific  ocean;  2201 
^;q.m. ; pop.  ’66,  22,734,  but  now  much  larger.  It  is  the  largest  grain-producing  countj 
m the  colony;  has  iron  mines,  and  vast  herds  of  cattle.  Capital,  Berrima. 

CAMDEN,,  Charles  Pratt,  Earl  of,  a younger  son  of  sir  John  Pratt,  chief  justice  of 
die  court  of  king’s  bench  in  the  reign  of  George  I.,  was  b.  in  1714.  Educated  at  Eton 
liind  Cambridge,  he  studied  for  the  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1738.  Not  until 
1752,  however,  when  he  defended  a bookseller  successfully  against  a government  prose- 
cution for  libel  on  the  house  of  commons,  did  C.’s  prospects  appear  very  promising; 
from  this  time  his  success  was  certain.  In  1757,  he  was  appointed  attorney-general,  and 
four  years  afterwards,  accepted  a seat  on  the  bench  in  the  court  of  common  pleas. 
Judge  in  the  trial  of  Wilkes,  he  declared  his  opinion  emphatically  that  the  action  of  gov- 
ernment in  this  case,  by  general  warrants,  was  altogether  illegal — an  opinion  which, 
chiming  in  Avith  public  sentiment  at  the  time,  made  him  the  most  popular  of  judges. 
In  1765,  he  was  created  baron  C.  of  Camden  place,  Kent,  by  the  Rockingham  adminis- 
tration; to  whose  American  policy,  and  to  their  treatment  of  Wilkes,  notwithstanding, 
he  offered  constant  opposition.  The  following  year,  when  he  was  made  lord  chancellor, 
he  did  not  abandon  his  principles;  and  four  years  after — the  duke  of  Grafton  being  then 
prime  minister — he  supported  an  amendment  made  by  Chatham  on  the  government 
address,  and  resigned  his  place.  His  judicial  career  ended  here;  henceforth,  he  was 
entirely  a political  character,  and  for  more  than  20  years  took  an  active  part  against  the 
ill-advised  American  policy  pursued  by  lord  North,  and  in  discussions  on  the  law  of 
libel,  in  which  he  maintained  the  popular  view.  As  a judge,  he  is  held  in  high  estima- 
tion, though  his  manner  was  somewhat  undignified.  He  filled  the  office  of  president  of 
the  council  in  the  Rockingham  administration  in  1782,  and  also  from  the  following  year 
until  his  death,  under  Pitt.  He  died  April,  1794. 

CAMDEN,  William,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  and  historians,  and  the 
most  laborious  and  painstaking  antiquary  of  the  16th  c.,  was  b.  in  London,  where  his 
father  was  a paper-stainer,  in  May,  1551.  His  education,  commenced  at  Christ’s  hos 
pital,  was  completed  at  St.  Paul’s  school,  and  at  Oxford.  In  1575,  he  was  appointed 
vecond-master  of  Westminster  school;  and  it  was  while  discharging  the  duties  of  this 
office  that  he  undertook  the  work  which  has  made  his  name  famous,  his  Britannia,  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  British  Isles  from  the  earliest  ages,  which,  written  in  elegant  Latin, 
vvas  first  published  in  1586.  It  at  once  brought  him  into  communication  with  the  learned 
men  of  his  time.  Before  1607,  the  work  had  passed  through  six  editions,  being  greatly 
enlarged  and  improved  by  the  indefatigable  industry  of  the  author.  The  book,  at  first 
but  a comparatively  small  single  volume,  has  received  much  additional  matter  from 
other  writers.  The  best  known  edition  of  C.’s  Britannia,  is  that  of  Edmund  Gibson,  in 
English,  2 vols.  fol.  Of  this  great  work  of  C.,  bishop  Nicolson  said  it  was  “the  com- 
mon sun  whereat  our  modern  writers  have  all  lighted  their  little  torches.”  In  1593,  C. 
was  appointed  head-master  of  Westminster  school;  and  four  years  later,  he  was  made 
clarencieux  king-at-arms,  an  appointment  which  gave  him  more  time  for  the  pursuit  of 
his  favorite  studies.  His  other  most  important  works  are — Annals  of  the  Beign  of  Eliza- 
beth; A Collection  of  Ancient  English  Historians;  An  Account  of  the  Monuments  and 
Inscriptions  in  Westminster  Abbey;  and  a Narrative  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  He  died  in 
1623,  at  the  age  of  72,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Before  his  death,  he 
endowed  a professorship  of  history  at  Oxford.  The  “ Camden  Society,”  for  the  publi- 
cation of  early  historical  and  literary  remains,  is  so  named  in  his  honor. 

CAMEL,  Carnelus,  a genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the  order  ruminantia,  of  which  only 
two  species  exist,  both  of  great- use  to  mankind.  This  genus  is  the  type  of  the  family 
camelidce,  to  which  there  belongs  only  one  other  genus,  auchenia  (q.  v.),  including  the  llama, 
alpaca,  etc.  The  whole  number  of  species  of  camelidm  is,  therefore,  very  small,  and 
they  seem  to  belong  originally  to  limited  regions,  both  in  the  old  world  and  in  the  new. 
To  the  peculiarities  of  these  regions,  they  exhibit  a wonderful  completeness  of  adapta- 
tion. The  family  is  regarded  as"^ forming  a sort  of  link  between  the  orders  ruminantia  and 
pachydermata.  The  dentition  differs  from  that  of  all  other  ruminating  animals,  particu- 
larly in  the  presence  of  incisors  or  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw ; camels  having  also 
canine  teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  the  llama  and  its  congeners  in  the  lower  jaw  of  both 
sexes;  and  differences  equally  important  appear  in  the  feet,  which  have  not  the  cloven 
hoof  common  to  all  the  rest  of  the  order — two  short  toes  with  separate  hoofs  adapted  to 
one  another — but  two  elongated  toes,  each  tipped  with  a small  nail-like  hoof,  the  feet 
resting  not  upon  the  hoofs,  but  upon  elastic  pads  or  cushions  under  the  toes. — In  the 
camels,  the  toes  are  united  ’oy  a common  sole,  thus  resting  upon  one  extended  pad, 
instead  of  having  each  a separate  one,  as  in  the  genus  auchenia;  the  broader  expanse  of 
the  foot  enabling  the  animals  of  the  one  genus  more  easily  to  traverse  the  loose  sand  of 
the  desert,  wliilst  the  separation  of  the  toes  in  the  other  is  suited  to  the  uneven  surface 
of  rocky  heights.  The  camels  are  also  distinguished  by  the  females  having  four  teats, 
whilst  those  of  the  other  genus  have  only  two ; and  by  a hump  or  humps  upon  the  back, 
of  which  the  llama  and  its  congeners  exhibit  no  trace.  The  long  neck,  small  head, 


343 


Camden*. 

Camel. 


prominent  eyes,  and  tumid  and  cleft  upper  lip,  with  considerable  prehensile  power,  are 
common  to  both  genera;  but  with  much  similarity  of  form,  as  well  as  of  particular  char- 
acters, the  camelidm  of  the  Andes  exhibit  a gracefulness  of  outline  which  strongly  con- 
trasts with  the  gaunt  angularity  of  those  of  the  eastern  deserts.  Camels  are  indeed 
animals  of  uncouth  appearance.  Of  the  two  species,  that  known  as  the  Arabian  C.  (C. 
droinedaHus)  has  only  one  hump  on  the  back,  whilst  the  bactrian  C.  ((7.  hactrianus)  has 
two.  Some  confusion  has  arisen  from  the  occasional  employment  of  the  name  drome- 
dary as  a designation  of  the  former  species,  it  being,  however,  more  properly  limited  to 
a particular  variety  of  that  species,  more  slender  and  graceful  than  the  ordinary  variety, 
and  of  much  greater  fleetness.  Buffon’s  notion,  that  the  hump  is  a badge  of  servitude, 
and  the  consequence  of  harsh  treatment  throughout  many  generations,  is  singularly  at 
variance  with  what  we  know  of  its  uses.  The  hump  on  the  C.’s  back  is  a wonderful 
provision  of  nature,  to  adapt  the  animal  to  the  endurance  of  long  abstinence  from  food, 
or  subsistence  on  very  scanty  supplies,  to  which  it  is  often  subjected  in  the  desert,  and 
without  a capacity  for  which  it  would  be  comparatively  of  little  value  to  man ; and  the 
wide  deserts  across  which  he  journeys  and  transports  his  merchandise  by  its  aid,  would 
be  altogether  unpassable.  The  hump  is,  in  fact,  a store  of  fat,  from  which  the  animal 
draws  as  the  wants  of  its  system  require ; and  the  Arab  is  very  careful  to  see  that  the 
hump  is  in  good  condition  before  the  commencement  of  a journey.  After  it  has  been, 
much  exhausted,  three  or  four  months  of  repose  and  abundant  food  are  necessary  ta 
restore  it.  The  backbone  of  the  C.  is  as  straight  as  that  of  other  quadrupeds. — Another 
very  interesting  adaptation  to  the  desert  is  to  be  noticed  in  the  thick  sole  which  protects 
the  feet  of  the  C.  from  the  burning  sand,  and  in  callosities  of  similar  use  on  the  chest 
and  on  the  joints  of  the  legs,  upon  which  the  C.  rests  when  it  lies  down  to  repose,  or 
kneels,  as  it  does  for  various  purposes,  and  is  taught  to  do  that  it  may  be  loaded,  or  that 
its  rider  may  mount  upon  its  back. — The  wedge-shaped  cutting-teeth  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  also  particularly  fitted  for  browsing  on  shrubby  plants,  such  as  the  desert  produces 
— the  camel’s  thorn,  tamarisk,  etc.,  which  form  a large  part  of  the  food  of  the  C. ; the 
eyes  are  furnished  with  long  eyelashes,  to  protect  them  from  the  glare  and  from  the- 
drifting  sand;  whilst  the  exclusion  of  the  sand  from  the  nostrils  is  also  provided  for  by 
a power  of  closing  their  oblique  openings  at  will.  But  most  interesting  of  all  is  the 
provision  made  for  the  C.’s  endurance  of  long  drought,  by  the  lining  of  the  inside  of  the 
second  stomach,  or  honeycomb-bag,  and  of  a portion  of  the  first  stomach  or  paunch, 
with  great  masses  of  cells,  in  which  water  is  stored  up  and  long  retained.  This  store  of 
water  is  well  known  to  the  Arabs,  who,  when  sore  pressed  by  thirst,  sometimes  avail 
themselves  of  it  by  killing  some  of  the  camels  of  the  caravan. — The  first  stomach  of  the 
camelid(E  is  divided  into  two  compartments  by  a muscular  band — one  of  the  points  of 
difference  between  them  and  the  other  ruminants.  Muscular  bands,  proceeding  from 
this  principal  one,  and  intersected  by  other  muscular  bands,  nearly  at  right  angles,  form 
the  cells  for  containing  water.  It  may  be  added  here,  that  the  senses  both  of  sight  and 
smell  are  extremely  acute  in  the  C.,  and  that  it  is  capable  of  discerning  water  at  a great 
distance. 

The  Arabian  C.  carries  twice  the  load  of  a mule.  The  Bactrian  C.  is  sometimes, 
loaded  with  1000  or  even  1500  lbs.  weight,  although  not  generally  with  so  much.  The 
East  India  company  had  at  one  time  a corps  of  camels,  each  mounted  by  two  men,  armed, 
with  musketoons.  The  use  of  the  C.  for  the  conveyance  both  of  travelers  and  merchan- 
dise has  won  it  the  name  of  the  ship  of  the  desert.  A caravan  sometimes  contains  1000, 
sometimes  even  4000  or  5000  camels.  The  supply  of  food  carried  with  the  caravan  for 
the  use  of  the  camels  is  very  scanty : a few  beans,  dates,  carob-pods,  or  the  like,  are  all 
that  they  receive  after  a long  day’s  march,  when  there  is  no  herbage  on  which  they  may 
browse.  The  pace  of  the  loaded  C.  is  steady  and  uniform,  but  slow;  it  proceeds,  how- 
ever, from  day  to  day,  accomplishing  journeys  of  hundreds  of  miles  at  a rate  of  about  2^ 
m.  per  hour.  Some  of  the  slight  dromedaries,  however,  can  carry  a rider  more  than  100 
m.  in  a day.  The  motion  of  the  C.  is  peculiar,  jolting  the  rider  in  a manner  extremely 
disagreeable  to  those  who  are  unaccustomed  to  it;  both  the  feet  on  the  same  side  being 
successively  raised,  so  that  one  side  is  thrown  forward,  and  then  the  other. 

The  C.  produces  only  one  young  one  at  a time,  or  rarely  two.  It  lives  30  or  40 
years. 

The  patience  of  the  C.  has  been  celebrated  by  some  authors ; and  the  cries  by  which 
it  expresses  its  sense  of  injury  when  a heavy  load  is  placed  upon  its  back  have  been 
pathetically  described.  With  all  its  general  submissiveness,  however,  the  C.  is  resentful 
of  injury,  and  during  the  rutting  season  it  becomes  particurlaly  vicious. 

The  flesh  and  the  milk  of  the  C.  are  much  valued  by  the  Arabs  as  articles  of  food.  The 
dung  is  used  for  fuel,  and  it  was  from  the  soot  of  this  dung  that  the  sal-ammoniac, 
formerly  imported  from  Egypt,  was  obtained  by  sublimation,  whilst  the  sources  from 
which  that  substance  is  now  procured  were  unknown.  The  hair  is  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth,  some  kinds  of  which  are  coarse,  and  others  comparatively  soft  and  fine. 
C.’s  hair  is  also  imported  into  Europe  for  the  manufacture  of  the  pencils  or  small  brushes 
used  by  painters.  The  C.  can  now  scarcely  be  said  to  exist  anywhere  in  a wild  state.  It 
has  lately  been  introduced  into  Australia. 

A fossil  species  of  C.  {G.  Siralensis),  larger  than  either  of  the  existing  species,  hac 
been  discovered  in  the  tertiary  deposits  of  the  Sewalik  hills,  in  Hindustan. 


Camel. 

Cameo. 


344 


CAMEL,  a machine  for  floating  ships  over  shoals  and  bars.  A long  water-tight  box. 
or  caisson,  nearly  filled  with  water,  is  sunk  on  either  side  and  attached  to  the  ship,  ami 
then  the  water  in  the  caissons  is  pumped  out,  adding  additional  buoyancy  as  they  become 
empty.  The  C.  is  sometimes  employed  in  raising  sunken  ships,  and  the  principle  is 
applied  to  dry -docks  in  some  instances. 

CAMELFQRD,  a t.  in  the  n.w.  of  Cornwall,  near  the  source  of  the  Camel  (crooked 
brook),  14  m.  w.  of  Launceston.  It  lies  in  a high  and  hilly  tract  near  the  moors.  Pop. 
about  1600.  C.  is  said  to  have  been  the  scene  of  a battle,  in  542,  between  king  Arthur 
and  Mordred,  his  nephew,  when  both  were  slain.  The  West  Saxons,  under  Egbert,  had 
a battle  with  the  Britons  here  in  823.  The  ruins  of  king  Arthur’s  castle,  Tintagel,  stands 
on  the  high  rocky  coast,  4 m.  n.w.  of  Cameiford.  Two  m.  n.  of  C.  are  the  celebrated  slate- 
quarries  of  Delabole,  employing  a large  number  of  men.  Maepherson,  the  author  or 
translator  of  Ossian,  was  member  of  parliament  for  C.  in  1791,  but  the  reform  act  of 
1832  disfranchised  the  borough. 

CAMELLIA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  ternstro^miacm  (q.v.),  natives  of 
China,  Japan,  and  the  n.  of  India — some  of  which  are  now  among  the  most  common 
and  admired  green-house  shrubs  in  Britain  and  other  countries  too  cold  for  their  cultiva- 
tion in  the  open  air,  receiving  the  same  sort  of  attention  vdiich  is  bestowed  on  other 
florists’  flowers,  and  with  the  same  result,  of  an  endless  multiplication  of  beautiful 
hybrids  and  varieties.  The  best  known  and  most  esteemed  is  C.  Japonica.  Its  leaves  are 
ovate-elliptical,  almost  acuminate  and  serrate,  shining;  the  flowers  without  stalks,  mostly 
solitary,  large,  and  rose-like.  It  is  native  of  Japan;  and  there  and  in  China  it  has  been 
•carefully  cultivated  from  time  immemorial.  In  its  wild  state,  it  has  red  flowers;  and  the 
red  single  C.  is  much  used  by  gardeners  as  a stock  on  which  to  graft  the  fine  varieties, 
the  flowers  of  which  are  generally  double,  and  in  many  cases  most  completely  so.  Many 
of  them  are  of  Chinese  or  Japanese  origin;  many  have  been  raised  by  cultivators  in 
Britain,  continental  Europe,  and  America.  Their  colors  are  very  various;  and  the 
varieties  also  differ  much  in  the  form  and  position  of  the  petals.  It  adds  to  the  value  of 
the  C.  that  its  flowering  time  is  in  autumn,  winter,  and  spring.  By  those  who  can  afford 
the  expense,  entire  houses  are  often  devoted  to  the  culture  of  camellias.  Some  culti- 
vators are  careful  to  protect  them  from  direct  sunshine,  others  recommend  an  opposite 
treatment  in  this  particular;  it  is  agreed  by  all  that  free  access  of  air  is  of  great  import- 
ance, and  that  water  must  be  given  very  liberally,  yet  with  such  caution  that  the  soil 
may  never  remain  soaked  after  the  immediate  wants  of  the  plant  are  supplied.  The 
cultivation  of  camellias  in  the  windows  of  houses  is  often  attended  with  disappointment, 
from  the  buds  dropping  off  wdien  almost  ready  to  expand,  which  is  generally  owing 
either  to  a neglect  or  an  excess  of  watering;  an  apparently  slight  mistake,  either  of  the 
one  kind  or  of  the  other,  being  very  speedily  productive  of  this  evil.  Too  much  heat  at 
this  time  is  also  apt  to  cause  tlie  flower-buds  to  fall  off.  The  C.  flowers  well,  when  the 
temperature  is  kept  not  very  much  above  the  freezing-point,  but  frost  it  cannot  bear.  In 
the  s.  of  England,  some  of  the  varieties  are  occasionally  trained  to  walls  in  the  open  air, 
receiving  a little  protection  in  winter.  The  proper  soil  for  camellias  is  a loose  black 
mold ; a little  sand  and  a little  peat  are  often  advantageously  mixed  wdth  loam  to  form 
it.  Camellias  are  often  propagated  by  cuttings,  often  by  layers;  but  the  finest  varieties 
very  generally  by  grafting  or  by  inarching.  The  single  C.  is  also  propagated  by  seed, 
ancrin  this  way  the  best  stocks  for  grafting  are  procured. — Of  the  other  species  of  C., 
the  most  hardy,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  is  G.  reticulata,  from  which  not  a few'  of 
the  varieties  now  in  cultivation  are  partly  derived. — G.  oleifera  is  extensively  cultivated 
in  China — not,  however,  in  the  more  northerly  parts — for  its  seeds,  from  which  an  oil 
is  expressed  after  boiling,  very  similar  to  olive  oil,  and  much  in  use  as  an  article  of  food 
and  otherwise  in  the  domestic  economy  of  the  Chinese.  The  seeds  of  almost  all  the 
species,  however,  yield  this  oil. — G.  Sasanqua  bears  the  name  of  Sasanqua  Tea.  It  is 
cultivated  in  China  for  the  sake  of  its  flowers,  which  are  said  to  be  used  for  flavorin'g 
certain  kinds  of  tea. 

CAMELLIA'CE.®,  an  order  of  exogenous  trees  and  shrubs  in  s.  and  e.  Asia  and 
South  America;  North  America  has  four  species.  The  tea  plant  and  the  camellia  are 
specimens. 

CAMELOPARDA  LIS.  See  Giraffe. 

CAMELOPARD A'LIS,  a constellation  defined  by  Hevelius,  between  the  pole-star, 
Auriga,  Cassiopeia,  and  the  head  of  Ursa  Major,  consisted  of  stars  of  the  4th  and  low'er 
magnitudes,  forming,  in  imagination,  the  shape  of  a giraffe. 

CAMEL’S  HAIR  is  w'oven  by  Persians  and  Arabs  into  material  for  tents  and  cloth- 
ing. In  early  ages  rough  garments  of  this  stuff  were  wmrn  by  monks  and  priests  by 
way  of  penance.  A fine  article  of  camel’s  hair  is  used  for  pencils  by  artists. 

CAMELS  HUMP,  or  Camel’s  Back  Mountain,  one  of  the  peaks  of  the  Green 
mountains,  4188  ft.  high;  17  m.  w'.  of  Montpelier,  Vt. 

CAMEL’S  THORN,  Alhdgi,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  leguminosm  (q.y.), 
sub-order  papilionacece,  containing  a number  of  herbaceous  or  half-shrubby  species, 
natives  chiefly  of  the  deserts  of  the  east,  having  simple  leaves,  minute  stipules,  racemes 
of  red  flowers,  and  jointed  pods  wdth  one  seed  in  each  joint.  These  plants  are  of  great 


345 


Camel. 

Cameo. 


importance  on  account  of  the  food  which  they  afford  for  camels,  where  other  vegetation 
is  far  from  being  abundant;  and  camels  are  particularly  fond  of  them.  A.  camelorum,  a 
herbaceous  species,  yields  a kind  of  manna  (q.v.),  which  appears  in  the  form  of  drops, 
as  of  honey,  on  the  leaves,  and  gradually  hardens.  A similar  exudation  is  yielded  by  A. 
nipalensis,  another  herbaceous  species;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  the  manna  of  Persia  and 
Bokhara  is  produced,  as  has  been  alleged,  by  A.  maurorum,  a shrubby  species  2 or  3 ft. 
in  height,  which  certainly  does  not  yield  it  in  India  or  Egypt;  the  supposition  that  this 
exudation  results  from  some  peculiarity  in  the  climate  of  Persia  and  Bokhara,  being 
perhaps  less  probable  than  that  of  a mistake  concerning  species  not  very  dissimilar. 

riAME'Isr  /E,  nymphs  with  prophetic  powers  in  Roman  mythology,  named  Egeria, 
Carmenta,  Antevorta,  and  Postvorta.  The  poets  sometimes  give  the  name  to  the  nine 
muses. 

CA'MENZ,  or  Kamenz,  a t.  in  Saxony,  22  m.  n.e.  of  Dresden;  pop.  ’71,  6406.  In 
1742,  the  town  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire.  Lessing  was  born  here,  and  in  1826  a pub- 
lic hospital  was  dedicated  to  his  memory. 

CAMEO  (Ital.  camei).  Gems  cut  in  relief  are  called  cameos,  in  opposition  to  those  that 
are  hollowed  out  so  as  to  yield  a raised  impression,  which  are  called  intaglios.  The  term 
C.,  however,  is  applied  more  especially  to  those  diminutive  pieces  of  sculpture  which 
are  prepared  from  precious  stones  having  two  strata  or  layers  of  different  colors,  the 
undermost  of  which  is  left  to  form  the  background,  the  object  to  be  represented  being 
cut  in  the  upper  one.  The  stone  generally  used  for  this  purpose  by  the  ancients  was 
the  variegated  onyx. 

The  art  of  cameo-cutting  is  of  great  antiquity.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  of  Asiatic 
origin,  and  to  have  been  practiced  by  the  Babylonians,  from  whom  the  Phenicians  car- 
ried it  into  Egypt.  From  the  Egyptians,  it  was  transmitted  to  the  Greeks,  who  brought 
it  to  great  perfection;  and  latterly  it  was  practiced  very  extensively,  and  more  success- 
fully than  perhaps  any  other  art,  in  Rome.  To  what  extent  the  gems,  commonly  called 
Etruscan,  are  in  reality  early  Greek,  is  a subject  of  dispute  amongst  the  learned.  It  was 
not  till  a comparatively  late  period — the  age  following  Praxiteles — that  cameo-cutting 
became  popular  in  Greece ; and  it  was  in  the  courts  of  the  successors  of  Alexander  that 
it  was  chiefly  patronized.  At  this  period,  cameos  were  very  extensively  used,  not  only 
as  personal  ornaments,  but  in  cups,  vases,  candelabra,  and  other  objects  of  domestic  lux- 
urj^  Paterae  and  other  vessels  were  frequently  worked  out  of  a single  stone,  upon  which 
were  exhibited  a whole  series  of  figures  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship.  Many  of 
the  antique  cameos  which  have  been  preserved  are  wonderfully  beautiful  both  in  design 
and  execution.  The  finest  specimen  in  existence  is  said  to  be  the  Gonzaga  C.,  formerly 
at  Malmaison,  now  at  St.  Petersburg.  It  represents  the  head  of  a prince  and  his  wife, 
probably  Ptolemy  I.  and  Eurydice.  Winckelmann  mentions  a C.  representing  Perseus 
and  Andromeda,  in  such  high  relief,  tnat  almost  the  whole  contour  of  the  figures,  which 
are  of  the  most  delicate  white,  is  detached  from  the  ground.  It  belonged  to  the  painter 
Mengs,  and  at  his  death  was  purchased  by  the  empress  Catharine  of  Russia.  The  only 
other  gem  which  Winckelmann  is  disposed  to  rank  with  that  just  mentioned,  is  “the 
Judgment  of  Paris”  in  the  cabinet  of  the  prince  Piombino  at  Rome.  Of  cameos  of  the 
Roman  time,  many  fine  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  the  continental  museums.  The 
most  celebrated  C.  in  England  is  the  “ Cupid  and  Psyche,”  in  the  Marlborough  collec- 
tion, by  Tryphon,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  Macedon  under  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  Alexander.  The  stones  on  which  many  of  these  cameos  are  cut  are  of  sur- 
prising, and,  in  modern  times,  unequaled  size  and  perfection.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  been  procured  by  the  ancients  through  their  oriental  and  African  commerce. 
Cameos  do  not  seem  to  have  been  made  in  mediaeval  times;  but  the  art  revived  in  Italy, 
under  the  auspices  of  of  the  Medici;  and  the  production  of  cameos,  both  in  pietra  dura 
and  in  shell,  has  there  become  a branch  of  art-manufacture  of  considerable  importance. 
Impressions  from  antique  cameos  in  glass,  sulphur,  porcelain,  and  other  materials,  are 
produced  in  many  places;  and  for  artistic  purposes,  possess  all  the  value  of  the  originals. 

Glass  Gameos. — The  manufacture  of  cameos  from  artificial  substances  was  not 
unknown  to  the  ancients.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  an  imitation  of  C. 
in  glass  is  the  famous  Barberini  or  Portland  vase,  now  in  the  British  museum.  The 
ground  is  blue,  the  figures,  which  are  in  low  relief,  being  of  a delicate,  half -transparent 
white.  See  Portland  Vase.  Many  fragments  of  the  same  kind  of  manufacture  exist 
in  other  cabinets,  but  that  which  we  are  fortunate  enough  to  possess  is  believed  to  be  the 
only  perfect  example. 

Shell  Cameos.  — The  art  of  imitating  cameos  in  shell,  which  has  now  attained  to  such 
perfection  as  to  rival  the  delicacy  and  finish  even  of  antique  workmanship,  and  which 
is  a process  quite  as  artistical  as  their  production  from  gems,  is  of  modern  invention. 
The  shells,  like  the  stones,  chosen  for  this  purpose,  are  such  as  possess  layers  of  different 
colors.  The  most  useful  are  the  hull’s  mouth,  the  under  layer  of  which  is  red,  resembling 
the  sardonyx;  the  black  helmet,  which  has  a dark  onyx  ground;  and  the  queen’s  conch,  of 
which  the  ground  is  of  a pinkish  hue.  These  shells  have  three  strata,  the  undermost  of 
which  forms  the  ground,  the  figure  being  sculptured  in  the  second,  and  the  third  serv- 
ing to  mark  the  hair,  wreaths,  armor,  and  other  more  prominent  objects.  The  portion 
of  shell  having  been  prepared  of  the  requisite  size,  form,  and  thickness  by  various 


Camera. 

Cameron. 


346 


mechanical  means,  it  is  fixed  by  some  adhesive  substance — usually  rosin — to  a small 
block  of  wood,  of  such  form  and  thickness  as  to  be  conveniently  grasped  by  the  artist 
in  his  left  hand.  The  outline  of  the  object  or  objects  to  be  represented  is  then  sketched 
with  a pencil,  and,  in  the  case  of  portraits,  is  usually  copied  from  a previous  pencil- 
sketch  on  paper.  The  pencil-marking  on  the  shell  is  then  followed  with  a scratch-point, 
and  the  surrounding  white  substance  is  removed  by  means  of  files  and  gravers.  This 
latter  process,  which  is  more  mechanical  than  the  rest,  is  usually  performed  by  an  assist- 
ant. The  artist  then  proceeds  slowly  and  carefully  to  work  out  his  subject  by  the  use 
of  smaller  tools ; those  used  at  last  for  deepening  the  finer  lines  being  scarcely  larger  than 
ordinary  darning-needless.  The  manufacture  of  shell-cameos  in  Rome  commenced  about 
1805,  and  is  said  to  have  been  of  Sicilian  origin.  The  art  was  at  first  confined  to  Italy; 
but  during  the  last  35  years,  it  has  been  carried  on  in  Paris  to  a greater  extent  than  even 
in  Rome,  though  not  with  equal  success.  A large  proportion  of  the  whole  cameos 
manufactured  in  France  are  imported  into  England,  and  many  of  them  are  mounted  as 
brooches,  and  exported  to  the  United  States  and  the  British  colonies.  Saolini  and  Gio- 
vanni Dies  have  long  been  celebrated  as  artists  in  shell-cameo  in  Rome,  whilst  Giro- 
metti  has  enjoyed  a similar  reputation  for  his  works  in  jpietra  dura. 


CAMEEA  LUCID  A,  an  optical  instrument  constructed  of  various  forms,  and  for 
various  purposes.  Dr.  Wollaston’s  C.  L.,  intended  to  facilitate  the  perspective  delinea- 
tion of  objects,  consists  of  a small  quadrilateral  prism  of  glass,  of  which  AB  in  the 

annexed  figure  is  the  perpendicular  sec- 
tion, held  in  a brass  frame,  which  is  at- 
tached to  an  upright  rod,  having  at  its 
lower  end  a screw-clamp,  to  fix  it  to  the 
edge  of  a table.  The  prism  being  at  the 
height  of  about  a foot  from  the  table, 
has  its  upper  face  horizontal.  Two  of 
its  faces,  as  in  the  figure,  are  at  a right 
angle  at  A ; the  contiguous  faces  make 
respectively  with  them  angles  of  67i° ; so 
that  the  remaining  obtuse  angle  at  B 
contains  135°.  Rays  coming  from  an 
object  PQ,  and  falling  nearly  perpendic- 
ularly on  the  first  surface,  enter  the 
prism,  and  undergo  total  reflection  at 
the  contiguous  surface  (see  Dioptrics); 
they  then  fall  at  the  same  angle  on  the 
next  surface,  and  are  totally  reflected  again ; finally,  they  emerge  nearly  perpendicularly 
to  the  remaining  surface.  An  eye,  as  in  the  figure,  then  receives  the  emergent  pencil 
through  one  part  of  the  pupil,  so  that  an  image,  pq,  of  the  object  is  seen  projected 
^ipon  a sheet  of  paper  upon  the  table.  The  rays  from  the  drawing-pencil  passing  the 
edge  of  the  prism,  enter  the  other  part  of  the  pupil ; and  the  pencil  and  image  being 
seen  together  upon  the  paper,  a sketch  of  the  latter  can  be  taken.  There  is,  however, 
a practical  difficulty — the  image  and  the  drawing-pencil  are  at  distances  sensibly  different 
from  the  eye,  and  so  cannot  be  seen  together  distinctly  at  the  same  time.  To  obviate 
this,  a plate  of  metal,  with  a small  aperture  as  an  eye-hole,  is  placed  at  the  edge  under 
the  eye,  so  that  the  rays  through  the  prism,  and  those  from  the  drawing-pencil,  which 
both  pass  through  the  eye-hole,  form  only  very  small  pencils.  By  this,  the  difficulty 
is  greatly  diminished.  It  is  still,  however,  difficult  to  use  the  instrument  satisfactorily; 
and  though  many  acquire  great  readiness  in  its  use,  others  have  never  been  able  to  attain 
the  same  facility.  The  instrument  is  remarkable  for  its  small  bulk  and  portability. 
A good  one  will  pack  in  a box  8 in.  by  2,  and  ^ in.  deep.  Besides  this  form  of  the  C. 
L. , which  is  the  most  common,  there  are  others.  Its  simplest  form  is  merely  a piece 
of  smooth  glass  fixed  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  horizon.  An  image  from  a horizontal 
object  falling  on  this  glass  will  be  perfectly  reflected,  and  that  in  the  vertical,  so  that 
the  eye  looking  vertically  down  will  see  the  image,  and,  owing  to  the  transparency  of 
the  glass,  the  artist  will  be  able  to  trace  it  out  upon  paper  below.  In  this  case,  how- 
ever (see  Catoptrics),  the  image  will  be  inverted. 


CAMERA  OBSCURA  (literally,  a dark  chamber),  an  instrument  invented  by  Baptista 
Porta  in  the  16th  century.  It  is  known  in  its  simplest  form  as  a familiar  toy,  con- 
sisting of  a rectangular  box,  furnished  at  one  end  with  a lens  whose  focal  length  is 
equal  to  the  length  and  depth  of  the  box;  at  the  opposite  end  of  which  a plane  reflec- 
tor is  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°,  which  throws  the  image  of  any  objects  to  which  the 
lens  may  be  directed  on  a piece  of  ground-glass  on  the  top  of  the  box  in  a non-inverted 
position,  so  that  they  may  be  viewed  or  sketched  from  as  in  nature. 

The  C.  O.  being  now  an  indispensable  article  in  the  practice  of  photography,  has 
received  a number  of  recent  improvements,  which  make  it  rank  as  a scientific  instru- 
ment. The  principle,  however,  involved  in  the  simplest  and  most  refined  forms  is  the 
same,  and  may  be  illustrated  and  made  intelligible  by  the  following  experiment:  Let  a 
small  hole  be  bored  in  a window-shutter,  and  the  room  be  darkened.  If,  now,  the 
beam  of  light  entering  the  room  by  this  hole  be  intercepted  by  a sheet  of  white  paper. 


347 


Camera. 

Cameron. 


field  at  a small  distance  from  the  hole,  an  inverted  image  of  objects  without  will  be 
seen  upon  the  paper.  By  placing  a small  convex  lens  over  the  hole,  this  image  is  ren- 
dered much  more  distinct,  or  sharp,  in  photographic  language.  Moreover,  it  will  be 
found  that,  at  a certain  distance  from  the  hole,  the  image  attains  a maximum  degree 
of  sharpness;  and  that  if  the  paper  be  removed  from  this  point  to  any  position  either 
nearer  to  the  hole  or  further  from  it,  the  image  becomes  indistinct  and  confused.  At 
the  point  of  greatest  distinctness,  the  image  is  said  to  be  focused.  Such  being  the 
principle  of  the  camera,  it  is  evident  that  in  practice  the  instrument  may  assume  many 
forms,  provided  always  that  it  consists  of  a darkened  box  or  chamber  having  a hole  at 
one  end  for  the  insertion  of  a lens,  or  combination  of  lenses,  and  at  the  other  a screen, 
generally  made  of  ground-glass,  on  which  to  receive  the  image. 

The  body  of  the  instrument  may  be  made  of  any  opaque  substance;  the  tube  or 
tubes  are  generally  formed  of  brass,  and  contain  one  or  more  lenses;  there  is  the 
obscured  or  ground-glass,  upon  which  the  image  is  thrown  for  the  purpose  of  adjusting 
the  focus;  and  the  rack  behind,  by  means  of  which,  and  the  double  »ides  of  the  camera,, 
the  body  of  the  iustrument  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened  till  the  image  on  the  ground- 
screen  is  accurately  focused.  This  rack  is  most  frequently  placed  upon  the  tubes  car- 
rying the  lenses.  The  interior  of  the  whole  apparatus  is  blackened,  to  prevent  reflec- 
tion of  the  rays  falling  on  their  sides,  and  to  impart  greater  distinctness  to  the  picture. 

The  camera-slide  is  a thin,  dark  box,  and  is  used  for  conveying  a sensitive  plate  from 
the  operating-room  to  the  camera,  and  back  again  after  exposure.  It  consists  of  a rec- 
tangular frame,  made  to  fit  exactly  into  the  back  of  the  camera  when  the  focusing- 
screen  is  removed.  At  the  back  is  a hinged  door,  by  means  of  which  the  plate  is  intro- 
duced into  the  slide;  and  in  front  is  a shutter,  which  is  pulled  up  when  the  plate  is  to 
be  exposed,  and  shut  down  after  the  time  requisite  for  the  action  of  the  light  upon  the 
plate  has  expired.  It  must  be  constructed  so  that,  when  substituted  for  the  focusing- 
screen,  the  surface  of  the  prepared  plate,  which  is  intended  to  receive  the  image,  shall 
correspond  exactly  in  distance  from  the  lens  with  the  ground-surface  of  the  focusing- 
screen.  The  plate  rests  upon  projections  of  silver  wire  in  the  corners  of  the  slide;  and 
the  same  slide  ma}^  be  used  for  plates  of  different  sizes,  by  introducing  into  it  thin  frames- 
of  suitable  dimensions  also  furnished  with  silver-wire  corners. 

Photographic  cameras  are  generally  required  for  one  of  three  purposes — viz.,  portraits, 
landscapes,  or  copying;  and  for  each  of  these  it  is  necessary  to  make  suitable  modifica- 
tions in  the  construction  of  the  instrument.  A camera  has,  however,  been  recently 
contrived  which  combines  within  itself  the  conditions  necessary  for  all  contingencies. 
It  is  called  Martin’s  universal  portrait,  landscape,  and  copying  camera,  and  consists, 
primarily,  of  a base-board,  30  in.  long  and  11  in.  wide,  divided  into  three  pieces,  and 
hinged  together  by  means  of  broad  brass  hinges,  so  as  to  diffuse  the  bearing  as  much  as 
possible,  and  bolted  together  when  in  use  by  sliding  panels  of  mahogany,  extending 
across  the  entire  width  of  the  base-board.  This  base-board  being'  grooved  on  its  outer 
edges,  allows  the  sliding  portions  of  the  camera  to  be  moved  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
so  as  to  alter  the  relation  between  object,  lens,  and  image  ad  infinitum. 

What  may  be  regarded  as  the  body  of  the  camera,  is  of  the  same  construction  as  an 
ordinary  expanding  camera,  except  that  it  is  furnished  with  additional  apertures  for 
camera  slides,  and  the  front  and  the  back  are  united  by  means  of  an  accordion  or  bel- 
lows body  of  suitable  length  to  extend  from  one  end  of  the  base-board  to  the  other. 

C AMERA'RITJS,  J oachim — originally,  Liebhard,  which  name  he  changed  into  C. , because 
his  forefathers  had  been  Kdmmerer  (chamberlains)  at  the  court  of  the  bishop  of  Bam- 
berg— was  born  at  Bamberg,  April  12,  1500,  and  died  at  Leipsic,  after  a life  devoted  to 
literature,  April  17,  1574..  He  was  by  nature  earnest  and  taciturn ; but  the  extent  of  his 
knowledge,  his  sobriety  of  opinion,  strength  of  character,  and,  when  he  pleased,  over- 
powering eloquence,  won  for  him  the  esteem  of  all  his  contemporaries.  His  works,  of 
which  several  still  remain  valuable,  include  an  excellent  biography  of  Melanchthon,  and 
a collection  of  letters  by  this  reformer;  also  annotations  on  Cicero’s  Quoestiones  Tuscu- 
to77<e(1525);  Elements  of  Rhetoric;  Commentarii  Lingua,  Oracoe  et  Latina  and  Epis- 

tola  Familiares  (1583-95),  giving  interesting  notices  of  his  times. — His  son,  Joachim  C. 
(b.  1534,  d.  1598),  was  one  of  the  most  learned  physicians  and  botanists  of  his  age. 

CAMERA'RIUS,  Rudolph  Jakob,  1665-1721;  a German  botanist  and  physician, 
professor  of  medicine  and  director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Tubingen.  He  was  the  first 
to  observe  and  establish  the  sexual  theory  of  plants. 

CAMER'INO  (ancient  Camerinum),  a t.  of  central  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Macerata, 
situated  on  a hill  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  41  m.  s.w.  of  Ancona.  It  has  a cathedral, 
occupying  the  site  of  a temple  to  Jupiter,  a university,  and  some  manufactures  of  silk. 
Its  bishopric  dates  from  the  3d  c. ; and  it  was  made  an  archiepiscopal  see  in  1787. 
Pop.  5,500. 

CAMERON,  a parish  in  s.w.  Louisiana,  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  surface  low,  with 
many  swamps;  productions,  agricultural;  pop.  ’80,  2415 — 328  colored.  Chief  town, 
Grand  Cheni5re. 

CAMERON,  a co.  in  n.w.  Pennsylvania,  traversed  by  the  Philadelphia  and  Erie  rail- 
road; 400  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,5159.  Productions,  agricultural.  Co.  seat.  Emporium. 


‘Cameron. 

Cameronians. 


848 


CAMERON,  a co.  in  Texas,  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Rio  Grande;  3,000  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80.  14.959 — 124  colored.  The  portion  along  the  Rio  Grande  is  very  fertile;  the 
remainder  is  grazing  land.  Co.  seat,  the  city  of  Brownsville,  opposite  Matamoras. 

CAMERON,  Donald,  a Scottish  highland  chief  who  fought  for  the  pretender  and 
was  wounded  at  Culloden,  but  escaped  to  France.  He  was  the  “Lochiel”  of  Camp^ 
bell’s  poem. 

CxVMERON,  James  Donald  (usually  called  “ Don”  Cameron),  b.  Harrisburg,  Penn., 
1833;  eldest  son  of  Simon;  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1852,  and  since  largely 
engaged  in  iron,  coal,  and  manufacturing  industries  of  his  state.  As  president  of 
the  Northern  Central  railroad,  he  did  great  service  to  the  union  cause  during  the  war. 
In  1876,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war,  and  in  Mar.,  1877,  succeeded  his  father  as 
U.  S.  senator.  In  1879,  he  was  chosen  chairman  of  the  republican  national  committee 
in  place  of  Zachariah  Chandler,  deceased.  This  position  he  resigned  in  1880. 

CAMERON,  John,  a famous  scholar  and  divine,  was  b.  at  Glasgow  about  the  year 
1580,  and  educated  at  the  university  of  that  city,  where,  in  his  20^th  year,  he  held  an 
.appointment  as  reader  in  Greek.  In  1600,  he  set  out  to  travel  in  France,  where  his 
ability  and  erudition  secured  for  him  a philosophical  professorship  in  the  university 
■of  Sedan.  He  afterwards  acted  as  a Protestant  clergyman  at  Bordeaux,  and  on  the 
death  of  Gomarus,  was  appointed  to  the  divinity  chair  in  the  university  of  Saumur, 
an  appointment  he  held  until  1620.  Returning  to  Britain,  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  divinity  at  Glasgow;  but  in  less  than  a year  he  returned  to  Saumur;  thence  to 
Montauban,  where  he  received  a divinity  professorship.  Here  his  opposition  to  the 
party  who  advocated  a civil  war  made  him  many  enemies,  by  one  of  whom  he  was 
stabbed  in  the  street;  and  he  died  from  the  effects  of  the  wound  in  1625.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  best  scholars  of  his  time;  in  Biblical  criticism,  he  was  inclined 
to  be  perverse;  where  there  was  a difficulty,  he  usually  chose  the  opposite  view  to 
that  held  by  other  divines,  especially  Beza.  His  theological  opinions  were  of  a some- 
what lax  character,  his  works  being  said  to  be  the  foundation  of  Amyraut’s  doctrine  of 
universal  grace. 

CAMERON,  Richard,  a Scottish  Presbyterian  preacher  in  the  17th  c.,  who  suffered 
death  for  the  cause  he  espoused,  and  from  whom  the  religious  sect  ordinarily  called 
Cameronians  (q.v.)  has  been  named.  C.  belonged  to  the  extreme  party,  who  held  by  the 
perpetually  binding  obligations  of  the  solemn  league  and  covenant  (see  Covenants), 
which  were  set  aside  at  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  Along  with  some  others,  he  stren- 
uously resisted  those  measures  that  reinstated  the  Episcopal  church  in  Scotland,  and 
that  proscribed  the  meetings  for  public  worship  of  unauthorized  religious  bodies.  Con- 
trary to  law,  he  persisted  in  preaching  in  the  fields,  and  became  obnoxious  to  govern- 
ment, to  which,  indeed,  he  finally  assumed  an  attitude  of  defiance.  In  June,  1680,  he, 
in  company  with  about  twenty  persons  of  equal  zeal,  well  armed,  entered  the  town  of 
Sanquhar;  and  in  the  market-place  they  formally  renounced  their  allegiance  to  Charles 
II.,  who  had  so  grossly  abused  his  power,  and  declared  war  against  him  and  all  his 
adherents.  After  this  act  they  retired  to  the  hills  between  Nithsdale  and  Ayrshire, 
where  they  succeeded  in  evading  capture  for  a month,  though  a price  of  5,000  merks  had 
been  set  upon  C.’s  head  by  government,  and  3,000  upon  the  heads  of  the  others.  On  the 
20th  July,  1680,  however,  they  were  surprised  by  a vastly  superior  force  in  Aird’sMoss, 
and  after  a brave  fight.  C.  was  killed.  His  hands  and  head  were  cut  off,  and  fixed  upon 
the  Netherbow  Port,  Edinburgh.  C.  ranks  as  a martyr,  and  has  an  honorable  place  in 
the  history  of  Scots  Worthies. 

CAMERON,  Simon,  b.  in  Lancaster  co.,  Penn.,  1799.  In  1845,  he  was  elected  by 
the  democrats  to  the  U.  S.  senate,  but  joined  the  republicans  on  the  organization  of  that 
party,  and  was  by  them  re-elected  to  the  senate  in  1856.  In  1861,  he  was  secretary  of 
war,  and  in  1862  minister  to  Russia.  Twice  again  he  was  chosen  senator,  in  1866  and  in 
1872,  and  was  succeeded  in  that  office  in  1877  by  his  son,  James  Donald.  He  is  one  of 
the  leading  financiers  and  business  men  of  the  state. 

CAMERON,  Verney  Lovett,  the  African  traveler,  son  of  the  Rev.  J.  H.  L.  Cameron, 
vicar  of  Slioreham,  Kent,  was  b.  in  1844.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1857,  and  served  some 
time  on  the  e.  coast  of  Africa.  In  1873,  he  took  charge  of  an  expedition  to  relieve  Liv- 
ingstone, his  orders  being  to  join  him  by  the  nearest  route.  He  started  from  Baga- 
moyo  in  Mar.,  and  in  Aug.,  at  Unyanyembe,  met  Livingstone’s  followers  bearing  his 
remains  to  the  coast.  After  making  arrangements  for  their  safe  arrival,  he  proceeded 
to  Ujiji,  where  he  found  some  of  Livingstone’s  papers  and  a map,  which  he  forw'arded 
to  Zanzibar.  He  then  made  a survey  of  lake  Tanganyika,  which  he  found  to  be  dis- 
connected with  the  Nile  system.  In  the  belief  that  the  Lualaba  w^as  the  upper  waters 
of  the  Congo,  he  resolved  to  follow  its  course  to  the  w.  coast;  but  owdng  to  the  hostile 
interposition  of  the  native  chiefs,  w'as  prevented  from  verifying  a conviction,  the  cor- 
rectness of  which  was  soon  afterwards  demonstrated  by  Stanley.  Taking  a more  south- 
erly route,  he  reached  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Benguela,  on  the  w.  coast,  in 
Oct.,  1875,  whence  he  returned  to  England.  An  account  of  his  travels,  which  con- 
tains a vast  number  of  valuable  scientific  observations,  was  published  in  1877  in  2 


349 


Cameron. 

Cameronians. 


vols.,  under  the  title  of  Across  Africa.  C.  was  made  a companion  of  the  bath,  and 
raised  to  the  naval  rank  of  commander. 

CAMERON  HIGHLANDERS  (the  Queen’s  Own  Cameron  Highlanders),  the  designa- 
tion given  to  the  79th  regiment  of  infantry  in  the  British  service,  in  consequence  of  the 
Tcorps  having  been  raised  by  Allan  Cameron  of  Erroch  in  1793.  Originally,  it  consisted 
of  1000  men,  but  a second  battalion  was  added  in  1804.  This  gallant  regiment,  which 
wears  the  Highland  garb,  performed  distinguished  services  in  the  Peninsula  and  at 
Waterloo,  and  in  the  chief  warlike  struggles  of  more  recent  times. 

CAMEROONIAN  REGIMENT,  the  26th  regiment  of  infantry  in  the  British  service,  so 
called  from  having  had  its  origin  in  a body  of  Cameronians  (q.v.)  during  the  revolution 
of  1688.  Taking  advantage  of  their  zeal  and  courage,  the  convention  which  sat  at 
Edinburgh  induced  a number  of  them  to  assist  in  the  revolution,  which  it  was  imagined 
by  some  was  to  re-establish  the  reign  of  the  covenants.  They  were  induced  to  enlist 
on  the  understanding  that  the  special  object  of  the  corps  was  “to  recover  and  establish 
the  work  of  reformation  in  Scotland,  in  opposition  to  popery,  prelacy,  and  arbitrary 
power,  in  all  the  branches  and  steps  thereof,  till  the  government  in  church  and  stale  be 
brought  to  that  luster  and  integrity  which  it  had  in  the  best  of  times.”  (See  Burton’s 
Mstory  of  Scotland,  vol.  i.  p.  49.)  Thus  was  formed  the  celebrated  C.  R.,  with  the 
youthful  lord  Angus  as  col.,  and  William  Cleland  as  lieut.col.  and  actual  com- 
mander. Under  Cleland,  not  yet  in  his  30th  year,  the  regiment  was  sent  northwards 
to  quell  ‘the  insurrection,  after  the  fall  of  viscount  Dundee.  Surrounded  by  from  4000 
to  5000  Highlanders,  the  Cameronians,  only  800  strong,  gallantly  defended  themselves 
during  a whole  day  in  Dunkeld,  Aug.  21,  1689.  In  this  terrific  struggle,  the  brave 
Cleland  was  killed.  Considering  the  issue  of  the  revolution,  they  had  been  entrapped 
into  military  service,  and  their  employment  on  foreign  service  afterwards  greatly  scan- 
dalized the  Cameronian  sect.  The  regiment  has  ever  done  credit  to  its  origin;  being 
distinguished  alike  for  gallantry  and  for  good  cond  uct. 

CAMERO'NIANS,  the  religious  sect  in  Scotland  popularly  named  after  Richard  Cam- 
eron (q.v.).  Its  official  designation,  however,  is  that  of  Reformed  Presbyterians.  No 
doubt,  the  principles  of  the  body  are  those  for  which  Cameron  contended  and  died;  but 
i not  till  after  1688  did  the  small  body  of  Presbyterians,  who  insisted  upon  the  restoration 
j of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  polity  of  1638  to  1649  in  opposition  to  the  revolution  set- 
I tlement,  assume  a distinct  form.  According  to  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  ratified 
j by  the  parliaments  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  also  by  the  assembly  of  divines  at 
I Westminster  in  1643,  presbyterianism  was  to  be  maintained  in  the  kingdoms  of  England, 

1 Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  popery,  prelacy,  superstition,  heresy,  schism,  etc.,  were  to 
I be  extirpated.  As  a measure  of  pacification,  presbyterianism  was  established  in  Scot- 
land by  act  of  parliament,  1690;  but  it  was  of  a modified  kind,  rendering  the  church  a 
creature  of  the  state,  more  particularly  as  regards  the  calling  of  general  assemblies. 
Equally  to  the  disgust  of  the  extreme  party  referred  to,  prelacy  was  confirmed  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  and  there  was  a general  toleration  of  heresy — i.e.,  dissent.  In  senti- 
naent,  if  not  in  form,  therefore,  this  party  repudiated  the  government  of  William  HI.  and 
his  successors,  and  maintained  the  perpetually  binding  obligations  of  the  covenants. 
Unquestionably,  these  C.  acted  under  strong  convictions,  and  only  desired  to  carry  out 
1 to  a legitimate  issue  theoretical  principles  of  the  church  of  Scotland  which,  for  pruden- 
tial considerations,  have  been  practically  in  abeyance;  and  it  is  in  the  standards  of  this 
«ect  that  we  find  a true  embodiment  of  the  tenets  held  by  the  great  body  of  English  and 
Scotch  Presbyterians  of  1643.  Although  thus  an  elder  sister  of  the  existing  church  of 
Scotland  and  all  its  secessions,  it  was  with  some  difficulty  that,  after  the  revolution,  it 
organized  a communion  with  ordained  ministers.  The  steadfastness  of  members  was 
put  to  a severe  trial  by  the  defection  of  their  ministers;  but  in  1706,  after  their  faith  and 
patience  had  been  tried  for  16  years,  they  were  joined  by  the  Rev,  John  M'Millan,  from 
the  Established  church;  and  shortly  afterwards,  by  the  Rev.  John  M‘Neil,  a licentiate 
of  the  same  church.  To  confirm  the  faith  of  members,  and  give  a public  testimony  of 
^eir  principles,  the  covenants  were  solemnly  renewed  on  Auchensauch  hill,  near 
Douglas,  in  Lanarkshire,  in  1712.  The  subsequent  accession  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Nairne 
enabled  the  C.  to  constitute  a presbytery  at  Braehead,  in  the  parish  of  Carnwath,  on 
the  1st  of  Aug.,  1743,  under  the  appellation  of  the  Reformed  presbytery.  Other 
preachers  afterwards  attached  themselves  to  the  sect,  which  continued  to  flourish 
obscurely  in  the  w,  of  Scotland  and  n.  of  Ireland.  For  their  history  and  tenets,  we 
gfer  to  the  Testimony  of  the  Beformed  Presbyterian  Church  (Glasgow,  John  Keith,  1842). 
Holding  strictly  to  the  covenants,  and  in  theory  rejecting  the  revolution  settlement,  the 
political  position  of  the  C.  is  very  peculiar,  as  they  refuse  to  recognize  any  laws  or 
institutions  which  they  conceive  to  be  inimical  to  those  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ;  from 
which  cause  many  of  them  formerly  isolated  themselves  from  general  society,  and 
refused  several  of  the  responsibilities  and  privileges  of  citizens.  In  1860,  there  was  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  kirk-sessions  to  prevent  the  members  becoming  vol- 
unteers, on  account  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  which  required  to  be  taken.  On  the 
^estion  coming  before  the  synod,  it  was  decided  (1863)  that  excommunication  for  taking 
T should  cease.  In  consequence  of  this  decision,  10  or  12  congregations  seceded. 

In  1876,  the  larger  body  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterians,  consisting  of  about  45  congre- 


Cameronites. 

Camisards. 


350 


gations,  was  formally  united  to  the  Free  church  of  Scotland,  so  that  the  distinctive  features 
of  the  Cameronians  are  now  represented  by  the  few  congregations  which  seceded  in 
1863. 

CAM'ERONITES,  a sect  in  France,  followers  of  John  Cameron  of  Scotland.  They 
are  moderate  Calvinists,  and  assert  that  the  will  of  man  is  determined  only  by  the  prac- 
tical judgment  of  the  mind;  that  the  cause  of  men’s  doing  good  or  evil  proceeds  from 
the  knowledge  that  Cod  infuses  into  them;  and  that  Cod  does  not  move  the  will  pnys- 
ically,  but  only  morally,  by  virtue  of  its  dependence  on  the  mind.  This  peculiar  doctrine 
of  grace  and  free-will  was  adopted  by  many  eminent  teachers  who  thought  Calvin's  doc- 
trine too  harsh. 

CAMEKOONS',  a river  of  upper  Cuinea,  Africa,  which  enters  the  bight  of  Biafra 
froman.e.  direction,  in  about  lat.  4°  n.,  long.  9°  40'  e.,  by  an  estuary  some  20  m.  in 
breadth.  Its  length  is  not  certainly  known,  but  for  40  m.  upwards  its  breadth 
averages  nearly  a quarter  of  a mile,  its  depth  varying  in  the  dry  season  from  2 to  20  feet. 
Tlie  left  bank  of  the  river  is  steep  and  high,  the  right  for  many  miles  low  and  swampy, 
and  covered  with  mangroves.  There  are  several  populous  and  thriving  villages  on  ita 
banks,  whose  inhabitants  carry  on  an  extensive  trade  in  paim-oil,  and  ivory,  obtained  in 
great  quantity  from  dead  elephants,  which  have  perished  in  search  of  water  in  a great 
morass  inland. — C.  is  also  the  name  of  a cape  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  estuary. — C. 
Peak  is  the  name  of  the  culminating  point  in  the  C.  mountains,  which  in  lat.  4°  13'  n., 
and  long.  9°  10'  e.,  has  an  elevation  estimated  at  13,000  feet. 

CAMEROONS'  {ante),  mountains  on  the  w.  coast  of  Africa  between  3°  57'  and  4°  25’ 
n.,  and  9°  and  9°  30'  e. ; a volcanic  mass  covering  700  sq.m.,  the  highest  about  13,000 
feet.  They  touch  the  gulf  of  Cuinea  on  the  w.  and  south.  Capt.  Burton  ascended  these 
mountains  in  1861,  finding  the  sides  for  about  4000  ft.  covered  with  a dense  growth  ot 
palms,  acacias,  figs,  cardamoms,  cabbage -trees,  oaks,  ferns,  and  bamboos.  Higher  up 
were  smaller  trees,  and  at  4580  ft.  there  began  a labyrinth  of  lava  streams  and  fields  of 
slag.  At  about  8000  ft.,  craters  appeared,  of  which  there  are  nearly  30.  The  natives  tell 
of  an  eruption  in  1838. 

CAME'TA,  a t.  of  Brazil,  on  the  Tocantins,  which  joins  the  estuary  of  the  Amazon 
from  the  south.  It  has  a fertile  district  attached  to  it,  which  is  estimated  to  contain 
20,000  inhabitants. 

CAMILLA,  in  Roman  fable,  a virgin  wonderfully  swift  of  ^ot  who  aided  Turnus 
against  ^neas.  She  was  said  to  be  a daughter  of  king  Metalus. 

CAMILLTTS,  Marcus  Furius,  a celebrated  Roman  patrician  who  first  makes  his 
appearance  as  consular  tribune,  403  b.c.  His  military  career  was  a series  of  unbroken 
successes,  according  to  the  accounts  which  have  come  down  to  us;  but  these  accounts 
have  been  shown  by  Niebuhr  to  possess  a considerable  admii^ture  of  mythological  or 
poetic  fiction.  In  396,  C.  was  made  dictator,  during  the  Veientine  war,  in  which  he 
mined  and  captured  the  city  of  Veii;  but  the  proud  splendor  of  his  subsequent  triumph 
offended  the  Roman  populace,  who  were  still  further  displeased  when  C.  demanded  a 
tithe  of  the  spoils  of  Veii,  in  order  to  fulfill  a vow  made  to  Apollo,  on  condition  of  vic- 
tory. In  394,  C.  was  again  elected  consular  tribune,  and  besieged  the  Falerii,  who  after 
bravely  defending  themselves,  were  led  by  a magnanimous  act  of  C.  to  yield  uncondi- 
tionally. Afterwards,  C.,  being  accused  of  peculation,  and  foreseeing  certain  condemna- 
tion, banished  himself  from  Rome,  391,  and  lived  in  retirement  at  Ardea,  until  Brennus, 
at  the  head  of  his  wild  Gauls,  had  swept  through  Etruria,  and  captured  and  destroyed 
the  whole  of  Rome  except  the  capitol.  C.  was  now  recalled,  and  appointed  dictator  a 
second  time.  He  achieved  a decisive  victory  over  the  invaders,  rebuilt  Rome,  and 
obtained  new  victories  over  the  Volsci,  and  others.  In  386  b.c.,  he  was  elected  dictator 
for  the  third  time,  but  refused  the  office.  In  381  b.c.,  C.  was  victorious  in  the  war  of 
Rome  against  Praeneste  and  other  Latin  towns;  and  in  368  b.c.,  he  was  elected  to  his 
fourth  dictatorship,  but  abdicated  during  the  same  year.  In  367  b.c.,  when  war  broke 
out  with  the  Gauls,  C.,  though  80  years  old,  accepted  the  dictatorship  for  the  fifth  time, 
defeated  the  barbarians  near  Alba,  and  made  peace  between  patricians  and  plebeians. 
After  this,  he  erected  near  the  capitol  a temple  to  Concord,  and,  having  retired  from 
public  life,  died  365  b.c.,  of  the  plague,  lamented  by  the  whole  Roman  people. 

CAMTLLUS  AND  CAMILLA,  applied  in  ancient  Rome  to  the  boys  and  girls  who 
shared  in  sacrificial  ceremonies.  If  they  were  designed  for  the  priesthood,  it  was  neces- 
sary that  their  parents  should  be  still  living  and  free-born. 

CAMINATZIN',  or  Cacumazin,  d.  1521;  king  of  Mexico;  nephew  of  Montezuma. 
He  was  one  of  the  victims  of  the  treachery  of  Cortes,  against  whom  he  had  declared 
war.  At  the  instigation  of  Cortes,  Montezuma  invited  his  nephew  to  the  city  of  Mexico 
to  make  a reconciliation  with  the  invaders.  He  replied  that  he  would  enter  that  city 
only  to  destroy  the  enemies  of  the  country.  Still  influenced  by  Cortes,  Montezuma  had 
the  young  prince  seized,  but  his  captors  permitted  Cortes  to  get  possession  of  him,  and 
lie  was  kept  a prisoner  until  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards.  He  probably  died  soon 
after  the  siege  of  Mexico. 


351 


Cameronites. 

Camisards. 


'CAM'ISARDS,  the  name  given  to  the  peasantry  of  the  Cevennes,  a mountainous 
region  in  s.  France,  who  for  several  years  from  1703  kept  up  an  organized  military 
resistance  to  the  dragonnades,  or  conversion  by  torture,  death,  and  confiscation  of  pro^ 
«rty,  by  which,  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  the  Roman  Catholic  leaders 
endeavored  to  enforce  their  authority  in  all  the  Huguenot  districts.  The  name  is  of 
doubtful  origin;  some  say  it  was  from  camise,  a white  shirt  or  frock,  outwardly  worn 
by  the  peasants;  others  that  it  was  from  camisade,a  night  attack;  and  still  others, 
from  camis,  a road  runner.  The  C.  were  also  called  barbets  (or  water  dogs,  i 
term  also  applied  to  the  Vaudois),  vagabonds,  assemblers  (a  name  given  to  a meeting  or 
•convention  of  Huguenots),  fanatics,  and  children  of  God.  They  belonged  to  the 
romance-speaking  people  of  Gothic  descent,  who  took  part  in  the  earliest  movements 
towards  religious  reform.  It  was  in  Languedoc  that  the  peace  of  God  and  the  mercy  of 
God  were  formed  in  the  11th  c.  against  the  miseries  of  private  war.  (See  God’s  Truce, 
ante.)  There  were  preserved  the  forms  of  municipal  freedom,  which  nearly  all  Europe 
had  lost;  and  there  commerce  flourished  without  spoiling  the  thrift,  the  patience,  or  the 
simplicity  of  the  national  character.  Calvin  was  warnfly  welcomed  when  he  preached 
at  Nimes,  and  Montpellier  became  the  chief  center  for  the  instruction  of  Huguenot 
youth;  but  it  was  in  the  triangular  mountainous  plateau  called  Cevennes  (see  Cevennes, 
ante),  among  the  small  farmers,  the  cloth  and  silk  weavers,  and  the  vine-dressers,  that 
Protestantism  was  most  universal  and  intense.  The  people  were,  and  still  are,’  very 
poor;  but  they  are  intelligent  and  pious,  and  add  to  the  deep  fervor  of  the  Provenci 
character  a gravity  that  is  probably  the  result  of  the  trials  and  sufferings  of  their  ances- 
tors. 


To  understand  the  position  of  the  O.  in  the  war  which  began  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  18th  c.  it  is  necessary  to  glance  at  the  preceding  history  of  France. 
The  system  of  toleration  which  was  established  by  the  edict  of  Nantes  (see  ante),  April  13,' 
1598,  and  the  edict  of  Grace,  July,  1639,  was  essentially  a political  compromise,  and  not 
a recognition  of  religious  equality.  The  right  of  having  a private  chapel  was  given  to 
certain  seignieurs.  New  public  churches  were  to  be  authorized  at  a certain  rate  in  cer- 
tain places.  On  the  other  hand.  Calvinists  were  admitted  to  all  public  posts  and  to  all 
professions;  and  they  could  publish  books  in  towns  where  they  had  churches.  The  cham- 
ber of  edict  was  formed  in  the  parliament  of  Paris  for  the  impartial  judgment  of  cases 
brought  by  Huguenots;  and  the  half-Catholic,  half-Protestant  constitution  was  adopted 
in  the  town  consulates  and  the  local  parliaments  of  the  south.  After  the  short  struggle 
between  Louis  XIII.  and  the  due  de  Rohan,  the  Huguenots  settled  down  into  contented 
industry ; the  army  and  navy  of  France  were  led  by  two  Huguenots— Turenne  and 
Duquesne— -and  Cardinal  Bentivoglio  wrote  to  the  pope  that  he  no  longer  found  in 
Frarnce  the  insane  fervor  for  right  of  conscience  so  radical  among  the  Huguenots.  But 
the  court  in  which  Mme.  de  Maintenon  had  succeeded  to  Mme.  de  Montespan,  where 
Louvois,  and  the  Jesuit,  pere  la  Chaise,  were  as  supreme  as  Bossuet  and  Flechier  in  the 
church,  could  not  long  be  satisfled  with  tolerated  heresy,  which  they  chose  to  consider  as 
vailed  rebellion.  On  the  death  of  Mazarin  a commissioner  had  gone  over  the  kingdom 
to  inquire  into  the  titles,  or  rather  to  suppress  as  many  as  possible,  of  the  Huguenot 
churches,  schools,  and  cemeteries.  The  extirpation  of  heresy  had  indeed  been  provided 
marriage  contract  between  Louis  and  Maria  Theresa  as  long  before 
as  1660,  and  in  spite  of  the  protection  of  Colbert,  a policy  was  begun  of  gradually 
destroying  the  privileges  of  dissenters.  They  were  shut  out  from  public  offices  and  trade 
corporations;  they  were  forbidden  to  marry  with  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  conversion 
ot  their  children  seven  years  old  and  upward  was  encouraged  and  almost  enforced.  The 
farnous  ^Jict  came  in  Oct.,  1685.  It  directed  all  dissenting  churches  to  be  destroyed 
forbade  their  religious  meetings  under  pain  of  imprisonment  and  confiscation  of  prop- 
erty, ordered  ail  pastors  who  would  not  change  their  faith  to  be  banished  within  fifteen 
days  and  to  stop  preaching  at  once,  promised  exemption  from  taxes  and  increased 
salaries  to  converted  ministers,  suppressed  Huguenot  schools  and  directed  all  children 
to  be  baptized  and  brought  up  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  prohibited  all  Huguenots 
except  ministers  from  going  abroad,  and  declared  the  property  of  those  who  had  already 
gone  to  be  forfeited  unless  they  returned  within  four  months.  These  were  the  main 
points  of  the  edict  revoking  the  liberal  edict  of  Nantes.  In  carrying  it  out  Huguenot 
^ibles  and  boobs  of  instruction  were  burned,  and  Huguenots  were  forbidden  to  hire 
themselves  as  artisans  or  as  domestic  servants.  Torture,  hangings,  insults  w^orse  than 
heath  to  women,  the  galleys,  and  imprisonment  for  life  were  the  ordinary  occurrences 
nnn  the  twenty  years  preceding  the  revocation,  it  is  believed  that 

460,000  Protestants  fled  from  France,  and  that  600,000  escaped  in  the  twenty  years  that 
followed.  But  in  the  Cevennes  the  people  were  too  poor  to  escape,  and  all  over  Lan- 
guedoc began  the  secret  meetings  of  the  church  of  the  desert.  At  last  Louvois  the 
sanguinary  war  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  proposed  that  this  district  should  be  made  an 
^tual  desert  An  army  of  40,000  was  raised,  and  forts  were  erected  at  Nimes  St. 

ippo  yte,  Alais,  and  Anduze.  The  abbe  du  Chaila,  a Roman  Catholic  missionary 
from  j5iam,  had  been  appointed  inspector  of  missions  in  the  Cevennes.  He  introduced 
the  squeezers  ” (an  instrument  of  torture  which  resembled  the  Scotch  “ boot  ”) 
broke  the  patience  of  the  victims.  His  assassination,  July  33! 
i/03,  was  the  first  blow  in  the  war.  There  was  to  have  been  a general  massacre  of 


Camisards. 

Camoutlet. 


352 


Roman  Catholic  priests,  but  the  plan  failed,  and  the  originator.  Esprit  Seguier,  soon 
fell.  He  was  succeeded  by  La  Porte,  an  old  soldier,  who,  as  his  forces  increased, 
assumed  the  title  of  “colonel  of  the  children  of  God,”  and  named  his  country  the 
“ camp  of  the  eternal.”  Ills  captains  were  selected  from  those  on  whom  the  prophetic 
influence  had  fallen,  such  as  the  forest-ranger,  Castanet ; the  wool-carders,  Conderc  and 
Mazel;  and  the  soldiers,  Catinat,  Joany,  and  Ravenel;  but  the  most  famous  were  Roland 
and  Jean  Cavalier,  the  baker’s  boy  (see  Cavaliek,  Jean).  For  three  years  the  C. 
held  out.  Then  there  was  sent  against  them  an  army  of  60,000,  among  them  an 
English  brigade  which  had  just  returned  from  the  persecution  of  the  Vaudois.  A pol- 
icy of  extermination  was  commenced,  and  in  the  upper  Cevennes  alone  466  villages, 
were  burned,  and  nearly  the  entire  population  put  to  the  sword.  In  this  bloody  work 
the  pope,  Clement  XI.,  assisted  by  issuing  a bull  against  the  “execrable  race  of  tha- 
ancient  Albigenses,”  promising  remission  of  sins  to  the  holy  militia  which  was  now 
formed  among  the  Roman  Catholic  population  under  the  name  of  cadets  of  the  cross. 
The  formidable  force  brought  against  them  induced  Cavalier  to  listen  to  proposals,  and 
he  Anally  assented  to  a surrender  on  being  guaranteed  liberty  of  conscience,  the  right  of 
assembly  outside  of  walled  towns,  the  liberation  of  all  his  people  then  in  durance,  and 
the  restitution  to  emigrants  of  their  civil  rignts  and  property.  Still,  the  greater  part  of 
the  army,  under  Roland,  Ravenel,  and  Joany,  refused,  and  insisted  upon  the  complete 
restoration  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  They  continued  the  war  until  the  beginning  of 
1705,  by  wfliich  time  their  leaders  were  killed  or  dispersed  and  they  became  disorganized. 
In  1711  all  outward  signs  of  the  reformed  religion  had  disappeared,  and  Mar.  8,  1715, 
a few  months  before  his  death,  Louis  XIV.,  by  a special  medal  and  by  proclamatioa 
announced  the  entire  extinction  of  heresy.  Fourteen  years  afterward,  in  spite  of  the 
strictest  surveillance  aided  by  military  occupation,  there  had  been  organized  in  Langue- 
doc 120  churches,  which  were  attended  by  200,000  Protestants.  Persecution  could  not 
secure  suppression,  but  it  was  not  until  1775  that  the  last  galley  slave  from  Languedoc 
was  liberated,  and  not  till  1789  that  the  national  assembly  repealed  all  the  penal  laws 
against  Protestanism. 

There  was  a singular  psychologic  or  spiritual  phase  in  the  history  of  the  C.  that 
must  be  noticed.  It  was  a sort  of  inspiration  or  ecstasy.  The  subject,  who  had  endured 
long  fasting,  became  pale,  and  fell  insensible  to  the  ground.  Then  came  violent  agita- 
tions of  the  limbs  and  the  head;  and  finally  the  patient,  who  might  be  a little  child,  a 
woman,  or  a half-witted  person,  began  to  speak  in  good  French  of  the  Huguenot  Bible, 
warning  the  people  to  repentance,  prophesying  the  immediate  coming  of  the  Lord  in 
judgment,  and  claiming  that  these  exhortations  came  directly  from  the  Holy  Ghost. 
After  a long  discourse  the  patient  returned  to  his  native  patois  with  no  recollection  of 
what  he  had  been  doing  or  saying.  All  kinds  of  miracles,  so  they  believed,  attended 
upon  the  Camisards.  Strange  lights  guided  them  to  places  of  safety,  unknown  voices 
spoke  encouragement,  and  wounds  were  often  harmless.  Those  who  were  in  the  ecstasy 
of  trance  fell  from  trees  without  sustaining  hurt ; they  shed  tears  of  blood,  and  they  sub- 
sisted without  food  for  nine  days.  The  supernatural  was  a part  of  their  life.  Many 
judgments  have  been  passed  upon  these  phenomena.  Flechier  and  Brueys,  Roman 
Catholics,  consider  them  the  product  of  fasting  and  vanity,  nourished  by  apoca- 
lyptic literature.  Bertrand  and  Calmeil,  physicians,  speak  of  magnetism,  hysteria,  and 
epilepsy,  and  a prophetic  mania  based  on  belief  in  divine  possession.  Most  Protestants 
are  content  with  the  epithet  “ ecstasy,  ” while  semi-radical  Roman  Catholics  consider 
the  whole  business  the  work  of  the  devil. 

CAMISARDS.  See  Cevennes. 

CAMLET  (from  Arab,  chamal,  fine)  is  properly  a fabric  made  from  the  hair  of  th« 
Angora  goat  (q.v.).  The  camlets  made  in  Britain  are  either  wholly  of  wool,  or  of  wool 
mixed  with  cotton  or  linen,  and  spun  hard. 

CAM'MERHOFF,  John  Frederick,  1721-51 ; b.  in  Germany,  and  one  of  the  first 
Moravian  bishops  in  America,  vdiere  he  arrived  in  1746,  as  assistant  to  the  bishop  then 
presiding.  He  won  the  confidence  of  the  Indians,  with  whom  he  w^as  a great  favorite. 
In  1750,  he  attended  an  important  Iroquois  council  at  Onondaga,  N.  Y.,  making  a canoe 
journey  of  13  days  up  the  Susquehanna,  and  going  thence  on  foot  through  the  wilder- 
ness, an  exertion  which  ruined  his  health. 

CAMOENS,  Luis  de,  the  epic  poet  of  Portugal,  was  b.  about  1524,  at  Lisbon,  and 
studied  the  ancient  classics  at  Coimbra.  On  his  return  to  Lisbon,  he  fell  in  love  with  a 
lady  of  honor,  Catharina  d’Atayada.  This  affair  was  the  beginning  of  all  the  poet’s 
misfortunes.  Having  been  banished  by  royal  authority  to  Santarem,  C.  joined  the  expe- 
dition of  John  III.  against  Morocco,  and  lost  his  right  eye  in  a naval  engagement  with 
the  Moors  in  the  strait  of  Gibraltar.  On  his  return  to  Lisbon,  his  bravery  as  a soldier 
was  no  more  honored  than  his  genius  as  a poet.  Disappointed  in  all  his  hopes,  he  deter- 
mined to  leave  forever  his  native  land,  and  sailed  for  India,  1553.  Offended  by  certain 
abuses  of  the  Portuguese  authorities  in  India,  C.  ventured  to  expose  them  in  a satire, 
entitled  Disparates  na  India,  “ Follies  in  India,”  in  which  he  treated  even  the  viceroy 
with  ridicule.  For  this  offense  the  poet  was  banished,  1556,  to  Macao,  w here  he  lived 
several  years,  and  was  engaged  in  writing  Os  Lusiadas.  Here  C.  held  the  unpoetical  but 
probably  lucrative  post  of  administrator  of  the  effects  of  deceased  persons;  and  having 


353 


Camisards. 

Camouflet. 


saved,  as  he  thought,  a competency  for  his  future  life,  was  recalled  from  his  banish- 
ment, 1561.  Unhappily,  in  returning  to  Goa,  he  suffered  shipwreck,  and  lost  all  his 
property,  excepting  his  epic  poem.  After  other  wanderings  and  misfortunes,  C.  took 
ship  for  Lisbon,  where  he  arrived  in  1569,  with  no  other  wealth  but  his  epic.  He  dedi- 
cated The  Lusiad  to  the  young  king,  Sebastian,  who  was  very  gracious ; but,  neverthe- 
less, all  the  real  patronage  bestowed  on  C.  consisted  of  a very  small  pension  (about  £4) 
and  permission  to  remain  at  the  court  of  Lisbon.  Even  this  small  pittance  was  taken 
away  after  the  death  of  Sebastian,  and  C.  was  left  in  such  poverty,  that  a faithful  Indian 
servant  begged  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon  for  the  support  of  the  great  epic  poet  of  Portugal 
C.’s  lyric  poems,  written  during  this  time  of  destitution,  contain  many  pathetic  lanien- 
tations.  He  died  obscurely  in  the  hospital  at  Lisbon,  1579;  and  16  years  afterwards, 
when  it  was  proposed  to  erect  a splendid  monument  to  his  memory,  there  was  some  dif- 
ficulty in  finding  his  burial-place.  n 

2 he  Lusiad  {Os  Lusiadas,  the  Lusitanians”)  celebrates  the  chief  events  in  the  history 
of  Portugal,  and  is  remarkable  as  the  only  modern  epic  poem  which  is  pervaded  by  any- 
thing like  the  true  national  and  popular  spirit  of  ancient  epic  poems.  It  is  a gallery  of 
epic  pictures,  in  which  all  the  great  achievements  of  Portuguese  heroism  are  represented 
Among  the  most  famous  passages  are  the  tragical  story  of  Inez  de  Castro,  and  the  appa- 
rition of  the  giant  Adamastor,  who  appears  as  the  Spirit  of  the  Storm  to  Vasco  da  Gama 
when  crossing  the  cape.  The  versification  of  27ie  Lusiad  is  extremely  charming  Patri- 
otic sentiments  pervade  the  whole  work.  Besides  his  epic  poem,  C.  wrote  sonnets  odes 
Regies,  eclogues  epigrams,  satires,  epistles,  and  three  comedies— Os  (after 

King  Meueus,  Filodemo.  The  latest  and  best  complete  edition  of  his 
P®  ^PP.eared  m three  volumes  (Hamburg,  1834).  The  best  edition  of  The  Lusiad  was 

in  1819,  and  again,  with  emendations  byBerdier  in 
has  been  translated  into  Spanish,  French,  Italian,  English  Polish 
and  German.  » & > . 

CAMOGLIA,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  on  the  gulf  of  Genoa,  about  13  m.  e.s.e.  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  Its  inhabitants,  amounting,  in  1873,  to  6,345,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  fishing. 

CAM'OMILE.  See  Chamomile. 

CAMOR'EA,  the  name  of  a secret  society,  existing  throughout  all  parts  of  the 
former  kingdom  of  JSTaples,  the  members  of  which  are  called  eamorristi,  and  have  exer- 
gsed  lawless  force  to  a great  extent  over  the  humbler  classes  of  society.  Under  the 
Bourbons,  they  openly  presented  themselves  at  markets,  hackney-coach  stations,  public 
spectacles  and  all  occasions  of  popular  amusement;  assumed  the  right  of  deciding  dis- 
putes; extorted  a portion  of  whatever  money  passed  from  hand  to  hand  for  purchases 
rents,  wages,  and  the  like  or  in  games;  undertook  also  the  transport  of  smuggled 
pods,  ap  contracted  for  the  commission  of  serious  crimes.  Their  readiness  for  vio- 
> and  their  close  association  among  themselves,  made  them  so  much 

dieaded  that  even  eamorristi  who  had  been  thrown  into  prison,  succeeded  in  exacting 
money  from  their  fellow-prisoners,  and  from  the  jailer  himself.  The  society  has  a cen 
tral  rendpvous  in  every  large  provincial  town,  and  twelve  such  in  the  city  of  Naples 

sections  of  the  society  are  under  the  absolute  gov- 
pnment  of  a chief  elected  by  themselves,  with  whom  is  associated  a treasurer.  The 
latter  has  the  charge  of  the  common  fund  into  which  all  the  eamorristi  of  that  section 
pay  their  whole  pins,  for  equal  distribution  among  all  their  associates.  Candidates  for 
membership  must  show  that  they  have  neither  been  guilty  of  espionage  nor  theft;  also, 
irnn  prostitutes ; and  must  swear  upon  an 

^ fidelity  and  secrecy.  The  candidate  remains  for  a year 

with  the  designation  of  pzcczotto  d’onore,  as  a pupil  under  an  old  camorrista;  and  having 
eompletp  this  probation,  and  given  proof  of  his  courage  and  obedience  in  circum 
stpees  inplvmg  danger  of  life  he  is  advanced  to  the  rank  of  a picciotto  di  sgarro. 
i inally , after  a loper  period,  and  when  he  has  given  proof  of  his  fitness  on  a number  of 
pcasions,  he  is  admitted  to  full  membership  of  the  society  as  a camorrista.  Each 
carprrista  prries  about  with  him  two  knives  of  peculiar  form,  by  which  the  members 
of  the  society  recognize  each  other.  They  are  held  under  the  strictest  discipline  Dis- 
obedience is  punished  by  flogging,  suspension  from  employment,  or  expulsion;  treach- 
^ery,  even  on  tp  part  of  a member  who  has  been  expelled,  is  punished  with  death  If 
two  eamorristi  quarrel,  their  chief  decides  the  question  between  them ; but  in  difficult 
i^ses,  a duel  with  daggers  is  the  mode  of  decision.  Under  king  Ferdinand  II.  the  C 
pohtipl  reasons.  The  government  of  Francis  II.  endeavored  to  put ' 
received  instructions  to  seize  and  transport  all  known 
i mfhi  J /I  remained  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Garibaldi  com 

1 rpdered  essential  service  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Bourbons.  An  attempt 

i to  employ  them  in  the  police  service,  but  completely  failed.  The  C. 

livl  blrnhif'"  h the  new  government,  the  members  of  the  society  now  chiefly 

uve  by  robbery  m s.  Italy.— See  Monnier,  La  Camm'ra,  Notizie  Storiche  (Flor.  1863). 

military  pyrotechny,  is  a stinking  composition  inclosed  in  paper- 
SnV  siege-works  to  blow  into  the  faces  of  the  sappers  and  miners,  wLn 

hostile  parties  come  within  reach  of  each  other,  and  thus  to  confuse  them. 

U.  K.  III.-23 


Camp. 

Campan. 


354 


CAMP  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  campus,  a plain,  or  level  field).  The  signification  of  this  word 
in  English  is  rather  that  which  belonged  to  the  Latin  castrum,  an  encampment,  or 
oastra,  a collection  of  tents,  huts,  and  other  structures,  for  the  accommodation  and 
protection  of  troops,  than  that  which  its  etymology  would  more  directly  indicate.  The 
regular  system  of  encampment  ultimately  adopted  by  the  Romans,  was  forced  upon 
them  by  degrees.  The  most  complete  account  of  it  is  furnished  to  us  by  Polybius.  A 
plan  will  be  found  in  Dr.  Smith’s  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  con- 
structed for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  his  description.  When  a Roman,  army  was 
about  to  encamp,  a tribune  and  several  centurions  were  sent  on  before,  to  select  a 
suitable  site  for  the  purpose.  As  soon  as  the  locality  was  determined  on,  they  chose 
the  spot  for  the  prsetorium  or  general’s  tent,  and  marked  it  with  a white  flag.  Around 
the  praetorium,  as  a sort  of  center  or  heart  to  the  whole  system,  the  rest  of  the  C.  was 
laid  out.  It  was  generally  placed  on  an  elevated  position,  in  order  that  the  general 
might  have  the  rest  of  the  encampment  under  his  eye,  and  be  able  to  transmit  his  orders 
with  greater  facility.  Polybius  himself  tells  us,  that  the  best  conception  which  can  be 
formed  of  a Roman  C.  of  the  more  permanent  kind  is  by  regarding  it  as  a military 
town,  resembling  in  many  respects  no  doubt  that  which  has  recently  grown  up  at  Aider- 
shot  (q.v.).  The  streets  were  broader  than  those  usually  to  be  found  in  towns,  the 
wider  ones  measuring  100,  and  the  narrower  50  ft. ; and  X\\e  forum,  as  its  name  indicates, 
was  a sort  of  public  market-place.  A space  of  200  ft.  was  left  vacant  all  round  between 
the  tents  and  the  ramparts,  partly  to  afford  space  for  the  arrangements  of  the  army,  and 
for  stowing  away  any  booty  that  might  be  captured,  but  chiefly  to  protect  the  soldiers’ 
huts  from  incendiary  attempts  from  without.  In  form,  the  Roman  C.  was  square, 
except  in  the  case  in  which  it  was  intended  to  embrace  within  its  ramparts  four  legions, 
or  two  consular  armies,  when  it  became  an  oblong  rectangle.  The  C.  was  surrounded 
by  a fosse  or  trench  (fossa),  which  was  generally  9 ft.  deep  and  12  broad.  On  the  top 
of  the  rampart,  which  was  of  earth,  there  were  stakes.  The  labor  of  constructing  the 
rampart  and  the  fosse  was  divided  between  the  allies  and  the  Roman  legions,  the  former 
making  the  sides  along  which  they  were  stationed,  and  the  legions  the  rest.  The  task 
of  superintending  the  construction  of  the  C.  amongst  the  Romans  was  intrusted  to  the 
tribunes;  amongst  the  allies,  to  the  prefects.  Before  the  arrival  of  the  troops,  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  C.  were  so  distinctly  marked  out  and  measured  off,  that  they  at  once 
proceeded  to  their  respective  stations,  as  if  they  had  entered  a well-known  city,  and 
were  marching  to  their  quarters.  The  discipline  of  the  C.  was  of  the  strictest  kind. 
The  tribunes  administered  an  oath  against  theft  both  to  freemen  and  slaves,  and  two 
maniples  were  chosen  to  keep  the  via  pnncipalis,  which  was  a place  of  general  resort, 
clean  and  in  good  repair.  The  other  occupations  connected  with  the  C.,  too  numerous 
to  be  mentioned  here,  were  portioned  out  in  like  manner;  and  the  superintendence  of 
the  whole  was  intrusted  to  two  tribunes  chosen  by  lot  from  each  legion,  and  appointed 
to  serve  for  two  months.  The  prefects  of  the  allies  possessed  a similar  authority,  which, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  limited  to  their  own  troops.  Every  morning  at  daybreak, 
the  centurions  and  horsemen  presented  themselves  to  the  tribunes,  and  these,  in  their 
turn,  received  their  orders  from  the  consul.  The  watchword  for  the  night,  marked  on 
a four-cornered  piece  of  wood,  was  given  out  with  much  formality.  The  night  was 
divided  into  four  watches,  each  of  three  hours’  length;  and  there  was  a curious  arrange- 
ment for  ascertaining  that  guard  was  kept  with  vigilance.  The  soldiers  of  the  watch 
companies  received  from  the  tribune  a number  of  small  tablets,  with  certain  marks  upon 
them,  and  these  tablets  were  collected  during  the  night  by  the  horsemen  whose  duty  it 
was  to  visit  the  posts,  from  such  of  the  guards  as  they  found  on  duty.  Where  these 
inspectors  found  the  guards  asleep  or  absent,  they  called  upon  the  bystanders  to  witness 
the  fact,  and  then  passed  on  to  the  next.  In  the  morning,  the  inspectors  appeared 
before  the  tribunes,  and  gave  up  the  tablets  they  had  received,  when  the  guards  whose 
tablets  were  not  produced  were  required  to  account  for  them.  A regular  scale  of 
rewards  and  punishments  was  established  in  the  camp.  In  comparing  the  encampments 
of  the  Romans  with  those  of  his  own  countrymen,  Polybius  tells  us  that  the  Greeks 
trusted  mainly  to  a judicious  selection  of  their  ground,  and  regarded  the  natural  advan- 
tages which  they  thus  secured  as  supplying  in  a great  measure  the  place  of  artificial 
means  of  defense.  The  Greeks,  consequently,  had  no  regular  form  of  C.,  and  no  fixed 
places  were  assigned  to  the  different  divisions  of  the  army.  When  the  practice  of 
drawing  up  the  army  according  to  cohorts,  introduced  by  Marius  and  Caesar,  was 
adopted,  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  C.  experienced  a corresponding  change. 
Latterly,  even  the  square  form  was  abandoned,  and  the  C.  was  made  to  suit  the  nature 
of  the  ground.  It  was  always  held  to  be  of  importance,  however,  that  the  C.  occupied 
a defensible  position ; that  it  could  not  be  overlooked ; and  that  it  ^ad  a command  of 
water. 

When  stationary  camps  (castra  stativa)  came  into  more  general  use,  we  hear  of  several 
parts  which  are  not  mentioned  by  Polybius,  for  example,  the  (valetudinariim), 

the  farriery  (veterinarium),  the  forge  (fahrica),  etc. ; and  as  a great  variety  of  troops  then 
came  to  be  employed,  they  must,  of  course,  have  had  new  stations  appointed  to  them  in 
the  camp.  Many  of  the  stationary  camps  ultimately  became  towns,  and  to  this  is 
ascribed  the  origin  of  most  of  the  towns  in  England  the  names  of  which  end  in  cester  or 
Chester.  Amongst  the  most  perfect  of  those  which  retained  the  form  of  the  simple 


356 


Camp. 

Campan» 


encampment  is  that  at  Ardoch  in  Strathearn,  Perthshire,  in  the  grass-covered  mounds 
and  ridges  of  which  most  of  the  divisions  of  the  C.  have  been  distinctly  traced  bv 
antiqiiarie^s.  For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  gen.  Rov’s 
Military  Antiquities  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  Caledonia  Bomana  of  the  late  Mr  Robert 
btuart.  In  these  works  will  be  found  ample  accounts  of  some  of  the  more  remarkable 
^^aving™^^  described  by  Roy  being  rendered  intelligible  by  large 

It  is  believed  that,  during  the  middle  ages,  the  plan  adopted  by  the  Romans  in  their 
camps  was  more  or  less  adhered  to,  seeing  that  the  weapons  employed,  which  mainly 
determined  the  character  of  the  troops,  were  nearly  the  same.  In  Britain  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Romans,  and  also  during  the  Saxon  and  Danish  periods,  the  camns 
usually  circular  in  form,  appear  to  have  been  somewhat  rude  in  character  with  the 
' ISmt  grouped  round  the  standard  in  the  center,  and  the  infantry  placed  near  the 

The  principles  of  castrametation,  or  camp-formation,  underwent  much  change  after 
the  invention  of  gunpowder,  owing  to  the  necessity  for  defending  the  C.  from  artillery 
Modern  camps,  of  different  kinds,  will  be  found  described  under  Encampment. 

CAMPAGNA,  a t of  Italy  in  the  province  of  Salerno,  is  situated  between  high 
mountains,  about  20  m.  e of  Salerno.  It  has  a fine  cathedral,  several  convents,  and  a 
i large  annual  fair.  Pop.  72,  9813.  ’ 

CAMPAGl^  DI  ROMA,  an  undulating,  uncultivated,  and  unhealthy  plain  of  Italv 
surrounding  Rome  including  the  greatest  part  of  ancient  Latium,  and  forming  the  late 
papal  delegation  of  Frosmone  and  a great  part  of  the  Comarca  di  Roma.  Its  lenath  is 
; variously  stated,  arising  from  the  fact  that  different  authorities  measure  it  from  different 

the  district  extending  from  cape  Linaro, 
^ Terracma,  beyond  the  Pontine  marshes,  its  length  is  about  90 

m.  and  its  breadth  inland,  to  the  Alban  and  Sabine  hills,  isstated  at  from  27  to  40  miles 

Mediterranean.  The  ground,  which  never  rises 
above  200  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  almost  entirely  volcanic,  and  the  lakes  are  formed  bv 
craters  of  extinct  volcanoes.  The  vapors  rising  from  this  district,  and  especially  from 
the  Solfatara  (q.v.),  produce  the  pestilential  atmosphere  styled  aria  cattira.  The^  num- 
ber  of  inhabitants  is  very  small,  and  in  summer  they  are  driven  from  the  C bv  its 
pestilent  air,  and  seek  shelter  in  Rome  and  other  neighboring  places.  In  autumn" 

; herdsmen  descend  from  the  Apennines  to  the  C.  with  their  herdsf  the  pasturage  in  som4 
parts  being  rich  and  abundant.  This  district  was  not  always  uncultivated  and  depopu- 
lated as  we  now  find  it,  for  Domitian  and  Hadrian  built  here  their  splendid  villas 
and  devastations,  the  ‘ ; black-death  ” (q.v.)  in  the  14th  c.,  which  greatly  thinned 
I the  population  and  inundations  from  the  Tiber,  have  been  the  main  causes  of  the 
1 present  state  of  the  C. ; but,  according  to  Livy,  it  was  always  an  unhealthy  district  even 

th^P^^^t  the  popes,  especially  Pius  VI. , have  endeavored  to  drain 

: the  Pontine  marshes,  and,  during  the  dominion  of  the  French  in  Italy  gen  Miollis 
’Campa<mr^  improvements  in  drainage,  timber-planting,  and  cultivation  in  the 

! CAMPAIGN  generally  means  a connected  series  of  military  operations,  forming  a dis- 
^ Lnder  the  old  system  of  warfare,  when  armies  kept  the 

W 1 ^ summer  months,  a C.  was  understood  to  include  all  that  was  done 

by  an  army  from  the  time  it  took  the  field  till  it  went  again  into  winter-quarters.  Now 
that  winter  IS  no  longer  allowed  to  arrest  military  operations,  it  is  more  difficult  to  say 
Where  one  C.  ends  and  another  begins.  Some  writers  make  a C.  include  all  the  steps 
taken  to  accomplish  some  one  immediate  object.  ^ 

■To  France,  in  the  department  of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  18  m.  s.e.  of 

irarbes;  pop.  3700.  It  is  in  a valley  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Adour,  and  is  noted  for 
^ stalactite  grotto,  and  marble  quarries,  along  the  road  to 
iBagneres  de  Bigorre.  Some  of  the  finest  of  colored  marbles,  with  green,  flesh-colored 

p^AArWf,  found  here.  The  women  are  employed  in  knitting  scarfs  and 

wonderfully  thin  gauze  from  fine  wool  brought  from  Spain. 

) ‘he  daughters  of  Louis  XV.,  was 

).  m i-aris,  Uct.  6,  1752  She  was  favored  by  Mane  Antoinette,  and  gave  her  roval 
o unfortunate  quee/was  conve/ed 

^ to  share  her  captivity,  but  was  refused  entrance  by  Petion. 

3urmg  the  reign  of  terror,  she  remained  concealed  at  Combertin.  After  the  fall  of 
opened  a boarding-school  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  which  was  patronized 
)y  Josephine  Beauharnais,  who  sent  her  daughter  Hortense  to  it.  In  1806  Napoleon 
laSXers  the  institution  at  Ecouen  for  the  eduTatSn  of  the 

las^snn^rpLpH^  . Am  restoration,  this  institution 

c Abf  retired  to  Mantes,  where  she  died.  May  16,  1822  She 

i^^teresting  works— Memoiressur  la  Vie  Priree 
Journal  Anecdotique  (Par.  1824); 
if  thW  3 Af  T f S (2  wols..  Par.  1835)-giving  recollections 

he  private  chLacterofNioLo®?"  " revolution,  and  some  traits  from 


Campana. 

Campbell. 


356 


CAMPANA,  La,  a t.  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  situated  on  the  Madre-Yiega,  a tributary  of 
the  Guadalquivir,  about  37  in.  e.n.e.  of  Seville.  The  inliabitants,  numbering  5,380,  are 
engaged  chiefly  in  agricultural  pursuits,  and  in  -weaving  and  brick-making. 

CAMPANA'RIO,  a t.  of  Estremadura,  Spain,  about  62  m.  e.s.e  of  Badajos.  It  is  an 
ill-built  place,  with  narrow,  uncared-for  streets.  It  has  manufactures  of  linens  and 
ropes,  and  a trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  5,400. 

CAMPANELLA,  Tomma'so,  a Dominican  monk  celebrated  for  his  philosophical  ability 
was  b.  in  1568  at  Stilo  in  Calabria,  and  studied  in  Naples  and  Cosenza.  The  writinge 
of  Telesius  first  awakened  his  doubts  respecting  that  pile  of  artificial  dogmas  styled  the 
scholastic  philosophy.”  The  results  of  his  studies  were  given  in  his  PMlosophia  Sen- 
sibus  Demonstrata,  etc.  (Naples,  1591),  which  contained  a defense  of  Telesius.  His  supe- 
riority in  disputations  exposed  him  to  the  hatred  and  false  accusations  of  the  orthodox 
monks  and  schoolmen.  He  was  in  consequence  compelled  to  flee  from  Naples  to  Rome, 
and  thence  to  Florence,  Venice,  and  Bologna.  Afterwards,  he  returned  to  Calabria, 
but  having  involved  himself  in  a political  conspiracy,  he  was  seized  and  confined  in 
a Neapolitan  dungeon  for  27  years;  tried  five  times,  and  tortured  seven;  accused  of  her- 
esy; and  declared  the  author  of  a book  which  had  been  published  thirty  years  before  he 
was  born.  In  1626,  pope  Urban  VIII.  had  him  brought  to  the  prison  of  the  inquisition 
at  Rome,  but  immediately  liberated  him, -and  treated  him  in  a very  generous  manner. 
After  being  again  persecuted  by  the  Spanish  government,  C.,  who  had  formed  the  friend- 
ship of  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome,  the  due  de  Noailles,  obtained  a letter  of  intro- 
duction to  cardinal  Richelieu,  and  secretly  left  for  France,  where  he  was  graciously 
received.  He  died  in  the  Dominican  monastery  of  St.  Honore,  near  Paris,  1639.  Most 
of  his  works — De  Oentilismo  non  Retinendo  (Paris,  1636) ; Astrologicorum  Lihri  VII. 
(Lyons,  1629);  Prodromus  PhilosopMm  Instaiirandce  (Frankfort,  1617);  Exordium  Meta- 
physics Norm,  De  Sensu  Rerum  et  Magia  (Frankfort,  1620) — were  written  during  his 
imprisonment.  His  philosophical  views  give  expression  to  that  confused  fermentation 
of  new  ideas  which  was  characteristic  of  the  close  of  the  16th  and  opening  of  the  17th  c. 
— bold  and  clear  opinions  strangely  mingled  with  commonplaces  and  with  astrological 
dreams  and  fancies.  It  may  seem  strange  that  C.  should  have  been  patronized  by  the 
pope;  but  this  favor  was  gained,  not  by  his  speculative  works,  but  by  several  writings 
in  defense  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  His  De  Monarchia  Hispanica  Discursus  is  a 
work  of  great  power  and  value,  comprising  a sketch  of  the  political  world  of  C.  ’s  time, 
with  special  reference  to  Spain.  It  was  translated  into  English  during  Cromwell’s  pro- 
tectorate. 

CAMPAN'HA,  a t.  of  Brazil,  about  150  m.  n.  w.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  surrounded  by  bare 
hills,  much  cut  up  by  gold-mines.  The  houses  are  built  chiefly  of  earth,  and  surrounded 
by  gardens.  C.  has  several  churches,  a Latin  school,  a hospital,  theater,  etc.  Pop. 
6,000. 

CAMPANIA,  anciently  a province  of  central  Italy,  having  Capua  as  its  capital  (now 
subdivided  into  the  provinces  of  Benevento,  Naples,  Salerno,  Avellino,  and  Caserta), 
was  bounded  on  the  s.  by  Lucania,  e.  by  Samnium,  n.  by  Latium,  and  w.  by  the  Tyrr- 
henian sea.  It  was  one  of  the  most  productive  plains  in  the  world,  producing  in  extra- 
ordinary abundance  corn,  wine,  and  oil;  and  both  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers  is  cele- 
brated for  its  soft  and  genial  climate,  its  landscapes,  and  its  harbors.  It  was  the  regio 
felix  of  the  Romans,  who  built  here  many  of  their  most  splendid  villas,  etc.  Through 
it  passed  the  Appian  Way,  the  greatest  high-road  of  Italy.  The  promontory  Misenum, 
Mt.  Vesuvius,  the  river  Vulturnus,  the  towns  Baiae,  Cumae,  Linternum,  Puteoli,  Naples, 
Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  Nola,  Salernum,  Capua,  etc.,  belonged  to  Campania.  It  was 
the  oldest  (ireek  settlement  in  Italy,  having  been  colonized,  according  to  the  later 
chronologers,  about  1050  b.c.;  but  this  is  in  all  probability  too  early  a_  date.  It  was 
next  conquered  by  the  Etruscans,  and  several  of  the  towns  above  mentioned,  such  as 
Capua  and  Nola,  were  founded  by  that  people.  The  Etruscans  then  succumbed  to  the 
more  warlike  and  hardy  Samnites,  who,  in  their  turn,  yielded  to  the  irresistible  valor  of 
Rome  (340  b.c.).  Through  all  these  vicissitudes  of  conquest,  the  substratum  of  the 
people  remained  as  at  the  beginning.  The  mass  of  the  Campanians  were  essentially  of 
Oscan  race,  and  Oscan  they  remained.  Indeed,  it  is  mainly  from  them  that  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Oscan  language  is  derived,  and  one  of  their  towns — Atella,  between  (^apua 
and  Naples — had  the  honor  of  introducing  upon  the  early  Roman  stage  a species  of 
popular  drama  or  comedy,  which  was  greatly  relished  for  its  quaint  and  vigorous 
humor.  See  Atellanje. 

CAMPA'NI-ALIMENIS,  Matteo,  an  Italian  philosopher  and  mechanician  of  the 
17th  century.  He  was  a curate  in  Rome,  but  devoted  his  time  mainly  to  scientific  pur- 
suits, constructing  the  object-glasses  with  which  two  of  Saturn’s  satellites  were  discov- 
ered; making  illuminated  and  noiseless  clocks;  and  attempting  to  correct  the  variations 
of  the  pendulum  due  to  temperature.  He  published  a work  on  horology.  Giuseppe,  a 
younger  brother,  was  also  an  optician  and  astronomer  of  some  eminence. 

CAMPANILE  (Ital.,  from  Mid.  Lat.  campana,  a bell),  a name  adopted  from  the  Ital- 
ian to  signify  a bell-tower  of  the  larger  kind,  and  usually  applied  only  to  such  as  are 


357 


Campana. 

Campbell. 


detached  from  the  church.  Scarcely  any  of  the  existing  bell-towers  of  England  answer 
to  the  Italian  conception  of  the  C.,  but  it  is  said  that  there  was  a very  fine  one  at  Salis- 
bury, 200  ft.  in  height,  which  was  destroyed  by  Wyatt.  In  Italy,  they  are  found  every- 
where— at  Bologna,  Padua,  Ravenna,  Cremona,  Venice.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
are  the  so-called  “leaning  tower”  of  Pisa,  and  the  C.  of  Florence.  The  former,  which 
is  circular  in  form,  is  decorated  with  columns  and  arcades  to  the  summit  of  its  eight 
stories,  and  presents  a very  imposing  appearance,  reminding  the  traveler  of  the  Coliseum 
at  Rome,  from  which,  and  the  now  destroyed  Septizonium,  the  idea  of  it  is  said  to  have 
been  taken  by  the  architects  Bonano  of  Pisa,  and  Wilhelm  of  Innspruck.  But  though 
less  curious,  the  famous  C.  of  Giotto  is  perhaps  even  more  worthy  of  the  traveler’s 
attention.  It  was  erected  in  1334,  with  the  express  object  of  surpassing,  both  in  height 
and  in  richness  of  workmanship,  any  of  the  remains  of  antiquity.  In  form,  it  is  a 
parallelopiped,  and  is  of  the  same  dimensions  from  bottom  to  top.  Though  it  is  very 
lofty — 267  ft. — it  consists  of  only  four  stories,  of  which  the  tallest  are  the  uppermost 
and  undermost;  and  the  windows  in  the  upper  story  are  rather  larger  than  those  in  the 
two  beneath,  the  object  being  to  counteract  the  diminution  to  the  eye  occasioned  by  the 
greater  distance.  The  effect  of  this  arrangement  has  been  much  praised  by  architects; 
but  there  seems  ground  for  skepticism  as  touts  advantages.  The  style  is  the  real  Italian 
Gothic,  which  unites  simplicity  with  great  richness  of  ornamentation.  The  original 
design  of  Giotto  was  that  a spire  of  100  braccia  in  height  should  have  surmounted  the 
present  structure,  and  on  the  summit  may  be  seen  the  four  great  piers  from  which  it  was 
intended  that  it  should  have  risen.  The  splendid  C.  of  Florence,  in  its  present  con- 
dition, must  thus  be  regarded  only  as  a fragment.  There  is  a fine  C.  at  Seville,  350  ft. 
in  height,  which  was  built  by  Guever  the  Moor  in  1568.  It  is  called  La  Giralda,  from  a 
brazen  figure,  which,  though  it  weighs  a ton  and  a half,  turns  with  the  wind. 

CAMPANI'NI,  Italo,  b.  Parma,  1846;  an  Italian  tenor.  He  enlisted  in  the  army  of 
■Garibaldi  when  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  took  part  in  the  fight  before  Milazzo.  Hav- 
ing discovered  during  the  campaign  that  he  had  a wonderful  voice,  he  studied  singing 
for  two  years  at  the  conservatory  of  Parma,  and  made  his  first  appearance  as  the  notary 
in  La  Sonnamhula  at  one  of  the  theaters  of  his  native  town.  He  sang  with  very  little 
success  with  different  opera  companies  till  1869.  In  that  year  he  went  to  Milan  and 
placed  himself  under  the  tuition  of  the  celebrated  teacher,  Francesco  Lamperti.  After  a 
thorough  training  he  made  his  debut  in  Faust  at  La  Scala  of  Milan,  and  was  pronounced 
by  a critical  audience  to  be  one  of  the  finest  tenors  of  the  age.  In  1872,  he  made  his 
London  debut  as  “ Genaro,”  in  Lucrezia  Borgia,  and  in  1873  sang  with  Christine  Nilsson 
in  New  York.  He  returned  to  America  during  the  season  of  1879-80.  Besides  being 
the  greatest  tenor  living,  he  is  remarkable  for  the  immense  scope  of  his  repertory,  which 
includes  nearly  80  operas,  the  tenor  roles  of  which  he  can  sing  at  a few  hours’  notice. 

CAMPANULA  (Lat.,  a little  bell),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  campanulacece 
•(q.v.),  distinguished  by  a bell-shaped  corolla  with  five  broad  short  segments,  filaments 
dilated  at  the  base,  a 2 to  5 cleft  stigma,  and  a top-shaped  capsule  with  2 to  5 cells,  open 
ing  by  lateral  clefts  below  the  calyx  segments.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  chiefly 
Rut  not  exclusively  abounding  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  more  elevated 
districts  of  the  temperate  zones.  They  are  mostly  herbaceous,  some  of  them  annual.  The 
name  Bell-flower  is  common  to  many  of  them,  and  is  often  extended  to  all.  The 
flowers  are  in  general  beautiful,  and  many  of  the  species  are  therefore  frequent  orna- 
ments of  flower-borders.  Of  the  native  British  species,  the  most  common,  and  one  of 
the  most  beautiful,  is  the  harebell  (q.v.),  or  Bluebell  {C.  rotundifolia).  The  Canter- 
bury Bell  {G.  medium)  is  a very  beautiful  annual,  which  has  long  been  so  generally 
sown  in  flower-borders  in  Britain,  that  it  is  almost  as  familiar  to  every  one  as  the  most 
common  field-flowers.  It  is  a native  of  the  central  parts  of  Europe. — Medicinal  virtues 
were  formerly  ascribed  to  some  species,  particularly  in  affections  of  the  throat,  where- 
fore G.trachelium,  frequent  in  woods  in  England,  has  received  the  name  of  throatwort; 
but  they  are  now  regarded  as  inert.  — The  roots  of  some  are  reckoned  among  esculents, 
as  those  of  the  rampion  (q.v.)  ((7.  rapunculus),  occasionally  cultivated  in  Britain,  and 
much  more  generally  in  some  parts  of  continental  Europe. 

CAMPANULA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  herbaceous  or  half  shrubby, 
with  a bitter  milky  juice;  leaves  without  stipules,  and  generally  alternate;  the  calyx 
usually  5-lobed,  its  tube  adhering  to  the  ovary;  the  corolla  monopetalous.  inserted  into 
the  top  of  the  calyx,  usually  5-lobed  and  regular;  the  stamens  inserted  into  the  calyx, 
and  alternate  with  the  lobes  of  the  corolla;  the  fruit  with  two  or  more  many-seeded 
cells,  crowned  with  the  withered  calyx  and  corolla,  and  opening  by  division  of  the  cells 
{loculicidally) ; the  seeds  fixed  to  the  axis,  and  having  fleshy  albumen.  About  500  species 
are  known,  natives  chiefly  of  the  temperate  and  colder  climates  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, where  their  blue  or  white  flowers  are  among  the  finest  ornaments  of  fields  and 
woods.  The  roots  and  young  leaves  of  some  species  are  eatable,  as  is  the  half-fleshy  fruit 
■of  canarina  campanula,  a native  of  the  Canary  islands. 

CAMPBELL,  a CO.  in  n.w.  Georgia,  on  the  Chattahoochie  river  and  the  Atlantic  and 
Westpoint  railroad;  360  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  9979 — 3890  colored.  Among  its  minerals  are 
gold  and  iron.  Productions,  corn,  wheat,  and  cotton.  Co.  seat,  Campbellton. 


CampbelL 


358 


CAMPBELL,  a CO.  inn.  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  and  Licking  rivers;  120  sq.m.;  pop. 
’80,  37,440 — 448  colored.  The  surface  is  level  in  the  bottom  lands,  and  undulating  away 
from  the  rivers;  soil  generally  fertile,  producing  grain,  tobacco,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Alex- 
andria. 

CAMPBELL,  a CO.  in  n.e.  Tennessee,  on  the  Kentucky  border;  watered  by  Clinch 
river ; 450  sq.  m. ; pop.  ’80, 10, 005 — 434  colored.  It  has  a rough  surface,  and  is  traversed  by  a 
spur  of  the  Cumberland  mountains,  and  is  to  a large  extent  covered  with  forests.  It 
produces  corn,  wheat,  and  sugar.  Co.  seat,  Jacksonbourgh. 

CAMPBELL,  a co.  in  s.  Virginia,  between  James  and  Staunton  rivers,  intersected 
by  the  Atlantic,  Mississippi  and  Ohio  railroad;  576  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  36,250 — 18,954  col- 
ored. It  has  an  uneven  surface,  and  fertile  soil;  producing  tobacco,  corn,  wheat,  etc. 
Co.  seat,  Campbell  Court-house. 

CAMPBELL,  the  family  name  of  the  lords  of  Argyle.  The  origin  of  the  family  has 
not  been  satistactorily  ascertained.  One  theory  makes  it  of  Anglo-Norman  origin; 
another  traces  its  descent  through  a long  line  of  Celtic  chiefs  to  king  Arthur.  It  first 
appears  in  record  towards  the  end  of  the  13th  c.,  w^hen  it  held  lands  in  Ayrshire  and 
Argyle.  The  chiefs  of  the  family  having  taken  a prominent  part  in  public  affairs,  the 
most  distinguished  are  noticed  under  the  head  Argyle. 

CAMPBELL,  Alexander,  d.d.,  1786-1866;  b.  in  Ireland;  educated  at  Glasgow 
university,  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  1809,  settling  in  Bethany,  Penn.,  as  pastor 
of  a Presbyterian  church,  from  which  he  soon  departed  and  organized  a society  whose 
doctrine  was  that  the  Bible  should  be  the  sole  creed  of  the  church.  His  followers  increased, 
and  are  now  known  as  “Disciples  of  Christ,”  or  “ Campbellites, ” and  number  about 
half  a million.  Dr.  C.  was  the  author  of  many  works  on  religious  subjects,  and  held 
important  controversies  with  such  disputants  as  Robert  Owen,  archbishop  Purcell,  Rev. 
N.  L.  Rice,  and  Rev.  Wm.  McCalla. 

CAMPBELL,  Archibald.  See  Argyle,  Duke  of,  ante. 

CAMPBELL,  Sir  Colin,  Lord  Clyde,  one  of  the  bravest  soldiers  and  most  distinguished 
generals  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Glasgow,  in  1792.  His  father  was  a cabinet- 
maker, named  John  Macliver,  but  Colin  assumed  the  name  of  Campbell,  to  gratify  an 
uncle  on  the  mother’s  side.  He  entered  the  army  as  an  ensign  in  1808;  fought  through 
tiie  war  in  the  Spanish  penisula  with  distinction,  and  took  part  in  the  exped^ition  to  tlie 
United  States  in  1814.  In  1842,  he  attained  the  rank  of  col.,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
was  present  at  the  attack  on  Chusan,  in  China,  and  for  his  services  there  received  hon- 
orable mention  in  the  Gazette.  He  next  served  in  the  Punjab,  commanding  the  left  at 
the  battle  of  Chillianwallah.  For  his  conduct  in  this  battle,  lord  Gough  awarded  him 
the  highest  praise  in  his  dispatch  to  the  governor-general  of  India.  He  next  commanded 
in  the  Peshawur  district,  with  uniform  success  against  the  hill-tribes.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Crimean  war  in  1854,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Highland 
brigade,  and  took  a prominent  part  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma;  and  afterwards  at  Balak- 
lava,  where,  with  the  93d  Highlanders,  which  he  did  not  even  form  into  square,  he  beat 
back  the  Russian  cavalry,  who  were  swooping  down  on  the  port,  with  its  accumulation 
of  shipping  and  stores.  His  services  in  this  war  were  rewarded  with  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  maj.gen.,  and  he  was  also  created  a knight  grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the 
bath,  and  received  the  cross  of  the  French  legion  of  honor.  He  was  appointed  inspec- 
tor-gen. of  infantry,  and  in  1857,  commander  of  the  forces  in  India,  then  engaged  in 
quelling  the  Indian  mutiny,  which  by  his  energy  and  judgment  was  soon  utterly  sub- 
dued. One  of  the  most  notable  characteristics  of  C.’s  generalship,  was  the  care  he  took 
of  the  lives  of  his  men,  all  his  victories  being  won  with  the  minimum  expenditure  of  the 
blood  of  his  soldiers.  For  his  exploits  in  India,  C.,  in  1858,  was  created  a peer  of  the 
realm,  with  the  title  of  baron  Clyde,  and  appointed  a gen.,  the  East  India  company 
granting  him  an  annuity  of  £2000.  C.  arrived  in  Britain  from  India  in  1860,  and  died 
Aug.,  1863. 

CAMPBELL,  George,  d.d.,  an  eminent  theological  writer,  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in 
1719.  He  was  educated  for  the  law,  but  abandoned  that  profession  for  the  study  of 
divinity.  In  1746,  he  was  ordained  minister  of  Banchory  Ternan,  a parish  lying  some 
miles  s.w.  of  Aberdeen;  and  in  1759,  he  was  appointed  principal  of  Marischal  college. 
His  first  work  was  his  famous  Treatise  on  Miracles,  in  answer  to  Hume.  The  dispute  con- 
cerning miracles  has  assumed  a new  form  in  the  present  century, and  C.  ’s  arguments  would 
not  meet  all  the  objections  which  the  modern  school  of  rationalists  urge;  but  the  work 
in  its  own  day  was  greatly  admired,  and  characterized  as  “one  of  the  most  acute  and 
convincing  treatises  that  has  ever  appeared  on  the  subject.”  It  was  speedily  translated 
into  French,  Dutch,  and  German.  In  1771,  C.  was  elected  professor  of  divinity  in 
Marischal  college.  In  1776,  he  published  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  which  is  still  a 
standard  w^ork  on  the  subject.  His  last  work  was  a Translation  of  the  Gospels,  icith  Pre- 
liminary Dissertations  and  Notes.  He  died  April  6,  1796.  After  his  death  appeared  his 
Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  History. 

CAMPBELL,  John  (Campbell),  Lord,  high  chancellor  of  England,  son  of  a minister  of 
Cupar,  in  the  co.  of  Fife,  Scotland,  was  born  in  1779.  He  was  at  first  destined  to  follow 
his  father’s  profession,  and  was  sent,  Avhile  still  a mere  boy,  to  the  neighboring  univer- 


359 


Campbell* 


sity  of  St.  Andrews.  C.  himself  had  no  inclination  for  a clerical  life,  and  when  he  had 
completed  his  studies  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  he  left  for  London,  being  then  about  19 
years  of  age.  He  obtained  employment  on  the  staff  of  the  Movninr}  Chronicle,  where,  in 
due  time,  lie  was  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  theatrical  criticism  and  the  reports  in  tlie 
house  of  commons.  He.was  called  to  the  bar  in  1806.  His  sound  sense,  and  unpretend- 
ing activity  and  devotion  to  business,  were  awarded  with  an  extensive  common-law  prac- 
tice, and,  after  a time,  with  professional  promotion.  The  silk-gown  of  a king’s  counsel 
'vvas  conferred  upon  him  in  1827.  Three  years  afterwards,  he  entered  parliament, 
actuated,  he  tells  us  in  the  preface  to  one  of  his  works,  by  a desire  to  obtain  for  England 
the  benefits  of  a national  registry  of  titles  to  land.  The  effort,  at  the  time,  was  unavail- 
ing, as  the  landlords,  whom  it  was  destined  more  immediately  to  benefit,  completely 
misunderstood  the  purport  of  the  project.  C.  was  promoted  by  the  Whig  party,  to 
which  he  had  attached  himself,  to  the  solicitor-generalship  in  1832,  and  to  the  attorney- 
generalship  in  1834.  In  the  same  year,  he  was  chosen  the  representative  in  parliament 
for  Edinburgh.  He  continued  to  represent  Edinburgh  down  to  1841,  and  remained  in 
the  office  of  attorney-general  during  that  period,  with  the  exception  of  the  short  time  in 
1835,  when  the  conservatives  were  in  power.  In  1841,  he  was  made  chancellor  of  Ire- 
land and  a peer  of  the  United  Kingdom ; but  held  the  office  of  chancellor  for  only  a few 
months,  when  the  Melbourne  cabinet  left  office,  necessitating  C.  also  to  resign.  For  the 
first  time  since  boyhood,  he  found  himself  without  regular  daily  labor,  and  at  the  mature 
age  of  60,  set  to  work  to  win  the  literary  fame  which  he  professes  always  to  have  secretly 
coveted.  His  first  publication  was  a collection  of  his  speeches  at  the  bar  and  in  the 
house  of  commons.  For  three  or  four  years  after  the  publication  of  his  speeches,  C. 
was  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  the  Lives  of  the  Chancellors,  the  first  series  of  which 
appeared  in  1845.  In  1846,  he  joined  the  Russell  cabinet  in  the  capacity  of  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  of  Lancaster.  His  ministerial  duties  were  not  sufficiently  arduous  to  inter- 
rupt his  literary  labors,  and  he  proceeded  to  complete  the  Lives  of  the  Chancellors,  and  to 
publish  a supplemental  series  of  Lives  of  the  Chief-justices  of  England.  Both  works  have 
enjoyed  great  popularity,  but  leave  no  doubt  that  the  author  was  more  fitted  for  a prac- 
tical lawyer  than  for  a man  of  letters.  C.  returned  to  more  congenial  labors  in  1850;  he 
was  then  appointed  to  succeed  Denman  as  chief -justice.  He  held  the  office  for  nine 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  he  received  the  highest  honor  that  can  be  obtained  by  a mem- 
ber of  the  legal  profession — the  chancellorship  of  England.  He  died  June,  1861. 

CAMPBELL,  Thomas,  a distinguished  English  poet,  was  b.  in  the  city  of  Glasgow, 
27th  July,  1777.  His  father  was  a merchant,  and  the  poet  was  the  youngest  of  ten  chil- 
dren. He  was  sent  to  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  remained  there  six  years. 
During  his  collegiate  course,  he  received  several  prizes,  and  was  particularly  dis- 
tinguished for  his  knowledge  of  Greek  literature.  On  leaving  the  university,  C.  went 
to  reside  as  a tutor  for  a year  in  the  island  of  Mull.  The  scenery  of  the  w.  Highlands 
made  a deep  impression  on  his  mind,  and  to  his  abode  in  these  grand  and  desolate 
regions  we  are  indebted  for  many  of  the  touches  of  sublimity  which  occur  in  his  verses. 
Returning  from  Argyleshire,  C.  meditated  the  study  of  law,  and  repaired  to  Edinburgh ; 
but  he  could  not  shake  off  his  recollections.  In  his  eyes,  the  mists  were  folded  on  the 
hills  ^f  Morven,  the  roar  of  Corrievrekin  was  in  his  ears,  and  instead  of  prosecuting  the 
study  of  jurisprudence,  he  wrote  The  Pleasures  of  Hope.  The  poem  was  published  in 
1799,  and  went  through  four  editions  in  a twelvemonth.  After  its  publication,  C.  went 
to  the  continent;  and  on  Dec.  3,  1800,  witnessed  from  a Bavarian  monastery  the  battle 
of  Hohenlinden,  fought  between  the  French  and  Austrians.  In  1801,  he  returned  to 
England  with  The  Exile  of  EhHn  and  Ye  Mariners  of  England  in  his  portmanteau; 
and  shortly  after,  took  up  his  abode  in  Edinburgh,  where  LocheiVs  Warning  was  com- 
posed. In  1803,  C.  proceeded  to  London,  and  adopted  literature  as  a profession.  He 
contributed  articles  to  The  Edinburgh  Encyclopcedia,  and  compiled  The  Annals  of  Great 
Britain  from  the  Accession  of  George  LI.  to  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  in  3 vols.  In  1806,  through 
the  influence  of  Mr.  Fox,  C.  received  a pension  of  £200  per  annum  from  government. 
In  1809,  he  published  Gertrude  of  Wyoming,  which  bears  the  same  relation  to  The  Pleas- 
ures of  Hope  that  The  Castle  of  Indolence  bears  to  The  Seasons — a less  brilliant  and  strik 
ing,  but  more  mature  and  finished  performance.  In  1818,  C.  was  again  in  Germany, 
and  on  his  return,  he  published  his  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets,  in  7 vols.  In  1820,  he 
delivered  a course  of  lectures  on  poetry  at  the  Surrey  institution.  From  this  date  to 
1830,  C.  edited  The  New  Monthly  Magazine,  and  contributed  thereto  several  poems,  one 
of  which,  'Ihe  Last  Man,  is  in  some  respects  the  loftiest  of  all  his  performances.  In 
1824,  he  published  Theodoric  and  other  Poems.  In  1827,  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the 
university  of  Glasgow,  and  received  the  unusual  honor  of  re-election  the  two  following 
years.  He  published  The  Pilgrim  of  Glencoe  and  other  Poems  in  1M2.  His  later  publi- 
cations did  not  add  to  his  fame.  He  died  at  Boulogne,  in  1844,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster abbey,  Macaulay,  dean  Milman,  and  other  celebrated  persons  bearing  the  pall. 

C.  is  an  established  English  classic.  With  the  young.  The  Pleasures  of  Hope  will  ever 
be  a chief  favorite;  while  readers  of  maturer  years  will  linger  with  delight  over  the  syl- 
van scenery  and  tender  domestic  scenes  of  Gertrude.  It  is  in  his  lyrics,  however,  that 
O.  has  ascended  highest  into  the  heavens  of  song — Hohenlinden;  Ye  Mariners  of  England; 
^nd  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic,  cannot  be  paralleled  in  the  language.  Than  these  lyrics. 


CampbelL 

Campbor. 


360 


nothing  can  he  more  simple  and  spirited.  Once  read,  they  cannot  be  forgotten.  They 
will  fan  the  patriotism  of  many  generations. 

CAMPBELL,  William,  1745-81;  b.  in  Va. ; an  officer  in  the  revolutionary  war. 
He  was  among  the  earliest  of  the  patriot  troops  from  that  colony,  and  was  distinguished 
in  the  conflicts  of  King’s  mountain  and  Guilford,  for  which  he  was  promoted  to  be 
brig. gen.  He  died  in  Lafayette’s  camp,  just  before  the  Yorktown  surrender. 

CAMPBELL,  William,  Lord,  d.  1778;  the  last  English  governor  of  South  Carolina. 
He  was  a capt.  in  the  navy;  a member  of  parliament  in  1764;  in  1766,  governor  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  1775,  of  South  Carolina.  He  was  active  in  stirring  up  the  Indians 
against  the  colonists,  and  was  in  the  expedition  led  by  sir  Peter  Parker  against  South 
Carolina,  in  the  course  of  which  he  received  the  wound  that  caused  his  death. 

CAMPBELL  ISLAND,  a lonely  spot  on  the  s.  Pacific,  in  lat.  52°  33' s.,  and  long.  169° 
9'  e.  Though  it  is  mountainous,  and  measures  only  36  m.  round,  it  is  yet  valuable  on 
account  of  its  harbors.  It  is  also  scientifically  interesting,  being  volcanic,  and  display- 
ing a rich  and  rare  flora. 

CAMPBELLITES.  See  Disciples  op  Christ. 

CAMPBELTON,  a royal  burgh  and  seaport,  on  the  e.  coast,  near  the  s.  end  of  the 
peninsula  of  Can  tire,  Argyleshire,  and  the  most  important  town  in  that  co.,  is  65  m. 
w.s.w.  of  Glasgow,  on  a fine  harbor  or  sea-loch,  2 m.  long,  and  one  mile  broad.  It  i^ 
noted  for  the  number — between  20  and  30 — of  its  whisky  distilleries.  It  unites  with 
Ayr,  Inverary,  Irvine,  and  Oban  to  return  one  member  to  parliament.  A sculptured 
granite  cross  stands  in  the  principal  street,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from 
Iona.  Pop.  ’71,  6680.  The  chief  exports  are  whisky,  herrings,  and  Highland  cattle  and 
sheep.  In  1874,  806  British  vessels  of  6838  tons,  and  18  foreign  of  2353  tons,  entered 
the  port.  C.  is  a favorite  summer  resort. 

CAM'PE,  Joachim  Heinrich,  1746-1818;  a German  teacher  educated  at  Halle  in 
theology,  and  chaplain  at  Potsdam.  In  1787,  he  was  counselor  of  education  in  Bruns- 
wick, where  he  published  books  for  schools,  and  established  a prosperous  business. 
His  works  on  education  have  been  widely  circulated,  not  only  in  German,  but  in  other 
languages. 

CAMPEACHY,  one  of  the  states  of  Mexico  occupying  the  s.  part  of  the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan,  and  bordering  on  Guatemala  and  the  Belize;  26,000  sq.m.;  pop.  about 
90,000,  of  whom  a large  proportion  are  Indians.  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  sandy 
and  unproductive,  but  there  are  good  pasture  lands.  The  main  productions  are  rice, 
sugar,  and  salt. 

CAMPEA'CHY,  a seaport  on  the  w.  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  which  divides 
the  Caribbean  sea  from  the  gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  in  lat.  19°  50'  n.,  and  long.  90°  33' 
west.  Though  it  has  a shallow  haven,  yet  it  is  the  center  of  the  trade  in  logwood;  it 
exports  likewise  cotton  and  wax.  It  is  a handsome  city  of  15,000  inhabitants,  contain- 
ing churches,  convents,  a cemetery,  a theater,  a college,  and  ship-building  docks. 
Campeche  is  the  Spanish  spelling. 

CAMPEG'GIO,  or  CAMPEGGI,  LorenzP,  1479-1539;  in  early  life  a lawyer,  but  on 
losing  his  wife  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  church  and  rapidly  rose  to  the  position  of 
cardinal.  In  1519,  he  was  sent  to  England  to  preach  a crusade  against  the  Turks,  but 
was  unsuccessful.  Henry  VIII.  made  him  bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1524,  and  he  came 
again  to  England  in  1528  to  assist  Wolsey  in  the  case  of  Henry’s  divorce  from  Catherine. 
He  accomplished  nothing,  however,  and  the  see  of  Salisbury  was  taken  from  him. 

CAMP  EQUIPAGE  is  a general  name  for  all  the  tents,  furniture,  fittings,  and  utensils 
carried  with  an  army,  applicable  to  the  domestic  rather  than  the  warlike  wants  of  the 
soldier.  In  the  days  when  armor  was  worn,  the  C.  E.  was  enormously  heavy  and  com- 
plicated. In  the  present  day,  a certain  amount  of  C.  E.  is  provided  for  a given  number 
of  troops.  See  Encampment,  Tent,  etc. 

CAMPER,  Peter,  one  of  the  most  learned  and  acute  physicians  and  anatomists  of 
the  18th  c.,  was  born  at  Leyden,  11th  May,  1722,  and  studied  medicine  there.  In  1750, 
he  became  professor  of  medicine  at  Franeker;  in  1755,  at  Amsterdam;  and  in  1765,  at 
Groningen.  In  1773,  he  resigned  his  post,  resided  some  time  at  Franeker,  and  then 
traveled.  On  being  elected  a member  of  the  state  council  in  1787,  he  removed  to  the 
Hague,  where  he  died,  7th  April,  1789,  C,  was  distinguished  not  only  for  the  services 
he  rendered  to  anatomy,  surgery,  obstetrics,  and  medical  jurisprudence,  but  also  as  a 
promoter  of  the  fine  arts.  He  was  remarkably  skillful  in  pen-and-ink  drawing,  painted 
in  oil,  embossed,  and  even  acquired  considerable  experience  as  a sculptor.  For  his 
observations  on  the  facial  angle,  see  article  Angle.  His  work  on  the  connection  of 
anatomy  with  the  art  of  drawing  was  an  important  contribution  to  the  theory  of  art. 
Another  work.  Description  Anatomique  d'un  Elephant  Male,  edited  by  his  son,  G.  A. 
Camper,  and  published  at  Paris  in  1802,  is  also  worthy  of  notice.  C.  ’s  collected  writ- 
ings, with  plates,  appeared  under  the  title,  (Euwes  qui  ont  pour  Objet  VHistoire  Naiurelle, 
la  Physiologic  et  V Anatomic  comparee,  3 vols.  (Par.  1803). 

CAMPERDOWN,  a broad  tract  of  low  downs  which  separates  the  small  hamlet  of 
Camp,  in  North  Holland,  from  the  German  ocean,  about  30  m.  n.  from  Haarlem.  It  is 


361 


Campbell. 

Camphor. 


known  on  account  of  the  victory  obtained,  off  that  part  of  the  coast,  by  admiral  Duncan 
over  the  Dutch  fleet,  Oct.  11,  1797.  The  Dutch  fleet  under  admiral  Van  Winter  had 
stolen  out  of  the  Texel,  with  the  view  of  joining  the  French  fleet  at  Brest,  when  it  was 
intercepted  by  admiral  Duncan,  and  after  an  obstinate  battle,  attended  with  great  loss 
on  both  sides,  the  Dutch  admiral  was  compelled  to  yield,  leaving  8 sail  of  the  line  and 
several  smaller  vessels  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  himself  becoming  a prisoner. 

T followers  are  the  sutlers  and  dealers  in  small-wares  who  follow  an  army 

In  India,  owing  to  the  peculiar  habits  and  customs  of  the  Hindus,  and  the  We 
number  of  servants  retained  by  English  officers,  the  C.  F.  are  in  immense  number: 
comprising  servants,  sutlers,  cantiniers,  hostlers,  water-carriers,  snake-charmers  danc- 
ers conjuror,  and  women.  In  Feb.,  1839,  when  a Bengal  army  of  15,000  men  left 
bliikarpoor  tor  Afghanistan,  it  was  accompanied  by  no  fewer  than  85  000  C F • the 
commander  took  with  him  six  weeks’  food  for  the  whole  100,000.  All  English  com- 
manders in  India  find  this  regulation  a very  burdensome  one.  Even  in  European 
armies,  however,  C.  F.  are  regarded  as  necessary;  they  are  under  the  control  of  the 
commanding  officer,  and  are  subject  to  the  articles  of  war— not,  however,  in  canton- 
ment^ only  in  the  field.  French  armies  are  accompanied  by  women  much  more  larg:elv 
than  English.  ^ ^ 


CAMP  HAUSEN,  Wilhelm,  b.  1818;  a German  painter  whose  specialty  is  battle 
pieces,  to  qualify  for  which  he  served  as  a volunteer  in  the  army.  Among  his  works  are 
. . ^ Breitenfeld,  ‘ ‘ Prince  Eugene  at  Belgrade,  ” ‘ ‘ Godfrey  de  Bouillon  at  Ascalon  ” 

Enemy,”  “A  Convoy  of  Prisoners  of  Cromwell’s  Camp” 
n?:  Roundheads,”  “ Storming  of  an  English  Castle  by  Cromwell’s  Soldiers’” 

Charles  11.  in  the  Retreat  from  Worcester,”  “Charles  I.  at  Naseby,”  etc.  In  1859  he 
was  made  professor  of  historical  painting  in  the  Dusseldorf  academy,  * 

CAMPHENE,  or  Camphilene,  is  an  artificial  variety  of  camphor  obtained  from  tur- 
pentine, by  acting  thereon  with  the  dry  vapor  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  keeping  the 
whole  at  a low  temperature  by  immersing  the  vessel  in  a freezing  mixture.  A solid 
substance  IS  produced,  which  separates  in  white  crystalline  prisms,  and  has  the  taste  and 
agreeable  aromatic  smell  of  common  natural  camphor.  As  prepared,  it  is  strictly  a 
f h}  drochlorate  of  C. ; but  the  latter  can  be  obtained  free  from  hydrochloric  acid  by 
' vapor  of  the  compound  substance  over  dry  heated  quicklime,  when  the  acid 

Py  lime,  and  pure  C.  passes  over.  It  is  not  so  similar  to  ordinary  camphor 
I when  thus  freed  from  the  hydrochloric  acid.  ^ ^ 

, CAMPHINE  is  the  name  applied  to  a variety  of  spirit  of  turpentine  obtained  from  the 
I pirms  australis  of  the  southern  states  of  America,  and  rather  extensively  sold  and  used 
j in  Britain  for  burning  in  out-of-door  lamps.  It  is  very  volatile,  and  burns  very  freely 
( giving  off  a pure  white  brilliant  light;  and  when  the  vapor  diffuses  itself  through  air’ 

I and  IS  set  lire  to,  it  forms  a dangerous  and  violently  explosive  mixture. 

CAMPHOR  is  a solid  essential  oil  which  is  found  in  many  plants,  and  may  be 
separated  from  many  essential  oils.  It  particularly  abounds  in  certain  species  of  the 
natural  o^er  lauracem  {q^.Y.).  Almost  all  the  C.  of  commerce  is  the  produce  of  the  C 
laurel  or  C.  tree  {camphora  officinarum,  formerly  known  as  laurus  camphora),  a native  of 
Chi^,  Japan,  Formosa,  and  Cochin-China,  and  which  has  been  introduced  into  Java  and 
(ine  west  indies.  ^ Ihe  genus  camphora  differs  from  cinnamomum  (see  Cinnamon)  chiefly 
iin  hayng  a thin  instead  of  a leathery  calyx.  The  C.  laurel  is  a tree  of  considerable 
Height,  much  branched,  with  lanceolate,  evergreen  leaves  on  short  stalks,  and  small 
yellowish-white  flowers  in  axillary  and  terminal  panicles.  The  fruit  is  in  size  and 
appearance  not  unlike  an  imperfectly  ripened  black  currant.  Every  part  of  the  tree 
but  especially  the  flower  smells  strongly  of  camphor.  The  wood  is  light  and  durable’ 
not  liable  to  be  injured  by  insects,  and  much  valued  for  carpenter’s  work.  In  the 
extraction  of  C.  from  the  C.  laurel,  the  wood  of  the  stem  and  branches  is  chopped  up 
into  fragments,  and  introifficed  into  a still  with  water,  and  heat  applied,  when  the  steam 
Si  These  vapors  rise,  and  in  passing  through  rice- 

traw,  with  which  the  head  of  the  still  is  filled,  the  C.  solidifies,  and  is  deposited  round 
the  straw  in  minute  grams  or  particles,  somewhat  about  the  size  of  raw  sugar  or  coarse 
sand.  These  grams  of  impure  C.  are  detached,  and  being  introduced  into  a large  globu- 
lar glass  vessel  in  quantities  of  about  10  lbs.,  are  reheated,  when  first  the  water  rises  in 
qnS  escape  at  a small  aperture;  and  thereafter,  this  aperture  being 

sublimes  and  resolidifies  in  the  interior  upper  part  of  the  flask,  as  a semi 
'^rntp^  L ^1?  ^ ^ ^ impurities  behind.  The  flasks  are  then  cooled  and 

cold  water  on  them,  and  the  C.  taken  out,  and  sent  into  market. 

^ Italian  name,  bomboloes,  the  sublimation  of 

md  ''' ^nknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 

hanTT^tPr  !nH  fl  fL  Europe  by  the  Arabs.  It  is  a white  tough  solid,  slightly  lighter 
n pfL^  floats  thereon.  It  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  freely  soluble 

ind  whpn  the  essential  oils.  It  fuses  at  347°,  and  boils  at  399°, 

moTTwatP^h  inflammable,  and  burns  with  a white  smoky  flame.  Thrown 

’ It  floats,  and  may  be  set  fire  to,  when  the  currents  generated  alike  from  the 
? . if  r irregular  burning  of  the  pieces,  cause  a curious  rotatory  motion. 

.1  has  a peculiar  hot  aromatic  taste,  and  an  agreeable  characteristic  odor 


Cainphuysen. 

Campo. 


362 


C.  is  used  in  medicine,  both  internally  and  externally,  as  a temporary  stimulant.  It 
is  frequently  employed  in  gout  and  rheumatism.  In  small  doses,  it  acts  as  an  anodyne 
and  antispasmodic;  in  very  large  doses,  it  is  an  irritant  poison.  It  is  generally  reckoned 
an  anaphrodisiac.  Its  alcoholic  solution  and  liniments  in  which  it  is  the  principal 
ingredient,, are  much  used  for  external  application  in  sprains  and  bruises,  chilblains, 
chronic  rheumatism,  and  paralysis. — The  effluvia  of  C.  are  very  noxious  to  insects,  and 
it  is  therefore  much  used  for  preserving  specimens  in  natural  history. 

The  Borneo  C.  or  Sumatra  C.  of  commerce,  sometimes  called  hard  C.,  is  the 
produce  of  dryohalanops  aromaiica,  a large  tree  of  the  natural  order  dipteracem  (q.v. ). 
The  C.  is  obtained  by  cutting  down  the  tree,  and  splitting  it  into  small  pieces;  being 
found  in  crystalline  masses  in  natural  cavities  of  the  wood.  To  this  substance,  the 
Chinese  ascribe  extraordinary  medicinal  virtues,  so  that  it  is  sold  among  them  at  more 
than  50  times  the  price  of  common  c.amphor.  It  is  seldom  brought  to  Europe  as  an 
article  of  commerce. — The  dryohalanops  aromatica  yields  also  a pale-yellowish  limpid 
fluid,  which  gushes  out  when  deep  incisions  are  made  in  the  tree  with  an  axe,  and 
which  is  generally  called  liquid  C.  or  C.  oil.  It  is  sometimes  imported  into  Europe.  It 
has  a smell  somewhat  resembling  that  of  C.,  but  more  aromatic,  like  oil  of  cajeput. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  from  this  fluid  that  the  crystalline  hard  C.  is  deposited.  See 
Borneene. 

CAMP'HUYSEN,  Dirk  Rapaelsz,  1586-1627;  a Dutch  painter,  theologian,  and 
poet.  He  made  a translation  of  the  Psalms,  and  wrote  many  short  poems  of  merit; 
also  several  theological  works,  among  which  was  a compendium  of  the  doctrines  of 
Socinius.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  work  as  a painter,  which  was  more  than  ordinarily 
good. 

CAMPI,  a family  of  artists,  who  founded  at  Cremona,  in  the  middle  and  near  the 
close  of  the  16th  c.,  an  eclectic  school  of  painting,  parallel  with  that  founded  by  the 
family  Caracci  (q.v.).  Giulio  C.  (1500-72)  was  the  head  of  the  school.  He  studied 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  under  Giulio  Romano.  He  also  imitated  the  works 
of  Titian  (at  least  in  coloring)  and  Pordenone  with  such  success  that  his  pictures  have 
sometimes  been  ascribed  to  both  of  these  artists.  His  female  heads,  like  those  of  his 
brothers,  are  remarkably  beautiful. — Antonio  C.  studied,  under  his  brother,  both  paint- 
ing and  architecture.  His  knowledge  of  the  latter  was  very  serviceable  in  several  of  his 
paintings ; for  example,  that  of  the  sacristy  of  St.  Peter.  He  was  also  a plastic  artist, 
an  engraver,  and  the  historian  of  his  native  place. — Vincenzo  C.  (b.  before  1532,  d.  1591> 
seems  to  have  followed  the  guidance  of  Antonio  rather-  than  that  of  Giulio,  and 
excelled  more  in  small  figures  than  in  large  pictures.  His  paintings  of  fruits  are  highly 
valued. — Bernardino  C.  (b.  1522,  d.  about  1590),  a kinsman  of  the  three  brothers  C., 
was  the  most  famous  of  the  whole.  Lanzi  terms  him  “ the  Annibale  Caracci  ” of  the 
school.  He  studied  first  under  Giulio  C.,  but  soon  excelled  his  master.  Afterwards, 
he  chose  Giulio  Romano,  Titian,  and  Correggio  as  models,  but  chiefly  followed  Raphael, 
yet  without  servile  imitation.  Many  of  his  works  are  found  in  Milan  and  Cremona. 
In  the  latter  place,  the  cupola  of  the  choir  in  the  church  San-Gismondo  is  Bernardino’s 
master-piece.  He  was  distinguished  as  a portrait-painter  and  engraver.  The  lady- 
painter,  Sophonisba  Anguissola,  was  a distinguished  pupil  of  Bernardino. 

CAM'PIAN,  or  CAMPION,  Edmund,  1540-81;  one  of  the  few  English  Jesuits  of 
celebrity;  educated  at  Oxford;  ordained  deacon  in  1567,  but  as  he  could  not  consent  to 
the  Protestant  formulary  as  required  by  the  English  church,  he  went  to  Ireland  and 
wrote  a history  of  that  country;  and  then  to  Douay,  where  he  joined  the  society  of 
Jesus.  In  1580,  he  returned  to  England  as  a propagandist  missionary.  The  next  year 
he  was  charged  with  exciting  the  people  to  rebellion  and  holding  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  foreign  powers,  found  guilty,  and  hanged  at  Tyburn,  with  several  others 
of  his  order. 

CAMPIDO'GLIO,  Palaz'zo  del,  a famous  palace  erected  by  Michael  Angelo  on. 
the  Capitoline  hill,  in  Rome.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  capital. 

CAMPI  NAS,  or  San  Carlos,  a t.  of  Brazil,  in  the  province,  and  70  m.  n.  of  the 
city  of  Sao  Paulo,  is  situated  in  a fertile  and  picturesque  district,  on  a small  river,  the 
Piraticaba,  a feeder  of  the  Parana.  There  are  large  coffee  and  sugar  plantations  in 
the  surrounding  district,  and  large  quantities  of  sugar  are  exported.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  built  of  mud  or  clay,  and  the  immense  church,  whose  walls  are  5 ft.  thick,  is 
composed  of  beaten  earth.  Pop.  6,000. 


CAM'PION.  See  Lychnis  and  Silene. 

CAMPOBAS'SO.  a province  in  s.  Italy,  1178  sq.m.;  pop.  ’70,  864,208.  The  surface 
is  almost  wholly  mountainous,  the  highest  point  being  monte  Miletto,  6,740  feet.  Chief 
products,  grain,  wine,  and  vegetables.  There  are  manufactories  of  steel  and  iron  ware 
The  most  Important  stream  is  the  Biferno. 

CAMPOBAS'SO,  a fortified  t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  about 
53  m.  n.n.e.  of  the  city  of  Naples.  The  town  stands  on  a slope  of  the  monte 
Verde,  in  a cool,  airy,  and  healthy  region.  It  has  a fine  cathedral,  a ruined  castle,  some 
convents,  and  palaces  belonging  to  resident  nobles.  It  has  manufactures  of  cutlery, 
which  enjoys  a considerable  reputation  for  excellence.  Its  situation,  though  far  from 


3b3 


CamphnyMiu 

Campo. 


inviting  as  regards  scenery,  is  favorable  for  trade,  which  is  facilitated  by  good  roads. 
Pop.  13,500. 

CAMPOBAS'SO,  Nicolo,  Count  of,  a soldier  of  fortune  in  the  15th  c. ; the  son  of  a 
noble  family  whose  estates  were  confiscated  because  he  sided  with  Anjou  in  a war 
against  Naples.  He  sold  his  services  to  Charles  the  bold,  but  subsequently  betrayed 
him,  and  was  suspected  of  being  concerned  in  Charles’s  death.  Walter  Scott  depicted 
C.  in  Anne  of  Oeierstein. 

CAMPOBELLO,  an  island  in  Passamaquoddy  bay,  2 m.  from  Eastport,  Maine, 
belonging  to  New  Brunswick;  8 m.  long;  pop.  1073.  There  are  copper  and  lead  ores; 
but  fishing  is  almost  the  only  occupation. 

CAMPOBELLO,  an  island  of  New  Brunswick,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Passama- 
quoddy bay,  in  lat.  44°  57'  n.,  and  long.  66°  55'  west.  It  is  small,  being  9 m.  long,  and 
from  1 to  3 m.  broad;  but  it  is  decidedly  valuable,  possessing  some  good  harbors,  and, 
at  its  n.  end,  a light-house  of  60  ft.  in  height. 

CAMPO  DE  CRIPTANA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of,  and  about  50  m.  n.e.  of  the 
city  of  Ciudad-Real.  It  has  manufactures  of  coarse  cloths,  and  some  trade  in  corn  and 
fruits.  Pop.  5250. 

CAMPO-FORMIO,  a village  in  the  province  of  Udine,  northern  Italy,  about  7 m.  s.w. 
of  the  city  of  Udine,  is  celebrated  for  the  treaty  of  peace  here  concluded,  Oct.  17,  1797, 
between  Austria  and  the  French  republic.  After  subjugating  Italy  (1796),  the  French 
army  had  crossed  the  Noric  Alps,  and  threatened  Vienna.  Austria,  therefore,  hastened 
to  an-ange  preliminaries  of  peace.  In  the  treaty  which  was  concluded  by  Bonaparte 
with  the  count  of  Coblenz,  17th  Oct.,  1797,  Austria  ceded  the  Netherlands,  Milan,  and 
Mantua,  and  received  as  compensation  the  districts  Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  the  left  bank 
of  the  Adige  in  the  Venetian  states,  and  the  capital,  Venice;  while  France  took  the 
remaining  territory  of  Venice,  its  possessions  in  Albania,  and  the  Ionian  islands.  In 
the  secret  articles  of  the  treaty,  Austria,  in  ceding  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  was  to 
receive  as  cosmpenation  Salzburg  and  the  Bavarian  district  on  the  Inn;  and  promises 
were  held  out  to  the  duke  of  Modena,  and  other  Italian  houses,  that  their  concessions 
should  be  compensated  at  the  cost  of  Germany. 

CAMPOMA'NES,  Pedro  Rodriguez,  Count  of,  Spanish  minister  and  director  of  the 
royal  academy  of  history  at  Madrid,  founded  by  Philip  V.  in  1738,  was  b.  in  Asturias 
in  1723.  His  talents  and  learning  were  devoted  to  the  advancement  of  his  native  coun- 
try. By  his  enlightened  views  of  state  policy,  as  well  as  by  his  writings,  which  ranked 
him  among  the  most  eminent  Spanish  authors,  he  obtained  a great  reputation  through 
out  Europe.  He  gave  effectual  assistance  to  count  Aranda  in  his  difficult  enterprise  of 
driving  the  Jesuits  out  of  Spain.  He  died  Feb.  3,  1802.  C.’s  chief  works  are  Antigue- 
dad  Maritima  de  la  Repuhlica  de  Cartago  con  el  Periplo  de  su  general  Hannon,  traduddo 
del  GHego  y ilustrado  1756);  Discurso  sohre  el  fomento  de  la  Industria  pormlo/r 

(1771);  Discurso  sohre  la  Educacion  popular  de  los  Artisanos  y su  fomento  {111^)-,  Apendice 
a la  ^ucacion  popular  (1775-77).  These  writings  contained  his  opinions  on  politics, 
taxation,  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce.  The  best  known  of  his  financial 
productions  is  Tratado  de  la  Regalia  de  Amortizacion  (Madrid,  1765). 

CAMPO  SANTO  (holy  field)  is  now  the  Italian  designation  for  a cemetery  or  burying- 
ground,  but  more  especially  for  an  inclosed  place  of  interment,  surrounded  internally  by 
an  arcade,  and  destined  to  receive  the  remains  of  persons  of  distinction.  The  most 
famous  C.  S.,  and  that  from  which  the  others  derived  the  name,  is  that  of  Pisa — in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Dome,  and  consecrated  to  the  memory  of  men  who  had  deserved 
well  of  the  republic.  It  was  founded  by  archbishop  Ubaldo,  towards  the  end  of  the 
12th  century.  The  archbishop,  having  been  driven  out  of  Palestine  by  Saladin,  brought 
his  fifty-three  vessels,  which  had  been  destined  for  the  conquest,  laden  with  the  earth  of 
the  Holy  Land.  This  he  deposited  on  the  spot  which  was  thence  called  the  holy  field, 
and  which,  as  we  have  said,  gave  its  name  as  a generic  term  to  the  burying-grounds  of 
Italy.  The  architect  of  the  existing  building  was  Giovanni  Pisano,  under  whose  super- 
intendence it  was  completed  in  1283.  It  contains  an  area  of  400  ft.  in  length,  and  118  in 
breadth ; and  is  surrounded  by  a lofty  wall,  on  the  inner  side  of  which  a wide  arcade 
runs  round  the  whole  inclosure,  giving  to  it  the  character  of  one  magnificent  cloister. 
At  the  smaller  eastern  side,  there  is  a large  chapel,  and  two  smaller  chapels  of  smaller 
size  on  the  northern  side.  The  lofty  circular  arches  of  the  arcade  are  filled  with  the 
richest  Gothic  tracery,  which  belongs,  however,  to  a later  date— the  latter  half  of  the  15th 
€. — and  consequently  formed  no  part  of  the  original  design.  The  walls  are  adorned  with 
frescoes  which  are  of  great  interest  and  value,  both  absolutely  and  with  reference  to  the 
history  of  art.  The  oldest  of  those  which  have  been  preserved  adorn  one  side  of  the 
eastern  wall:  they,  represent  the  passion  of  Christ,  his  resurrection,  and  other  sacred 
subjects.  These  remarkable  paintings  are  supposed  to  date  before  the  middle  of  the 
14th  c.,  and  are  ascribed  to  Buffalmaco.  But  the  most  marvelous  productions  are 
those  of  Giotto  (q.v.),  of  Simone  Memmi,  the  friend  of  Petrarch,  and  of  Andrea  and  Ber- 
nardo Orcagna.  As  a museum  of  classical  antiquities,  the  C.  S.  is  perhaps  even  more 
remarkable  than  in  any  other  point  of  view.  Altars,  sarcophagi,  bass-reliefs,  statuea, 


Campus. 

Cauaanites. 


364 


inscriptions,  everything  that  is  interesting  or  curious  which  has  come  into  the  possession. 
of  the  Pisans  for  centuries,  they  have  accumulated  within  its  walls. 

CAMPUS,  in  ancient  Rome,  a vacant  space  in  or  near  a city,  for  public  shows,  com- 
bats, etc.  There  were  eight  around  Rome,  of  which  the  C.  Martins  (camp  of  Mars)  was 
the  most  important.  It  was  outside  the  walls,  occupying  the  level  space  between  the 
Quirinal,  Pincian,  and  Capitoline  hills.  In  this  met  the  comitia  centuriata  and  the  comitia 
tributa;  and  in  it  was  the  public  hall  for  the  use  of  the  magistrates  and  foreign  ambas- 
sadors, who  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the  city.  In  later  times  it  became  a pleasure 
ground,  with  shaded  walks,  gardens,  baths,  theaters,  and  a race-course.  Julius  Caesar 
built  within  it  the  marble  halls  for  the  comitia;  Agrippa  the  baths  and  the  pantheon; 
Augustus  his  own  mausoleum ; and  Statilius  Taurus  the  first  stone  amphitheater.  Later 
emperors  crowded  this  particular  C.  with  public  buildings  and  private  residences. 
Under  Aurelian  it  was  taken  in  as  a part  of  the  city.  The  district  in  which  the  old 
C.  was  situated  is  now  called  Campo  Marzo.  Another  ancient  C.  was  the  Sceleratus, 
the  polluted  field,  where  vestals  who  had  been  untrue  to  their  vows  of  chastity  were 
buried  alive.  The  open  grounds  around  modern  colleges  often  bear  the  name  of  campus. 

CAMPVERE,  now  called  Verb,  Veere,  or  Ter-Yere,  a small  fortified  t.  on  the 
n.e.  of  the  island  of  Walcheren,  in  the  Netherlands  province  of  Zealand,  4 m.  n.n.e. 
of  Middelb urg.  It  has  a port  on  the  Veersche  Gat,  which  runs  from  the  Sloe  to  the 
Roompot,  separating  Walcheren  from  North  Beveland.  The  town  has  fallen  into- 
decay;  but  its  former  prosperity  is  indicated  by  the  town-house  of  white  freestone,  with 
elegant  tower,  and  the  front  ornamented  by  statues  of  several  lords  and  ladies  of  the 
house  of  Borssele ; and  by  the  large  and  beautiful  cathedral  church  which  is  no  longer 
used.  Pop.  Jan.  1,  1875,  1192.  C.  owed  its  name  to  the  ferry  (Dutch,  'ceer)  existing 
from  thence  to  the  village  of  Campen,  in  North  Beveland,  the  site  of  the  present  ham- 
let of  Kamperland. 

From  a historical  point  of  view,  C.  is  a town  of  great  interest.  In  1304,  it  was  the 
scene  of  a battle  between  William,  governor  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  and  Guy,  count 
of  Flanders,  who  was  victorious.  In  1572,  the  Spaniards  were  driven  away;  and  a cen- 
tury later,  C.  was  the  first  town  which  proclaimed  William  III.,  the  prince  of  Orange, 
general  stadtholder.  It  is  chiefly  interesting  as  the  seat  of  a Scottish  factory  for  three 
and  a half  centuries.  Wolfaard  van  Borssele,  lord  of  C.,  having,  in  1444,  married 
a princess  of  the  Stuart  line,  an  impulse  was  given  to  the  Scottish  trade.  A factory 
of  merchants  was  formed,  and  by  contract  between  the  royal  burghs  of  Scotland  and  the 
united  provinces,  C.  became  the  only  staple  port.  The  goods  could  not  be  transferred 
to  any  other  place  until  sold,  merchants  resorting  thither  to  do  business.  The  factors 
obtained  many  privileges,  such  as  freedom  from  several  duties  and  the  right  of  being 
governed  by  the  law  of  Scotland,  having  a lord  conservator  who  was  supreme  judge  in 
all  matters.  No  factor  might  settle  at  C.  without  the  written  authority  of  the  commis- 
sioners of  royal  burghs  of  Scotland,  who  took  security  for  his  honorable  behavior.  In 
1795,  the  Batavian  republic  withdrew  the  privileges,  and  the  factory  was  broken  up, 
but  the  conservatorship  was  held  as  a sinecure  long  after  the  necessity  for  the  office  had 
ceased,  the  name  of  sir  Alexander  Ferrier  appearing  in  the  Edinburgh  Almanac  as 
“conservator  at  Campvere”  so  lately  as  1847.  The  magistrates  of  C.  were  bound  to 
provide  a church  for  the  factory,  “ to  the  end  that  the  people  of  the  Scottish  nation  be 
not  frustrate  of  the  Word  of  God  and  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion  in  their  own 
proper  language.  ” The  ministers  were  appointed  by  the  commissioners  of  royal  burghs, 
from  1613  to  1790,  when  the  last  appointment  was  made. 

CAMTOOS,  or  Gamtoos,  a river  of  the  e.  division  of  the  Cape  Colony,  of  200  m.  in 
length.  It  rises  in  the  Niewveld  mountains,  near  lat.  32°  s.,  and,  flowing  through  the 
inland  district  of  Beaufort,  and  the  maritime  one  of  Uitenhage,  falls  into  that  inlet  of 
the  sea  which  is  immediately  to  the  w.  of  Algoa  bay.  It  is  valuable  as  an  aid  to  irriga- 
tion. For  instance,  Hankey,  a station  of  the  London  missionary  society  on  its  banks, 
is  thoroughly  watered  by  means  of  a splendid  tunnel  carried  through  solid  rock  at  the 
expense  of  the  association  just  mentioned. 

CAMUCCI'NI,  Vincenzo,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  modern  historical  painters  in 
Italy,  was  b.  in  Rome,  1775.  The  school  of  which  he  became  the  head  was  founded  on 
the  theatrical  antique  style  of  the  French  painter  David.  The  first  important  works  by 
C.  were  the  “Assassination  of  Caesar”  and  the  “ Death  of  Virginia;”  both  painted  for 
lord  Bristol  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  His  picture  of  “Unbelieving 
Thomas”  was  copied  in  mosaic  for  St.  Peter’s  church.  For  the  church  of  San  Giovanni 
in  Piacenza  he  executed  a “Presentation  in  the  Temple,”  which  was  greatly  admired. 
These  works  were  followed  by  many  scenes  from  Roman  history;  among  them,  the  pic- 
tures of  “ Horatius  Codes,”  and  “Romulus  and  Remus”  as  children.  C.,  who,  as  a 
man  and  an  artist,  was  highly  honored  during  his  career,  died  at  Rome,  Sept.  2,  1844. 

CAMUS,  Armand  Gaston,  a prominent  character  in  the  French  revolution,  was  b. 
in  Paris,  April  2,  1740.  On  account  of  his  superior  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  law,  he 
was  elected  advocate-general  of  the  French  clergy.  He  was  a zealous  and  ascetic  Jan- 
senist,  and  possessed  of  extraordinary  firmness  of  character.  He  hailed  the  movements 
of  1789  with  joy,  and  was  elected  member  of  the  states-general  by  the  people  of  Paris. 


365 


Campus. 

CauaanitM. 


In  this  position,  he  appeared  as  the  resolute  foe  of  the  ancient  regime.  He  gained  pos- 
session of,  and  published,  the  so-called  Red  Book,  giving  accounts  of  court  expenditure, 
which  was  highly  disadvantageous  to  the  court  and  its  ministers.  After  the  fight  of 
Louis  XVI.,  C.,  with  Montmorin,  Lafayette,  and  Bailly,  accused  the  king  of  treason 
and  conspiracy,  and  insisted  on  the  suppression  of  all  orders  and  corporations  based  on 
hereditary  rights.  As  conservator  of  the  national  archives,  he  rendered  an  important 
service  by  preserving  from  destruction  the  old  documents  of  the  abolished  corporations 
and  institutions.  He  was  absent  in  Belgium  during  the  king’s  trial,  but  sent  his  vote 
for  death.  In  Mar.,  1793,  when  he  was  commissioned  to  make  prisoners  of  Dumouriez 
and  other  generals  suspected  of  treason,  C.  himself  and  his  four  colleagues  were  taken 
prisoners  and  delivered  over  to  the  Austrians  (April  3);  but,  after  an  imprisonment  of 
two  and  a half  years,  he  was  exchanged  for  the  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.  On  his  return 
to  Paris,  he  was  made  member  of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent, Jan.  23,  1796,  but  resigned  20th  May,  1797,  and  devoted  his  time  to  literature. 
Remaining,  however,  true  to  his  principles,  he  voted,  July  10,  1802,  against  Napoleon’s 
proposed  consulship  during  life.  C.  died  of  apoplexy,  Nov.  2,  1804. 

CAMUS,  Charles  Etienne  Louis,  1699-1768;  a French  mathematician,  associate 
of  the  Paris  academy  of  sciences,  and  member  of  the  royal  society  of  London.  In  1736, 
he  accompanied  Maupertuis  and  Clairaut  in  an  expedition  to  Lapland  to  measure  a 
degree  of  the  meridian.  He  was  the  author  of  a Course  of  Mathematics,  and  several 
essays  on  mechanical  and  mathematical  subjects. 

CAMWOOD,  or  Barwood,  a dyewood  which  yields  a brilliant  but  not  permanent  red 
color,  and  is  used  along  with  sulphate  of  iron  to  produce  the  red  color  in  English  ban- 
dana handkerchiefs.  It  is  the  wood  of  haphia  nitidia,  a tree  of  the  natural  order 
leguminosm,  sub-order  ccesalpiniem,  a native  of  Angola.  It  is  preferred  to  Brazil  wood 
(q.v.),  as  producing  a finer  and  richer  red. 

CA'NAAN,  the  fourth  son  of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah.  The  posterity  of  Canaan 
were  numerous,  there  being  ten  sons  who  were  the  fathers  of  as  many  tribes  dwelling  in 
Palestine  and  Syria.  His  eldest  son,  Zidon,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the 
city  of  Sidon.  The  whole  of  Palestine  was  called  after  the  patriarch  the  “Land  of 
Canaan.”  As  to  the  curse  pronounced  by  Noah  upon  Canaan  and  his  descendants, 
there  is  no  just  reason  to  suppose  that  it  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  the  unfilial 
conduct  of  Ham. 

CA'NAAN.  See  Palestine. 

CA'NAANITES,  a collective  name  for  the  several  nations  conquered  by  the 
Israelites  on  the  w.  side  of  Jordan.  Five,  six,  seven,  and  ten  nations  are  mentioned 
in  various  places  in  the  Old  Testament;  but  of  only  two  of  them  have  we  any  col- 
lateral information — the  Hittites,  and  the  Amorites.  And  the  former  of  these  appears 
to  have  been  included  not  with  strict  propriety  among  the  Canaanites,  evidence  now 
tending  to  show  that  they  not  only  dwelt  beyond  the  border  of  Canaan,  but  did  not  even 
speak  a Semitic  language;  nor  were  they  homogeneous  with  other  Canaanitish  people. 
In  general,  the  Canaanites  are  described  as  living  in  a state  of  political  disintegration; 
the  combined  result  of  Semitic  love  of  independence,  and  of  varied  conformation  of  the 
soil.  Thirty-one  of  their  petty  kings  are  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Joshua.  That  the 
Israelites  were  not  immediately  successful  in  conquering  the  C.  is  now  universally 
recognized.  The  work  of  many  years  was  concentrated  by  tradition  on  a single 
great  name.  The  immediate  result  of  the  Israelite  invasion  was,  not  the  extinction 
of  the  old,  but  the  addition  of  a new  element  of  stronger  material,  but  less  advanced 
culture.  The  chief  object  of  Canaanitish  worship  was  the  dual-natured  god  of  life  and 
fruitfulness,  Baal,  or  the  Baal,  “ the  lord,”  and  his  consort  Asherah,  “the  happy.”  The 
masculine  form  of  the  latter  was  the  name  of  one  of  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob.  Asherah 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Ashtoreth  or  Astarte,  who  belonged  to  another  type  of 
Semitic  religion.  The  symbol  of  Asherah  was  the  stem  of  a tree,  though  possibly  some- 
times carved  into  an  image ; that  of  the  Baal  probably  had  the  form  of  a cone  and  repre- 
sented the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  the  generative  power.  It  is  these  symbols  which  are 
referred  to  in  the  phrase  “ the  Baals  and  Asherahs”  (Judges  iii.  7),  where  “the  groves” 
of  the  king  James’s  version  is  clearly  a mistranslation.  The  licensed  harlotry  which 
formed  a part  of  the  worship  of  Asherah  was  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  the  later  Hebrew 
prophets,  though,  indeed,  even  the  folk-lore  of  the  Israelites  shows  traces  of  aversion  to 
its  attendant  immorality.  Another  characteristic  of  the  Canaanitish  religion  was  sooth- 
saying, and  this  was  vigorously  denounced  by  the  conquerors  (Deut.  xviii.  10-14). 
There  were  relics  of  Canaanitish  times  in  old  traditions  which  the  Israelites  did  not  sup- 
press, and  it  is  alleged  by  uncompromising  historical  critics  that  some  of  the  narratives 
in  Genesis  are  revised  and  purified  versions  of  Canaanitish  legends.  The  most  obvi- 
ous of  these  are  said  to  be  the  stories  which  are  attached  to  localities  in  Canaan,  such  as 
Luz  and  Beersheba.  The  question  whether  a remnant  of  the  old  population  of  Pales 
tine  may  not  be  still  in  existence  is  answered  in  the  aflirmative  by  several  recent  investi- 
gators, who  find  descendants  of  the  C.  in  the  fellahs  or  peasants  of  the  Holy 
Land.  From  an  ethnological  point  of  view  there  seems  to  have  been  a close  affinity  of 
the  three  peoples,  the  Israelites,  the  C.,  and  the  Phoenicians,  who  appear  to  have 


Canadian. 

Canada. 


366 


migrated  successively  from  a Babylonian  center,  and  the  last  to  move  westward  were 
probably  the  Hebrews. 

CANADIAN  RIVER,  rising  in  n.w.  Mexico,  25  m.  n.e.  of  Santa  Fe,  running  s. 
150  m.,  and  then  e.  near  the  bounds  of  the  Indian  territory  and  Texas,  thence  through 
the  Indian  territory,  and  emptying  into  the  Arkansas  river  near  the  w.  boundary  of  the 
state  of  Arkansas;  whole  length  about  600  miles. 

CANADA,  as  a geographical  designation,  has  had  in  history  a variety  of  meanings. 
Originally,  it  comprised  an  extensive  range  of  country  reaching,  under  the  French,  as 
far  as  even  the  Mississippi,  away  beyond  the  boundary  lakes.  It  was  subsequently  lim- 
ited to  a region  chiefly  in  the  basin  of  the  St.  Lawrence — including  in  that  term  both 
the  lakes  and  the  river.  C.,  in  the  sense  in  which  that  word  is  most  generally  known, 
was,  in  1791,  divided  into  two  provinces,  Ontario  and  Quebec,  or  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada.*  These  two  sections  were  reunited  in  1840;  but  became  separate  members  of 
the  confederation — the  Dominion  of  Canada — in  1867.  The  country  composed  of  these 
two  provinces  extends  eastwards  from  a line  drawn  between  lake  Superior  and  James 
bay,  a branch  of  Hudson’s  bay,  to  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Northward,  it  reaches 
from  the  Canadian  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  high  ridge  of  land  which  separates 
the  rivers  of  C.  from  those  of  the  region  long  known  as  the  Hudson  bay  territory,  but 
since  1870  forming  a part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  C.  is  bounded  n.  by  the  (former) 
Hudson  bay  territory;  e.,  by  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  s.,  by  the  states  of  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York,  and  the  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario;  w.,  by  lakes  St. 
Clair,  Huron,  and  Superior;  and  n.w.,  by  the  Indian  territories.  The  area  of  C.  is  about 
331,280  sq.m.,  of  which  121,260  are  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  and  210,020  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Quebec.  The  principal  river  of  C.  is  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  its  most  important 
tributaries  are  all  from  the  left.  The  St.  Lawrence  drains  an  area  of  565,000  miles. 
The  Ottawa,  450  m.  long,  forms  the  boundary  between  Ontario  and  Quebec.  The  St. 
Maurice,  nearly  400  m.  in  length,  and  the  Saguenay,  noted  for  its  fine  scenery,  rank  as 
rivers  of  the  first  magnitude,  according  to  European  analogies.  The  only  afiluents 
from  the  right  worth  naming  are  the  Richelieu,  the  St.  Francis,  and  the  Chaudiere; 
and  even  of  these  subordinate  streams,  the  last  two  are  totally  Canadian,  while  the 
first,  as  the  outlet  of  lakes  Champlain  and  George,  belongs  to  the  United  States  only 
in  part. 

In  1535,  Jacques  Cartier,  a French  navigator,  b.  at  St.  Malo  in  1494,  entering  the 
St.  Lawrence  on  the  festival  of  the  saint  of  that  title,  took  nominal  possession  of  North 
America  in  the  name  of  his  king,  Francis  I.  It  was  not,  however,  till  nearly  a century 
later  (1608)  that  Quebec  was  taken  formal  possession  of.  From  that  stronghold,  France 
ruled  for  150  years  a vast  region,  extending  eastward  to  Acadia — Nova  Scotia — west- 
ward to  lake  Superior,  and  down  the  Mississippi  to  Florida  and  Louisiana.  In  1759,  a 
small  British  army — 5000  in  number — under  the  command  of  gen.  Wolfe  (q.v.),  virtually 
wrenched  La  Nouvelle  France,  on  the  “plains  of  Abraham,”  from  her  first  European 
rulers  by  the  taking  of  Quebec.  Isle  aux  Noix,  and  forts  Oswegatchie  and  Levis,  suc- 
cessively passed  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  and  then  Montreal  was  beleaguered  and 
taken  by  gen.  Amherst  with  an  army  of  17,000  men.  The  capitulation  of  that  city, 
which  was  signed  Sept.,  1760,  brought  to  a final  close  the  era  of  French  dominion  in 
Canada.  The  people  of  the  conquered  country  w’ere  secured,  by  the  terms  agreed  to, 
in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion ; and  peace  was  concluded  between  Britain  and 
France  in  1763. 

In  that  year,  a small  portion  of  the  recently  acquired  territory  was  organized  by 
royal  proclamation  under  English  laws.  In  1774,  the  new  province  was  extended  by 
parliamentary  enactment,  and  that  under  French  laws,  down  the  Ohio  to  its  confluence 
with  the  Mississippi,  and  up  the  latter  stream  to  its  source.  Finally,  C.  receded  to  its 
present  limits  in  1783,  giving  up  to  the  American  republic  the  sites  of  six  sovereign 
states — Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  In  1791,  it  was 
divided,  under  separate  legislatures,  into  two  sections — the  eastern  retaining  French 
institutions,  and  the  western  receiving  those  of  England;  and  these  sections,  again, 
after  political  discontent  had  in  each  ripened  into  armed  insurrection,  were  re  united  for 
legislative  purposes  in  1840. 

In  1763,  the  French  population  amounted  to  about  65,000,  occupying  the  immediate 
banks  of  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  and  its  tributaries.  Excepting  within  the  cities  of 
Montreal  and  Quebec,  the  immigrants  of  a different  origin,  whether  from  the  old  colo- 
nies or  from  the  mother  country,  scarcely  attempted  to  establish  themselves  among  the 
ancient  settlers;  thus  producing  a kind  of  reciprocal  isolation,  which,  even  down  to  the 
present  day,  has  not  been  materially  disturbed.  Generally  speaking,  therefore,  the  two 
grand  elements  of  the  provincial  population  are  locally  distinguished  from  each  other — a 
relative  position  which  has  happily  excluded,  as  between  them,  nearly  every  difiiculty 
as  to  education  and  religion.  The  settlers  of  French  origin,  almost  entirely  confined  to 
lower  C.,  occupy  the  banks  of  St.  Lawrence  and  of  the  lower  courses  of  its  tributary 
strea)ns;  all  the  rest  of  lower  0.  and  the  whole  of  upper  C.,  so  far  as  they  are  reclaimed 
at  all,  belong  to  colonists  of  English  race. 

The  origin  of  the  name  is  most  probably  to  be  found  in  the  assertion  that  Jacques 

* In  the  first  half  of  the  article  the  name  Canada  is  used  in  this  sense ; the  second  haJf  gives  a notice 
of  the  Dominion  as  now  constituted. 


Canadian. 

Canada. 


3G7 

Cartier,  the  discoverer  of  Canada,  having  heard  the  natives  apply  the  Indian  word 
Kannaiha  (village)  to  their  settlements,  mistook  it  for  the  name  of  the  whole  country. 

Upper  and  lower  C.  have  presented  a striking  contrast  in  their  rates  of  progress. 
To  take,  for  instance,  the  growth  of  towns:  In  lower  C.  there  are  only  two  towns  with 
a pop.  (1871)  above  5,000 — Levis,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  6,691,  and  Sorel,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Richelieu,  5,636 — in  addition  to  Quebec,  Three  Rivers,  and 
Montreal,  the  three  French  foundations.  The  growth  of  Montreal  and  Quebec,  remark- 
able enough  in  itself,  has  been  owing  rather  to  their  commercial  facilities  with  regard 
to  the  country  at  large  than  to  the  agricultural  resources  of  their  immediate  vicinities; 
while  Toronto,  London,  Kingston,  and  Hamilton — each  nurtured  chiefly  by  its  own 
locality — have  an  aggregate  population  of  above  110,000.  Great  part  of  upper  and  lower 
C.,  more  especially  the  shores  of  lake  Superior,  is  valuable  only  for  mineral  resources, 
such  as  iron,  zinc,  lead,  copper,  silver,  gold,  cobalt,  manganese,  gypsum,  marl,  granite, 
sandstone,  limestone,  slate,  and  marbles  of  nearly  every  imaginable  color.  Considerable 
portions  also,  though  heavily  timbered,  chiefly  with  pine,  are  yet  but  little  adapted  to 
settlement  and  cultivation.  Towards  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  again,  a considerable 
section  derives  importance  mainly  from  the  flsheries,  being,  with  partial  exceptions  in 
Gaspe,  comparative!}’-  worthless  for  every  other  object.  Thus  the  area  for  the  profitable 
production  of  ordinary  cereals  cannot  materially  exceed  40,000  sq.m.,  containing,  how- 
ever, within  this  space  a singularly  small  proportion  of  irreclaimable  surface.  This  cul- 
tivable block  increases  in  width  and  fertility  from  its  commencement  on  the  lower  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  shores  of  lake  Huron.  Below  Quebec — to  say  nothing  of  the  precari- 
ous nature  of  the  crops — there  may  always  be  seen,  on  one  or  on  both  sides,  the 
primeval  forest.  Between  that  city,  again,  and  the  basin  of  the  Ottawa,  a gradual 
improvement  shows  itself,  even  on  the  n.  side;  and  towards  the  s.,  there  stretches  away 
to  the  frontier  of  the  United  States  a broad  belt  of  generally  undulating  character, 
probably  the  best  field  in  the  country  for  the  blending  of  pasturage  and  agriculture. 
From  the  basin  of  the  Ottawa  inclusive,  the  parallel  of  the  s.  end  of  lake  Nipissing  may 
be  said  to  cut  off,  towards  the  s.w.,  the  entire  residue  of  the  practicable  soil,  in  the 
shape  of  a roughly  defined  triangle,  which,  as  a whole,  is  at  least  equal,  in  the  growth 
of  grain  in  general  and  of  wheat  in  particular,  to  any  region  of  the  same  extent  in 
North  America. 

As  C.  slants  southwards  eight  or  nine  degrees  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  that  of  the  Detroit,  which  communicates  b^etween  lakes  St.  Clair  and  Erie,  the  climate 
of  the  w.  must  be  warmer  than  that  of  the  east.  In  addition  to  this  cause  of  difference, 
it  holds  as  a general  law  over  the  continent  that  the  climate  improves  in  advancing  west- 
ward, even  on  the  same  parallel.  Besides,  the  lakes  of  upper  C.  appear,  in  a good 
measure,  to  neutralize  and  mitigate  the  extremes  of  a Canadian  climate.  While  Quebec 
in  winter  ordinarily  enjoys  five  or  six  months  of  sleighing,  the  corresponding  season  in 
Toronto  ranges  from  five  or  six  days  to  five  or  six  weeks.  As  to  summer,  the  difference 
in  favor  of  Toronto  is  rather  in  point  of  duration  than  of  intensity.  As  indications  of 
the  climate  of  C. , it  may  be  stated  that  the  isle  of  Orleans,  immediately  below  Quebec, 
is  famous  for  its  plums,  and  the  island  of  Montreal  for  its  apples;  and  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Toronto  to  the  head  of  lake  Erie,  grapes  and  peaches  ripen  without  any  aid 
whatever.  Melons,  again,  of  large  size,  come  to  maturity,  through  the  settled  parts  of 
the  province,  in  the  open  air;  and  pumpkins  and  squashes  attain  enormous  size,  some  of 
them  near  Toronto  having  weighed  300  lbs.  The  climate  of  C.,  though,  as  a whole, 
vastly  steadier  than  that  of  the  British  isles,  is  yet  occasionally  liable  to  such  changes  as 
among  us  are  all  but  impossible.  Montreal,  for  instance,  may  be  said,  on  an  average, 
to  have  an  extreme  cold  of  24°  below  zero,  and  an  extreme  heat  of  96°  above  it.  Now, 
on  short  notice,  a thaw  may  surprise  the  former  temperature,  and  a frost  the  latter;  so 
that  there  is  room,  in  winter  and  summer  respectively,  for  a comparatively  sudden  rise 
or  fall  of  about  60°.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  C.  has  the  summer  of  Italy  and  the 
winter  of  Southern  Russia  or  North  Germany.  The  average  summer  temperature  of  Tor- 
onto is  67.8°,  of  Paris,  64.5°,  and  of  Rome,  74.2°;  while  the  average  winter  temperature 
of  Toronto  is  24.5°,  of  Berlin,  31.4°,  and  of  St.  Petersburg,  18.1°.  And,  lying  in  the 
latitudes  of  the  summer  rains,  and  of  the  most  valuable  cereals  and  grasses,  the  latitude 
most  favorable  for  animals  which  enhance  domestic  wealth — the  ox,  the  sheep,  and  the 
horse — C.  occupies  one  of  the  best  positions  in  the  world  for  rearing  men  and  women. 
It  lies  in  the  latitude  where  man  attains  the  greatest  energy  of  body  and  mind,  and  fiom 
which  have  hitherto  issued  the  conquering  races.  C.  may  thus  be  looked  on  as  destined 
to  influence  the  future  of  the  world. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada. — The  name  Canada  has  lately  acquired  an  enormous  exten- 
sion of  territorial  signification.  In  1867,  an  act  for  the  union  of  C.  (Upper  and  Lower), 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  was  passed,  and  by  it  these  provinces  were  federally- 
united  into  one  Dominion  of  C.  under  the  crown  of  the  United  Kingdom,  with  a consti- 
tution similar  to  that  of  the  mother  country  and  with  Ottawa  for  its  capital.  All  the 
vast  territory  which  the  Hudson  bay  company  held  under  a charter  issued  by  Charles 
II.,  was  transferred  to  the  imperial  government  in  Dec.,  1869 — the  company  receiving 
an  indemnity  from  the  Canadian  government  of  £300,000 — and  was,  by  order  of  H.  M. 
the  queen  in  council,  received  into  the  Dominion  the  following  year.  The  portion  of 
that  territory  known  as  Red  River  Settlement  (q.v.)  was  in  1870  erected  into  the  pro- 
vince of  Manitoba.  (The  district  to  the  n.  and  e.  of  Manitoba  is  now  known  as 


Canada. 


368 


Keewatin.  The  vast  region  towards  the  n.w.  was  organized  as  a territory  in  1875  under 
the  name  of  the  North-west  territory.)  British  Columbia  became  a member  of  the 
Dominion  in  1871.  Prince  Edward  island  joined  the  confederation  in  1873,  and  the 
accession  of  Newfoundland  cannot  be  long  deferred. 

This  vast  extent  of  territory,  extending  from  the  latitude  of  Rome  to  the  Arctic 
ocean,  stands  in  superficial  area  (3,500,000  sq.m.),  even  if  we  exclude  Labrador  and  the 
islands  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  little  behind  the  United  States  (3,603,000)  and  Europe 
(3,720,000).  East  and  w.  it  extends  from  the  53d  to  the  141st  meridians.  The  total 
habitable  area  is,  however,  diminished  considerably  when  the  frozen  regions  n.  of  the 
60th  parallel  of  latitude  are  deducted. 

The  physical  characteristics  and  statistics  of  the  various  provinces  will  be  found 
discussed  under  their  several  heads. 

The  census  of  1871  gives  the  following  figures  for  the  several  provinces: 


Provinces. 

Ontario 

Quebec 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Manitoba . 

British  Columbia 

Prince  Edward  island 

North-west  territory 

Total  for  Dominion 

Newfoundland  (1869) 

Total  for  Dominion  of  the  future. 


Area  in 


sq.  miles. 

Pop.  1871. 

107,780 

1,620,851 

193,355 

1,191,516 

27,322 

285,594 

21,731 

387,800 

13,969 

12,228 

356,000 

33,586 

2,133 

94,021 

2,650,000 

60,500 

3,372,290 

3, 6}:  6, 096 

40,200 

146,536 

3,412,490 

3,832,632 

The  Indian  population  of  the  Dominion  was  in  1877  reported  by  the  superintendent 
of  Indian  affairs  to  amount  to  99,650.  In  1871,  the  number  of  immigrants  into  the 
Dominion  was  37,949;  in  1873,  they  numbered  no  less  than  99,059;  and  in  1874,  80,022. 
Of  these  a fair  proportion  became  actual  settlers;  thus  of  a total  of  31,650  immigrants 
in  1876,  25,633  settled  in  the  country.  Of  late  there  has  been  some  immigration  from 
the  United  States.  In  1879,  there  were  upwards  of  6000  Chinese  residents  in  British 
Columbia. 

Church  and  Education. — There  is  no  state  church  in  C.  In  1871,  there  were  1,492,000 
Roman  Catholics  in  the  Dominion,  the  mass  of  the  inhabitants  of  Quebec  province 
being  French  Catholics.  The  Presbyterians  numbered  544,000;  the  Methodists,  514,000; 
and  the  Episcopal  church,  494,000.  Lutherans,  Congregationalists,  and  many  other 
sects  are  also  represented.  The  Episcopal  church  is  governed  by  nine  bishops,  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  by  four  archbishops  and  fourteen  bishops. 

Education  is  carefully  fostered  in  the  Dominion.  Especially  in  the  oldest  settlement 
both  primary  and  secondary  schools  are  numerous.  The  province  of  Ontario  had  in 
1871  nearly  5000  educational  establishments,  including  16  called  colleges.  Quebec  has 
3 universities,  1 being  Catholic,  and  above  20  classical  and  industrial  colleges.  New 
Brunswick  has  nearly  1000  primary  schools.  Nova  Scotia  has  a university  at  Halifax; 
and  the  new  province  of  Manitoba  has  already  a university  at  Winnipeg.  In  1871,  there 
were  420  newspapers  and  other  periodicals  published  in  C.,  of  which  255  appeared  in 
Ontario. 

Revenue. — The  total  revenue  of  the  Dominion  of  C.  for  the  financial  year  ending 
June,  1877,  amounted  to  £8,877,956,  and  the  gross  expenditure  was  £8,840,324,  leaving 
a surplus  of  £37,632.  In  the  financial  estimates  for  the  year  ending  June,  1879,  the 
total  expenditure  was  fixed  at  £7,866,876.  The  debt  of  the  Dominion,  incurred  chiefly 
on  account  of  public  works,  the  interest  of  which  forms  the  largest  part  of  the  expend- 
iture, amounted  in  1878  to  £29,879,421;  and  of  this  capital,  £24,497,524  represented 
debt  payable  in  London. 

Commerce. — The  trade  of  the  Dominion  is  chiefly  with  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain;  and  while  the  greater  part  of  the  Canadian  exports  finds  its  way  to  Great 
Britain,  the  imports  are  now  chiefly  from  the  United  States.  Thus,  of  a total  expor- 
tation of  76,000,000  in  1877,  41  millions  went  to  Great  Britain,  26  millions  to  the  United 
States;  while  of  a total  importation  of  99,000,000,  40  millions  came  from  Great  Britain, 
but  51  millions  from  the  United  States.  In  1878,  the  total  exports  were  valued  at 
$79,323,667  (£15,864,000);  the  imports  at  $93,081,787  (£18,616,000).  The  staple  articles 
of  export  are  wood  and  breadstuffs;  also  fish,  furs,  etc.,  and  minerals.  The  chief 
imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  are  iron,  wrought  and  un wrought,  woolen  manufac 
tures,  and  cotton  goods. 

Shippinr/. — The  merchant  shipping  of  C.  is  important,  and,  considering  its  popula- 
tion, remarkably  extensive.  At  the  end  of  1877,  there  were  7362  vessels  on  the  regular 
books  of  the  Dominion,  measuring  1,310,468  tons  of  register  tonnage.  C.  is,  accord- 
ingly, the  fifth  in  rank  of  the  ship-owning  states  of  the  world,  following,  for  extent  of 
shipping,  Britain,  the  United  States.  Norway,  and  Italy,  but  taking  precedence  of  Ger- 
many, France,  and  all  other  maritime  powers. 


369 


Canada. 


F'sherm— The  total  produce  of  the  Canadian  fisheries  in  1877  was  valued  at  £2,- 
405,991.  In  that  year  fish  to  the  value  of  £1,400,140  were  exported.  This  includes  the 
fisheries  of  British  Columbia,  but  of  course  excludes  those  of  Newfoundland.  In  1879, 
there  were  seven  establishments  in  C.  for  artificial  fish  culture,  from  which  in  the  pre- 
ceding year  13,500,000  young. fish  (salmon,  speckled  trout,  and  white  fish)  were  sent 
forth  into  the  waters  of  the  Dominion. 

Mines. — In  the  year  1876-77,  Canadian  mines  gave  produce  (including,  coal,  gold, 
gypsum,  manganese,  mineral  oil,  copper,  iron,  lead,  silver,  salt,  slate,  and  stone)  to  the 
value  of  £739,790. 

Canals  and  Railways. — In  the  matter  of  communication  C.  is  unrivaled.  The  St. 
Lawrence,  with  its  lakes,  puts  great  part  of  it  in  connection  at  once  with  the  most  com- 
mercial section  of  the  United  States  and  with  the  open  ocean.  The  navigation  of  this 
great  water  system  has  been  greatly  assisted  by  art;  numerous  and  extensive  canals,  of 
which  the  Rideau  and  the  Welland  are  the  most  important  supplement  to  the  main 
artery.  The  revenue  of  the  canals  in  1877  amounted  to  £74,790.  C.  is  also  not  deficient 
in  roads  of  every  description,  at  least  in  the  settled  regions;  and  it  already  possesses  an 
immense  and  steadily  increasing  network  of  railways.  In  1877,  there  were  in  operation 
over  5,570  m.  of  railway,  while  nearly  2,000  m.  were  in  course  of  construction.  The 
Orand  Trunk  railway,  1388  m.  in  length,  and  giving  unbroken  communication  between 
Portland  and  Detroit,  is  the  longest  line  in  the  world  owned  by  one  company  and  under 
the  same  management.  The  Victoria  bridge,  by  which  the  railway  crosses  the  St.  Law- 
rence at  Montreal,  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  In  1872,  the  imperial  parliament 
notified  the  guarantee  of  a Canadian  loan,  to  be  applied  to  the  construction  of  a railway 
through  British  territory  to  the  Pacific  shores;  but  the  original  arrangements  have  been 
departed  from,  and  the  undertaking  progresses  but  slowly.  There  has  been  much  debate 
as  to  the  best  point  for  the  terminus.  The  total  revenue  of  the  railways  in  the  year 
1876-77,  was  £3,748,413.  There  is  weekly  communication  betwen  Liverpool  and  (Glas- 
gow and  Montreal  and  Quebec. 

Army  and  Naval  Force. — The  number  of  imperial  troops  in  C.  was  in  1871  reduced 
to  2,000  men,  who  form  the  garrison  of  the  fortress  of  Halifax — still  accounted  an 
“imperial  station,”  as  it  also  is  the  headquarters  of  the  British  fleet  in  these  waters.  C. 
has  besides  a large  volunteer  force,  and  a recently  organized  militia,  consisting  of  all 
male  British  subjects  in  C.  between  the  ages  of  18  and  60.  The  active  militia  consisted 
in  1879  of  43,729  officers  and  men,  and  the  reserve  comprised  665,000  men.  C.  is 
divided  into  11  military  districts;  there  is  a royal  military  college  at  Kingston,  and  several 
centers  of  military  instruction.  The  naval  armament  of  C.  consisted  in  1877  of  8 armed 
screw-steamers,  of  a total  tonnage  of  2,014  tons,  besides  two  other  fast  steamers  available 
as  gun-boats.  These  are  provided  partly  by  the  imperial  government,  partly  by  the 
Dominion,  and  are  kept  on  the  great  lakes  and  on  the  St.  Larrrence. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measures.  — The  decimal  system  of  currency  was  introduced  in 
1871,  the  unit  of  account  being  the  dollar  (at  the  average  rate  of  exchange  equal  to  4s.). 
The  English  imperial  yard,  pound  avoirdupois,  and  gallon  are  standards  for  C. ; but  in 
1859  the  hundredweight  of  112  lbs.  and  the  ton  of  2,240  lbs.  were  abolished,  a hundred- 
weight of  100  lbs.  and  a ton  of  2,000  lbs.  being  substituted. 

See  the  articles  on  the  various  provinces  and  the  towns  of  the  Dominion;  and 
Canada. 


CANADA  has  recently  acquired  a more  enlarged  signification.  An  act  of  the  imperial 
parliament  (called  shortly  Xhe  British  North  America  2,e‘i)  passed  29th  Mar.,  1867, 
and  came  into  force  1st  J une  of  the  same  year,  uniting  federally  the  former  separate 
provinces  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  into  one  Dominion,  under  the 
name  of  Canada.  The  upper  and  lower  divisions  of  the  former  Canada  (q.v.),  which 
had  been  politically  united  since  1840,  are  again  dissociated,  so  that  the  federation  con- 
sisted, in  1867,  of  four  members  or  provinces,  as  under; 


Quebec  (formerly  Lower  Canada,  or  Canada  East). 
Ontario  (formerly  Upper  Canada,  or  Canada  West) 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 


English 
square  miles. 
210,020 
121,260 
27,105 
18,660 


Total 377,045 

Estimated  population  (1867) 8,800,000 


fihe  constitution  of  the  Dominion  is  after  the  model  of  the  mother-country.  The  par- 
liament consists  of  the  queen,  an  upper  house  styled  the  senate,  and  a house  of  com- 
mons. The  queen  is  represented  by  a governor-general  (with  a salary  of  £10,000),  who 
exercises  his  authority  with  the  aid  ana  advice  of  a council,  styled  the  queen’s  privy 
council  for  Canada,  chosen  from  time  to  time  by  the  governor.  The  senate,  in  1867, 
consisted  of  not  more  than  72  members,  24  for  each  of  the  provinces  of  Ontario  and  Que 
bee,  and  12  each  for  the  maritime  provinces.  The  senators  are  chosen  by  the  governor- 
U.  K.  III.— 24 


Canada. 

Canal. 


370 


general,  and  hold  the  appointment  for  life.  Among  other  qualifications,  a senator  must 
have  real  property  to  the  value  of  $4,000,  and  must  be  resident  in  the  province  for 
which  he  is  appointed.  The  speaker  of  the  senate  is  nominated  by  the  governor-general. 
The  house  of  commons  consisted  at  the  same  dale  of  181  members — 82  for  Ontario,  05 
for  Quebec,  19  for  Nova  Scotia,  and  15  for  New  Brunswick.  The  duration  of  a house 
of  commons  is  five  years.  Until  the  parliament  of  Canada  otherwise  provides,  the  fran- 
chise and  other  regulations  are  to  be  the  same  as  those  hitherto  in  force  in  returning 
members  to  the  house  of  assembly  in  the  several  provinces.  The  house  of  commons 
elects  its  own  speaker.  Any  bill  passed  by  the  houses  of  parliament,  even  though  assented 
to  by  the  governor-general  in  the  queen’s  name,  may  afterwards  be  disallowed  by  the 
queen  in  council.  Each  province  has  an  executive  and  legislature  of  its  own,  presided 
over  by  a lieutenant-governor,  and  constituted  in  the  mean  time  pretty  much  as  before  the 
union.  The  lieutenant-governors  are  appointed  by  the  governor-general.  The  provin- 
cial parliaments  may,  under  the  provisions  of  the  act,  amend  from  time  to  time  their 
own  constitutions. 

In  the  distribution  of  legislative  power  between  the  general  and  the  provincial  par- 
liaments, certain  classes  of  subjects  of  a local  nature  are  assigned  exclusively  to  the  leg- 
islatures of  the  provinces,  while  subjects  of  more  general  concern  are  assumed  by  the 
parliament  of  Canada.  Among  the  subjects  enumerated  in  the  act  as  coming  under 
the  latter  description  are:  the  public  debt  and  property;  taxation  (for  federal  pur- 
poses), postal  service,  military  and  naval  defense,  the  salaries  of  the  civil  officers  of  the 
general  government;  the  census;  navigation;  money,  weights,  and  measures;  copy- 
rights; marriage  and  divorce;  criminal  law.  The  provincial  legislatures,  again,  have 
the  power  of  taxing  themselves  for  provincial  purposes,  and  of  borrowing  money  on  the 
sole  credit  of  the  province;  of  regulating  and  paying  provincial  officers;  of  establishing 
asylums,  etc.  Education  is  also  left  to  the  provincial  legislatures,  with  certain  provi- 
sions against  encroachment  on  the  rights  of  religious  minorities. 

The  debts  of  the  several  provinces,  at  the  union,  are  assumed  (with  certain  limitations) 
by  the  federal  government;  and  on  the  other  hand,  certain  duties  and  revenues,  and 
certain  public  works  and  properties  belonging  to  the  several  provinces  before  the  union, 
are  taken  possession  of,  to  form  a consolidated  revenue  fund  for  defraying  the  interest 
of  these  debts,  and  for  the  other  expenditure  of  the  federal  government. 

Provision  is  made  for  the  introduction  of  uniformity  of  laws,  which,  however,  must 
be  with  consent  of  the  legislatures  of  the  several  provinces. 

The  union  of  the  various  British  American  provinces  had  been  long  and  eagerly  dis- 
cussed, public  opinion  in  Canada  being  generally  in  its  favor,  but  in  the  other  provinces 
strongly  opposed  to  it,  from  the  natural  apprehension  that  the  immense  preponderance 
of  C.  in  population,  wealth,  and  general  importance  would  utterly  swamp  the  others. 
However,  after  much  and  careful  consideration,  the  great  advantages  which  it  was 
shown  the  scheme  would  confer,  overcame  the  provincial  jealousies,  the  pro-federalists 
in  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  came  to  preponderate,  and  these  two  provinces 
w^ere,  in  1867,  united  with  Quebec  and  Ontario  to  form  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  In 
British  Columbia  and  the  Hudson’s  bay  territories  the  feeling  in  favor  of  annexation 
was  strong,  and  in  1869  the  latter,  and  in  1871  the  former,  was  transferred  to  the  imperial 
government.  The  Hudson’s  bay  company  received  an  indemnity  of  £300,000,  In  1871, 
the  Red  river  settlement  was  formed  into  a province  under  the  name  Manitoba.  In  1873, 
Prince  Edward  island  was  annexed.  The  only  part  of  British  North  America  which 
stands  aloof  is  Newfoundland,  but  provision  has  been  made  for  its  admittance  in  the  act 
of  union,  and  its  accession  cannot  be  long  deferred.  The  area  of  the  vast  dominion  is 
about  3,500,000  sq.m.,  exceeding  that  of  the  United  States,  and  little  inferior  to 
Europe.  The  number  of  members  of  parliament  given  above  has,  of  course,  been  in- 
creased by  the  representatives  of  the  new  provinces — viz.,  2 senators  and  4 members 
of  the  house  of  commons  for  Manitoba,  3 senators  and  6 members  for  British  Columbia, 
and  4 senators  and  6 members  for  Prince  Edward  island.  The  total  (with  a few  addi- 
tional members  in  the  old  provinces)  was  in  1879,  75  senators,  and  205  members  of  the 
house  of  commons. 

CANADA  BALSAM  is  a kind  of  turpentine  (q.v.)  obtained  from  the  balm  of  Gilead 
fir  {abies  or  picea  halsamea),  a native  of  Canada  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  United 
States.  See  Fm.  It  exists  in  the  tree  in  vesicles  between  the  bark  and  the  wood,  and  is 
obtained  by  making  incisions,  and  attaching  bottles  for  it  to  flow  into.  It  is  a trans- 
parent liquid,  almost  colorless,  and  with  an  agreeable  odor  and  acrid  taste.  It  pours 
readily  out  of  a vessel  or  bottle,  and  shortly  dries  up,  and  becomes  solid.  When  fresh, 
it  is  of  the  consistence  of  thin  honey,  but  becomes  viscid,  and  at  last  solid  by  age.  It 
consists  mainly  of  a resin  dissolved  in  an  essential  oil,  and  its  composition  is  aa 


follows; 

Essential  oil 18.6 

Resin,  soluble  in  alcohol 40.0 

Resin,  sparingly  soluble 33.4 

Elastic  resin 4.0 

Bitter  extractive  and  salts 4.0 


100.0 


Canada. 

Canal. 


o -I 

O i i 

It  is  the  finest  kind  of  turpentine  obtained  from  any  of  the  coniferm,  and  is  much 
-employed  for  medicinal  purposes,  particularly  as  a stimulant  for  the  cure  of  mucous  dis- 
charges, and  as  a detergent  application  to  ulcers.  It  is  also  used  for  a variety  of  pur- 
poses in  the  arts — as  an  ingredient  in  varnishes,  in  mounting  objects  for  the  microscope, 
in  photography  (q.v,),  and  by  opticians  as  a cement,  particularly  for  connecting  the 
parts  of  achromatic  lenses  to  the  exclusion  of  moisture  and  dust.  Its  value  for  optical 
purposes  is  very  great,  and  depends  not  only  on  its  perfect  transparency,  but  on  its 
possessing  a refractive  power  nearly  equal  to  that  of  glass. 

CANADA  GOOSE.  See  Goose. 

CANAJOIIA'RIE,  a t.  and  village  of  Montgomery  co.,  N.  Y.,  50  m.  n.w.  of 
Albany ; pop,  of  township  ’80,  4294.  There  are  fine  stone  quarries  in  the  vicinity. 

CANAL,  an  artificial  channel  for  water,  formed  for  purposes  of  drainage,  irrigation, 
or  navigation,  but  now  usually  employed  to  designate  only  such  cuts  as  are  intended  for 
the  passage  of  vessels.* 

Canals  date  from  a period  long  anterior  to  the  Christian  era,  and  were  employed  as  a 
means  of  irrigation  and  communication  by  Assyrians,  Egyptians,  and  Hindus ; also  by 
the  Chinese,  whose  works  of  this  kind  are  said  to  be  unrivaled  in  extent;  one  of  them, 
the  Imperial  C.,  having  a length  of  about  1000  miles.  For  the  most  part,  however,  these 
early  canals  were  of  one  uniform  level,  and  hence  exhibit  no  great  skill  or  ingenuity- 
and  the  moderns  were  content  to  follow  the  rudimentary  efforts  of  the  ancients  in 
this  way  until  the  15th  c.,  when  the  invention  of  the  lock  (q.v.) — showing  how 
canals  might  be  generally  and  advantageously  used  for  inland  navigation  in 
countries  whose  surface  was  irregular — gave  a great  impulse  to  this  branch  of  engineer- 
ing. The  Italians  and  Dutch,  for  both  of  which  nations  the  invention  of  the  lock 
has  been  claimed,  were  the  first  to  develop  this  kind  of  engineering  in  Europe.  In 
France,  the  first  C.,  that  of  De  Briare,  to  form  a communication  between  the  Loire  and 
the  Seine,  was  opened  in  1642.  In  1681  was  completed  the  greatest  undertaking  of  the 
kind  on  the  continent,  the  C.  of  Languedoc,  or  the  C.  du  Midi,  to  connect  the  Atlantic 
with  the  Mediterranean.  The  length  of  this  C.  is  148  m.,  it  has  more  than  100  locks, 
and  about  50  aqueducts,  and  in  its  highest  part  it  is  no  less  than  600  ft,  above  the  sea. 
It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  upwards  of  100  tons.  It  was  not  until  nearly  a century 
later  that  C.  navigation  assumed  importance  in  England,  through  the  sagacity,  energy, 
and  liberality  of  the  duke  of  Bridgewater  (q.v.),  and  his  celebrated  engineer,  James 
Brindley  (q.v.).  The  success  of  these  works  stimulated  other  public  persons  to  engage 
in  similar  undertakings.  Speculation  in  C.  shares  became  a mania  similar  to  that  which 
overtook  the  people  in  connection  with  railways  at  a more  recent  period,  and  a crash 
ensued  on  the  prospect  of  war  in  1792.  It  would  be  an  endless  task  to  pursue  the  his- 
tory of  canal  development  in  Britain,  which  speedily  became  intersected  with  these 
watery  highways  to  an  extent  unequaled  in  any  European  country  save  Holland.  Ir 
the  space  at  our  disposal,  we  shall  briefly  consider  the  several  kinds  of  canal.  See  Sue2si 
and  Suez  Canal. 

Canals  may  be  divided  into  three  general  heads — viz.,  1.  Canals  proper,  i.e.,  entirely 
artificial  channels,  having  no  water  running  through  them  beyond  what  is  necessary  for 
their  own  purpose;  2.  Tidal,  i.e.,  affected  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides;  and  3.  Rivers 
rendered  navigable  by  w’^eirs  built  across  them  to  increase  their  depth,  and  having  a lock 
at  one  end  for  the  ascent  or  descent  of  vessels;  and  occasionally,  when  there  is  much 
fall,  or  any  formidable  obstruction  in  the  river,  by  lateral  cuts,  with  locks  for  part  of 
their  course. 

Another  division  may  be  made  (1)  of  ship-canals  for  the  transit  of  sea-going  vessels 
generally,  from  sea  to  sea;  these  are  necessarily  of  large  dimensions,  and  must  be  crossed 
by  swing  or  draw  bridges;  and  (2)  of  canals  for  the  passage  of  mere  boats  or  barges,  gen- 
erally without  masts,  so  that  they  may  be  crossed  by  stone  or  other  solid  bridges.  The 
largest  ship  C.  in  Europe  is  the  Great  North  Holland  C.,  completed  in  1825,  which  has 
a breadth  of  125  ft.  at  the  water-surface,  and  of  31  ft.  at  the  bottom,  with  a depth  of  20 
feet.  It  extends  from  Amsterdam  to  the  Helder,  a distance  of  51  m. ; it  thus  enables 
ships  of  as  much  as  1400  tons  burden  to  avoid  the  shoals  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  sur- 
face of  the  water  in  this  C.  is  below  the  high-water  level  of  the  German  ocean,  from 
which  it  is  protected  by  embankments  faced  with  wicker-w-ork.  The  locks  on  this  C. 
are  297  ft.  long,  51  ft.  broad,  and  20  ft.  deep.  There  is  a similar  C.  from  near  Rotterdam 
to  Helvoetsluis,  to  avoid  the  shallows  of  the  Brill  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maas.  Another 
great  ship  C.  is  the  Caledonian  C (q.v.).  The  Forth  and  Clyde  C.  is  also  one  on  a 
smaller  scale  for  the  passage  of  sea-going  vessels.  Its  length  is  35  m. ; its  medium  width 
is  56  ft.  at  the  surface,  and  27  ft.  at  the  bottom,  and  its  depth  9 feet.  It  has  -39  locks, 
each  75  ft.  long,  and  20  ft.  wide,  and  a rise  of  155  feet.  In  constructing  ship-canals,  it 

* In  the  fen-districts  of  the  e.  coast  of  England,  however,  the  large  channels  required  for  drainage 
are  made  subservient  to  purposes  of  inland  navigation  by  sluices  at  the  mouth— one  to  keep  out  the 
tide  at  high  water,  and  another  acting  in  the  opposite  direction,  to  retain  water  of  depth  sufficient  in 
the  channel  to  float  such  boats  as  make  use  of  it.  These  combinations  of  drain  and  canal  are  com- 
monly called  navigations;  hence  the  workmen  employed  in  their  construction  wc-e  called  navigators, 
which,  contracted  into  navvy,  is  now  applied  indiscriminately  to  persons  engaged  in  any  kind  of  earth- 
works. 


Canal. 

Cananore. 


372 


is  important  to  secure  a sheltered  entrance,  one  not  likely  to  become  silted  up,  and  of 
sufficient  depth  to  admit  vessels  at  all  times  of  the  tide;  and  towing-paths  on  both  sides 
are  desirable. 

Among  the  principal  canals  in  England  for  the  passage  of  barges,  some  of  which  run 
to  very  great  elevation,  are  the — 

Length,  Rise, 

Miles.  Feet. 


Grand  Junction 128 

Leeds  and  Liverpool 128  433 

• Trent  and  Mersey 93  326 

Kennet  and  Avon 57  402 


The  C.  of  the  Loire  is  one  of  those  aiding  the  navigation  of  a river.  It  has  a width 
on  the  water  line  of  33  ft.,  and  a depth  of  5^  ft.,  the  locks  being  17  ft.  broad,  and  100  ft. 
long.  The  river  Lea  and  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  Navigations  in  England,  and  the 
Welland  C.  in  Canada,  formed  to  connect  lake  Erie  with  lake  Ontario,  and  avoid  the 
falls  of  Niagara,  are  also  among  the  most  noteworthy  works  of  this  class;  the  river 
Thames,  above  the  first  lock  at  Twickenham,  partakes  also  of  the  nature  of  a canal. 

Many  canals  pass  through  long  tunnels,  some  very  low  and  without  towing-paths,  in 
which  case  the  mode  of  propulsion  is  by  the  boatmen  lying  on  their  backs  and  pushing 
with  their  feet  against  the  roof  of  the  tunnel. 

The  great  expenditure  of  water  and  time  in  “locking”  have  led  to  the  trial  of  various 
other  plans  for  overcoming  differences  in  level.  On  the  Great  Western  C.,  boats  are 
raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  machinery,  called  a perpendicular  lift.  On  the  Morris 
C.  (United  States),  boats  are  conveyed  on  a carriage  up  a railway  inclined  plane,  from 
one  reach  to  another;  on  the  Chard  C.,  Somersetshire,  and  on  the  Monkland  C.,  near 
Glasgow,  they  are  taken  afloat  in  a caisson,  or  water-tight  vessel,  up  or  down  an  inclined 
plane — in  the  latter  case,  empty  boats  of  60  tons  burden  are  raised  or  lowered  96  feet. 

Other  matters  engineers  have  to  consider  are  an  ample  supply  of  water,  by  means  of 
feeders  and  reservoirs  to  the  summit-level ; stop-gates  at  convenient  distances,  to  shut  off 
the  water  in  case  of  damage  to  any  part  of  the  C. ; means  of  drainage  when  repairs  are 
necessary;  and  provision  against  leakage  through  the  banks,  by  puddling  or  otherwise. 
The  floor-line  or  bottom  of  a C.  is  usually  made  twice  the  width  of  the  largest  boat  likely 
to  enter  the  C.,  with  an  addition  of  6 or  8 in.  for  play  at  each  side,  and  the  depth  12  or 
18  in.  more  than  the  draught  of  the  boat. 

The  introduction  of  railways  has  materially  interfered  with  C.  traffic,  and  some  canals 
have  been  altogether  abandoned.  Many,  however,  still  continue  to  prosper,  as,  for 
instance,  the  Grand  Junction,  the  Lea  Navigation,  and  the  Trent  and  Mersey.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  inland  boat  navigation  constructed  in  Great  Britain  exceeds  4,700 
miles.  In  the  United  States  there  are  upwards  of  4,000  m,  of  C.,  of  which  1300  m.  are 
in  New  York  state.  The  C.  system  has  also  been  very  extensively  carried  out  in  France, 
which  has  a large  mileage  of  artificial  inland  water  navigation.  A new  canal,  which 
shortens  the  distance  from  Amsterdam  to  the  North  sea  to  15  m.,  has  recently  been  com- 
pleted. The  harbor  is  near  Wyk-aan-Zee,  and  the  minimum  width  is  to  be  80  yards. 
This  canal  was  constructed  mainly  by  British  capital  and  engineers. 

Laws  regarding  Canals. — The  traffic,  and  generally  the  rights,  duties,  and  liabilities- 
of  canal  companies  are  regulated  by  two  acts  of  parliament,  the  8 and  9 Viet.  c.  42,  and 
the  17  and  18  Viet.  c.  31,  called  “the  railway  and  canal  traffic  act,  1854.”  The  word 
canal  is  declared  to  include  any  navigation  whereon  tolls  are  levied  by  authority  of 
parliament,  and  also  the  wharves  and  landing-places  used  by  such  canal  or  navigation; 
and  traffic  is  defined  as  including  not  only  passengers  and  their  luggage,  but  also  goods, 
animals,  trucks,  boats,  and  vehicles  of  every  description.  All  tolls  and  charges  in 
respect  of  the  traffic  are  to  be  charged  equally  to  all  persons.  It  is  declared  to  be  the 
duty  of  canal  companies  to  make  arrangements  for  the  receiving  and  forwarding  of 
traffic  without  unreasonable  delay  and  without  partiality,  and  facilities  are  given  for  a 
remedy  to  parties  complaining  of  want  of  attention  in  these  respects. 

According  to  section  7 of  the  17  and  18  Viet.  c.  31,  companies  are  liable  for  neglect  or 
default  in  the  carriage  of  animals  or  goods,  although  they  may  have  given  notice  to  the 
contrary.  Where  the  effect  of  such  neglect  or  default  occasions  the  loss  of  or  injury  to 
animals,  the  act  provides  that  no  greater  damages  shall  be  recovered  than  as  follows:  for 
any  horse,  £50;  for  any  neat  cattle,  per  head,  £15;  for  any  sheep  or  pigs,  per  head,  £2, 
unless  at  the  time  of  delivery  for  transit,  the  animals  were  declared  to  have  been  of 
higher  value.  No  special  contract  between  the  company  and  parties  employing  the 
canal  shall  be  binding  on  the  latter  unless  signed  *by  them.  The  act  saves  the  rights, 
privileges,  and  liabilities  of  companies  under  the  carriers’  act,  the  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1 
Will.  IV.  c.  68. 

Injury  to  canals,  with  intent  to  obstruct  the  navigation,  is  punishable  with  penal  ser- 
vitude for  not  more  than  seven,  or  less  than  three  years;  or  imprisonment  for  two  years, 
with  the  addition  of  hard  labor,  solitary  confinement,  and  whipping,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  court.  See  Carriers. 

CANAL  {ante).  Since  the  great  extension  of  railroads  in  the  United  States,  the 
building  of  canals  has  been  suspended,  except  for  mining  or  manufacturing  purposes. 


373 


Canal. 

CauanoreD 


For  purposes  of  transportation  none  have  been  commenced  and  very  few  enlarged 
or  improved  within  the  past  half-century.  The  whole  length  of  canals  in  the  union  is 
about  4,200  m.,  of  which  New  York  has  over  1300  m,,  Pennsylvania  920,  Ohio  800, 
Indiana  374,  Virginia  225,  etc.  The  most  imjrortant  is  the  Erie  in  New  York,  363  m. 
long,  connecting  lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson  river,  finished  in  1825  and  enlargement 
finished  in  1862,  at  a cost  of  more  than  $50,000,000.  The  other  large  canals  are  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson,  the  great  coal  route  to  New  York  from  the  Pennsylvania  mines, 
108  m.  long,  completed  in  1829,  cost  $6,300,000;  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  185  m.,  cost 
$11,375,000;  the  Schuylkill  Coal  and  Navigation  company’s  canal,  108  m.,  cost  $13,207,- 
000;  and  the  Wabash  and  Erie,  in  Indiana,  374  m.,  cost  $6,000,000.  There  are  13  canals 
in  New  York,  14  in  Pennsylvania,  5 in  Ohio,  4 in  Virginia,  2 in  New  Jersey,  and  1 each 
in  Delaware,  Maryland,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Michigan.  The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal 
originated  in  a project  formed  by  Washington  as  early  as  1774,  to  make  the  Potomac 
navigable  from  tide-water  to  Cumberland,  and  to  connect  it  by  common  roads  and 
portages  with  the  affluents  of  the  Ohio  w.  of  the  Alleghanies.  The  -war  of  the  revolu- 
tion postponed  the  scheme,  but  in  1784  it  was  again  broached  by  Washington,  and 
Maryland  and  Virginia  appointed  a joint  commission,  with  him  at  the  head,  to  inves- 
tigate the  subject.  The  result  was  the  incorporation  of  a company  to  make  the  Potomac 
navigable  from  tide-water  to  the  highest  possible  point  by  the  construction  of  such  locks 
as  might  be  necessary  for  that  purpose.  Of  this  company  Washington  was  the  president 
until  his  election  as  president  of  the  United  States  compelled  his  resignation.  The 
project  encountered  many  obstacles,  until  at  last  in  1820  it  was  abandoned  as  impractica- 
ble; when  the  board  of  public  works  of  the  state  of  Virginia  took  steps  which  led  to  the 
organization  of  a new  company,  which  constructed  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  from 
Georgetown  to  Cumberland,  completing  it  in  1850.  It  passes  through  the  Potomac 
valley  to  Paw  Paw  Bend,  from  which  point  it  passes  through  the  mountain  by  a tunnel 
3,118  ft.  long.  The  whole  length  of  the  canal  is  184  m.,  its  depth  6 ft.,  its  width  to 
Harper’s  Ferry  60  ft.  at  the  surface  and  42  ft.  at  the  bottom.  By  means  of  74  locks,  100 
ft.  long  and  15  ft.  wide,  an  elevation  of  609  ft.  is  gained.  All  the  water  is  supplied  by 
the  Potomac.  The  cost  of  the  work  was  over  $11,000,000. 

CANALET'TO,  orCANA'LE,  the  name  of  two  Venetian  painters,  who  have  acquired  a 
reputation  for  their  landscapes  and  views  of  towns.  The  elder,  Antonio  C.,  b.  1697, 
was  the  son  and  pupil  of  a theatrical  decorator  in  Venice.  He  studied  at  Rome.  He- 
< painted  a numerous  series  of  excellent  views  in  Venice,  among  which  that  of  the  great 
canal  are  especially  admirable  for  their  fresh  coloring,  faithfulness,  and  the  invention  dis- 
played in  accessory  objects.  He  came  to  England  by  the  advice  of  Amiconai.  He  died, 
in  1768,  after  having  acquired  both  wealth  and  fame  by  his  representations  of  English 
scenes,  several  of  which  are  in  Buckingham  house,  and  are  highly  admired. 

Bernardo  Bellotto,  surnamed  Canaletto,  nephew  and  pupil  of  Antonio,  was  b. 
at  Venice,  1724,  and  attained  high  excellence  as  a painter,  and  also  as  an  engraver  on  cop- 
per. He  practiced  his  art  in  his  native  place,  and  afterwards  in  Rome,  Verona,  Brescia, 
Milan,  and  Dresden.  Correct  perspective,  powerful  effects  of  light  and  shade,  and 
beautiful  sky-tints,  are  the  most  prominent  characteristics  of  his  works.  C.  visited  Eng- 
land, where,  among  several  other  excellent  works,  he  painted  a masterly  interior  view  of 
King’s  College  chapel,  Cambridge.  He  died  in  Warsaw,  1780. 

CANAMI'NA,  a t.  of  Dahomey,  Africa,  about  12  m.  s.  of  the  capital,  Abomey.  It  is. 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a cultivated  plain,  and  has  a house  for  the  accommodation  of 
white  men,  set  apart  by  the  king.  Pop.  10,000. 

CANANDAI'GUA,  a beautiful  village  in  New  York.  U.  S.,  at  the  n.  of  the  lake  of  the* 
same  name,  on  the  Rochester  and  Syracuse  railway.  Pop.  ’70,  4,862. 

CANANDAI'GUA  {ante),  a beautiful  village  in  Ontario  co.,  N.  Y.;  the  co.  seat, 
situated  at  the  n.  extremity  of  Canandaigua  lake,  24  m.  s.e.  of  Rochester,  on  the  New 
York  Central  railroad,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Rochester  and  Elmira,  and  the  Canan- 
daigua, Black  Rock  and  Tonawanda  railroads.  The  village  is  celebrated  for  picturesque* 
scenery  and  the  elegance  of  its  private  residences.  Pop.  ’75,  7,771.  Among  the  pub- 
lic buildings  are  a fine  court-house,  two  orphan  asylums,  several  churches,  an  academy, 
and  a seminary  for  women.  The  Indian  name  “ Canandaigua”  means  “ the  chosen  spot.  ’ 

CANANDAI'GUA  LAKE,  in  Ontario  co.,  N.  Y.,  15  m.  long  by  about  1 m.  wide: 
668  ft.  above  the  tide  and  437  ft.  above  lake  Ontario,  into  which  it  is  emptied  by  tli€ 
Clyde  and  Seneca  rivers.  It  is  surrounded  with  high  banks  and  charming  scenery, 
and  its  steamboats  are  largely  patronized  by  pleasure-seekers. 

CANANO'RE,  a seaport  and  military  station  of  the  district  of  Malabar,  in  the  presi- 
dency of  Madras.  It  is  in  lat.  11°  52'  n.,  and  long.  75°  26'  e.,  being  about  50  m.  to  the 
n.  of  Calicut.  The  town  stands  at  the  head  of  a bay,  which,  opening  from  the  s.,  forms 
its  harbor,  while  the  fort  and  cantonments  occupy  the  bluff  headland,  which  shelters  the 
inlet  on  the  side  of  the  Arabian  sea.  Besides  pepper,  grain,  and  timber,  the  neighbor- 
hood produces  immense  quantities  of  cocoa-nuts,  which  are  largely  exported  to  the- 
northward,  where  they  are  said  to  be  scarce.  C.  has  been  a British  possession  since- 
1791,  having  in  that  year  been  taken  from  Tippoo  Sultan.  Pop.  ’71,  31,070. 


Cana. 

Canary. 


374 


CANA  OF  GALILEE,  called  by  the  natives  “Kefr  Cana.”  This  place,  celebrated  in 
Scripture  as  the  scene  of  our  Lord’s  first  miracle,  when  he  turned  water  into  wine,  is 
now  a small  village  of  a few  hundred  inhabitants,  who  are  principally  Greek  Christians 
or  Nazarenes,  situated  about  13  m.  w.  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  6 m.  n,  of  ISazareth. 
At  the  entrance  to  the  village  there  is  a fountain  of  the  clearest  and  most  delicious 
water— the  best,  say  the  Christians  of  Palestine,  in  the  world : from  it,  it  is  supposed, 
the  vessels  for  the  marriage-feast  were  filled ; and  near  the  fountain  are  also  lying  the 
fragments  of  a Roman  column.  A house  is  still  shown  as  that  in  which  the  miracle  was 
performed;  and  some  earthen  jars  sunk  into  the  floor  are  said  to  be  the  very  jars  in  use 
on  that  day.  A church  was  built  over  the  spot,  but  it  is  now  in  ruins. 

CANABA,  a region  on  the  w.  coast  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  comprising  two  British 
collectorates.  North  C.,  also  called  Honawar,  the  most  southerly  portion  of  the  Bom- 
bay province,  is,  like  the  other  districts  in  the  coast  southwards,  exceedingly  fertile.  The 
area  of  the  district  is  4,235  sq.m.,  and  the  pop.  was  398,406  in  1872.  South  C.,  a nar- 
row strip  of  hilly  and  very  fertile  country,  lies  in  the  Malabar  like  the  preceding,  but  is 
comprised  for  administrative  purposes  in  the  province  of  Madras.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Mangalore,  from  its  chief  town.  Area,  3,902  sq.m. ; pop.  in  1871,  918,362. 

CAN  ABAC,  a t.  on  the  Orissa  coast,  at  the  n.w.  angle  of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  in  lat. 
19°  54'  n.,  and  long.  86°  10'  e.,  being  235  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Calcutta.  It  is  remarkable 
chiefly  for  the  remains  in  its  vicinity  of  a colossal  pagoda.  The  entire  area,  a square  of 
about  13  acres,  is  said  to  have  been  surrounded  by  walls  150  cubits  high  and  19  broad; 
and  the  principal  materials  appear  to  have  been  red  granite  and  black  basalt,  some  of 
the  blocks  measuring  15  or  16  ft.  in  length,  by  6 or  8 in  width,  and  2 or  3 in  thickness. 
Most  of  the  sculptured  embellishments  have  been  removed  to  the  temple  of  Juggernaut, 
which  is  in  the  same  district  of  Pooree  as  C.  itself. 

CANA'BIES,  or  Canary  Islands,  a group  of  islands  belonging  to  Spain  in  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  off  the  n.w.  coast  of  Africa,  in  lat.  27°  40'  to  29°  25'  n.,  and  long.  13°  25'  to  18°  16' 
w. , forming  a Spanish  province.  The  group  consists  of  seven  large  and  several  small 
islets,  with  a joint  area  of  about  3,800  sq.  m.,  and  a pop.  of  (1870)  283,859.  The  principal 
islands,  proceeding  from  e.  to  w.,  are  Lanzarote,  Fuerteventura,  Gran  Canaria,  Teneriffe, 
Gomera,  Palma,  and  Hierro  or  Ferro.  The  coasts  are  steep  and  rocky,  and  the  surface 
is  diversified  with  lofty  mountains  (the  greatest  elevation  being  attained  in  the  Pico  de 
Teyde,  in  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  which  has  a height  of  12,182  ft.),  narrow  gorges,  and 
fertile  valleys.  All  the  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin.  On  the  summits  of  the  highest 
elevations,  depressions,  like  those  left  by  fallen  cones  of  volcanoes,  are  almost  every- 
where found;  and  the  steep  declivities  are  marked  by  deep  fissures,  of  which,  usually, 
only  one  penetrates  the  depressed  summit,  and  exposes  to  view  the  several  strata  of  the 
volcanic  rock.  There  are  numerous  torrents,  but  no  rivers,  and  fresh  water  is  very 
scarce  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  islands,  and  especially  in  Hierro. 

The  researches  of  Humboldt  and  Von  Buch  led  to  the  division  of  the  botanical  geogra- 
phy of  Teneriffe  into  five  distinct  regions.  The  first,  or  region  of  African  forms  of 
vegetation,  extends  to  about  1300  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  is  marked  by  the  growth  of  the 
date  palm,  sugar-cane,  dragon’s-blood  tree,  etc.  The  second  region  extends  to  the  height 
of  2,800ft.,  and  produces  vines,  corn,  maize,  olives,  chestnuts,  etc.,  in  luxuriance.  This 
zone  represents  the  vegetation  of  southern  Europe.  In  the  third  region,  rising  1200  ft. 
or  so  higher,  we  have  laurels  and  evergreens.  In  the  fourth,  extending  to  above  6000 
ft.,  we  find  vegetation  nipped  by  cold  and  excessive  dryness,  snow  falling  several 
months  of  the  year,  and  only  the  pinus  Canariensis  and  other  coniferse  flourishing.  The 
fifth  region  attains  an  elevation  of  nearly  11,000  feet.  Here  are  found  a kind  of  spartium 
(broom)  peculiar  to  this  zone,  with  cedrine  junipers,  and  one  Alpine  plant,  Arahis  Alpina. 
The  barren  mountain-peaks  are  just  below  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  although  in  a 
cavern  at  the  height  of  11,000  feet  above  the  sea,  snow  is  said  to  be  preserved  throughout 
the  year.  All  the  rest  of  the  islands  are  similar  in  character,  with  the  exception  of 
Fuerteventura  and  Lanzarote,  which  are  less  elevated,  more  abundantly  wooded,  and 
more  luxuriant  in  vegetation  generally. 

Minerals  are  few,  and  of  little  importance.  Near  the  sea,  the  general  temperature 
ranges  from  60°-66°  F.  in  Jan.,  to  78°-87°  F.  in  October.  The  rainy  season  lasts 
from  Nov.  to  Feb. ; from  April  to  Oct. , the  weather  is  uniformly  fine.  The  islands, 
however,  suffer  much  from  the  e.  and  s.e.  winds,  which,  blowing  over  the  hot  deserts 
of  Africa,  burn  up  vegetation,  and  generate  disease.  Very  little  wine  is  now  produced, 
the  grape  disease  having  destroyed  almost  all  the  vines.  Cactus  plants,  on  which  the 
cochineal  insect  feeds,  now  mainly  occupy  the  desolated  vineyards,  and  the  value  of 
cochineal  exported  in  1874  was  £435,000,  out  of  a *total  value  for  exports  of  £596,244. 
Other  products  are  cereals,  tobacco,  potatoes,  barilla,  oil,  and  fruits.  The  chief  foi- 
eign  trade  is  with  the  United  States,  England,  and  Hamburg.  There  is  little  manu- 
facturing. 

Teneriffe,  the  largest  island  of  the  group,  has  an  area  of  877  m.,with  a population 
of  95,000.*  In  the  n.w.  of  this  island,  which  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  cochineal  cul 

* The  population  of  the  separate  islands  is  not  from  the  census  of  1870,  of  which  only  the  total 
return  is  available. 


375 


Cana. 

Canary. 


tivation,  is  situated  the  famous  Pico  de  Teyde,  or  peak  of  Teneriffe  (q.v.).  The  chief 
town  and  port  is  Santa-Cruz  de  Santiago  (q.v.),  on  the  n.e.  coast. 

Gran  Canaria,  which  is  next  in  importance,  has  an  area  of  758  sq.m.,  with  a pop. 
of  69,000.  Its  culminating  peak  is  El  Cumbre,  with  a height  of  6,648  feet.  The  capi- 
tal, Las  Palmas  (q.v.),  on  the  e.  coast,  is  the  largest  town  of  the  archipelago. 

Palma  has  an  area  of  718  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  of  33,000.  Its  highest  peak,  Pico  de 
los  Muchachos,  has  an  elevation  of  more  than  7,600  feet.  Capital,  Santa-Cruz  des  las 
Palmas  (q.v.),  on  the  e.  coast. 

The  area  and  population  of  the  other  islands  are  as  follows:  Lanzarote  is  323 
gq.m.,  pop.  17,400;  Fuerteventura,  326  sq.m.,  pop.  13,800;  Gomera,  169  sq.m., 
pop.  11,700;  Hierro,  82  sq.m.,  pop.  4,400.  The  chief  towns  of  these  islands  are  small. 

The  C.  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  Fortunate  islands  of  the  ancients.  The  Car- 
thaginians are  said  to  have  visited  them,  and  Juba  II.,  king  of  the  two  Mauritanias, 
wrote  an  account  of  them  that  has  been  transmitted  to  us  by  Pliny.  In  modern  times, 
the  first  account  of  them  was  furnished  in  the  first  half  of  the  14th  c.,  by  the  crew  of  a 
vessel  that  had  been  driven  among  them  by  stress  of  weather.  A Spanish  gentleman 
obtained  a grant  of  them  from  the  pope ; but  when  an  attempt  at  settlement  was  made, 
the  Spaniards  were  driven  off  by  the  natives.  In  the  beginning  of  the  15th  c.,  the 
Spaniards  succeeded  in  obtaining  a footing  in  the  islands ; but  a difference  having  arisen 
with  Portugal  concerning  them,  it  was  not  until  1493  that  the  authority  of  Spain  was 
finally  established.  Since  that  time,  they  have  remained  attached  to  the  Spanish  crown. 
The  Guanches,  who  were  the  aborigines  of  the  islands,  have  long  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
separate  people,  the  population  being  now  quite  Spanish.  They  were  a brave  and  intel- 
ligent race. 

CANA'SHTM,  a genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  amyridacm,  natives  of  the  south- 
eastern parts  of  Asia,  the  Malayan  archipelago,  etc.  The  fruit  is  a drupe.  The  kernel 
of  the  fruit  of  G.  commune  is  eaten  both  raw  and  roasted;  and  in  Amboyna,  bread  is 
made  of  it,  which  is  generally  in  the  form  of  rolls  about  a yard  long  and  an  inch  thick. 
An  oil  is  expressed  from  it,  which  is  used  both  for  the  table  and  for  lamps.  The  tree 
is  about  50  ft.  high.  G.  sylvestre  also  produces  eatable  kernels.  G.  commune  is  supposed 
to  be  one  of  the  trees  which  yield  elemi  (q.v.),  and  G.  microcarpum  yields  an  oil  very 
like  copaiva,  known  in  ship-building  yards  as  damar  (q.v.). 

CANARY,  or  Canary  Bird,  a beautiful  little  bird,  very  common  as  a cage-bird,  and 
much  esteemed  for  its  musical  powers.  It  is  one  of  the  numerous  family  of  finches 
{fringillidcB),  and  isfringilla  canaHa  of  Linnaeus.  Some  modern  ornithologists  place  it 
in  the  genus  carduelis,  others  in  linota;  it  is  indeed  intermediate  between  these  genera, 
the  goldfinches  and  the  linnets.  Some  make  it  the  type  of  a genus  or  sub-genus,  canaria. 
It  is  found  in  Madeira,  the  Canary  isles,  and  the  Cape  Verd  isles;  frequents  the  neigh- 
borhood of  human  habitations;  builds  its  nest  of  moss,  feathers,  hair,  etc.,  in  thick, 
bushy,  high  shrubs  or  trees;  and  produces  four,  five,  or  even  six  broods  in  a season.  In 
its  wild  state,  its  plumage  is  greenish,  or  greenish-yellow,  sometimes  tinged  with  brown, 
and  exhibits  less  variety  and  beauty  than,  in  domestication.  It  was  brought  to  Europe 
in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  It  breeds  readily  in  confinement,  and  seems 
thoroughly  reconciled  to  its  cage-life;  but  although  canaries  of  long  domesticated  races 
sometimes  excel  in  imitative  powers  and  acquired  strains,  yet  they  are  surpassed  in 
loudness  and  clearness  of  note  by  some  of  the  wild  birds,  which,  when  caught  and 
imported,  are  occasionally  sold  for  extraordinary  prices.  Even  in  confinement,  the  C. 
often  breeds  four  or  five  times  a year,  laying  from  four  to  six  eggs  each  time.  The  eggs 
are  pale  blue.  The  male  assists  the  female  in  building  the  nest  and  in  feeding  the 
young.  Besides  seeds  of  various  kinds,  which  are  their  principal  food,  canaries  are  very 
fond  of  bland  green  leaves,  such  as  those  of  chickweed,  a supply  of  which  is  very 
necessary  for  their  health;  and  one  of  their  favorite  luxuries  is  sugar.  The  C.  not 
unfrequently  lives  15  or  16  years.  It  can  be  taught  various  notes  and  airs,  and  some 
even  learn  to  articulate  words.  The  rearing  and  training  of  canaries  afford  occupation 
to  no  small  number  of  persons,  particularly  in  the  Tyrol.  The  C.  hybridizes  readily 
with  some  other  species  of  finch,  producing  “ mules,”  some  kinds  of  which  are  valued 
as  song-birds. — There  are  several  species  very  closely  allied  to  the  C.,  one  of  which,  a 
beautiful  little  bird,  entirely  yellow,  with  an  orange  crown,  a native  of  Brazil,  is  some- 
times sold  in  Britain  as  a song-bird,  but  its  musical  powers  are  very  inferior  to  those  of 
the  common  species. 

CANARY  GRASS,  Phalaris  canariensis,  a grass  of  which  the  seed  is  mucli  used,  under 
the  name  of  Ganary  seed,  as  food  for  cage-birds,  and  which  is,  on  that  account,  cultivated 
to  some  extent  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  nnd  in  certain  districts  of  Germany  and  England. 
It  is  a native  of  the  Canary  islands,  naturalized  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  in  many  places 
in  Britain.  The  chief  seats  of  its  cultivation  in  England  are  the  counties  of  Kent  and 
Essex.  The  seed  is  sown  early,  generally  in  Feb.,  yet  the  crop  is  not  reaped  till 
after  the  ordinary  grain  harvest,  for  which  reason  the  cultivation  of  C.  G.  is  seldom 
attempted  in  the  northern  parts  of  Britain. — This  grass  attains  a height  of  2 or  3 ft.,  and 
has  a crowded,  egg-shaped,  spike-like  panicle,  from  an  inch  to  almost  2 in.  long;  the  spike- 
lets  are  one-flowered,  very  much  laterally  compressed,  a rudimentary  scale-like  floret  on 
each  side  of  the  perfect  floret;  the  winged  on  the  keel,  and  with  two  strips  of 


Canary. 

Cancer. 


37G 


darker  green  on  each  side ; the  paleoB  awnless,  shining,  and  at  last  firmly  inclosing  the 
seed.  A fine  flour  is  prepared  from  Canary  seed,  which  is  employed  as  dressing  in  fine 
cotton-weaving,  and  for  the  finishing  of  silken  stuffs.  The  groats  and  flour  of  this  small 
kind  of  grain  are  also  used  in  the  Canary  islands,  in  Barbary,  and  in  Italy,  as  food,  the 
flour  being  made  into  bread,  which  is  very  nutritious  and  pleasant. — Other  closely  allied 
species  of  plialaris  produce  a similar  grain,  but  are  inferior  in  productiveness  and  qual- 
ity.— A grass,  now  generally  referred  to  this  genus,  and  sometimes  called  Reed  C.  G. 
{phalaris  arundinacea),  is  very  common  on  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers,  and  in  other 
wet  places  in  Britain,  and  throughout  southern  and  central  Europe.  It  differs  very  much 
in  appearance  from  C.  G.,  having  a large  spreading  panicle,  generally  of  a reddish  color; 
and  the  glumes  are  not  winged  at  the  keel.  It  is  a somewhat  reed-like  grass,  4 to  6 ft. 
high,  with  creeping  roots,  which  help  to  secure  river  banks;  and  yields  a great  bulk  of 
hay,  but  has  been  very  generally  despised  as  a coarse  grass,  fit  only  for  littering  cattle. 
The  justice  of  this  opinion  has,  however,  been  called  in  question,  and  the  grass  pro- 
claimed to  be  very  nutritious,  and  sufficiently  acceptable  both  to  horses  and  oxen  when 
cut  early.  It  may  be  mown  twice  a year.  A variety  with  curiously  striped  leaves  is 
well  known  in  gardens,  as  ribbon  grass,  gardeners’  garters,  or  ladiss’  traces. 

CANAKY  PLANT.  See  Trop.®olum. 

CANAKY  WINE,  also  known  as  Teneriffe,  is  the  produce  of  the  Canary  islands,  and 
resembles  Madeira;  but  the  name  is  properly  applied  only  to  the  Bidogne  wine,  which 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  Malvoisie  of  the  Canaries.  The  former  is  made  from 
grapes  gathered  before  they  have  ripened,  and,  when. new,  is  crude  and  unpleasant;  but 
in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years,  increasing  in  mildness  as  in  age,  becomes  so  much 
like  Madeira,  that  it  is  often  sold  for  it.  Like  Madeira,  it  is  greatly  improved  by  a voy- 
age to  the  tropics.  It  is  produced  chiefly  on  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  and  the  trade  in  the 
wine  is  mostly  carried  on  at  the  chief  poFt  of  this  island.  The  Canary  of  the  island 
of  Palma  is  inferior  to  Teneriffe,  but  may  be  consumed  sooner,  and  has  a pleasant  flavor. 

CANAS  TER,  the  name  given  to  a rush  basket  in  which  tobacco  is  placed  in  Spanish 
America;  hence  is  said  to  be  derived  the  name  canaster,  now  applied  to  tobacco  of  a 
certain  kind. 

CANBY,  Edward  Richard  Sprigg,  ll.d.  ; 1819-73;  b.  Ky. ; a graduate  of  West 
Point;  served  in  the  Florida  and  the  Mexican  war,  and  in  the  war  of  the  rebel- 
lion; in  1862,  made  brig.gen.  of  volunteers,  and  maj.gen.  in  1864.  He  was  severely 
wounded  on  two  occasions,  and  was  often  chosen  for  special  and  difficult  duty.  In 
1866,  he  was  commissioned  as  brig,  in  the  regular  army.  In  the  winter  of  1872-73,  he 
was  sent  to  make  a settlement  of  the  difficulties  between  the  Modoc  Indians  and  the 
Avhites  of  n.  California  and  Oregon,  and  was  holding  a talk  under  a flag  of  truce  near 
his  camp  when  he  was  treacherously  shot  by  capt.  Jack,  one  of  the  Modoc  leaders. 

CANCALE,  a seaport  of  France,  10  m.  e.  of  St.  Malo,  on  the  bay  of  St.  Michael; 
famous  for  its  oyster  trade;  pop.  ’72,  3814.  In  1758,  the  duke  of  Marlborough  here 
landed  an  English  army  of  14,000,  intending  to  attack  St.  Malo,  but  returned  without 
making  the  attempt. 

CANCAN,  a wild  dance,  or  rather  a series  of  violent  gymnastic  exercises,  originated 
by  the  demi-monde  of  Paris.  Though  perhaps  quite  as  decorously  clad  as  the  opera- 
ballet,  the  C.  is  considered  out  of  the  pale  of  respectable  diversions.  There  is  some 
resemblance  between  it  and  the  wild  orgies  of  the  Bacchic  or  Dionysian  festivals  of 
ancient  Greece. 

CANCAO',  CANCAR,  or  KANG-KAO,  also  known  as  Ponthiamus  or  Potai- 
MAT,  the  capital  of  a small  state  in  w.  Cambodia,  on  the  e.  side  of  the  gulf  of  Siam,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Cancao,  10°  14'  n.  and  105°  55'  east.  It  was  once  the  center  of  Cam- 
bodian trade,  but  in  1717  the  Siamese  drove  out  the  merchants  who  had  settled  there, 
since  which  time  the  trade  of  the  town  has  greatly  decreased.  The  harbor  is  shallow, 
but  there  is  a good  depth  of  water  in  the  river. 

CAN'CELING  of  DEEDS  and  WILLS.  The  word  cancel  comes  from  the  Lat.  cancelli 
{lattice-work),  and  a deed  was  formerly  said  to  be  canceled  when  lines  were  drawn  over 
it  in  the  form  of  lattice-work.  The  word  cancel  is  now  used  to  signify  any  sort  of 
obliteration. 

The  court  of  chancery  in  England  gives  relief  against  the  effect  of  improper  cancella- 
tion ; on  the  other  hand,  it  may  order  a deed  which  has  been  improperly  obtained  to  be 
delivered  up  in  order  to  be  canceled.  The  effect  of  the  cancellation  is  to  make  the  deed 
void.  If  a deed  is  given  up  to  be  canceled,  and  the  cancellation  does  not  take  place,  it 
remains  in  force  at  law.  But  if  an  obligee  deliver  up  an  obligation  to  be  canceled,  and 
the  obligor  do  not  afterwards  cancel  it,  and  the  obligee  happen  to  get  it  again  into  his 
hands,  and  sue  the  obligor  on  it,  the  latter  cannot  plead  its  voidance,  for  the  deed  still 
remains  in  force  at  law — although  here,  too,  equity  w'ould  relieve,  and  decree  according 
to  the  original  caneellation.  Wliere  a deed  is  canceled  by  consent  of  the  parties  to  it,  it 
is  thereby  destroyed  as  to  their  interest  under  it,  but  third  parties  may  still  produce  it 
in  evidence.  As  to  a will,  its  cancellation  may  liave  the  effect  of  revoking  it,  if  done 
with  such  intention. 

In  Scotland,  the  system  of  registration  of  deeds  and  other  writings  prevents  the 


377 


Canary. 

Cancer. 


occurrence  of  many  of  the  questions  that  arise  in  England  on  this  head,  but  the  inten- 
tion and  effect  of  the  cancellation  or  destruction  of  documents  would  in  most  cases  be  a 
question  of  evidence;  and  where  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  contents  of  the  destroyed 
paper,  its  effect  may  be  judicially  declared  by  a form  of  suit  called  an  action  for  j)romng 
the  tenor,  as  indeed  may  be  done  in  an  English  court  of  equity  by  a bill  to  recover  the 
contents  of  a lost  document.  In  the  Scotch  law,  again,  a deed  or  other  writing  may  be 
judicially  canceled  or  set  aside  by  an  action  of  reduction,  and  the  courts  in  England  sub- 
stantially exercise  a similar  jurisdiction. 

It  would  appear  that  where  a testator  has  prescribed  certain  forms  for  the  authenti- 
cation of  his  will,  and  such  forms  have  either  not  been  observed  by  him,  or  if  observed, 
have,  in  some  essential  particular,  been  negatived  by  obliteration,  an  intention  to  revoke 
will  be  presumed:  thus,  where  a Scotchman,  who  had  long  resided  in  India,  executed  a 
will,  concluding,  “In  testimony  of  this  being  my  last  will  and  testament,  I hereto  set 
my  hand  and  seal and  the  document  was  found  in  his  repositories  with  the  part  to 
which  the  seal  had  evidently  been  affixed  cut  (not  torn)  off,  the  house  of  lords  held  the 
deed  to  be  canceled,  because  the  testator  had  himself,  besides  the  usual  solemnities, 
prescribed  a seal  as  necessary  to  the  authentication  of  his  will.  A will,  however  muti- 
lated or  canceled  by  a testator  during  his  insanity,  would  be  good;  and  of  course  there 
is  no  effectual  cancellation  when  done  by  a third  party  without  sufficient  authority. 
But  all  such  considerations  are  questions  of  evidence.  See  Deed,  Will. 

CANCELING  of  LETTEES-PATENT.  The  lord  chancellor  may  cancel  the  queen’s 
letters-patent,  when  granted  contrary  to  the  law,  “which,”  says  Blackstone,  quoting  sir 
Edward  Coke,  ‘ ‘ is  the  highest  point  of  his  jurisdiction.  ” See  Letters-Patent,  Chaft- 

CELLOR. 

CANCELLA'EIA,  a genus  of  mollusks — class  gasteropoda  (q.v.),  order  pectinibrancM- 
ata — with  univalve  shells,  sometimes  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  family  volutidm,  or 
volute  shells  (q.v.),  but  now  generally  placed  among  huccinidce,  or  whelks  (q.v.).  The 
spire  is  prominent,  the  last  whorl  ventricose,  the  surface  reticulated,  the  mouth  large, 
the  columella  plaited.  All  the  recent  species  are  natives  of  tropical  or  subtropical  seas, 
and  are  found  chiefly  on  sandy  bottoms,  at  the  depth  of  a few  fathoms.  The  fossil 
species,  amounting  to  19,  occur  in  thq  newer  strata  from  the  chalk  upwards. 

CANCEE,  a disease  characterized  by  slow  alterations  of  structure,  or  tumors  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body,  occurring  either  simultaneously  or  in  a certain  order  of  succes- 
sion. In  many  cases,  an  isolated  tumor  in  an  external  part  is  the  earliest  symptom ; it 
is  then  viewed  at  the  starting-point  of  the  disease,  and  is  termed  a malignant  tumor 
{tumor  mali  moris),  from  its  presumed  tendency  to  infect  the  system,  and  to  cause  the 
reproduction  of  growths  similar  to  itself.  It  is  right,  however,  to  remark,  that  upon 
the  pathology  of  C.  authorities  are  by  no  means  agreed,  some  holding  that  a constitu- 
tional taint  or  diathesis  must  always  precede  any  local  development  of  C.,  and  that  the 
first  growth  in  point  of  time  (or  primary  C.)  is  therefore  only  the  first  of  a series  deter- 
mined by  a pre-existing  cause  in  the  blood  or  general  system;  while  others  hold  that  C. 
is  originally  a truly  local  disease,  or  even  that  a growth  at  first  simple  {non-malignant  or 
benign),  may,  in  consequence  of  local  causes,  degenerate — i,  e.,  become  cancerous,  and 
infect  the  whole  system  with  the  morbid  tendency  thus  secondarily  acquired.  The  dis- 
cussion of  this  disputed  question  involves  statements  of  a too  complicated  kind  to  be  in 
place  here;  but  it  is  a question  of  considerable  importance,  as  bearing  on  the  probability 
or  improbability  of  curing  the  disease  by  extirpating  the  primary  tumor  at  an  early 
stage  of  its  development.  All  authorities  are  agreed  that,  when  any  trace  of  secondary 
C.  exists,  the  removal  of  the  parts  affected  gives  scarcely  any  hope  of  a favorable  result, 
and,  accordingly,  operations  under  these  circumstances,  unless  merely  for  the  relief  of 
local  suffering,  are  discountenanced  by  all  respectable  surgeons.  The  disease,  however, 
is  one  of  which  the  ignorant  as  well  as  the  learned  have  a well-founded  dread,  and  hence 
it  presents  a large  field  for  the  practice  of  imposture,  and  for  that  less  deliberate,  but 
often  not  less  hurtful  kind  of  quackery  which  is  the  result  of  pure  ignorance,  grafted  on 
a meddlesome  desire  to  do  good.  We  propose  to  give  such  a sketch  of  the  characters 
and  progress  of  cancerous  disease  as  may  serve,  in  some  degree,  as  a protection  against 
ignorance  on  the  one  hand,  and  deception  on  the  other. 

The  leading  character  of  C.  being  a tumor  or  morbid  growth  in  a part,  it  is  import- 
ant, in  the  first  place,  to  observe  that  not  all,  nor  even  the  majority,  of  morbid  growths 
are  cancerous.  A very  large  proportion  of  growths,  involving  swelling  or  change  of 
structure  in  a part,  are  either  determined  by  a previous  process  of  inflammation — leading 
to  chronic  abscess  and  induration — or  belong  to  what  is  called  the  non-malignant  order 
of  tumors — e.  g.,  cysts,  fatty  and  fibrous  tumors,  simple  hypertrophy  of  glandular  struc- 
tures, cartilaginous,  bony,  calcareous,  and  vascular  growths.  See  Tumors.  Further, 
among  the  tumors  admitted  by  general  consent  into  the  order  of  cancerous,  there  are 
widely  different  degrees  oi  malignancy  or  cancerousness,  so  to  speak;  some  having  the 
tendency  to  spread  rapidly,  and  infect  the  system  at  an  early  period,  while  other.s  remain 
local  for  a considerable  time,  and  may  be  removed  while  yet  local,  with  good  hope  of  a 
permanent  recovery. 

Now,  the  practical  distinction,  or  diagnosis,  to  use  the  technical  phrase,  of  these  dif- 
ferent tumors,  is  founded  upon  a very  careful  and  delicate  appreciation  of  the  characters. 


Cancer. 

Caucrum. 


378 


of  the  malignant  and  non-malsgnant  tumors,  considered  as  morbid  products,  and  also 
upon  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  relations  of  the  textures  in  which  they 
arise.  One  of  the  leading  characters  of  malignant  tumors  is  the  tendency  to  involve,  by 
a kind  of  specific  destruction  or  degeneration,  the  ultimate  elements  of  the  textures  in 
which  they  arise  and  in  which  they  spread.  The  attempt,  therefore,  to  distinguish  these 
from  other  growths,  must  always  call  for  the  highest  qualities  of  the  surgeon — large 
experience,  guided  at  every  step  by  consummate  science,  and,  in  particular,  by  minute 
and  thorough  knowledge  of  natural  structure.  And  the  difficulties  of  the  inquiry  are 
such,  that  even  in  the  dead  body,  or  in  a tumor  excised  from  the  living  body,  all  the 
resources  of  the  anatomist,  aided  by  the  microscope,  will  occasionally  fail  in  distinctly 
and  surely  discovering  the  true  character  of  the  morbid  structure. 

The  most  common  seats  of  C.  are,  among  external  parts,  the  female  breast,  the  eye, 
the  tongue,  the  lip,  the  male  genital  organs,  and  the  bones;  among  internal  organs,  the 
liver,  stomach,  uterus,  rectum,  gullet,  peritoneum,  and  lymphatic  glands.  Some  of 
these  parts  are  more  liable  to  primary,  others  to  secondary  cancer.  Thus,  the  female 
breast,  the  neck  of  the  uterus,  the  lower  lip,  the  scrotum,  the  extremity  of  the  penis, 
are  very  often  the  seats  of  a single  cancerous  tumor,  which  in  its  early  stage  at  least 
seems  to  be  unconnected  with  any  constitutional  taint;  while  the  liver,  the  bones,  and 
the  lymphatic  glands  are  more  frequently  the  seats  of  secondary  or  multiple  cancerous 
tumors.  There  are  also  differences  in  the  character  of  C.  itself,  apart  from  its  anatom- 
ical seat,  which  are  to  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the  probability  of  its  being 
solitary.  Some  of  these  differences  are  regarded  by  pathologists  as  amounting  almost 
to  specific  distinctions;  thus,  scirrhus,  or  hard  C.,  observed  most  frequently  in  the 
breast,  uterus,  and  stomach,  is  more  frequently  solitary  than  encephaloid  (brain-like), 
otherwise  called  medullary,  or  soft  C. ; again,  melanosis,  ormelanic  C.,  a variety  charged 
with  a brown  or  black  pigment,  is  almost  always  multiple  in  its  occurrence;  while 
epithelial  G. , or  epithelioma,  as  it  has  been  recently  termed,  of  which  examples  are  fre- 
quently found  in  the  lip,  scrotum,  penis,  or  tongue,  is  so  generally  solitary  as  to  have 
led  some  pathologists  to  place  it  in  a class  altogether  apart  from  the  truly  cancerous 
growths,  with  which,  however,  it  presents  too  many  points  of  affinity  in  its  fatal  ten- 
dency to  recur  after  operation,  and  to  infect  the  lymphatic  glands  and  other  structures 
adjoining  the  part  primarily  affected.  Again,  there  are  certain  varieties  of  fibrous  and 
of  cartilaginous  tumor,  as  well  as  certain  tumors  of  bone,  and  bone-like  tumors  devel- 
oped in  soft  parts  (osteoid),  which  must  be  regarded,  in  the  meantime,  as  occupying  a 
doubtful  position  between  the  malignant  and  non-malignant  growths.  (Paget,  Lectures 
on  Surgical  Pathology,  vol.  ii.) 

Generally  speaking,  a tumor  may  be  said  to  fall  under  the  suspicion  of  being  C.  when 
it  more  or  less  completely  infiltrates  the  texture  in  which  it  arises,  and  passes  from  it 
into  the  surrounding  textures;  when  it  invades  the  lymphatic  glands  adjoining  the  part 
first  affected ; when  it  is  attended  by  stinging  or  darting  pains,  or  b}’^  obstinate  and 
slowly  extending  ulceration,  not  due  to  pressure ; wdien  it  occurs  in  a person  having 
impaired  health,  or  past  the  middle  period  of  life,  and  is  not  traceable  to  any  known 
cause  of  inflammatory  disease  or  local  irritation,  nor  to  any  other  known  constitutional 
disease,  such  as  syphilis  or  scrofula.  The  probabilities  are  of  course  increased  if  the 
tumor  be  in  one  of  the  habitual  seats  of  C.,  or  if  it  be  attended  by  evidence  of  disease 
in  some  internal  organ  known  to  be  frequently  thus  affected.  But  it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  point  out  that  the  very  complex  elements  of  diagnosis  here  referred  to  ought  to 
be  always  submitted  to  the  scrutiny  and  judgment  of  a well-educated  medical  adviser, 
whose  skill  and  personal  character  place  him  above  suspicion,  before  the  disease  has 
assumed  such  a form  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  remedial  procedure.  The  patient 
who  broods  in  secret  over  a suspicion  of  C.,  or  who  declines  to  apply  for  advice  from  a 
fear  of  encountering  the  truth,  is  in  all  probability  only  cherishing  the  seeds  of  future 
suffering;  while  if,  as  often  happens,  the  suspicion  is  unfounded,  a few  minutes’  care- 
ful examination  would  suffice  to  remove  a source  of  misery  which  otherwise  would 
poison  the  mind  for  years. 

These  remarks  apply  still  more  emphatically  to  the  misguided  persons  who  trust  to 
the  non-professional  cancer-curer,  or  to  the  quasi-professional  specialist.  The  charlatan, 
who  pretends  to  hold  in  his  hands  a secret  remedy  for  this  most  terrible  disease,  will 
invariably  be  found  to  pronounce  almost  every  tumor  C. , and  every  C.  curable.  By 
this  indiscriminating  procedure,  and  by  the  fallacious  promise  of  a cure  without  an 
operation,  many  persons  who  have  never  been  affected  with  C.  at  all,  have  been  per- 
suaded to  submit  to  the  slow  torture  of  successive  cauterizations  by  powerful  caustics, 
at  the  expense  of  needless  mutilation  and  no  small  risk  to  life.  In  other  cases,  truly 
cancerous  tumors  have  been  removed  slowly  and  imperfectly,  at  the  cost  of  frightful 
and  protracted  sufferings,  only  to  return  at  the  end  of  a few  weeks-,  and  Mr.  Spencer 
Wells  has  lately  shown  that  in  some  notorious  instances  persons  were  reported  as  cured, 
when  they  had  actually  died  of  the  disease  at  no  long  period  after  the  supposed  cure 
was  stated  to  have  taken  place.  {Cancer  and  Gancer-curers,  Bond.  1860.) 

What  is  really  known  as  to  the  cure  of  C.,  may  be  stated  in  few  words.  Modern 
pathological  researches  render  it  probable  that  a complete  suspension  of  the  progress  of 
C.  sometimes,  though  rarely,  takes  place;  and  individual  tumors  are  found  not  unfre- 
quently  to  undergo  partial  healing,  or  even  to  become  entirely  metamorphosed  into  inert 


379 


Cancer. 

Cancrum. 


cicatrices,  •while  others,  associated  with  them,  continue  to  advance.  The  degree  of 
rapidity  of  the  advance  of  C.  is  also,  as  we  have  already  stated,  exceedingly  variable. 
But  these  observations  modify  only  to  a very  slight  degree  the  general  doctrine,  that  C, 
is  a disease  tending  to  a fatal  issue,  and  hardly,  if  at  all,  under  the  control  of  remedies, 
as  to  its  ultimate  result.  The  removal  of  a cancerous  tumor,  indeed,  is  still  resorted  to 
by  surgeons;  and  there  appears  to  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that,  when  performed  early, 
and  in  well-selected  cases,  it  has  been  followed  by  long-continued  exemption.  But  the 
occasional  spontaneous  arrest  of  such  growths  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  doubtful  results 
of  operation  in  a large  proportion  of  cases  on  the  other,  have  combined  to  render 
surgeons  of  late  years  more  chary  of  the  use  of  the  knife.  In  aged  persons,  in  par- 
ticular, the  question  often  resolves  itself  into  a calculation  of  the  chances  of  life,  founded 
on  a great  number  of  conflicting  data,  and  only  to  be  solved  by  a careful  attention  to 
the  state  of  the  general  health,  as  well  as  to  the  rate  of  progress  of  the  local  disease. 
Operations  are  now  very  rarely  performed  after  the  lymphatic  glands  are  involved,  or 
when  tlicre  is  evidence  of  a deteriorated  constitution,  or  of  internal  disease;  but  some- 
times great  pain,  or  profuse  and  exhausting  discharge  from  an  external  tumor,  may 
justify  its  removal,  as  a palliative  measure,  even  under  these  unfavorable  circumstances. 
For  the  mode  of  removal  of  cancerous  and  other  tumors,  see  Tumors. 

Among  the  lower  animals,  this  disease  is  more  rare;  nevertheless,  cases  are  not 
unfrequent,  presenting  the  same  malignant  characters  as  those  observed  in  the  human 
subject.  Usually  manifesting  itself  in  the  form  of  a specific  tumor  of  some  organ  or 
tissue,  there  is  a tendency  to  the  invasion  of  other  parts  of  the  system,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  a constitutional  state  called  the  cancerous  cachexia.  M.  U.  Leblanc  of  Paris, 
the  best  veterinary  authority  on  this  subject,  has  shown  that  the  dog  and  cat  are  most 
frequently  affected  with  C. ; and  next  in  frequency  come  the  pig,  ox,  horse,  and  mule. 
It  has  not  been  observed  in  birds,  reptiles,  or  fishes.  Females  are  more  liable  to  C.  than 
males.  It  is  hereditary,  but  not  transmissible  from  animals  to  man,  or  from  one  animal 
to  another.  It  does  not  disappear  under  the  influence  of  remedies,  but,  if  possible,  the 
tumors  should  be  excised  when  first  seen,  and,  if  the  knife  fail  to  extirpate  the  malady, 
cauterization  should  be  had  recourse  to.  A relapse  is  almost  certain ; but  Leblanc  says 
there  is  greater  chance  for  the  patient,  w^hen  a carnivorous  animal,  if  it  is  kept  on  a 
strictly  vegetable  diet. 

CANCER,  the  Crab,  the  fourth  of  the  twelve  constellations  of  the  zodiac,  usually 
represented  on  the  globe  as  a crab,  and  denoted  in  works  on  astronomy  by  the  sign  23, 
which  resembles  the  number  69  laid  sideways.  It  contains,  according  to  Flamsteed,  83 
stars,  of  which  the  prineipal  is  Acuhens,  a star  of  the  third  magnitude.  In  the  divisions 
of  the  ecliptic,  the  sign  called  C.  occupies  a place  between  90°  and  120°  from  the  vernal 
equinox ; but,  owing  to  precession,  the  sign  and  the  constellation  have  not  coincided  for 
nearly  2,000  years.  See  Ecliptic,  Precession,  Zodiac.  Besides  Acubens,  it  has  two 
stars  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  called  by  the  Romans  Aselli  or  the  Little  Asses;  and  a 
nebulous  cluster  of  minute  stars  about  2°  from  the  Asses,  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
which  goes  by  the  name  of  Prmepe,  or  the  Manger. 

CANCER.  See  Crab. 

CANCER,  Tropic  op.  See  Tropics. 

CANCER  ROOT,  or  Beech-drops,  Epiphegus  Virginiana,  a parasitic  plant  of  the 
natural  order  orobancliecs  (q.v.),  a native  of  North  America,  growing  almost  exclusively 
on  the  exposed  roots  of  beech-trees.  Like  all  the  other  plants  of  its  order,  it  has  a 
curious  appearance,  having  scales  instead  of  leaves.  Its  stem  is  branching,  and  pro- 
duces distant  alternate  white  flowers,  streaked  with  purple.  The  whole  plant  is  power- 
fully astringent;  and  the  root  is  brownish,  spongy,  and  very  bitter  and  nauseous  in  taste. 
It  has  acquired,  in  its  native  country,  the  reputation  of  being  a cure  for  cancer.  All 
parts  of  the  plant  are  used,  and  externally  more  than  internally.  This  plant,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  white  oxide  of  arsenic,  is  believed  to  have  formed  a medicine  once  famous  in 
North  America  under  the  name  of  Martin's  cancer -powder. — Another  American  plant  of 
the  same  order,  Phelipcea  biflora,  is  sometimes  also  called  C.  R.,  and  is  used  in  the  same 
way;  and  an  infusion  of  the  common  broomrape  {orobanche  major) — a native  of  Britain 
and  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  parasitic  on  the  roots  of  broom,  furze,  and  other  leguminous 
plants — has  been  employed  as  a detergent  application  to  foul  sores. 

CANCRIN',  Georg,  Count,  1774-1845;  a Russian  statesman,  educated  in  Germany, 
and  employed  in  various  capacities  in  Russian  service.  In  1813,  he  was  commissary- 
gen.  of  all  the  forces,  and  in  1814,  he  accompanied  the  emperor  Alexander  to  Paris. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  from  1823  until  his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  few  Russian 
writers  on  political  economy. 

CANCRUM  O'RIS,  known  also  as  noma,  water-cancer,  and  water-canker,  is  a peculiar 
form  of  mortification,  arising  apparently  from  defective  nutrition.  The  disease  seldom 
occurs  except  between  the  2d  and  11th  years,  and  is  usually  preceded  by  measles, 
remittent  or  intermittent  fever,  or  some  other  serious  disease.  The  following  is  the 
ordinary  train  of  symptoms;  more  or  less  general  disturbance  of  the  system,  accom- 
panied by  loss  of  appetite,  followed  by  swelling  of  the  salivary  glands,  and  a profuse 
flow  of  saliva,  which  escapes  from  the  mouth  involuntarily  during  sleep ; ulceration  of 


4^andace. 

Candia. 


380 


the  gums,  which  swell  and  become  livid;  looseness  of  the  teeth;  and  the  appearance  of 
ash-colored  spots  on  the  gums  and  adjacent  mucous  membrane,  which  turn  into  dark- 
colored  sloughy  sores.  These  sores  spread  rapidly  by  a gangrenous  process,  expose  the 
bone,  and  finally  make  a large  aperture  in  the  cheek.  In  some  cases,  the  entire  cheek 
has  been  destroyed  in  a very  few  days.  Fortunately,  this  terrible  disease  is  more  rare 
in  this  country  than  in  some  parts  of  the  continent,  and  most  of  the  cases  recorded  are 
described  by  foreign  writers.  Van  Swieten  describes  a case  in  which  he  saw  the  first 
set  of  teeth  fall  out,  the  second  set  destroyed,  the  lower  jaw  exfoliated,  and  the  lips, 
cheeks,  tongue,  and  chin  eaten  away  before  the  child  died.  The  obvious  indications  of 
treatment  are  to  remove  the  patient  to  pure  air,  to  administer  tonics,  nourishing  food, 
and  (in  moderation)  stimulants ; to  touch  the  diseased  parts  with  nitrate  of  silver,  or 
glyceride  of  carbolic  acid,  and  to  wash  out  the  mouth  frequently  with  a weak  solution 
of  Condy’s  fluid. 

CAN'D  ACE,  queen  of  the  portion  of  upper  Nubia  called  by  the  Greeks  Mero6,  prob- 
ably corresponding  with  the  present  province  of  Athbara,  between  13°  and  18°  north. 
From  its  fortunate  situation,  MeroB  became  one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world. 
Candace  appears  to  have  been  the  name  of  several  female  rulers  in  Ethiopia.  The  one 
here  meant  invaded  Egypt  22  b.c.,  but  was  defeated  by  the  Roman  governor,  Petronius, 
who  destroyed  Napata,  the  queen’s  capital  city.  The  queen  was  leniently  treated  by 
Augustus.  The  high  chamberlain  or  treasurer  of  Candace  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity by  Philip  the  evangelist,  and  there  is  a tradition  that  through  the  efforts  of  this 
oflicer  the  queen  herself  was  converted. 

CANDAHAR',  or  Kandahar,  a mountainous  province  of  Afghanistan,  s.w.  of 
Cabool.  It  is  for  the  most  part  sterile,  though  there  are  fruitful  belts  along  the  rivers 
where  tobacco,  grain,  and  fruits  are  produced.  A large  transit  trade  passes  through  C. 
between  India  and  Persia.  Candahar  once  formed  a part  of  the  latter  kingdom;  was 
afterwards  subjected  to  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi ; was  once  more  annexed  to  Persia,  but 
after  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah  it  became  a province  of  Afghanistan.  The  people  are 
Mohammedans,  chiefly  of  the  Sunni  sect. 

CANDAHAR',  or  Kandahar,  the  capital  of  central  or  southern  Afghanistan,  situated 
about  200  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Cabool.  It  is  in  lat.  32°  37'  n.,  and  long.  66°  20'  e.,  and  has  an 
elevation  of  3,484  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square, 
while  all  its  streets  run  straight,  and  cut  one  another  at  right  angles.  At  the  point  of 
intersection  there  is  a large  dome  {charsu),  50  yards  in  diameter.  Pop.  variously  esti- 
mated from  25,000  to  100,000.  C.  is  well  watered  by  two  canals  drawn  from  a neigh- 
boring river,  which  send  to  almost  every  street  its  own  adequate  supply ; and  the  same 
means  of  irrigation  have  covered  the  immediate  vicinity  with  gardens  and  orchards.  C. 
IS  a place  of  great  commerce,  trading  with  Bombay,  Herat,  Bokhara,  Samarcand,  etc. 
Among  its  permanent  residents,  C.  has  a larger  proportion  of  Afghans,  chiefly  of  the 
Dooraanee  tribe,  than  any  other  city  of  Afghanistan.  There  are  numerous  Hindu  and 
Persian  merchants.  About  2 m.  to  the  northward  rises  a precipitous  rock,  crowned  by 
a fortress  impregnable  to  everything  but  heavy  artillery.  Here,  amid  all  the  disasters 
of  the  Afghan  war,  the  British  maintained  their  ground.  C.  has  been  a pivot  for  the 
history  of  central  Asia  during  more  than  2000  years.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded 
by  Alexander  of  Macedon,  owing,  most  probably,  its  name  to  the  oriental  corruption  of 
Iskender  or  Scander,  as  in  Scanderoon  or  Iskenderun  of  Syria.  A comparative  blank  of 
upwards  of  13  centuries  in  the  history  reaches  to  the  famous  Mahmoud  of  Ghiznee, 
who  wrested  the  stronghold  from  the  Afghans.  From  that  epoch  down  to  1747,  when 
the  native  rule  was  permanently  established,  C.,  with  brief  and  precarious  intervals  of 
independence,  was  held  by  Tartary,  India,  and  Persia  in  turn.  In  the  war  of  1878-79, 
the  British  entered  C.  unopposed. 

CANDAU'LES.  See  Gyges,  ante. 

CANDEISH',  or  Khandesh,  a collectorate  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  and  con- 
taining 10,166  sq.m.,  with  a comparatively  scanty  pop.  of  (1872)  1,028,642.  It  lies 
chiefly  in  the  valley  or  basin  of  the  middle  part  of  the  Tapti,  which  enters  the  gulf  of 
Oambay  below  Surat;  and  it  is  bounded  mostly  by  territories  of  nearly  all  the  powerful 
native  princes — the  Nizam,  Scindia,  Holkar,  and  the  Guicowar.  Through  its  situation^ 
it  necessarily  suffered  much  from  the  long  contest  between  the  Mohammedans  and  the 
Mahrattas,  and  also  from  the  struggles  among  the  rival  chiefs  of  the  latter.  Accordingly, 
when,  in  1818,  it  fell  to  the  East  India  company  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Peishwa,  it 
presented  little  better  than  a scene  of  desolation,  with  ruined  mansions,  dismantled 
towns,  and  dilapidated  temples.  The  difficulties  of  the  new  government  were  consider- 
ably aggravated  by  the  Bheels,  a more  than  half-savage  race,  that  formed  about  an 
eighth  of  the  population ; and  even  beasts  of  prey,  particularly  tigers,  had,  under  the 
constant  influences  of  human  strife,  multiplied  to  an  unusual  extent.  But  the  improve- 
ment was  regular  and  steady.  Peace  and  security  reigned;  so  that  roads,  formerly  haz- 
ardous for  armed  parties,  were  traversed  in  safety  by  unarmed  individuals.  The  staple 
productions  are  cotton,  wheat,  and  other  grains,  and  also  a little  indigo.  The  cultiva- 
tors are  generally  in  a progressive  condition,  more  especially  in  the  cotton  districts,  and 
the  well-watered  talooka  of  Baglan. 


381 


Candace. 

Candia. 


CANDE'LA,  a t.  of  southern  Italy,  j>rovince  of  Foggia,  22  m.  s.  of  the  town  of  Fog- 
gia  Pop.  5,600.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  summit  of  an  eminence.  The  sur- 
rounding district  is  very  fertile. 

CANDELA  BRUM,  a Latin  word  signifying  properly  a candlestick  (from  candela,  a 
candle),  but  more  frequently  employed  to  mean  a support  for  a lamp.  There  were,  per- 
haps, no  articles  of  furniture  in  which  the  ancients  combined  the  beautiful  with  the 
useful  to  so  large  an  extent  as  in  their  candlesticks  and  lamps.  Candelabra  usually  stood 
on  the  ground,  and  were  of  considerable  height — from  4 to  8,  or  even  10  feet.  The  most 
common  were  of  wood;  but  metals  of  all  kinds,  including  the  precious  metals,  were 
used  for  their  construction,  and  sometimes  they  were  even  adorned  with  gems.  The 
candelabra  found  at  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  are  mostly  of  bronze.  In  the  temples 
and  palaces  of  the  emperors,  they  were  frequently  of  marble,  and  of  great  size  and  rich- 
ness. They  have  usually  a capacious  cup  at  the  top,  either  for  the  purpose  of  contain- 
ing oil  enough  to  feed  a large  flame,  or  that  they  might  be  used  for  burning  incense. 
Though  varying  greatly  in  details,  a general  design  runs  through  the  forms  of  the  can- 
delabra of  antiquity.  They  have  all  a foot  or  feet,  a shaft,  and  a plinth  on  which  a lamp 
is  placed,  or  which  is  furnished  with  a socket  for  a candle.  The  base  often  consists  of 
three  feet  of  a lion,  goat,  griffin,  or  other  animal  real  or  imaginary.  Sometimes  a figure 
was  introduced  either  into  the  body  of  the  shaft,  or  placed  on  the  top  of  it,  in  either  case 
supporting  the  superincumbent  portion  of  the  C.  on  its  head.  Sometimes  a figure  was 
substituted  for  the  shaft  altogether,  the  receptacle  for  the  oil  being  placed  in  one  hand. 
In  others,  the  shaft  is  a sliding  one,  like  that  of  a music-stand,  the  object  being,  of 
course,  to  raise  or  depress  the  light  at  pleasure. 

In  addition  to  the  various  kinds  of  candelabra  which,  from  their  height,  seem  to  have 
stood  on  the  floor,  the  ancients  had  others  intended  to  be  placed  on  a table.  These  con- 
sisted either  of  a pillar  or  of  a tree,  and  from  the  capital  of  the  former,  or  the  branches 
of  the  latter,  lamps  were  suspended,  as  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  which  we 
•copy  from  Smith’s  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.  The  C.,  in  this  instance, 
including  the  stand,  is  only  3 ft.  high.  From  the  size  of  the  stand  in  proportion  to  the 
rest  of  the  C. , it  would  seem  to  have  been  used  for  some  other  purpose. 

CANDIA,  in  Turkish,  “Kirid',’’  called  in  the  most  ancient  times  Idem,  afterwards 
Crete,  one  of  the  largest  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the 
archipelago,  in  long.  23°  40'  to  26°  40'  e.,  lat.  34°  50'  to  35°  55'  north.  It  is  very  irregular 
in  form,  its  length  being  about  160  m.,  and  its  breadth  varying  from  6 to  35  miles.  The 
history  of  C.  commences  with  Greek  mythology,  and  historians  and  poets  say  that  it 
was  governed  by  its  own  kings,  among  whom  were  Saturn,  Jupiter,  and  Minos,  1300 
years  before  Christ.  C.  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Metellus,  who,  on  that 
account,  had  the  title  of  “Creticus;”  on  the  division  of  the  empire,  it  fell  to  the  share 
of  the  eastern  monarchs.  In  823  a.d.,  it  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  who  built  the 
city  of  C.  on  the  ruins  of  Heraclea.  In  1204,  it  was  sold  by  pope  Boniface — to  whom 
Baldwin  I.  gave  it — to  the  Venetians.  In  1645,  the  Turks  besieged  Canea,  and  in  1669 
conquered  the  island,  after  a war,  which  lasted  24  years.  The  Cretans  sigh  for  a union 
with  Greece,  and  have  repeatedly  risen  in  insurrection  against  Turkish  rule,  notably  in 
1866.  At  the  Berlin  congress  in  1878,  the  porte  engaged  scrupulously  to  carry  out  in 
C.  the  reformed  system  of  government  drawn  up  in  1868. 

The  island  of  C.  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  the  mountains  being  chiefly  com- 
posed of  freestone  or  marble,  which  is  either  gray  or  white.  Towards  the  s.  side  of  the 
western  part  of  the  island,  there  is  a chain  of  high  mountains,  extending  in  length  about 
37i  m.,  which,  from  their  appearing  white,  especially  at  their  w.  end,  were  anciently 
•called  Leuci.  Mt.  Ida,  now  called  by  the  natives  Upsilorites,  is  one  in  a chain  of 
mountains  extending  to  the  n.w.  of  the  island  almost  to  Retimo;  the  mountain  is  of 
gray  marble,  and  the  surface  loose  stones:  there  is  no  verdure  on  it  except  a few  small 
shrubs.  Jupiter  is  said  to  have  passed  great  part  of  his  youth  amongst  these  mountains 
in  the  exercise  of  hunting  and  drawing  the  bow. 

The  island  abounds  in  springs  and  fountains,  which  are  found  even  by  the  sea-side ; 
most  of  the  rivers  are  dry  in  summer,  but  in  winter  many  of  them  are  very  dangerous 
torrents.  The  island  does  not  produce  any  minerals  of  importance.  The  soil  of  C.  is 
fertile,  and  produces  wheat  in  abundance.  The  exports,  which  consist  chiefly  of  oil, 
wool,  linseed,  and  fruit,  amount  in  annual  value  to  above  £400,000,  and  the  imports  to 
about  £440,000. 

C.  had  once,  according  to  Homer  in  his  Odyssey,  90  cities;  there  are  now  only  3 
principal  towns:  Megala  Kastron,  or  Candia,  pop.  15,000,  of  which  5,000  are  Christians; 
Retimo  or  Rhithymnos,  pop,  6,000,  of  which  2,000  are  Christians;  Canea  or  Khania,  pop. 
12,000  of  which  8,000  are  (Christians.  The  total  pop.  of  the  island  now  numbers 
little  more  than  290,000 — less  than  half  its  amount  at  the  outbreaking  of  the  Greek  revo- 
lution in  1821. 

The  population  is  for  the  most  part  of  Greek  descent;  there  are  only  about  70,000 
Turks,  with  a few  Arabs  and  Armenians,  in  the  island.  There  are,  however,  many 
Greek  Moslems  in  C.,  the  worldly  advantages  which  used  to  result  from  embracing 
Islamism  having  induced  whole  districts  to  abandon  the  faith  of  their  forefathers;  but 
their  change  of  religious  faith  was  unaccompanied  by  any  change  of  language. 


Candia. 

Candleberry. 


382 


CAN'DIA,  or  Megalo-Castron,  formerly  the  capital  and  still  the  most  populous^ 
city  of  Crete,  on  the  n.  shore  of  the  island,  13°  20'  n.,  and  25°  9'  east.  It  is  surrounded 
by  fortifications  built  by  the  Venetians,  but  which  are  now  out  of  repair;  and  much  of 
the  town  has  also  been  much  injured  by  earthquakes.  The  main  buildings  are  the 
pasha’s  palace,  14  mosques,  three  churches,  a monastery,  the  bazaars,  and  the  baths, 
it  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  of  the  Greek  church.  The  chief  trade  is  in  oil  and  soap, 
besides  which  there  is  considerable  coasting  commerce.  There  are  manufactures  of 
leather  and  of  wine.  The  pop.  is  from  15,000  to  18,000,  of  whom  about  two  thirds  are 
Turks.  Candia  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Heracleion,  the  seaport  of  Gnossus. 
The  present  city  was  founded  by  the  Saracens  in  the  9th  c. ; was  fortified  in  the  12th 
G.  by  the  Genoese,  and  greatly  strengthened  by  the  Venetians  in  the  following  three 
centuries.  It  was  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1669  after  a stubborn  defense  by  the  Vene- 
tians, who  lost  30,000  men. 

CANDIAC,  Jean  Louis  Pierre  Elizabeth  de  Montcalm  de,  1719-26;  a child  of 
wonderful  precocity,  b.  in  Msmes,  France.  At  four  years  of  age  he  read  Latin,  either 
printed  or  written ; at  six  he  understood  Greek  and  Hebrew,  had  a remarkable  acquaint- 
ance with  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  and  heraldry,  and  had  read  many  of  the  best 
autllors.  He  died  in  Paris  at  the  age  of  seven. 

CANDIDATE  (Lat.  candidatus).  Among  the  Romans,  a suitor  for  the  office  of  consul, 
quaestor,  praetor,  etc. , was  named  C.  because,  in  appearing  before  the  people,  he  wore 
a white  {Candida)  toga  without  a tunic.  His  dress  was  chosen  partly  as  an  ostentation 
of  humility,  and  partly  as  it  served  to  display  wounds  received  in  battle.  The  candi- 
dature commonly  lasted  two  years:  in  the  first  year,  the  C.  was  proved  by  the  senate, 
whose  decision,  if  favorable,  was  ratified  by  the  popular  assemblies;  and,  in  the  second, 
his  name  was  entered  in  the  list  of  candidates.  During  this  period  occurred  the  ambitio, 
or  canvassing  of  voters,  which  often  gave  occasion  to  enormous  bribery,  in  spite  of  the 
severe  enactments  passed  to  prevent  the  corruption  of  the  electors.  The  elected  C.  was 
styled  designatus. 

In  the  early  Christian  church,  newly  baptized  converts  were  styled  Candidates,  on 
account  of  the  white  garments  worn  during  eight  days  after  baptism.  In  modern 
times,  a German  probationer  or  theological  student  who  has  been  approved  before  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  authorities,  is  called  a C. ; but  a still  broader  signification  is  alse 
attached  to  the  word,  an  applicant  for  any  office  whatever,  religious  or  secular,  being 
termed  a candidate. 

CANDLE,  a cylinder  of  wax  or  fatty  matter,  with  a wick,  intended  for  giving  light. 
Candles  are  made  principally  of  tallow;  also  of  the  solid  portion  of  palm  and  cocoa-nut 
oils,  bleached  wax,  spermaceti,  and  paraffin,  and  other  oily  substances  found  in  coal, 
shale,  and  gas-tar.  They  are  either  dipped,  molded,  or  rolled.  “Dips”  are  made  by 
stretching  a number  of  wicks  upon  a suitable  frame,  so  that  they  may  hang  down  at  a 
distance  from  each  other  equal  to  about  double  the  intended  thickness  of  the  C. ; these 
are  then  dipped  in  a trough  of  melted  tallow,  and  hung  upon  a rack  until  cooled,  then 
dipped  again  and  again,  until  the  required  thickness  is  obtained.  The  dipper  has  a 
number  of  frames  prepared  before  commencing,  and  by  the  time  he  has  dipped  the  last, 
the  first  is  cool  enough  to  dip  again.  The  tallow  in  the  trough  has  to  be  kept  only  a 
little  above  its  melting  point,  for  if  it  were  much  hotter,  it  would  melt  away  a portion 
of  the  tallow  already  on  the  wick,  instead  of  adding  to  it.  Tallow- candles  are  much 
improved  by  being  kept  a year  or  a winter  before  using. 

Molds,  or  mold-candles,  are  cast  by  pouring  the  tallow  down  a pewter  tube,  along 
the  axis  of  which  the  wick  has  been  previously  fixed.  These  tubes  are  well  polished  in 
the  inside,  and  several  are  fitted  in  a frame,  the  upper  part  of  which  forms  a trough, 
into  which  the  molds  all  open:  thus,  by  pouring  into  the  trough,  all  the  molds  are 
filled  at  once. 

Wax-candles  are  not  molded,  on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  contraction  which 
wax  undergoes  in  cooling,  and  the  difficulty  of  drawing  it  from  the  molds.  The  wicks 
are  warmed^,  and  suspended  over  a basin  of  melted  wax,  which  is  poured  over  them  until 
they  acquire  the  proper  thickness;  they  are  then  rolled,  while  hot,  between  two  flat 
pieces  of  smooth  hard  wood,  kept  wetted  to  prevent  adhesion. 

Great  improvements  have  recently  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  candles,  and 
these  are  especially  interesting  from  being  the  direct  results  of  the  progress  of  scientific 
chemistry — of  theory  applied  in  practice.  All  oils  or  fats  are  composed  of  one  or  more 
fatty  acids  combined  with  a base,  called  glycerine.  The  fatty  acids  constitute  the  com- 
bustible and  more  solid  portion  of  the  compound.  Both  acid  and  base  are  very  weak, 
and  it  is  a general  law  in  chemistry,  that  a strong  base,  under  favorable  conditions,  will 
separate  a weaker  one  from  its  acid,  by  combining  with  the  acid,  and  taking  the  place 
of  the  weak  base;  and  a strong  acid  will  in  like  manner  displace  a weaker  one.  Lime 
is  a strong  base,  and  being  cheap,  is  used  to  separate  the  glycerine  from  the  fatty  acid  of 
tallow,  palm-oil,  etc.  This  it  does  when  the  melted  fat  is  stirred  for  some  hours  with  a 
mixture  of  lime  and  water.  The  lime  forms  a hard  insoluble  soap,  by  combining  with 
the  fatty  acid,  and  the  gl5'^cerine  remains  in  solution  with  the  water.  This  lime-soap  is 
llien  broken  to  powder;  and  the  weak  fatty  acid  separated^ by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 


383 


Candia. 

Candleberrj. 


which  combines  with  the  lime,  forming  sulphate  of  lime.  The  whole  being  heated,  the 
fatty  acid  floats  on  the  top,  is  skimmed  off,  and  the  candles  made  from  it.  These  are 
called  composite  candles;  they  give  a purer  light  than  ordinary  tallow,  from  being  freed 
from  the  glycerine,  which  not  only  softens  the  fat,  but  diminishes  its  combustibility. 
Pure  stearic  acid,  or  stearine,  the  chief  fatty  acid  of  tallow,  is  a hard  crystalline  sub- 
stance, perfectly  dry,  and  free  from  any  greasiness,  with  a somewhat  pearly  luster.  Its 
crystalline  structure  presents  a diflSculty  in  the  manufacture  of  candles,  for  when  cast  in 
molds,  it  contracts  on  cooling,  and  leaves  small  spaces  between  the  crystals.  This  has 
been  obviated  by  mixing  a little  arsenic  with  it ; but  this  method  is  now  abandoned,  on 
account  of  the  poisonous  gas  evolved  by  the  combustion  of  such  candles,  and  the 
desired  effect  is  obtained  by  mixing  the  stearine  with  a little  wax,  and  pouring  it  into 
hot  molds. 

To  obviate  the  necessity  of  snuffing  candles,  several  contrivances  have  been  adopted ; 
in  all  of  them,  the  object  is  effected  by  causing  the  wick  to  bend  over  and  its  end  to  fall 
outside  of  the  flame,  and  thus,  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  to  be 
completely  burned — for  such  combustion  cannot  take  place  within  the  flame.  See 
Flame.  This  bending  over  is  variously  brought  about.  One  method  is  by  twisting 
the  wick  with  one  strand  shorter  than  the  rest,  which  is  strained  straight  while  the 
candles  are  being  cast;  and  when  released  by  the  melting  of  a portion,  it  contracts,  and 
bends  the  wick.  Another  method  is  by  adding  on  one  side  of  the  wick  a paste,  consist- 
ing of  a mixture  of  borax,  bismuth,  flour,  and  charcoal.  Another,  by  coating  one  of 
the  threads  of  the  wick  with  a metallic  envelope,  by  dipping  it  in  fused  bismuth;  the 
metal  fuses  at  the  end  of  the  burning  wick,  and  forms  a small  globule,  which  bends  the 
wick  over,  and  is  itself  readily  combustible  at  a red  heat.  These  are  called  metallic 
wicks.  Various  other  contrivances  have  been  adopted  for  the  same  object.  Price’s 
manufactory  of  “patent”  candles,  as  these  improved  candles  usually  are  called,  is 
perhaps  the  largest  in  England.  It  is  situated  at  Vauxhall,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London,  and  its  economic  arrangements  have  attracted  not  a little  public  attention. 
Paraffin  (q.v.),  a white  crystalline  body,  obtained  by* distillation  from  cannel  coal,  etc., 
iiffords  a beautifully  white  and  clear  material  for  candles,  and  having  thus  in  a great 
degree  the  properties  of  wax  at  a much  smaller  expense,  it  has  lately  been  much  used 
for  this  purpose.  Ozokerit  is  another  oily  mineral  substance  used  for  candles. 

Candles  were  early  introduced — with  symbolical  signifleation — into  Christian  worship, 
and  are  still  so  employed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  In  the  church  of  England, 
candles  are  sometimes  placed  on  the  altar;  but  the  practice  is  a subject  of  contro- 
versy. The  numerous  superstitious  notions  and  observances  connected  with  candles 
and  other  lights  in  all  countries  had  a more  remote  origin,  and  may  be  considered  as 
relics  of  the  once  universally  prevalent  w^orship  of  the  sun  and  of  Are.  Numerous 
omens  are  taken  from  them,  and  they  are  also  used  as  charms.  In  Britain,  a portion  of 
the  tallow  rising  up  against  the  wick  of  the  candle,  is  called  a winding-sheet,  and 
regarded  as  a sure  omen  of  death  in  the  family.  A bright  spark  at  the  candle  denotes 
that  the  party  directly  opposite  is  to  receive  a letter.  Windy  weather  is  prophesied  from 
the  waving  of  the  flame  without  visible  cause,  and  wet  weather  if  the  wick  does  not 
light  readily.  Lights  appearing  to  spring  up  from  the  ground,  or  issue  out  of  a house, 
and  traverse  the  road  or  air  by  invisible  agency,  the  superstitious  in  Wales  and  else- 
where call  coi'pse-candles.  They  are  ominous  of  death,  and  their  route  indicates  the 
road  the  corpse  is  to  be  carried  for  burial.  The  size  and  color  of  the  light  tell  whether 
the  fated  person  is  young  or  old.  It  is  or  was  customary  in  some  places  to  light  a 
candle,  previously  blessed,  during  the  time  of  a woman’s  travail.  C.  were  supposed  to 
be  efficacious  after  death  as  well  as  before  birth,  for  they  were  placed  on  the  corpse. 
The  object  was  doubtless  to  ward  off  evil  spirits,  who  were  supposed  to  be  always  on 
the  alert  to  injure  souls  on  entering  and  on  quitting  the  world.  See  also  Candlemas. 

CANDLEBERRY,  Candleberey  Myrtle,  Wax  Tree,  Wax  Myrtle,  Tallow  Tree, 
or  Bayberry,  Myrica  cenfera,  a small  tree  or  shrub  of  4 to  18  ft.  high,  but  generally  a 
low-spreading  shrub,  a native  of  the  United  States  of  America,  but  most  abundant  and 
luxuriant  in  the  south.  It  belongs  to  the  natural  order  amentacece,  suborder  myricem, 
according  to  some,  a distinct  natural  order,  distinguished  by  naked  flowers,  with  1-celled 
ovary,  a drupaceous  fruit  (stone-fruit) — the  scales  becoming  fleshy — and  a single  erect 
seed.  The  genus  myrica  has  male  and  female  flowers  on  separate  plants;  and  the  scales 
of  the  catkin,  in  both  male  and  female  flowers,  are  concave.  The  C.  has  evergreen 
oblongo-lanceolate  leaves  with  two  small  serratures  on  each  side  at  the  point,  sprinkled 
with  resinous  dots.  The  bark  and  leaves  when  bruised  emit  a delightful  fragrance. 
The  drupes — properly  called  berries — are  about  the  size  of  peppercorns,  and  when  ripe 
are  covered  with  a greenish-white  wax,  which  is  collected  by  boiling  them  and  skim- 
ming it  off,  and  is  afterwards  melted  and  reflned.  A bushel  of  berries  will  yield  4 or 
5 pounds.  It  is  used  ehiefly  for  candles,  which  burn  slowly,  with  little  smoke,  and  emit 
an  agreeable  balsamic  odor,  but  do  not  give  a strong  light.  An  excellent  scented  soap  is 
made  from  it. — M.  gale  is  the  Sweet  Gale  of  the  moors  and  bogs  of  Scotland,  well 
known  for  its  delightful  fragrance,  a native  of  the  whole  northern  parts  of  the  world. 
Several  species  are  found  at  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  one  of  which,  M.  cordifolia,  bears 
the  name  of  Wax  Shrub,  and  candles  are  made  from  its  berries. 


Candle-fish.. 

Cane. 


384 


CANDLE-FISH,  or  Eulachon,  TlmleicJitliys  Pacificus,  a remarkable  fish  of  the  familjr 
salmonidoB,  nearly  allied  to  the  capelin  (q.v.),  and,  like  it,  strictly  a sea-fish  approaching  the 
coasts  to  spawn,  but  not  entering  rivers.  The  candle-fish  inhabits  the  Pacific  ocean,  near 
the  western  shores  of  America,  from  Vancouver’s  island  northwards.  It  is  not  larger  than 
a smelt,  has  a somewhat  pointed  and  conical  head,  a large  mouth,  teeth  on  the  pharyn- 
geals,  and  the  tongue  rough,  but  the  lower  jaw,  palatines,  and  vomer  destitute  of  teeth. 
The  color  is  greenish  olive  on  the  back,  passing  into  silvery  white  on  the  sides  and  belly, 
sparsely  spotted  with  dirty  yellow.  It  is  probably  the  fattest  or  most  oleaginous  of  all 
fishes,  or  indeed  of  animals,  and  is  used  by  the  Indians  not  only  as  an  article  of  food, 
but  for  making  oil.  To  broil  or  fry  it,  is  nearly  impossible,  because  it  almost  com- 
pletely melts  into  oil.  Indeed,  the  Indians  often  use  it,  in  a dried  state,  as  a lamp  for 
lighting  their  lodges,  merely  drawing  through  it  a piece  of  rush  pith,  or  a strip  from  the 
inner  bark  of  the  “cypress  tree”  of  these  regions,  thuja  gigantea — a species  of  arbor 
vitse— as  a wick,  a long  needle  of  hard  wood  being  used  for  this  purpose,  and  the  fish 
being  then  lighted  at  one  end,  burns  steadily  until  it  is  all  consumed.  In  order  to  use 
the  dried  fish  for  food,  the  Indians  often  melt  it  into  oil,  by  the  application  of  heat,  and 
drink  the  oil.  It  is  also  eaten  uncooked.  Drying  is  accomplished  without  any  gutting 
or  cleaning,  the  fish  being  fastened  on  skewers  passed  through  the  eyes,  and  hung  in  the 
thick  smoke  at  the  top  of  sheds  in  which  wood  fires  are  kept  burning.  They  soon 
acquire  a flavor  of  wood-smoke,  and  the  smoking  helps  to  preserve  them.  They  are 
then  stowed  away  in  large  frails,  made  from  cedar-bark  or  rushes,  in  order  to  be  used  for 
food  in  winter.  Immense  shoals  of  candle-fish  approach  the  shores  in  summer,  and  are 
caught  in  moonlight  nights,  when  they  come  to  sport  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  which 
may  often  be  seen  glittering  with  their  multitudes.  The  Indians  paddle  their  canoes 
noiselessly  amongst  them,  and  catch  them  by  means  of  a monster  comb  or  rake — apiece 
of  pine-wood  from  6 to  8 ft.  long,  made  round  for  about  2 ft.  of  its  length  at  the  place 
of  the  hand-gripe,  the  rest  flat,  thick  at  the  back,  but  having  a sharp  edge  in  front, 
where  teeth  are  driven  into  it  abo^ut  4 in.  long,  and  an  inch  apart.  These  teeth  are  usu 
ally  made  of  bone,  but  the  Indian  fishers  have  learned  to  prefer  sharp  iron  nails  when 
they  can  get  them.  One  Indian,  sitting  in  the  stern,  paddles  the  canoe;  another,  stand- 
ing with  his  face  to  the  bow,  holds  the  rake  firmly  in  both  hands,  the  teeth  pointing 
stern  wards,  sweeps  it  with  all  his  force  through  the  glittering  mass,  and  brings  it  to  the 
surface  teeth  upwards,  usually  with  a fish,  and  sometimes  with  three  or  four,  impaled 
on  each  tooth.  This  process  is  carried  on  with  wonderful  rapidity.  When  a sufficient 
quantity  of  candle-fish  has  been  dried  for  winter,  the  rest  that  are  caught  are  made  into 
oil,  being  for  this  purpose,  piled  in  heaps  until  partially  decomposed,  and  then  placed 
in  large  square  pine-tree  boxes ; a layer  about  3 deep  in  the  bottom  of  each  box,  covered 
with  cold  water,  and  a layer  of  hot  stones  put  in,  then  a layer  of  small  pieces  of  wood, 
another  layer  of  fish,  stones,  and  so  on.  The  oil  is  skimmed  from  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  boxes.  A vast  quantity  of  oil  is  thus  obtained.  The  candle-fish  is  an  excellent 
article  of  winter  food  in  a climate  of  which  the  winter  is  severe ; and  notwithstanding 
its  excessive  fatness,  is  of  agreeable  flavor.  It  has  not  yet  become  an  article  of  econom- 
ical value  to  the  civilized  inhabitants  of  North-western  America,  but  seems  very  likely 
to  do  so,  and  to  acquire  very  considerable  commercial  importance. 

CANDLEMAS,  in  its  ecclesiastical  meaning,  is  the  feast  of  the  purification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  is  observed  on  the  2d  of  Fetouary.  This  festival  is  very  strictly  kept 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  there  being  a procession  with  many  lighted  candles, 
and  those  required  for  the  service  of  the  ensuing  year  being  also  on  that  occasion  con- 
secrated ; hence  the  name  Candlemas  day.  In  Scotland,  this  day  is  one  of  the  four 
term-days  appointed  for  periodical  annual  payments  of  money,  interest,  taxes,  etc.,  and 
of  entry  to  premises — the  three  other  term-days  there  being  Whitsunday,  Lammas,  and 
Martinmas.  See  Term. 

An  old  document  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the 
society  of  antiquaries,  London,  concerning  the  rites  and  ceremonies  in  the  English 
church,  speaks  thus  of  the  custom  of  carrying  candles ; “On  Candlemas  daye  it  shall 
be  declared  that  the  bearyinge  of  candles  is  done  in  the  memorie  of  Christe,  the  spirit- 
ual! lyghte  whom  Simeon  dyd  prophecye  [‘a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles’],  as  it  is 
redde  in  the  churche  that  daye.”  But  an  older  and  heathen  origin  is  ascribed  to  the 
practice.  The  Romans  were  in  the  habit  of  burning  candles  on  this  day  to  the  goddess 
Februa,  the  mother  of  Mars;  and  pope  Sergius,  seeing  it  would  be  useless  to  prohibit  a 
practice  of  so  long  standing,  turned  it  to  Christian  account  by  enjoining  a similar  offer- 
ing of  candles  to  the  Virgin.  The  candles  were  supposed  to  have  the  effect  of  frighten- 
ing the  devil  and  all  evil  spirits  away  from  the  persons  who  carried  them,  or  from  the 
houses  in  which  they  were  placed.  An  order  of  council  in  1584  prohibited  the  cere- 
mony in  England.  There  is  a tradition  in  most  parts  of  Europe  to  the  effect  that  a fine 
C.  portends  a severe  winter.  In  Scotland,  the  prognostication  is  expressed  in  the  fol- 
lowing distich : 

“ If  Candlemas  is  fair  and  clear, 

There  'll  be  twa  winters  in  the  year.” 

Christ’s  presentation,  the  holiday  of  St.  Simeon,  and,  in  the  n.  of  England,  the  wive’* 
feast-day,  were  names  given  to  Candlemas  day.  See  Brand’s  Popular  Antiquities,  Bohn’s 
edition. 


385 


Candle-fish. 

Cane. 


CANDLE-NUT,  Aleurites  triloba,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  euphorbiaceoe  (q.v.),  a 
native  of  the  South  sea  islands,  Madagascar,  Molucca,  Java,  etc.,  which  produces  a 
heart-shaped  nut  with  a very  hard  shell,  and  a kernel  good  to  eat  when  roasted,  although 
in  a raw  state  it  possesses  in  a slight  degree  some  of  the  active  properties  so  common  in 
the  eupJhorbiaceoE,  and  is  apt  to  cause  purging  and  colic.  It  is  about  as  large  as  a walnut. 
An  excellent  bland  oil  is  procured  from  it,  used  both  for  food  and  as  a lamp-oil.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  Society  islands  after  slightly  baking  these  nuts  in  an  oven,  and 
removing  the  shell,  bore  holes  through  the  kernels,  and  string  them  on  rushes,  hanging 
them  up  in  their  houses,  to  be  used  for  torches,  which  are  made  by  inclosing  four  or  five 
strings  in  a leaf  of  the  screw-pine  {pandanus).  These  torches  are  often  used  in  fishing 
by  night,  and  burn  with  much  brilliancy.  The  lamp-black  used  in  tattooing  was 
obtained  from  the  shell  of  the  candle-nut.  A gummy  -substance  exudes  from  the 
candle-nut  tree,  which  the  Tahitians  chew. 

CANDLESTICK.  The  ordinary  C.  is  so  well  known  that  no  description  is  needed. 
The  most  important  modern  improvement  in  the  C.  is  a contrivance  for  maintaining 
the  candle  at  a uniform  height,  by  means  of  a spring  placed  below  the  candle,  and  con- 
fined in  the  cylindrical  body  of  the  C. ; this  spring  presses  the  candle  upwards  with 
sufficient  force  to  drive  it  completely  out,  but  for  a collar  at  the  top,  against  which  the 
surface  around  the  wick  bears,  and  thus,  as  the  candle  melts,  it  yields  to  the  pressure 
of  the  spring,  and  maintains  a uniform  height.  The  collar,  when  properly  adjusted, 
also  prevents  the  guttering  to  which  composite  candles  are  liable  when  exposed  to  cur- 
rents of  air  or  moved  about. 

CANDLISH,  Robert  Smith,  d.d.,  an  eminent  Scottish  divine,  wash,  in  Edinburgh 
in  1806,  entered  the  university, of  Glasgow  in  1822,  and  was  licensed  as  a preacher  in 
connection  with  the  established  church  in  1828.  In  1834,  he  became  minister  of  St. 
George’s,  Edinburgh.  From  this  period,  his  public  career  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced. With  intense  zeal,  he  advocated  the  justice  and  necessity  of  ecclesiastical 
reforms,  and  became  one  of  the  boldest  and  most  vigorous  leaders  of  the  popular  or 
“non-intrusion”  party.  After  the  disruption  (see  Free  Church),  he  co-operated  with 
Dr.  Chalmers  and  other  chiefs  of  the  newly  formed  denomination  in  organizing,  con- 
solidating, and  extending  its  aggressive  efforts.  In  1845-46,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  establishment  of  the  evangelical  alliance.  In  1847,  he  was,  when  Dr.  Chalmers 
died,  appointed  to  the  chair  of  divinity,  in  the  new  college,  Edinburgh,  but  did  not 
assume  the  functions  of  this  office.  In  1862,  he  was  appointed  principal  of  the  same 
college.  He  died  Oct.  19,  1873.  His  best  known  teachings  through  the  press  are  Con- 
tributions towards  the  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Genesis;  The  Atonement,  its  Reality  and 
Extent;  An  Examination  of  Mr.  Maurice's  Theological  Essays;  The  Fatherhood  of  God; 
and  an  Exposition  of  the  First  Epistle  of  8t.  John. 

CANDY,  See  Ceylon. 

C ANDYS  (Gr.),  a loose  gown,  worn  by  the  Medes  and  Persians  over  their  other  gar- 
ments. It  was  made  of  woolen  cloth,  which  was  either  purple  or  of  some  other  bril- 
liant color,  and  had  wide  sleeves.  In  the  sculptures  at  Persepolis,  nearly  all  the  per- 
sonages are  represented  as  so  attired.  A gown  of  a very  similar  kind  is  still  worn  by 
Arabians,  Turks,  and  other  orientals. 

CANDY-SUGAR  is  the  popular  name  applied  to  ordinary  sugar  when  procured  in  large 
crystals  by  the  gradual  and  slow  cooling  of  a concentrated  solution  of  sugar.  See  Sugar. 

CAN'DYTUFT,  Ibh'is,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  cruciferoe,  distinguished 
by  unequal  petals,  the  largest  being  towards  the  circumference  of  the  dense  corymbs  in 
which  the  ffowers  grow,  and  by  an  emarginate  pouch  with  the  valves  keeled  and  winged, 
the  cells  one-seeded,  and  the  cotyledons  accumbent.  See  Cotyledon.  The  species  are 
chiefly  found  in  the  countries  surrounding  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and  the  name  C.  is 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  that  of  the  island  of  Candia,  the  name  Iberis  from  Iberia 
(Spain).  One  species,  I.  amara,  remarkable  for  its  bitterness,  is  a doubtful  native  of 
England.  Some  species  are  slightly  shrubby,  some  are  herbaceous  perennials,  some 
annuals.  Some  are  among  the  most  familiar  ornaments  of  our  flower-gardens,  as  the 
annual  white  and  purple  C.  (7.  umbellata),  the  sweet-scented  C.  (/.  odorata),  and  two 
slightly  shrubby  species,  I.  sempervirens  and  I.  semper  for  ens,  the  latter  of  which,  in 
favorable  situations,  continues  to  blossom  throughout  the  whole  winter,  and  pleases  the 
eye  at  all  seasons,  both  by  the  abundance  and  the  perfect  whiteness  of  its  flowers. 

CANE,  a term  sometimes  indiscriminately  applied  to  any  small  and  smooth  rod,  of 
the  thickness  of  a walking-stick  or  less;  but  more  correctly  limited  to  the  stems  of  the 
smaller  palms  and  the  larger  grasses.  We  thus  speak  of  sugar  C.,  bamboo  C.,  etc., 
among  the  latter;  whilst  among  the  former,  this  name  is  particularly  appropriated  to» 
the  species  of  the  genus  calamus,  also  called  rattan.  To  this  genus  belong  the  canes 
largely  imported  from  the  tropical  regions  of  the  east  for  making  bottoms  of  chairs, 
couches,  etc.  See  Rattan. 

CANE,  or  Ken,  a river  rising  in  Bundelcund,  near  lat.  23°  54'  n.,  and  long.  80°  13^  e., 
and,  after  a n.n.e.  course  of  230  m.,  entering  the  Jumna  in  lat.  25°  47'  n.,  and  long. 
80°  35'  east.  It  is  too  rapid  and  rugged  for  navigation ; and  is  remarkable  for  the  match- 
less beauty  of  its  pebbles. 

U.  K.  III.— 25 


Canea. 

Canis. 


386 


CANE'A,  or  Can'na,  called  ^7  the  Greeks,^ 

Candia  or  Crete,  and  is  capital  DreLnt  city  is  of  Venetian  origin,  and 

occupies  the  site  of  the  ^ydonia.  The^p^^^^^ 

dates  from  1252  a.d.,  when  a colony  , been  in  arms,  and  at  open  war 

Its  foundation  was  to  keep  ^ the  day  when  the  Venetians 

withtheivltahaniords  almost  ^ 

first  set  foot  on  their  shores.  ^ ^cnet  a surrounded  by  a strong  wall  and  deep 

ways  of  some  of  the  principal  k •'  ’ ^ ^ * _c  o>rpnt  dilanidation*  it  has  a good  but 

ditc\,  both  of  which,  l^owever  are  Jp.rts  to 

very  shallow  harbor.  C.  is  the  principal  1874)  wax,  etc.  Several 

France  and  Italy,  oil  (530  tuns  lo  Turkish  governor  of  the  province, 

nAi'crTf'  DFTT  A SC  ALA  1291-1329;  known  also  as  Can  Grande,  great  ^og,  a 
CANE  DELLA  SOAIjA,  rinplnhs  In  1318.  he  was  appointed 

noted  prince  of  Verona,  A^hich  brought  upon  him  the  pope’s 

to  the  chief  command  of  the  illness  while  making  a 

excommunication  After  cathedral  of  that  city.  His  court  was  the 

triumphal  entry  into  Treviso,  and  died  time  entertaining:  Dante,  among  otlier 

. small  asce“ 

whole  tree  is  very  aromatic,  in  commerce  as  white-wood. . 

young  branches  is  the  G.  tark  rV  Wms  a considerabie  articie  of  export, 

Lrt,and  sometimes  called  regarded  as  intermediate  between' 

tudes  (which  may  be  seen  on  the  . artists  of  Greece.  Similar  statues  are' 

fru's:St  "“"j 

caryatides.  j 

CANE  SUGAR.  See  Sugar.  ' 

CA'NES  VENA'TICI  (Lat.  hunting  dogs).,  a constellation  of  the  ^ 
added  by  Hhlvetius  and  known  2™^%  an*Chara''°'on  the  celestial  globe,  they  are 

" Cb  “rin  instrument  of  de^^ad^P— 

It  consists  of  a large  wooden  mrtTwhere  the  C.  fastens  are  pasted  slips  o1 

is  usually  from  50  to  60  pounds.  t the  culprit  may  not  be  relieves 

paper,  on  which  the  mandarin  places  ’ sometimes  extends  to  15  days.  Or  ► 

until  the  full  term  of  and  the  duration  of  the  punishment 

the  C.  is  also  inscribed,  in  'arge  letters  the  ugg  is  then  left  expose! 

Srml*  timrlulS^T  ‘Ms  tcapable  o^ using  his  hands,  he  has  to  b|. 

fed  during  the  time  he  is  suffering  the  penalty. 

CANGA.ARGUEL'LES,  Josb',  ret‘ur.| 

opponent  of  Napoleon,  and  an  energetic  “^mbe  , . Under  the  restoration  o| 

of  the  Bourbons  he  was  exiled  to  the  made  many  reforms.  Aftel 

KroMthS  i“?rcMe^”otf  »» <! 

apo'o^^re.”bySvicV^^^^^^^^^ 

?„"‘7’‘l8‘‘«ievtsuel  ‘araL'ihilated  the  Moorish  invaders.  Pop.  700, 


387 


Canea. 

Canis. 


CANGE,  Du.  See  Dufeesne,  Charles,  ante. 

CANGIA'GI,  or  CAMBIA'SO,  Luigi,  1527-85;  a Genoese  painter,  taught  by  his  father. 
He  gained  celebrity  at  an  early  age,  and,  in  1583,  was  invited  to  Spam  by  Philip  II.  to 
assist  in  the  decoration  of  the  Escurial,  in  which  he  painted  the  ceiling  of  the  choir, 
representing  the  “Assemblage  of  the  Blessed,”  which  is  considered  his  best  work. 
Among  others  of  his  works  are  the  “ Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women,”  the  “ Sleeping  Cupid,” 
and  “Judith.” 

CANICAT'TI,  a t.  in  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  and  15  m.  e.n.e.  of  the  city 
of  that  name.  It  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Naro,  is  well  built,  and  has  sulphur 
mines.  The  inhabitants  (1872),  20,908  in  number,  are  principally  engaged  in  agricultu- 
ral pursuits. 

CANIC  ULAR,  Canicular  Days,  or  Dog-days,  Canicular  Year.  Canicular  was  an 
old  name  of  Canis  Minor  (q.v.);  it  was  also  used  to  denote  Sirius,  or  the  dog-star,  the 
largest  and  brightest  of  all  the  stars,  and  which  is  situated  in  the  mouth  of  Canis 
Major  (q.v).  From  the  heliacal  rising  (q.v.)  of  this  star  (Sirius),  the  ancients  reckoned 
their  dog-days,  or  dies  caniculares,  which  were  40  in  number — 20  before,  and  20  after 
the  rising  of  the  star.  The  rising  of  the  dog-star  was  in  ignorance  supposed  to  be  the 
occasion  of  the  extreme  heat  and  the  diseases  incidental  to  these  days.  It  was  by  mere 
accident  that  the  rising  of  the  star  coincided  with  the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  in 
the  times  and  countries  of  the  old  astronomers.  The  time  of  its  rising  depends  on 
the  latitude  of  the  place,  and  is  later  and  later  every  year  in  all  latitudes,  owing  to 
precession.  In  time,  the  star  will  rise  in  the  dead  of  winter.  The  canicular  year  was 
that  known  among  the  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians.  It  was  computed  from  one  rising  of 
Sirius  to  the  next,  and  consisted  ordinarily  of  365  days,  and  every  fourth  year  of  366. 
This  year  was  sometimes  called  the  heliacal  year.  The  reason  for  computing  the  year 
from  the  rising  of  Sirius,  seems  to  have  been  that,  at  the  time,  the  heliacal  rising  coin- 
cided with  the  greatest  swelling  of  the  Nile. 

CAN'IDJE  (Lat.  canis,  a dog),  a family  of  the  digitigrade  (q.v.)  section  of  carnivorous 
mammalia,  which,  as  now  generally  defined,  is  less  extensive  than  the  Linnsean  genus 
canis,  the  hyenas  being  excluded  from  it,  and  referred  to  the  famil}’'  viverridm  (civets, 
ichneumons,  etc.).  Those  families  are,  indeed,  closely  connected,  and  hyenas  may  b® 
said  to  form  a connecting-link  between  them,  the  dentition,  however,  making  a nearei 
approach  than  in  either  of  them  to  that  of  the  cats  or  felidm. — The  C.  have  two  flat 
tuberculous  molar  teeth  or  grinders  on  each  side,  behind  the  great  carnivorous  cheek- 
tooth— the  last  premolar — of  the  upper  jaw,  a dentition  resembling  that  of  the  bear 
family,  or  ursidoc,  to  which  they  exhibit  a further  resemblance  in  their  power  of  adapt- 
ing themselves  to  the  use  of  vegetable  food.  Their  whole  organization  fits  them  to  be 
less  exclusively  carnivorous  than  the  feline  tribe.  They  have  generally  three  incisors  or 
cutting  teeth,  with  one  large  canine  tooth,  and  four  premolars  on  each  side  in  each  jaw, 
two  true  molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  three  in  the  lower.  The  true  molars 
are  adapted  for  crushing  either  bones  or  vegetable  food.  The  last  premolars  in  the 
upper  jaw  are  remarkably  large,  and  particularly  adapted  for  cutting  flesh.  See  Dog, 
Fennec,  Fox,  Jackal,  Lycaon,  Wolf,  etc. 

CANFNA,  Luigi,  Cavaliere,  1793-1856;  b.  in  Piedmont;  an  architect  and  archae-’ 
ologist.  He  was  professor  of  architecture  at  Turin,  and  superintended  the  excavation  of 
Tusculum  in  1829,  and  of  the  Appian  Way  in  1848.  He  wrote  many  works  on  archi- 
tecture and  archaeology,  some  of  which  were  published  in  the  most  sumptuous  manner 
by  his  patroness,  the  queen  of  Sardinia. 

CANINES,  or  Canine  Teeth,  the  four  teeth,  two  in  each  jaw,  which  are  pointed 
and  stand  between  the  incisors  and  the  bicuspids;  sometimes  called  “eye  teeth”  or 
“ stomach  teeth.”  In  lions,  wolves,  dogs,  and  other  carnivora  they  are  large  and  strong, 
for  holding  prey  and  tearing  raw  flesh. 

CANI'NI,  Giovanni  Agnolo,  1617-66;  b.  in  Rome;  a painter  and  engraver,  pupil 
of  Domenicheno  and  of  Barbalvenga.  He  painted  altar-pieces  in  Rome,  among  which 
are  the  “ Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen,”  and  that  of  St.  Bartholomew.  He  was  engaged 
by  Colbert  to  design  from  medals,  antique  gems,  and  other  sources,  portraits  of 
the  most  illustrious  characters  of  antiquity;  but  he  died  soon  after  the  work  was  begun, 

U leaving  the  completion  to  his  brother  Marcantonio,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  Picard 
and  Valet,  published,  in  1699,  150  engravings. 

CANISTUS,  Petrus,  1521-97;  a Dutch  Jesuit,  who  took  a prominent  part  in  the 
council  of  Trent  in  1545;  was  preacher  to  Ferdinand  I.,  and  the  first  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernor of  the  Jesuits  in  Germany.  He  established  colleges  of  the  order  at  Prague,  Fri- 
I bourg,  Ausburg,  and  Dillengen.  He  was  the  author  of  two  catechisms,  the  larger  and 
r the  smaller,  the  latter  of  which  has  passed  through  more  than  a hundred  editions. 

!:  CA'NIS  MA'JOR,  the  Greater  Dog,  a constellation  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  below 

|i  the  feet  of  Orion.  It  contains  Sirius,  the  brightest  of  all  the  stars,  and  its  place  may  be 
i;  found  by  means  of  this  star,  which  is  on  the  continuation  of  the  line  through  the  belt  of 
^Crion.  According  to  Flamsteed,  it  contains  31  stars. 


Canig. 

Cannibal. 


388 


CA'NIS  MI'NOR,  the  Lesser  Dog,  is  a constellation  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  It  is 
near  Ciiiiis  Major,  and  just  below  Gemini.  Procyon,  of  the  first  magnitude,  is  its  prin- 
cipal star,  and  lies  in  a direct  line  between  Sirius  and  Pollux;  so  that  the  position  of 
the  constellation  may  be  found  by  means  of  this  star.  According  to  Plamsteed,  it  con- 
tains in  all  14  stars. 

CANISTER  SHOT.  See  Case  Shot. 

CANKER,  a disease  of  plants,  especially  fatal  to  fruit-trees  in  many  gardens.  It  is  a 
kind  of  gangrene,  usually  beginning  in  the  young  shoots  and  branches,  and  gradually 
proceeding  towards  the  trunk,  killing  the  tree  in  the  course  of  a few  years.  Wet  sub- 
soils seem  in  many  cases  to  induce  it,  and  it  begins  most  readily  in  shoots  that  have  been 
imperfectly  ripened  and  injured  by  frost,  or  which  have  received  some  accidental 
wound.  Those  varieties  of  fruit-trees  which  have  been  long  propagated  by  grafting 
and  budding  are  most  liable  to  it.  It  is  sometimes  cured  by  heciding  down  the  tree,  and 
causing  it  to  throw  out  new  branches. 

CANKER,  a vague  term  applied  to  various  diseases  of  the  lower  animals,  characterized 
by  their  chronic  nature,  and  consisting  chiefly  in  ulceration,  suppuration,  and  the  devel- 
opment of  fungoid  excrescences  in  the  parts  affected. 

CANKER,  in  the  foot  of  the  horse.  This  malady,  believed  by  Gerlach,  of  Berlin,  to 
be  truly  cancerous,  is  observed  in  two  different  forms : in  the  acute  stage,  when  the 
naalady  is  chiefly  local ; and  in  the  chronic  stage,  when  the  constitution  suffers,  and  all 
local  remedies  fail  to  restore  a healthy  function  of  the  structures  of  the  foot. 

Symptoms. — It  usually  commences  by  discharge  from  the  heels,  or  the  cleft  of  the 
frog  of  the  horse’s  foot.  The  horn  becomes  soft  and  disintegrated,  the  vascular  struct- 
ures beneath  become  inflamed,  and  the  pain  which  the  animal  endures  is  intolerable.  It 
is  therefore  very  lame  on  one,  two,  or  all  feet,  according  to  the  number  affected. 
Though  there  is  no  constitutional  fever,  the  horse  becomes  emaciated,  and  unfit  for 
work.  During  wet  weather,  and  on  damp  soil,  the  symptoms  increase  in  severity.  The 
sore  structures  bleed  on  the  least  touch,  and  considerable  fungoid  granulations, 
commonly  called  proud  flesh,  form  rapidly. 

Causes. — This  disease  is  occasionally  hereditary,  and  it  is  most  frequently  seen  in 
low-bred  draught  or  coach  horses.  Dirt,  cold,  and  wet  favor  the  production  of  the 
disease,  and  there  is  always  a tendency  to  relapse  when  once  an  animal  has  been 
affected. 

Ireatment. — Pare  away  detached  portions  of  horn,  and,  in  mild  cases,  sprinkle  pow- 
dered acetate  of  copper  over  the  sore;  apply  over  this  pledgets  of  tow,  fixed  over  the 
foot  by  strips  of  iron  or  wood  passed  between  shoe  and  foot.  In  severe  cases,  tar  and 
nitric  acid,  creosote  and  turpentine,  chloride  of  zinc  paste,  and  other  active  caustics, 
have  to  be  used  for  a time  with  the  regular  employment  of  pressure  on  the  diseased 
surface.  The  animal  requires  to  be  treated  constitutionally  by  periodical  purgatives 
and  alteratives.  Good  food,  fresh  air,  and  exercise  often  aid  much  in  the  treatment  of 
the  disease. 

CANKER  {ante),  in  the  human  being,  is  developed  chiefly  among  children  in  the 
form  of  ulceration  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth,  commonly  the  result  of  indi-  ■ 
gestive  derangement.  In  general  it  is  only  a local  and  temporary  aflfliction,  and  may  be  ; 
removed  by  proper  application  of  nitrate  of  silver,  either  solid  or  in  a solution,  or  with  < 
borate  of  soda.  ' 

CANKER  WORM,  Anisopterys,  a genus  of  destructive  insects  of  the  order  lepidoptera 
and  family  geometridae.  The  female  moths,  from  the  eggs  of  which  this  worm  comes,  '< 
are  wingless.  In  the  spring  they  creep  up  the  trunks  of  trees,  on  which  they  deposit 
their  eggs.  These  soon  produce  the  worms,  which  feed  upon  young  leaves  of  fruit- 
trees  and  of  nearly  all  cultivated  trees.  After  about  four  weeks  of  feeding  they  creep 
down,  or  let  themselves  down  by  a web,  and  burrow  in  the  ground,  where  they  change 
to  chrysalis,  and  remain  until  the  following  spring.  Like  other  geometridae,  the  worm  I 
has  six  legs  forward  and  four  stout  prop  legs  behind.  In  consequence  of  their  eingular 
mode  of  locomotion  they  are  often  called  measuring,  or  inch  or  span,  or  loop  worms  or 
geometers.  As  the  female  moth  cannot  fly,  trees  may  be  protected  from  this  worm  by  | 
surrounding  their  trunks  with  a hollow  vessel  filled  with  oil  or  thin  tar,  which  prevents 
the  ascent  of  the  egg-laying  moth;  but  in  recent  years  the  sparrows  introduced  from 
England  have  entirely  subdued  this  worm  in  many  districts  that  had  been  completel}' 
denuded  of  leaves  almost  every  summer.  This  remedy,  however,  is  worse  than  the 
disease.  The  English  sparrow  is  not,  in  general,  an  insect-eating,  but  is  a grain-eating 
bird;  it  is  very  pugnacious,  and  as  prolific  as  the  rabbit;  it  has  driven  away  the  native  | 
birds  wherever  it  lias  gained  a footing,  and  as  there  are  many  other  insect  leaf-eaters  : 
which  it  will  not  touch,  and  which  no  other  birds  are  left  to  destroy,  the  trees  are  in  ji 
nearly  as  great  danger  as  before,  while  the  grain-fields  of  farmers  are  beginningto  suffer  r 
severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  sparrows.  • ! 

GANNA,  a plant  of  the  order  marantacece,  a species  of  reed,  the  fruit  of  which  is  a 
hard  black  seed  growing  in  a capsule.  The  starch  of  C.  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  i 
arrow-root.  It  grows  along  the  coast  in  the  southern  states,  and  is  becoming  a common  || 
ornamental  plant  in  the  north.  I 


389 


Canis. 

Cannibal. 


CANNA,  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Hebrides,  off  the  w.  coast  of  Scotland,  7 m.  s.w. 
of  Skye,  and  3 m.  n.w.  of  Rum.  It  belongs  to  Argyleshire,  and  is  m.  long  from  e. 
to  w.,  and  1 m.  broad.  The  surface  stands  high  above  the  sea,  and  consists  of  trap 
(clay-stone,  porphyry,  and  trap  conglomerate,  with  fragments  of  old  red  sandstone  and 
bituminous  wood),  which  has  overflowed  thin  laminae  of  coal  and  shale.  The  island 
has  a hill  of  basalt,  called  Compass  hill,  which  reverses  the  magnetic  needle.  Pop. 
’71,  48. 

CANNABINA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  or,  according  to  many, 
s,  suborder  of  Urticace^  (q.v,),  differing  from  the  proper  urticacm  chiefly  in  the  sus- 
pended exalbuminous  seed,  and  hooked  or  spiral  embryo.  But  only  two  plants  of  the 
order  or  suborder  are  known,  both  of  them  valuable.  Hemp  (q.v.)  and  the  Hop  (q.v.). 

CAN'NABIS  IN'DICA.  See  Hemp,  ante. 

CAN'NE  (ancient  Cannot,  a t.  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Bari,  8 m.  w.s.w. 
of  Barletta,  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ofanto,  formerly  the  Aufldus.  It  is  celebrated 
on  account  of  the  great  victory  here  gained  by  Hannibal  over  the  Romans  in  the  summer 
of  216  B.c.  Hannibal  crossed  the  Aufldus  at  a ford,  and  attacked  the  Romans,  who  in 
a short  time  were  almost  annihilated  by  the  terrible  Numidian  cavalry.  Among  those 
left  on  the  field  were  Paulus  JEmilius,  the  consul  of  the  previous  year;  Minucius,  the 
late  master  of  the  horse ; and  a vast  number  of  Roman  knights.  The  loss  of  the  Romans 
is  stated  by  Livy  at  45,000  infantry  and  3,000  cavalry.  As  Hannibal  lost  in  the  battle 
8,000  men,  he  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  follow  the  advice  of  Maharbal,  and  advance 
rapidly  on  Rome.  Twenty  thousand  Romans  were  made  prisoners,  partly  on  the  field 
of  battle  and  partly  in  the  camp. 

CANNEL  COAL.  See  Coal,  ante. 

CANNELTON,  a t.  in  Perry  co.,  Ind.,  70  m.  above  Evansville;  pop.  ’70,  2,481.  Near 
the  town  are  the  most  extensive  coal  mines  below  Pittsburg.  Fire-clay,  sandstone,  and 
limestone  are  also  abundant.  There  is  a large  cotton  mill  in  the  village. 

CANNES,  a seaport  t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Alpes-Maritimes,  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  road  to  Nice.  It  is  famed  for  its  salubrity,  which 
has  induced  a number  of  English  families  to  make  it  a winter  residence.  Lord  Brougham 
used  to  occupy  a fine  villa  here.  Latterly,  the  town  has  been  much  improved.  It  has 
fisheries  of  anchovies  and  sardines,  and  a trade  in  the  produce  of  the  district.  After  his 
escape  from  Elba,  Bonaparte  landed  about  a mile  and  a half  to  the  e.  of  C.,  Mar.  1, 1815. 
Pop.  ’76,  13,519. 

CANNIBAL  (derived  from  a variety  in  the  spelling  of  Caribs,  the  original  inhabitants 
of  the  West  India  islands,  who  were  reputed  to  be  man-eaters,  and  some  tribes  of  whom, 
having  no  r in  their  language,  pronounced  their  name  Canib),  means,  like  the  Greek 
word  anthropophagos,  which  is  often  used  instead  of  it,  one  who  feeds  on  human  flesh. 
The  practice  is  often  attributed  by  classical  and  early  Christian  writers  to  races  whose 
practices  they  denounce  as  abominable;  but  the  denunciation  is  often  better  evidence 
of  the  abhorrence  of  cannibalism  by  those  making  the  accusation  than  of  its  practice  by 
the  accused.  Homer  makes  Polyphemus  eat  men,  but  only  as  one  of  his  other  unnatural 
attributes  as  a monster.  The  early  Christian  writers  frequently  attributed  cannibalism 
to  the  unconverted.  St.  Jerome  gives  his  personal  testimony  to  the  practice,  stating  that 
when  he  was  a little  boy  living  in  Gaul  he  beheld  the  Scots — a people  of  Britain — eating 
human  flesh;  and  though  there  were  plenty  of  cattle  and  sheep  at  their  disposal,  yet 
would  they  prefer  a ham  of  the  herdsman  or  a piece  of  female  breast  as  a luxury.  State- 
ments in  old  authors  still  more  absurd  induced  some  thinkers  to  believe  that  cannibalism 
is  unnatural,  and  to  deny  that  it  was  ever  practiced  by  human  beings  expect  under  the 
pressure  of  starvation.  The  accurate  observation  of  late  travelers  has,  however,  put  it 
beyond  doubt  that  cannibalism  has  been  and  is  systematically  practiced.  Comte,  as  part 
•of  his  system  of  positive  philosophy,  accepting  of  cannibalism  as  a condition  of  barbar- 
ism, maintains  that  the  greatest  step  in  human  civilization  was  the  invention  of  slavery, 
since  it  put  an  end  to  the  victor  eating  the  vanquished.  The  facts,  however,  which  we 
possess,  show  that  the  people  systematically  addicted  to  human  flesh  are  not  the  most 
degraded  of  the  human  race.  For  instance,  in  the  Australian  continent,  where  the 
larger  animals  are  scarce,  the  people,  who  are  of  an  extremely  degraded  type,  feed  on 
Worms  and  herbs,  and  have  only  been  knowm  in  casual  and  exceptional  conditions  to 
feed  on  human  flesh.  The  New  Zealanders,  on  the  other  hand,  who  are  the  most  highly 
developed  aboriginal  race  with  which  late  European  civilization  has  had  to  compete, 
w^ere,  down  to  a late  period,  systematic  feeders  on  human  flesh,  despising  the  inefficient 
food  which  satisfled  the  natives  of  Australia.  In  Angas’s  New  Zealand  Illustrated,  there 
is  a picture  of  the  country  mansion  of  the  accomplished  chief  Rangihaeta,  “ one  of  the 
finest  specimens,”  says  the  author,  “of  elaborately  ornamented  dwellings  yet  extant.” 
Its  nanie  is  Kai  Tangata,  which  means,  eat  man;  and  it  has  been  so  called  in  pleasing 
memorial  of  the  feasts  held  within  its  walls.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  reason  why, 
among  the  Jews  and  several  eastern  nations,  the  eating  of  swine’s  flesh  was  forbidden 
as  an  unclean  food,  was  its  resemblance  to  human  flesh,  and  the  danger  that  persons 
accustomed  to  the  one  might  not  retain  their  abhorrence  of  the  other.  In  the  crusades, 
the  Saracens  charged  their  Christian  enemies  with  eating  unelean  food,  including  flesh 


Canning'. 

Cannon. 


390 


of  men  and  of  swine.  In  the  old  romance  of  Richard  coeur  de  lion,  he  is  represented,, 
on  recovering  from  sickness,  as  longing  for  a piece  of  pork;  but  that  not  being  procur- 
able, a piece  of  a Saracen’s  head  was  substituted  for  it,  and  pronounced  by  him  to  be 
infinitely  more  palatable.  There  have  been  many  sad  instances  where  people  whe 
naturally  had  a horror  of  such  food,  have  been  driven  by  starvation  to  eat  human  flesh 
— as  in  sieges  and  shipwrecks.  Besides  these  instances,  however,  and  the  systematic  can- 
nibals, there  is  no  doubt  that  people  not  otherwise  habituated  to  the  practice,  have  been, 
excited  by  ferocity  and  revenge  to  eat,  and  with  relish,  the  flesh  of  enemies.  In 
many  of  the  cannibal  countries,  only  the  flesh  of  enemies  is  consumed.  As  an  instance 
that  this  is  a natural  development  of  ferocity  in  degraded  natures,  we  may  take  the  fate 
of  the  princess  Lamballe  in  the  French  revolution,  whose  heart  was  plucked  out  by  one 
of  the  savages  of  the  mob,  taken  to  a restaurant,  and  there  cooked  and  eaten  by  him. 
The  great  Highland  chief,  sir  Ewen  Cameron  of  Locheil,  in  a death-struggle  with  an 
English  trooper,  killed  him  by  biting  a piece  out  of  his  throat,  and  used  to  say  it  was  the 
sweetest  morsel  he  had  ever  tasted. 

CANNING,  Charles  John,  Viscount,  second  son  of  the  statesman  George,  was  b. 
Dec.,  1812.  Educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage  as  viscount  C. 
on  his  mother’s  death  in  1837,  his  elder  brother,  who  was  a captain  in  the  navy,  having 
been  drowned  at  Madeira  in  1828.  In  1841,  he  became  under-secretary  of  state  for  for- 
eign alfairs  in  sir  Robert  Peel’s  government,  and  afterw^ards  commissioner  of  woods  and 
forests.  When  lord  Aberdeen  came  into  office,  he  was  made  postmaster-general;  and  in 
the  beginning  of  1856,  he  succeeded  lord  Dalhousie  as  governor-general  of  India.  His 
conduct  during  the  awful  crisis  of  the  Indian  mutiny  was  decried  at  the  time  by  many 
as  weak  and  pusillanimous;  but  the  general  opinion  now,  when  all  the  circumstances  of 
the  case  are  better  known,  is  that  he  acted  with  singular  courage,  moderation,  and  judi- 
ciousness. He  died  in  London,  17th  June,  1862. 

CANNING,  George,  a distinguished  British  statesman  and  orator,  was  b.  in  London,. 
April  11,  1770.  His  father,  who  was  descended  from  an  ancient  family,  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  his  relatives  for  marrying  beneath  his  station,  and  died  in  poverty  when 
his  son  was  only  a year  old.  His  mother  (who  for  a subsistence  tried  the  stage,  with  but 
little  success,  married  an  actor,  and  subsequently  a linen-draper)  lived  to  rejoice  in  the 
success  and  participate  in  the  good- fortune  of  her  boy,  whose  education  was  liberally 
provided  by  an  uncle.  C.  was  first  educated  at  Eton,  from  which  he  passed,  at  the  age 
of  17,  to  Christ’s  church  college,  Oxford,  where  he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  espe- 
cially in  classics.  While  here,  he  cultivated  the  friendship  of  the  Hon.  Charles  Jenkin- 
son  (afterwards  lord  Liverpool),  who  was  of  considerable  service  to  him  in  after-life. 
Prom  Oxford  he  went  to  Lincoln’s  inn,  but  on  the  suggestion  of  Burke,  as  it  is  said,  he 
soon  relinquished  the  bar  for  a parliamentary  career.  He  entered  the  house  for  Newport, 
Isle  of  Wight,  in  1793,  as  the  protege  and  supporter  of  the  minister,  Pitt.  In  1796,  he  was 
appointed  an  under-secretary  of  state.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1798  that  C.  made  a 
reputation  as  an  orator  and  a statesman,  by  his  speeches  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade,  and  against  Mr.  Tierney’s  motion  regarding  peace  with  the  French  directory, 
the  latter  of  which,  especially,  was  regarded  as  a masterpiece  of  eloquence,  alike  by  the 
house  and  the  country.  In  the  debates  on  the  habeas  corpus  suspension  act,  the  union 
with  Ireland,  and  other  important  questions,  C.  gave  valuable  assistance  to  the  ministr}', 
not  only  by  his  voice  in  parliament,  but  by  his  pen  in  a satirical  paper,  called  the  Anti- 
Jacohin,  in  which  he  especially  lashed  the  “ new  philosophy,”  as  it  was  called,  promul- 
gated by  the  French  republicans.  The  Knife  Grinder  is  one  of  the  best  known  and  hap- 
piest of  his  efforts  in  this  line.  In  1801,  Pitt  resigned  office,  and  C.  joined  the  opposi- 
tion against  the  Addington  ministry.  When  Pitt  again  became  premier  in  1804,  0.  was- 
made  treasurer  of  the  navy,  an  office  which  he  held  until  Pitt’s  death  in  1806.  His  oppo- 
sition to  the  short-lived  Grenville  ministry  which  succeeded,  savored  of  the  bitterness  of 
party  feeling,  and  his  treatment  of  Pox  in  his  last  days,  and  of  his  memory  after  his 
death,  was  far  from  generous.  When  the  Portland  ministry  was  formed  in  1807,  C.  was 
appointed  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  a position  for  which  he  was  specially  qualified, 
and  his  dispatches,  written  at  this  time,  are  models  of  manliness  and  lucidity.  In  1812, 
all  his  eloquence  was  enlisted  in  favor  of  Catholic  emancipation.  During  the  same  year 
he  was  elected  for  Liverpool,  for  which  he  was  again  returned  three  successive  times. 
In  1814,  he  went  as  ambassador  to  Lisbon,  returned  in  1816,  and  was  made  president  of 
the  board  of  control,  and  supported  the  Liverpool  ministry  in  all  their  arbitrary  and 
repressive  measures  until  1820,  when  he  resigned,  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  the 
government  against  queen  Caroline.  Nominated  governor-general  of  India  in  1822,  he 
was  on  the  eve  of  departure  when  the  suicide  of  the  marquis  of  Londonderry  called  him 
to  the  head  of  foreign  affairs.  In  this  capacity,  C.  conferred  lasting  benefits  on  his 
country.  He  infused  a more  liberal  spirit  into  the  cabinet,  he  asserted  the  independence 
of  British  politics  against  the  diplomacy  that  would  have  entangled  the  nation  with  the 
Holy  Alliance,  and  gave  a new  direction  and  impetus  to  commercial  affairs  by  a gradual 
laying  aside  of  the  prohibitive  system.  He  arranged  the  relations  of  Brazil  and  Portu- 
gal ; drew  the  French  cabinet  into  agreement  with  the  British  respecting  Spanish  Araeri-  i 
can  affairs;  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  free  states  of  Spanish  America ; promoted  the  i 
treaty  combining  England,  France,  and  Russia,  for  a settlement  of  the  affairs  of  Greece,  j 


391 


Canning:. 

Cannon. 


and  which  was  signed  July  6,  1827;  protected  Portugal  from  Spanish  invasion;  con- 
tended earnestly  for  Catholic  emancipation ; and  prepared  the  way  for  a repeal  of  the 
corn-laws.  In  Feb.,  1827,  a stroke  of  paralysis  forced  the  earl  of  Liverpool  to  resign, 
and  Mr.  C.  was  called  upon  to  form  a new  administration.  His  health,  however,  gave 
way  under  the  cares  of  office,  and  he  died  8th  Aug.  of  the  same  year.  His  remains 
were  interred  in  Westminster  abbey,  near  those  of  Pitt.  As  a parliamentary  orator,  C. 
holds  a prominent  place  in  British  annals.  His  acuteness  of  mind,  power  of  expression, 
and  well-pointed  wit,  were  remarkable;  but,  on  the  whole,  he  was  inferior  to  Pitt,  Burke, 
and  Fox.  He  lacked  the  imposing  characteristics  of  the  first,  the  overpowering  enthu- 
siasm of  the  second,  and  the  winning  address  of  the  last.  He  was  intensely  British,  and 
his  foreign  policy  was  of  the  character  best  calculated  to  promote  British  interests. 

His  speeches  have  been  reprinted  in  6 vols.  8vo,  by  Therry,  and  several  memoirs, 
including  one  by  his  private  secretary,  Mr.  Stapleton,  have  been  published. 

CANNING,  Sir  Stratford.  See  Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  Viscount. 

CANNON  is  a general  name  for  large  pieces  of  ordnance  or  artillery,  as  distinguished 
from  those  pieces  which  can  be  held  in  the  hand  while  being  fired.  No  military  weapon 
in  use  before  the  invention  of  gunpowder  can  fairly  come  under  this  designation ; they 
were  more  generally  of  the  kinds  described  under  Balista.  At  what  exact  date  C.  were 
first  used  is  not  known;  but  C.,  called  “ crakys  of  war,”  were  employed  by  Edward  III. 
against  the  Scots  in  1327,  by  the  French  at  the  siege  of  Puy  Guillaume  in  1338,  and  by 
Edward  III.  at  Crecy,  and  at  Calais  in  1346.  The  first  C.  or  bombards  were  clumsy, 
wider  at  the  mouth  than  at  the  chamber,  and  made  of  iron  bars  hooped  together 
with  iron  rings.  The  balls  fired  from  them  were  first  made  of  stone,  afterwards  super- 
seded by  iron.  In  the  15th  c.,  various  kinds  were  known  by  the  names  of  C.,  bom- 
bards, culverins,  serpentines,  etc.  Bombards  of  great  length  and  power  were  employed 
by  Louis  XI.  during  his  Flemish  campaign  in  1477,  some  with  stone  balls,  some  with 
iron.  About  this  time,  C.  began  to  be  made  by  casting  instead  of  with  hooped  bars;  and 
bronze  or  brass  as  a material  began  to  be  used  as  well  as  iron.  The  C.  of  the  16th  c. 
were  generally  smaller,  but  better  finished,  than  those  of  the  15th.  The  largest  C.  made 
in  the  17th  c.,  so  far  as  is  known,  was  the  Bejapoor  cast-iron  gun,  “Malick  e Meidan,” 
or  “Lord  of  the  Plain,”  made  either  by  Aurungzebe  or  by  the  Mahrattas;  it  was  14  ft. 
long,  28  in.  bore,  and  required  a ball  of  1600  lbs.  weight.  From  the  time  of  the  great 
European  wars  in  that  century,  C.  have  undergone  vast  improvements,  as  well  as  the 
science  and  art  of  artillery  necessary  for  their  management.  Major  Straith,  a leading 
;authority  on  this  matter,  gives  the  following 'tabular  view  of  the  chief  kinds  of  ordnance 
in  use  in  the  British  service,  prior  to  the  introduction  of  rifled  guns: 


Kind. 

Iron  shell  guns. . 
Long  iron  guns. . 

Long  brass  guns. 

Iron  howitzers.. . 
Brass  howitzers. . 

Iron  carronades. 

Iron  mortars. . . . 
Brass  mortars . . , 


Name. 

Caliber. 

Inch. 

Lens^th. 
Ft.  Inch. 

Weight. 

Cwt. 

12  inch 

12 

8 

4 

90 

■^10  “ 

10 

9 

4 

84 

8 “ 

8 

8 

9 

60 

f 32-pounders 

6.4 

9 

5 

56 

24  “ 

5.8 

9 

0 

47 

^18  “ 

5.3 

9 

0 

42 

12  “ 

4.6 

9 

0 

33 

9 “ 

4.2 

8 

6 

28 

12  “ (medium). 

4.6 

6 

7 

18 

1 9 “ 

4.2 

6 

0 

13 

6 “ (lieavy)... 

3.7 

8 

6 

23 

1 6 “ (light) 

3.7 

5 

0 

6 

3 “ (colonial).. 

. 1 “ “ .. 

2.9 

4 

0 

3 

2.0 

5 

0 

2 

10  inch 

10.0 

5 

0 

40 

8 “ 

8.0 

4 

0 

20 

32-pounders 

•^24  “ 

6.3 

5 

3 

17 

5.0 

4 

9 

12 

12  “ 

4.6 

3 

9 

6 

f68  “ 

8.0 

5 

2 

29 

42  “ 

6.8 

. 4 

4 

22 

32  “ 

6.2 

4 

0 

17 

] 24  “ 

5.7 

3 

9 

13 

18  “ 

5.2 

3 

3 

10 

12  “ 

4.5 

2 

8 

6 

13  inch.  

13.0 

3 

1 

36 

ilO  “ 

, 10.0 

2 

4 

16 

, 8.0 

1 

11 

8 

i “ 

5.5 

1 

3 

150  lbs 

\ ^ “ 

4.6 

1 

0 

104  lbs 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  many  of  the  novelties  introduced  within  the 
last  few  years  are  not  here  included.  Nevertheless  the  table  will  be  useful  for  occa- 
sional reference.  The  apparent  inconsistencies  in  length  and  weight  are  due  to  the 


Cannon. 

Canoe. 


392 


great  differences  in  thickness  of  metal ; and  if  we  were  to  go  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
table,  we  should  find  that,  during  half  a century,  iron  32-pounder*s  have  varied  from  63- 
down  to  so  low  as  25  cwt.,  and  24-pounders  from  50  to  33  cwt. ; in  each  case  the  length 
and  weight  varying,  while  the  caliber  remained  constant.  In  the  above  table,  the  caliber 
is  not  always  precisely  the  same  for  the  same  weight  of  ball ; as  instanced  by  the 
32-pounders,  which  have  6.2,  6.3,  and  6.4  in.  caliber;  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  some 
guns  have  more  windage,  or  space  round  the  ball,  than  others. 

In  England,  during  the  last  few  years,  great  expense  has  been  incurred  in  replacing 
old  C.  by  others  of  larger  power  and  caliber;  while  the  French  are  gradually  bringing 
about  a limitation  in  the  number  of  kinds  and  sizes,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity. 

This  being  merely  a general  or  collective  notice  of  all  kinds  of  C.  as  a class,  particu- 
lars concerning  each  kind  will  be  found  under  such  headings  as  Armstrong  Gun,  Car- 
RONADE,  Gun,  Howitzer,  Lancaster  Gun,  Mortar,  Shell  Gun,  etc. 

CANNON,  Alloys  for.  The  material  formerly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  ord- 
nance was  bronze  (q.v.),  consisting  of  about  90  parts  of  copper  to  about  10  parts  of  tin. 
In  the  casting  of  small  C.,  such  as  8-pounders,  the  alloy  used  contained  92|  parts  of  cop- 
per to  parts  of  tin ; while  in  the  larger  C.  the  tin  was  increased  until  the  proportion 
reached  88  to  12.  The  presence  of  the  tin  increased  the  hardness  of  the  alloy,  but  this 
was  obtained  at  the  expense  of  the  tenacity.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  insure  the 
purity  of  the  copper  and  the  tin.  If  lead  is  present,  the  alloy  is  always  more  or  less 
soft,  and,  moreover,  liable  to  fuse  after  repeated  explosions;  while  the  presence  of  a 
mere  trace  of  sulphur,  arsenic,  phosphorus,  etc.,  renders  the  alloy  very  brittle.  It  was 
customary,  in  the  casting  of  C.,  to  use  up  old  C.  or  other  bronze  implements,  so  as  to 
form  a beginning  of  the  fused  metal  in  the  furnace,  and  then  to  add  little  by  little  the 
extra  amount  of  copper  and  tin.  This  mode  of  procedure  was  followed,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  found  in  getting  copper  and  tin  to  amalgamate  readily,  so  as  to  yield  an  alloy 
of  uniform  composition.  This  point  is  of  great  importance  in  the  casting  of  ordnance, 
as  the  metals,  when  not  properly  alloyed,  are  liable  to  separate  during  cooling,  and  yield 
a C.  of  variable  composition  throughout.  With  the  exception  of  small  steel  mountain^ 
guns,  all  British  cannon  are  made  of  wrought  iron. 

CANNON,  a co.  in  central  Tennessee;  220  sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 11,859 — 1163  colored.  The- 
surface  is  uneven,  but  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  producing  grain,  tobacco,  etc.  Co. 
seat,  Woodbury. 

CAN'NON-BALL  TREE,  Couroupiia  Gnianensis,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  lecyiliidacew, 
a native  of  Guiana,  of  great  size,  the  trunk  being  often  more  than  2 ft.  in  diameter.  It 
has  large  ovate-oblong  leaves;  the  flowers  are  produced  in  racemes,  they  are  white  and 
rose-colored;  and  the  fruit  is  large,  “ about  the  size  of  a 36-pound  shot,”  nearly  round. 
The  hard  woody  shell  of  this  fruit  is  used  for  drinking-vessels. 

CANNON  FOUNDING.  Since  sir  W.  Armstrong  succeeded,  by  a process  first  brought, 
under  the  notice  of  the  British  government  in  1854,  in  making  of  malleable  iron  a field- 
gun  of  far  greater  efficiency  than  any  previously  in  use,  cannon  founding  has  iii  most, 
European  countries  gradually  ceased.  This  manufacture,  which  was  formerly  an  impor- 
tant one,  is,  however,  still  carried  on  in  the  United  States,  Sweden,  and  Russia,  all  three- 
of  which  countries  produce  cast-iron  of  a very  superior  quality. 

Cannon  are  cast  in  molds  of  loam  or  sand  prepared  with  the  help  of  a pattern,  as- 
described  under  Founding.  They  are  usually  cast  vertically  with  an  extra  mass  of 
metal  poured  in  at  the  top  end  of  each  mold  to  secure  by  its  pressure  greater  solidity  in 
its  walls,  as  is  often  done  in  the  case  of  a hydraulic  cylinder.  This  superfluous  portion 
is,  of  course,  afterwards  removed.  Cannon  are,  or  at  least  were,  often  cast  solid  with 
the  same  object,  and  afterwards  bored,  although  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  such  are 
generally  sounder  or  of  closer  texture  than  those  which  are  cast  hollow.  In  either  case- 
the  inner  surface  of  the  cannon  is  accurately  finished  with  a boring  tool  to  the  required 
calibre,  and  the  outer  surface  turned.  Brass,  or  rather  bronze  cannon,  were  usually  cast 
in  loam  by  means  of  a clay  model  on  which  were  often  stuck  ornamental  figures^in  wax, 
these  being  melted  out  of  the  mold  before  casting. 

In  the  United  States,  cast-iron  guns  are  made  by  Rodman’s  process;  that  is,  they  are 
cast  hollow  on  a core  barrel  which  is  filled  with  water.  This  is  applied  so  as  to  cool  the- 
metal  of  the  gun  in  layers  thus  modifying  the  initial  strain  upon  it,  and  producing  the 
best  result  that  can  be  obtained  from  cast-iron  for  ordnance  purposes.  Within  the  last 
few  years  guns  as  large  in  the  bore  as  20  in.  have  been  cast  by  this  method  at  Pittsburg, 
and  one  of  the  same  size  has  been  made  by  it  in  Russia.  The  latter  weighs  44  tons, 
throws  a spherical  ball  of  9 cwt.,  and  took  34  months  to  finish.  Its  cost  was  not  more 
than  one  fourth  that  of  a built-up  gun  of  steel  for  the  same  weight  of  projectile. 

Many  of  the  earlier  pieces  of  ordnance,  it  is  curious  to  observe,  were  made  of  hooped 
bars,  in  which  one  can  trace  the  germ  of  the  process  by  which  the  Armstrong  gun  is- 
made.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  modern  plan  of  constructing  large  guns  was  not 
tried  in  olden  times,  as  is  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  different  kinds  of  old  cannon 
still  preserved.  These,  however,  had  to  be  constructed  without  the  aid  of  the  steam-ham- 
mer and  other  appliances,  which  render  such  work  comparatively  easy  nowadays,  ana 
were  accordingly  deficient  in  strength.  The  earlier  wrought-iron  cannon  were  eventually 
superseded  by  those  made  of  cast-iron  and  bronze,  but  not  entirely  for  some  considerable- 
time  after  the  latter  had  been  in  use. 


393 


Cannon. 

Canoe. 


The  mortar,  which  was  introduced  about  the  commencement  of  the  14th  c.,  appears 
•to  have  been  not  only  the  most  ancient  form  of  cannon,  but  the  first  European  fire-arm 
.as  well.  From  the  beginning  of  the  15th  c.,  cannon  were  cast  in  bronze,  and  some  of 
great  size  are  stated  to  have  been  used  at  the  siege  of  Constantinople  in  1463.  Probably 
hand  cannon  of  cast-iron  date  as  far  back  as  bronze  guns,  and  at  any  rate  we  know  that 
large  and  excellent  cannon  were  made  of  cast-iroh  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  c.,  they 
having  been  used  at  Flodden,  and  England  having  even  then  acquired  a reputation  for 
this  kind  of  ordnance.  See  Fire-arms.  Cannon  founding  has  therefore  been  practiced 
for  nearly  500  years,  and  although  the  art  is  now  to  all  appearance  doomed  to  decay,  no 
one  can  predict,  in  these  days  of  metallurgical  wonders,  what  further  change  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  may  bring  about  as  respects  the  making  of 
large  fire-arms.  In  order  that  the  cast  guns  made  on  the  old  system  may  still  be  avail- 
able for  some  purposes  in  modern  warfare,  col.  Hay  Campbell,  some  years  ago,  proposed 
a plan  for  lining  bronze,  and  sir  W.  Palliser  another  for  lining  cast-iron  cannon  with  a 
tube  of  wrought-iron.  Some  have  been  transformed  on  the  Palliser  system,  which  con- 
:sists  in  boring  a certain  thickness  off  the  old  gun,  and  forcing  a coiled  wrought-iron 
barrel  into  the  interior,  and  are  said  to  have  given  very  remarkable  results  as  regards 
■endurance. 

Certain  peculiarities  in  the  manufacture  of  special  kinds  of  ordnance  are  noticed  in 
the  articles  relating  to  them.  See  War-Services. 

CANNONSBURG.  See  Canonsburg. 

CANNSTADT,  a t.  of  Wiirtemberg,  beautifully  situated  on  the  Neckar,  about  3 m. 
n.e.  of  Stuttgart.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Romans,  of  whose  presence  there  are  still 
found  many  traces.  It  has  numerous  mineral  springs,  discharging  800,000  cubic  ft.  of 
water  in  24  hours,  which  are  much  frequented  during  the  season;  manufactures  of 
woolens,  cottons,  tobacco,  etc. ; and  a large  trade  by  means  of  the  Neckar.  Pop.  (’75) 
15,065. 

CANNSTADT,  or  Kannstadt  {ante),  a t.  in  Wurtemberg,  m.  n.e.  of  Stuttgart, 
in  a fertile  and  populous  part  of  the  country,  and  now  one  of  the  most  flourishing 
towns  in  Germany.  Among  its  public  buildings  are  a cathedral  of  the  15th  c.,  a town 
hall,  the  royal  theater,  market  house,  etc.  The  Wilhelm  palace,  built  in  1842-51,  for 
king  William,  is  a fine  specimen  of  elaborate  Saracenic  architecture.  The  more  impor- 
tant industries  are  spinning,  cotton- weaving,  dyeing,  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery. 
The  mineral  springs,  about  40  in  number,  attract  a large  temporary  population  of  those 
who  suffer  from  dyspepsia  and  nervous  weakness.  In  the  hill  of  Seilberg,  near  by,  are 
•caverns  in  which  many  fossils  are  preserved.  Down  to  the  middle  of  the  15th  c.,  C.  was 
the  capital  of  Wurtemberg.  Pop.  ’71,  11,804. 

CA'NO,  Alonso,  an  illustrious  Spanish  painter,  the  founder  of  the  school  of  Granada, 
in  which  city  he  was  born.  Mar.,  1601.  He  received  his  first  instructions  in  the  princi- 
ples of  art  from  his  father,  Miguel  Cano,  who  was  an  architect ; studied  sculpture  under 
J.  Montanes,  and  painting  under  Pacheco  and  Juan  de  Castillo;  and  attained  celebrity 
so  early,  that,  in  1638  or  1639,  he  was  appointed  court  painter  and  architect  to  the 
king.  C.  was  of  a hasty  temper,  and  was  accused  of  having  murdered  his  wife  in  a fit 
of  violent  jealousy,  but  the  accusation  appears  to  have  been  quite  groundless.  He  was, 
however,  subjected  to  the  torture ; but  no  confession  having  been  elicited,  he  was  acquitted 
and  received  again  into  the  royal  favor,  named  residentiary  of  Granada,  and  spent  his 
last  years  in  acts  of  devotion  and  charity.  He  died  at  Granada  in  1664  or  1667.  In  the 
opinion  of  Fuseli,  he  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  except  Velasquez.  His  eminence 
in  the  three  departments  of  the  fine  arts — sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture — obtained 
for  him  the  hyperbolical  honor  of  being  called  the  Michael  Angelo  of  Spain.  His  pic- 
tures, rnarked  by  graceful  design  and  pleasing  coloring,  are  very  numerous,  and  are  pre- 
served in  Granada,  Seville,  Madrid,  Malaga,  and  other  Spanish  cities. 

CANO,  Alonzo,  1601-65:  a Spanish  painter,  called  by  his  countrymen  the  “Michael 
Angelo  of  Spain.”  His  uiaster- piece  is  said  to  be  the  “ Conception  of  the  Virgin”  in 
the  church  of  San  Diego,  in  Granada.  He  was  a contemporary  of  Velasquez,  and  was 
court  painter  to  Philip  IV . He  was  a man  of  violent  temper,  and  was  once  tried  (but 
acquitted)  on  a charge  of  having  killed  his  wife,  when  the  judges  who  put  him  to  torture, 
•exempted  his  right  arm  from  the  rack,  because  of  its  surpassing  skill  in  art.  In  statuary 
his  famous  works  are  a Madonna  and  Child,  and  colossal  figures  of  San  Pedro  and  San 
Pablo. 

CANO,  or  CANUS,  Melchior,  1523-60;  a Spanish  theologian  and  bishop,  professor 
at  Salamanca.  By  reason  of  his  violent  opposition  to  the  establishment  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Spam,  he  was  sent  to  the  Canaries,  but  by  the  king’s  influence,  was  soon  afterwards 
permitted  to  return,  and  became  provincial  of  the  Dominican  order. 

CANOE  * is  a boat  made  of  a hollow  trunk  of  a tree,  or  of  the  bark  shaped  and 

* The  word  is  sometimes  said  to  have  been  borrowed  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  native  Indian  name 
or  such  boats.  But  a similar  name  exists  in  the  Aryan  languages : Ger.  kahn,  a boat ; old  Fr.  cane,  a 
snip,  and  canot,a  boat.  The  root  of  these  words  is  the  same  as  that  of  cane  (Lat.  canna),  a reed  or 
nollow  stem,  and  signifies  hollowness,  capacity;  Gr.  chaino,  to  gape  or  yawn.  From  the  same  root 
•come  cann,  a drinking  cup ; cannon  (Ital.  cannone,  properly  a large  tube,  being  an  augmentative 
trom  canna,  a hollow  stem  or  tube);  canon  (Gr.)  a ruler  or  straight  rod,  most  readily  obtained  from  a 
.loint  ot  a reed ; canal  (Lat.  canalis,  a pipe  or  conduit). 


Canon. 


394 


strengthened.  Canoes  have  been  made  large  enough  to  carry  twenty  or  thirty  hogs- 
heads of  sugar.  Some  have  decks,  and  carry  sail  of  rush  or  silk-grass;  but  they  are 
generally  open  boats,  rowed  by  paddles,  and  steered  by  an  oar.  They  are  seldom  wide 
enough  for  two  men  to  sit  abreast,  but  vary  greatly  in  length.  Near  sea-coasts,  canoes, 
are  often  made  of  light  wooden-frames,  covered  with  seal-skins,  which  are  also  drawn, 
across  as  a deck,  with  only  a hole  left  for  one  man  to  sit  in.  In  the  Hudson  Bay  terri- 
tories, canoes  are  used  which  are  light  enough  to  be  carried  over  the  portages,  or  por- 
tions of  rivers  too  shallow  for  navigation.  Canoes,  hollowed  out  of  the  trunks  of  oaks,, 
seem  to  have  been  in  use  among  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  British  islands.  They  have 
been  dug  up  in  considerable  numbers  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  They  appear 
to  have  been  chiefly  of  two  sorts — one  about  10  ft.  long,  with  square  ends,  and  projecting 
handles;  the  other,  about  20  ft.  long,  sometimes  sharp  at  both  ends,  sometimes  round 
at  the  prow  and  square  at  the  stern. 

CANON,  a word  originally  Greek,  and  signifying  a measuring-rod  (see  Canoe — foot- 
note), applied  in  various  arts  and  sciences  to  what  serves  for  a rule  or  standard,  but 
particularly  employed  to  designate  collectively  those  books  which  constitute  the  Holy 
Scripture,  and  are  accepted  by  Christians  as  a rule  of  faith.  See  Bible.  In  ecclesiast- 
ical language,  the  word  canon  signifies,  besides,  not  only  a church-precept,  but  also  the 
decree  of  a universal  council,  which  is  held  valid  as  law.  See  Canon  Law.  At 
one  period  the  word  was  used  to  designate  the  prayers  which  the  Roman  Catholic 
priests  said  before,  at,  and  after  the  consecration  of  the  Host;  the  term  is  also  employed 
to  denote  the  catalogue  or  register  of  Catholic  saints. 

CANON,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary,  so  called  as  living  under  a rule,  or  as  following 
the  rule  or  canon  of  divine  service.  His  office  is  of  no  great  antiquity.  According  to 
Paschier,  the  name  was  not  known  before  Charlemagne.  This,  however,  is  not  precisely 
true,  for  the  term  C.  was  applied  in  the  4th  c.  to  cenobites  living  under  a common  rule ;. 
but  the  office  of  C.  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  instituted  by  Chrodegand  or  Chrodegang, 
bishop  of  Metz,  in  763.  It  is  at  least  certain  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  oldest  canonical 
rule,  which  was  simply  an  adaptation  of  the  monastic  rule  (commonly  but  erroneously 
attributed  to  St.  Augustine)  to  the  priests  and  “clerks  ” specially  attached  to  the  service 
of  a cathedral  or  other  church.  It  enjoined  on  the  canons  manual  labor,  the  practice  of 
silence  at  certain  times,  confession  twice  a year,  and  other  duties  needless  to  specif3^ 
The  canons  formed  the  council  of  the  bishop,  and  assisted  him  in  the  government  of  his 
diocese.  They  lived  in  a house  called  a monastery,  slept  in  a common  room,  ate  at  the 
same  table,  and  were  originally  supported  out  of  the  episcopal  revenues.  In  816,  Louis^ 
le  Debonnaire  induced  the  council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  draw  up  a general  rule  for  the 
whole  body  of  canons.  Canons  found  their  way  not  long  afterwards  into  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Various  reforms  of  C.  were  made  in  the  11th  and  beginning  of 
the  12th  century.  Gradually,  however,  many  began  to  emancipate  themselves  from  the 
restrictions  of  monastic  life,  and  to  live  independent  of  any  rule,  which  is  not  at  all  sur- 
prising, for  the  canons  were  wont  to  keep  apart  from  the  “lower  clergy,”  as  they  called 
parish  priests  and  others  who  really  labored  to  impart  religious  instruction.  They  were 
often  of  noble  families,  loved  titles — at  Lyon,  they  were  called  counts — and  in  general 
were  men  of  the  world  rather  than  true  churchmen.  Some  of  these  reformed  or 
remodeled  canons  were  called  black  canons,  from  wearing  a black  cassock;  white 
canons,  from  wearing  a white  habit  like  the  Proemonstratenses  of  Picardy  in  France. 
The  class  of  secular  canons,  whose  manner  of  life  was  not  conventual,  and  who  there- 
fore escaped  destruction  in  England  when  the  monasteries  were  abolished  by  Henry 
VIII.,  probably  originated  in  a tendency  to  relax  the  severity  of  rule  enjoined  on  the 
regulars,  which  indeed  was  hardly  less  stringent  than  in  the  case  of  ordinary  monks. 
Secular  canons  still  exist  in  the  Anglican  church,  and  their  duties — making  allowance 
for  the  difference  between  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  religions — are  much  the 
same  in  kind  as  they  were  before  the  reformation.  See  Cathedral. 

CANON,  in  music,  a kind  of  fugue  in  which  not  merely  a certain  period  or  phpase  is 
to  be  imitated  or  answered,  but  the  whole  of  the  first  part  with  which  the  C.  begins  is 
imitated  throughout  by  all  the  other  parts.  As  in  fugues,  the  melody  of  the  part  to  be 
imitated  is  called  the  subject,  and  the  others  its  reply.  The  C.  is  the  highest  degree  of 
mechanical  musical  contrivance.  The  ancients  spent  more  time  in  the  construction  and 
resolving  of  mere  puzzling  and  unentertaining  canons,  than  in  the  cultivation  of  good 
harmony  and  melody.  Good  canons,  however,  are  alway  interesting,  and  different 
from  any  other  composition.  For  a full  treatment  of  the  method  of  writing  a C.,  see 
Marpurg’s  Abliandlung  ron  der  Fuge  (Peters,  Leipsic). 

CA^ON  (Sp.  a “tube”),  used  in  the  western  states  and  territories  to  designate  a 
deep  ravine,  especially  if  worn  down  by  running  stfeams.  Of  late  the  w^ord  is  often 
spelled  canyon.  There  are  many  canons  in  the  Rocky  mountain  region  and  further 
westward;  but  the  greatest  is  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  wiiich  is  more  than  30(> 
m.  long,  with  nearly  perpendicular  walls  from  3,000  to  7,000  ft.  high.  Through  this 
awful  gorge  the  river  flows,  now  down  swift  declines,  now  in  peaceful  pools,  or  long 
stretches  of  navigable  water. 


395 


Canon. 


CA^SrON  CITY,  in  Fremont  co.,  Colorado,  on  the  Arkansas  river  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pocky  mountains,  and  on  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  railroad.  There  is  unlimited 
water-power,  and  in  the  neighborhood  are  iron,  silver,  copper,  coal,  petroleum,  marble, 
:and  limestone.  There  are  also  hot  and  cold  medicinal  springs. 

CANONESS,  the  name  given  to  female  members  of  certain  orders  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  who  seldom  took  monastic  vows,  but  lived  in  common.  The  com- 
munities were  favored  by  noblemen,  who  intrusted  their  daughters  to  them,  but  with 
the  privilege  to  marry  at  any  time.  After  the  reformation,  there  were  Protestant  houses 
of  similar  kind  in  Mecklenburg  and  Westphalia. 

CANONICAL  HOURS,  are  the  times  fixed  for  divine  service  in  the  Catholic  church, 
but  no  longer  strictly  adhered  to.  These  have  not  always  been  the  same,  and  it  is 
not  known  when  nor  by  whom  they  were  settled — some  say  by  popes  Damasus, 
or  Gelasius,  or  Gregory — but  they  are  now  fixed  at  seven;  viz.,  matins  and  lauds, 
prime,  tierce,  sext,  nones,  vespers,  and  compline.  These  used  to  be  observed  as 
follows:  Prime,  tierce,  sext,  and  nones,  at  the  first,  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours 
of  the  day,  counting  from  six  in  the  morning;  vespers  at  the  eleventh  hour;  com- 
pline, or  completorium,  as  completing  the  services  of  the  day,  at  midnight;  and 
matins  shortly  after  midnight.  These  hours  were  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  called  uhtsang, 
primesang,  undersang,  middaysang,  noonsang,  evensang,  and  nightsang.  The  firs, 
two  and  the  last  formed  the  nocturnal,  the  remaining  four  the  diurnal  offices.  The 
reasons  given  for  the  dividing  the  day  into  seven  parts  were — that  in  seven  days  the 
creation  was  completed,  that  seven  times  a day  the  just  man  falls,  there  are  seven 
graces  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  seven  divisions  of  the  Lord’s  prayer,  seven  ages  of  a man’s 
life,  etc.  The  hours  had  also  each  its  mystical  reference  to  certain  sacred  occurrences, 
such  as  the  incidents  at  our  Lord’s  birth  and  crucifixon.  The  word  “hour,”  in  C.  H., 
is  derived,  as  some  have  suggested,  from  ora,  a prayer;  but  more  probably  from  hora, 
^n  hour,  and  called  canonical  because  according  to  the  canon  or  rule  of  the  church. 
The  proper  offices  for  the  C.  H.  are  to  be  found  in  the  Breviary  (q.v.). 

CANONICALS,  a term  used  to  describe  the  proper  ecclesiastical  dress  of  the  clergy. 
See  Vestments. 

CANONICAL  VIRGINS,  young  women  of  the  early  church  who  took  vows  of 
perpetual  virginity,  but  were  not  gathered  into  communities.  They  were  inrolled  at 
their  homes,  where  they  continued  to  reside. 

CANONTCUS,  a Narragansett  Indian  chief,  1565-1647;  the  constant  friend  of  the 
early  white  colonists,  and  especially  of  Roger  Williams,  to  whom  he  was  strongly 
attached.  It  was  from  him  that  Williams  obtained  his  title  to  the  lands  that  now  con- 
stitute Rhode  Island. 

CANONTCUT,  or  Conanicut,  an  island  in  Narragansett  bay,  about  8 m.  longl)y 
1 wide.  It  forms  the  town  of  Jamestown,  R.  I. ; pop.  70,  378. 

CANONIZATION,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  the  act  of  the  pope  by  which  a deceased 
person  is  solemnly  declared  to  be  a saint.  It  had  its  origin  in  the  practice  of  the  early 
church,  of  inserting  in  the  commemorative  prayer  of  the  eucharistic  liturgy  the  roll  of 
the  names  of  those  who  had  died  as  martyrs,  or  distinguished  themselves  as  confessors 
of  the  faith.  This  record  was  entered  in  the  diptychs  of  the  church,  and  read  in  the 
so-called  “canon”  of  the  liturgy.  Each  bishop  was  at  first  accustomed  to  declare 
deceased  persons  to  be  saints.  In  the  west,  the  exercise  of  this  power  came  to  be 
reserved  to  the  popes,  and  the  ceremonial  itself  was  invested  with  much  solemnity,  and 
regarded  as  of  very  great  importance.  The  first  papal  C.  was  accomplished  by  John 
XV.  The  popes  have  possessed  the  exclusive  right  since  1170.  The  right  of  beati- 
fication (q.v.)  also  belongs  to  them.  When  it  is  proposed  to  canonize  a person  of 
reputed  sanctity,  the  pope  declares  his  views  in  a consistory,  and  an  inquiry  is  instituted 
as  to  the  virtues  and  merits  of  the  person  proposed.  The  form  of  inquiry  is  that  of  a 
regular  process  at  law,  and  an  ecclesiastic  is  specially  appointed  to  contend  against  the 
claims  advanced,  who  receives  the  designation  of  adrocatm  diaboli;  and  on  failure  of 
sattefactory  proof,  the  process  is  abandoned.  When  a favorable  decision  is  pronounced, 
the  ceremony  of  C.  is  performed  m St.  Peter’s  church  with  great  pomp.  The  last  C. 
was  in  1862. 

The  Greek  church  also  recognizes  canonization.  The  right  to  perform  the  ceremony 
ies  with  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  it  has  rarely  occurred.  An  analogy  to 
Christian  canonization  has  been  found  in  the  apotheosis  (q.x.)  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

CANON  LAW  is  a collection  of  ecclesiastical  constitutions  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  although  many  of  its  regulations  have  been 
admitted  into  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  the  church  of  England,  and  still  influence 
other  Protestant  bodies.  It  was  compiled  from  the  opinions  of  the  ancient  Latin  fathers, 
the  decrees  of  general  councils,  and  the  decretal  epistles  and  bulls  of  the  holy  see. 
These,  from  a state  of  disorder  and  confusion,  were  gradually  reduced  into  method, 
and  may  be  briefly  described  in  the  following  chronological  order;  1.  Oratian' s Decree, 
which  was  a collection  of  ordinances,  in  three  books,  commenced  by  Ivo,  bishop  of 
Chartres,  1114  a.d.,  and  subsequently  corrected  and  arranged  by  Gratian,  a Benedictine 
monk,  in  the  year  1150,  after  the  manner  of  Justinian’s  of  the  Boman  Law 


Canonry. 

Canopy. 


396 


This  work  comprises  ecclesiastical  legislation,  as  it  may  be  called,  from  the  time  of 
Constantine  the  great,  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th,  to  that  of  pope  Alexander  III.,  at  the 
end  of  the  12th  century.  2.  The  Decretals.  They  are  a collection  of  canonical  epistles, 
in  five  books,  written  by  popes  alone,  or  assisted  by  some  cardinals,  to  determine  any 
controversy,  and  first  published  about  the  year  1230,  by  Raimundus  Bareinus.  They 
lay  down  rules  respecting  the  lives  and  conversation  of  the  clergy,  matrimony  ancB 
divorces,  inquisition  of  criminal  matters,  purgation,  penance,  excommunication,  and 
other  matters  deemed  to  be  within  the  cognizance  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  To  these 
five  books  of  Gregory,  Boniface  VIII.  added  a sixth,  published  1298  a.d.,  called  Sextus 
Decretalium,  or  the  ^xt,  which  is  itself  divided  into  five  books,  and  forms  a supplement 
to  the  work  of  Bareinus,  of  which  it  follows  the  arrangement.  The  Sext  consists  of 
decisions  promulgated  after  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  IX.  Then  there  came  the  Clem- 
entines, which  were  constitutions  of  pope  Clement  V.,  published  1308  a.d.  These 
decretals  form  the  principal  portion  of  the  canon  law.  John  Andreas,  a celebrated 
canonist  in  the  14th  c. , wrote  a commentary  on  them,  which  he  entitled  Nomllm,  from  a 
very  beautiful  daughter  he  had  of  that  name,  whom  he  bred  a scholar;  the  father  being 
a professor  of  law  at  Bologna,  had  instructed  his  daughter  so  well  in  it,  that  she  assisted 
him  in  reading  lectures  to  his  scholars,  and  therefore,  to  perpetuate  her  memory,  he  gave' 
that  book  the  title  of  Novelloe.  3.  The  Extraxagants  of  John  XXII.  and  other  later  popes, 
by  which  term  is  meant  to  be  denoted  documents  which  transcend  the  limits  of  a partic- 
ular collection  of  regulations.  These  books,  viz. , Gratian's  Decree,  the  Decretals,  and  the 
Extravagants,  together  form  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,  or  great  body  of  the  C.  L. , as 
formerly  received  and  administered  by  the  church  of  Rome.  There  are,  however,  other 
publications  of  a later  period,  of  more  or  less  authority,  but  which  do  not  appear  to  have 
received  the  formal  sanction  of  the  holy  see. 

This  C.  L. , borrowing  from  the  Roman  civil  law  many  of  its  principles  and  rules  of 
proceeding,  has  at  different  times  undergone  careful  revision  and  the  most  learned  and 
scientific  treatment  at  the  hands  of  its  professors,  and  was  very  generally  received  in 
those  Christian  states  which  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  pope;  and  it  still  gives 
ecclesiastical  law  more  or  less  to  Roman  Catholic  Christendom,  although  its  provisions 
have  in  many  countries  been  considerably  modified  by  the  concordats  (q.v.)  which  the 
popes  now  and  then  find  it  expedient  to  enter  into  with  Roman  Catholic  sovereigns  and 
governments,  whose  municipal  system  does  not  admit  of  the  application  of  the  C.  L.  in 
its  integrity.  Indeed,  the  fact  of  its  main  object  being  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  the 
ecclesiastical  authority  over  the  temporal  power,  is  sufficient  to  explain  why,  in  modern 
times,  it  is  found  to  conflict  with  the  views  of  public  law  and  government,  even  in  the 
case  of  the  most  absolute  and  despotic  governments. 

This  ecclesiastical  system,  however,  never  obtained  a firm  footing  in  England,  and 
the  great  lawyers  and  statesmen  have  always  shown  not  only  an  unwillingness  to  defer 
to  its  authority,  but  even  an  aversion  to  its  rule.  There  was,  however,  a kind  of  national 
C.  L.  in  England,  composed  of  legative  and  provincial  constitutions,  adapted  to  the  par- 
ticular necessities  of  the  English  church.  The  legative  constitutions  were  ecclesiastical 
laws,  enacted  in  national  synods,  held  under  the  cardinals  Otho  and  Othobon,  legates- 
from  pope  Gregory  IX.  and  pope  Clement  IV.,  in  the  reign  of  king  Henry  III.,  about 
the  years  1220  and  1268.  The  provincial  constitutions  are  principally  the  decrees  of 
provincial  synods,  held  under  divers  archbishops  of  Canterbury,  from  Stephen  Langton, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  to  Henry  Chicheley,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.,  and  adopted 
also  by  the  province  of  York  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  At  the  dawn  of  the  reformation, 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII. , it  was  enacted  in  parliament  that  a review  should  be  had 
of  the  C.  L. ; and  till  such  review  should  be  made,  all  canons,  constitutions,  ordi- 
nances, and  synodals  provincial  being  then  already  made,  and  not  repugnant  to  the  law 
of  the  land  or  the  king’s  prerogative,  should  still  be  used  and  executed.  And  as  no 
such  review  has  yet  been  perfected,  upon  this  enactment  now  depends  the  authority  of 
the  C.  L.  in  England,  the  limitations  of  which  appear,  upon  the  whole,  to  be  as  follows: 
that  no  canon  contrary  to  the  common  or  statute  law,  or  the  prerogative  royal,  is  of  any" 
validity;  that,  subject  to  this  condition,  the  canons  made  anterior  to  the  parliamentary 
provision  above  mentioned,  and  adopted  in  our  system  (for  there  are  some  which  have 
had  no  reception  among  us),  are  binding  both  on  clergy  and  laity;  but  that  canons  made 
since  that  period,  and  having  no  sanction  from  the  parliament,  are,  as  regards  the  laity 
at  least,  of  no  force.  See  Canons  of  the  Church  of  England. 

In  Scotland,  Presbyterian  though  the  ecclesiastical  system  of  that  country  be,  the  old 
Roman  C.  L.  still  prevails  to  a certain  extent.  ‘ ‘ So  deep  hath  this  canon  law  been 
rooted,”  observes  lord  Stair  in  \i\s  Institutes  of  the  Scotch  Law,  “that  even  where  the 
pope’s  authority  is  rejected,  yet  consideration  must  be  had  to  these  laws,  not  only  as 
those  by  which  church  benefices  have  been  erected  and  ordered,  but  as  likewise  con- 
taining many  equitable  and  profitable  laws,  which,  because  of  their  weighty  matter,  and 
their  being  once  received,  may  more  fitly  be  retained  than  rejected.”  In  two  old  Scotch 
acts  of  parliament,  made  in  1540  and  1551,  the  C.  L.  is  used  in  conjunction  with  the 
Roman  law  to  denote  the  common  law  of  the  country,  the  expression  used  being  “the 
common  law,  baith  canon,  civil,  and  statutes  of  the  realme.”  See  on  the  subject  of  this 
article  generally  the  following  authorities — Blackstone’s  Comm^rtaries,  by  Kerr,  vol.  i. 
pp.  65  and  66;  Stephen’s  Commentaries,  4th  edition,  vol.  i.  pn.  61  'ind  69 — vol.  ii.  pp. 


397 


Canonrj. 

Canopy. 


251,  256,  257,  and  290 — vol.  iii.  pp.  45,  48,  and  421 — and  vol.  iv.  p.  242;  Dr.  Irving’s 
Study  of  the  Civil  Law;  and  Phillimore  on  the  Influence  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Law,  etc., 
1851.  See  also  a discriminating  article  on  this  subject  in  Knight’s  Political  Dictionary, 
1845;  and  ^(i(i'W\inxtovisLawDictiona,ry,  2d  edition,  1859.  It  will  also  be  found  care- 
fully treated  in  Dr.  Hook’s  Church  Dictionary,  7th  edition,  1854.  In  regard  to  Scotland, 
see  Si2i\v'&  Institutes  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  I.  1,  13,  and  II.  8,  29;  and  Erskine’s  Institutes 
of  the  same  law,  I.  1,  28. 

CANONRY,  the  office  and  dignity  of  a Canon.  See  Cathedral. 

CANONS,  BOOK  OF,  in  Scottish  ecclesiastical  history,  a code  of  canons  or  rules  for 
tlie  church  of  Scotland,  prepared  by  the  Scottish  bishops,  in  obedience  to  the  command 
of  Charles  I.,  revised  by  Laud,  and  confirmed  by  letters-patent  under  the  great  seal,  23d 
May,  1635.  It  tended  much  to  increase  the  dissatisfaction  prevalent  throughout  Scot- 
land, and  which  soon  broke  out  so  violently.  It  not  only  required  the  most  strict 
adherence  to  the  liturgy,  then  not  yet  published,  but  enjoined  man  y things  concerning 
ceremonies  in  worship  beyond  what  Laud  had  been  able  to  introduce  in  the  church  of 
England;  it  also  took  away  the  powers  of  church-courts,  and  decreed  the  penalty  of 
excommunication  against  all  who  should  deny  the  government  of  the  church  by  bishops 
to  be  scriptural,  whilst  its  very  first  canon  decreed  that  penalty  against  all  who  should 
deny  the  king’s  supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 

CANONSBUIIG,  a t.  in  Washington  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  Chartier’s  Valley  railroad,  22 
m.  s.  w.  of  Pittsburg ; formerly  the  seat  of  Jefferson  college  and  of  the  Pennsylvania  reform 
school.  Pop.  ’70,  641. 

CANONS  OP  THE  CHURCH  op  ENGLAND,  called  constitutions  and  canons  ecclesias- 
tical, agreed  upon,  with  the  king’s  license,  in  the  synod  held  at  London  in  1603-04. 
They  were  drawn  up  by  the , convocation,  in  order  to  give  effect  to  the  decisions  of  the 
conference  held  at  Hampton;  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  a digest  of  old  canons,  with 
some  new  ones  added.  They  are  141  in  number.  They  are  the  basis  of  the  ecclesiastical 
law,  as  far  as  the  clergy  are  concerned,  but  they  are  not  binding  upon  the  laity,  except 
in  so  far  as  they  are  declaratory  of  the  ancient  canon  law.  There  had  been  a previous 
body  of  canons  drawn  up  in  1571,  but  these  had  not  been  sanctioned  by  the  sovereign. 
In  1640,  the  convocation,  which  was  then  assembled  with  the  parliament,  prolonged  its 
session  beyond  it,  and  passed  a body  of  canons  of  a very  arbitrary  character;  amongst 
other  things,  enjoining  that  on  some  Sunday  in  every  quarter,  every  officiating  minister 
should  insist  on  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  their  prerogatives,  and  enforce  conformity 
to  the  rites  of  the  church  of  England.  In  these  canons,  it  was  directed  that  the  com- 
munion-table should  be  railed  in,  and  be  placed  as  in  cathedrals,  as  is  now  done  in  all 
churches.  These  canons  were  abrogated  by  an  act  passed  in  the  13th  year  of  Charles 
II.  An  account  of  these  canons  and  those  now  in  force  may  be  found  at  length  in 
Hook’s  Church  Directory. — Every  clergyman,  when  instituted  to  a benefice  or  licensed  to 
a cure,  promises  Canonical  Obedience  to  the  bishop — i.e.,  the  obedience  due  accord- 
ing to  the  canons  of  the  church. 

CANO'PIC  VASES  were  vases  used  by  the  Egyptian  priests  to  contain  the  viscera  of 
embalmed  bodies.  They  were  arranged  in  a series  of  four — the  first  contained  the 
stomach  and  larger  intestines;  the  second,  the  smaller  intestines;  the  third,  the  lungs 
and  heart;  the  fourth,  the  liver  and  gall-bladder;  and  each  had  on  its  lid  the  head  of  the 
particular  deity  who  was  supposed  to  preside  over  the  contents. 

CANO'PUS  or  CANO'BUS,  a city  of  ancient  Egypt,  from  which  the  Canopic  mouth  of 
the  Nile  derived  its  name,  was  situated  on  the  sea-coast,  15  m.  e.  of  Alexandria.  The 
Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile  appears  to  have  been  at  an  early  period  the  only  one  into 
which  foreign  ships  could  enter.  At  C.  the  boundry-line  between  Asia  and  Africa  was 
drawn  by  the  ancient  geographers.  There  was  a temple  of  Hercules  here,  which  was  a 
secure  sanctuary  to  all  who  fled  to  it ; also  one  of  Serapis,  as  several  extant  Greek  inscrip- 
tions show.  The  inhabitants  of  C.,  a mixed  Egypto-Hellenic  people,  were  infamous,  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  times,  for  their  profligacy.  The  city  declined  after  the  rise  of 
Alexandria.  Traces  of  its  ruins  are  visible  about  3 m.  from  Aboukir. 

Canopus  is  also  the  name  of  a very  brilliant  star  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  in  ths 
constellation  of  the  ship  Argo,  and,  as  Plutarch  relates,  received  its  name  from  Canopos, 
the  pilot  of  Menelaus. 

CANOPY  (Lat.  canopeum;  Gr.  Mndpeion,  from  Tcbnbps,  gnat  or  mosquito).  Th< 
derivation  of  this  word  throws  a curious  light  on  its  original  meaning,  which  probablj 
was  a mosquito  curtain.  The  simplest  form  of  C. , in  this  its  primitive  sense,  is  tha;. 
mentioned  by  Herodotus  (ii.  95),  who  tells  us  that  the  fishermen  on  the  Nile  were  in 
the  habit  of  suspending  the  net  with  which  they  had  fished  during  the  day  on  an  upright 
pole,  from  which  it  was  rapanded  into  the  form  of  a tent,  and  served  to  protect  them 
from  the  attacks  of  insects  during  the  night.  As  it  has  been  proved  that  insects  will  not 
pass  through  the  meshes  of  a net,  though  wide  enough  to  admit  them,  it  is  probable  that 
this  simple  contrivance  may  have  been  quite  effectual  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
used.  Horace  (Epod.  ix.  9),  and  others  of  the  ancient  writers,  mention  gnat-curtains 
(canopea).  Subsquently,  the  same  term  came  to  be  used  for  the  projecting  covering 
and  hangings  of  a bed,  without  reference  to  their  original  use,  and  latterly  for  any 


Caiiosa. 

Cantabile. 


398 


projecting  covering  of  a similar  form,  to  whatever  use  it  might  be  adapted,  or  whatever 
materials  it  might  be  formed.  C.  is  thus  used  to  signify  the  covering  which  is  borne 
over  the  heads  of  kings  and  other  persons  of  distinction,  and  still  more  frequently  over 
the  holy  sacrament  and  the  image  of  Christ,  in  processions  in  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries. See  Baldachin. 

In  Gothic  architecture,  C.  is  the  term  applied  to  those  rich  coverings  which  are 
frequently  met  with  over  niches  and  tombs,  aud  sometimes  over  doors  and  windows. 
It  belongs  chiefly  to  the  decorated  and  perpendicular  styles,  though  it  was  not  unknown 
much  earlier.  The  C.  consists  of  a roof  which  may  be  supported  on  pillars  all  round, 
or  may  have  one,  or  if  in  an  angle  two,  sides  attached  to  the  wall,  with  dependent 
ornamental  work  representing  drapery.  The  early  English  canopies  are  usually  simple 
in  form ; those  in  French  buildings  of  the  same  period  being  greatly  more  complicated 
and  elaborate,  as,  for  example,  those  in  the  cathedrals  of  Chartres  and  Bayeux.  In  the 
decorated  style,  the  canopies  were  richly  ornamented  and  very  various  in  form.  Some 
canopies  are  ornamented  by  pinnacles  supporting  smaller  canopies,  the  whole  term- 
inating in  a structure  resembling  a small  turret,  or  crocheted  spire.  In  the  perpen- 
dicular style,  though  more  varied  inform,  the  canopies  resemble  those  in  the  decorated. 
Most  of  the  cathedrals  and  larger  churches  of  England  furnish  examples  of  canopies, 
many  of  which  are  enumerated  in  Parker’s  Glossary  of  Architecture.  For  the  use  of 
canopies  in  Italian  architecture,  see  Baldachin. 

CANO'SA,  a t.  of  southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Bari,  13  m.  s.w.  of  Barletta.  It  is 
situated  on  the  declivity  of  a steep  hill,  upon  the  summit  of  which  there  are  the  remains 
of  an  old  castle.  It  has  a cathedral;  and  in  an  adjoining  court  is  a tomb  to  Bohemond, 
prince  of  Antioch.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable,  however,  in  connection  with  the  discovered 
antiquities  of  ancient  Canusium  (one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Apulians,  the  origin  of 
which  is  obscured  in  the  mists  of  mytholog}^,  on  the  site  of  whose  citadel  the  modern 
town  is  said  to  stand.  The  antiquities  consist  of  subterranean  sepulchers,  containing 
painted  vases  and  funereal  furniture  of  the  most  magnificent  description  in  perfect  order, 
painted  busts,  marble  statues,  etc.  Many  of  the  bodies  found  here  were  attired  in  cloth 
of  gold,  with  head-dresses  gleaming  with  precious  stones,  and  ear-rings  and  bracelets  of 
rich  and  exquisite  workmanship.  The  objects  were  transferred  to  the  museum  at  Naples. 
The  ruins  of  an  amphitheater,  aqueduct,  etc.,  have  also  been  found.  C.  suffered  by  earth- 
quake in  1851.  Pop.  14,500. 

CANOS'SA,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Reggio,  about  12  m s.w.  of  the 
city  of  Reggio,  celebrated  as  the  place  where,  in  1077,  the  emperor  Henri  lY.  of  Germany 
obtained  absolution  from  pope  Gregory  VII.,  after  three  days’  humiliation.  The  place, 
formerly  of  some  importance,  is  now  deserted. 

CANO'VA,  Antonio,  the  founder  of  a new  school  of  Italian  sculpture,  was  b.  Nov.  1, 
1757,  at  Possagno,  a village  in  the  Venetian  territory.  Having  displayed  in  boyhood 
great  talent  in  modeling,  the  artist  gained  the  patronage  of  Giovanni  Faliero,  a Venetian 
senator,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to  work  under  a sculptor  at  Bassano.  His  first  imagina- 
tive performance,  “ Eurydice,”  half  the  size  of  life,  was  executed  in  his  17th  year.  After 
this  he  went  to  Venice,  where  his  study  of  art  properly  began.  In  1779,  Faliero  sent 
him  to  Rome,  with  an  introduction  to  Cav.  Zuliano,  the  Venetian  ambassador,  and  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  patrons  of  art  at  this  time  in  Italy.  In  Rome  the  first  result  of 
his  studies  appeared  in  the  statue  of  “ Apollo,”  which  must  be  regarded  as  his  earliest 
effort  in  ideal  sculpture ; but  a far  greater  progress  toward  the  pure  style  of  the  antique 
was  evident  in  his  next  work,  “Theseus  with  the  Centaur.”  Nevertheless,  C.  did  not 
rigorously  adhere  to  the  severe  simplicity  of  the  antique,  but  rather  took  pains  to  miti- 
gate it  by  a peculiar  grace  and  loveliness  of  his  own,  such  as  characterized  his  group  of 
“Cupid  and  Psyche,”  which  was  produced  soon  after  he  had  completed  the  monument 
of  pope  Clement  XIV.  This  is  apparent  even  in  the  colossal  monument  of  Clement 
XIII.  (erected  in  St.  Peter’s,  1792);  though  this  work,  on  the  whole,  is  a magnificent 
effort  of  genius,  simple  in  style,  and  with  nothing  overwrought  in  the  figures.  Among 
his  other  works  may  be  noticed  a “Winged  Cupid,”  “Venus  and  Adonis,”  a “Ps}'che 
holding  a Butterfly;”  “ Penitent  Magdalen,”  in  life-size;  “Hercules  hurling  Lichas  from 
the  Rock,”  a colossal  work,  but  not  free  from  affectation;  “ Kreugas  and  Dainoxenos” 
(two  pugilists),  “ Palamedes,”  and  “ Perseus  with  the  Head  of  the  Medusa,”  a work  which, 
more  than  all  previous  efforts,  served  to  raise  his  fame.  In  1802,  C.  was  appointed  by 
pope  Pius  VII.  chief  curator  of  all  Roman  works  of  art  in  the  papal  states;  but  was  soon 
called  away  to  Paris,  to  prepare  the  model  of  a colossal  statue  of  Bonaparte. 

After  the  fall  of  the  French  empire,  C.,  in  1815,  was  employed  by  the  Roman  govern 
ment  as  ambassador  to  recover  the  works  of  art  which  had  been  taken  to  Paris,  and  paid 
a visit  to  England.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  was  creat||d  marquis  of  Ischia,  with  a 
pension  of  3000  scudi.  This  money  he  expended  in  the  ^pport  of  art  and  artists  in 
Rome.  C.  died  in  Venice,  13th  Oct.,  1822.  A marble  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory 
in  the  church  de’  Frati,  1827.  Another  monument  to  C.  was  erected  in  the  library  of 
the  capitol,  by  order  of  Leo  XII.,  in  1833. 

It  is  universally  allowed  that  to  C.  belongs  the  honor  of  having  restored  to  sculpture 
the  position  which  it  had  lost  among  the  modern  fine  arts.  After  Michael  Angelo  Buon- 
arotti  and  Bernini,  he  was  the  third  of  epoch-making  Italian  sculptors.  His  delicate 


399 


Canosa. 

Cantabil*. 


execution  and  masterly  treatment  of  marble  are  unrivaled,  and  even  his  faults — viz.,  his 
exaggerated  nicety  and  carefulness,  and  his  use  of  corrosives  to  produce  fine  finish — 
served  to  attract  by  the  novel  effects  which  they  produced.  The  essential  characteristic 
of  all  his  works  is  sentiment — often  verging,  however,  on  sentimentalism — and  this  also, 
like  his  delicacy  in  details,  was  accordant  with  the  taste  prevalent  in  his  time,  and  was 
the  chief  cause  of  his  popularity,  as  of  his  errors.  When  judged  by  the  sterner  princi- 
ples of  antique  sculpture,  the  works  of  C.  are  found  deficient  in  that  objective  or  realistic 
character  which  Thorwaldsen  could  express  so  well. 

During  his  leisure  hours  C.  amused  himself  in  painting,  in  which  he  attained  such  a 
degree  of  excellence  in  following  the  coloring  of  the  Venetian  masters,  that  his  pictures 
have  even  deceived  connoisseurs.  In  his  private  life,  C.  was  a very  amiable  and  benev- 
olent man.  Biographies  of  C.  have  been  written  by  Missirini  (4  vols.,  Prato,  1824),  Cicog- 
nara  (Venice,  1823),  Rosini  (Pisa,  1825),  and  D’Este  (Florence,  1864). 

CANROBERT,  Francois  Certain,  De,  Marshal  of  France,  b.  in  1809,  studied  in  the 
military  school  of  St.  Cyr,  and  in  1828  entered  the  army.  In  1835,  he  sailed  for  Algeria, 
and  during  the  war  in  the  province  of  Oran  was  made  a capt.  In  the  storming  of 
Constantine,  he  was  one  of  the  first  who  entered  the  breach,  when  he  received  a wound 
in  the  leg.  About  the  same  time  he  had  the  decoration  of  the  legion  of  honor  conferred 
upon  him.  In  1846,  he  became  lieut.col.,  and  soon  after  col.  In  1848,  he  had  the 
command  of  an  expedition  against  the  tribes  of  the  Bouaoun,  whom  he  defeated  at  the 
pass  of  Djerma,  and  was  victorious  against  the  Kabyles.  As  gen.  of  brigade,  in  1850  he 
led  an  expedition  through  the  rocky  country  of  Narah,  and  destroyed  the  Arab  strong- 
hold there.  In  Jan.,  1853,  he  became  a gen.  of  division.  He  had  the  command  of  the 
first  division  of  the  French  army  under  marshal  St.  Arnaud,*sent  to  the  Crimea  in  1854; 
and  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma,  was  wounded  in  the  breast  and  hand  by  the  splinter  of  a 
shell.  On  the  death  of  the  marshal,  C.  took  the  chief  command  of  the  French  army. 
In  the  war  in  Italy  against  the  Austrians,  in  1859,  C.  had  the  command  of  the  third  divi- 
sion of  the  French  army;  and  at  the  battle  of  Magenta,  June  4,  his  corps  d'armee  turned 
the  left  of  the  Austrians.  In  the  great  battle  of  Solferino,  on  the  24th  of  the  same  month, 
his  division  was  hotly  engaged,  and  lost  1000  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  In  1860,  he 
married  Miss  Macdonald,  a Scotch  lady.  When  war  was  declared  by  France  against 
Prussia,  in  1870,  he  was  one  of  the  generals  in  command  at  Woerth,  where  the  French 
received  such  a defeat.  C.  was  shut  up  in  Metz  with  Bazaine,  and  became  a prisoner 
in  Germany.  In  1877,  he  was  elected  a member  of  the  French  senate. 

CANSO,  Cape,  the  eastern  extremity  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  entrance  of  Chebucto  or  Chedabucto  bay.  It  is  in  lat.  45°  17'  n.,  and  long.  61°  west. 
— 2.  (Strait),  a passage  of  17  m.  in  length  and  2^  in  average  breadth,  connecting  the 
inlet  just  mentioned  with  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  so  as  to  form  an  island  of  cape  Bre- 
ton. Of  the  three  channels  between  that  inland  sea  and  the  open  ocean,  it  is  the  one 
that  is  least  frequently  used  by  European  vessels. 

CANSO,  Cape,  the  e.  point  of  Nova  Scotia;  a port  of  entry,  with  a large  fishing 
trade.  There  is  a light  on  Cranberry  island,  in  45°  19'  n.,  60°  55'  west. 

CANSTEIN,  Karl  Hilderbrand,  Count  of,  1667-1719;  studied  law  at  Frankfort, 
but  did  not  practice  because  of  failing  health.  At  Berlin  he  became  intimate  with 
Spencer  and  Francke,  who  persuaded  him  to  devote  his  time  to  increasing  the  circula- 
tion of  the  Bible,  and  that  led  him  to  form  the  Bible  society  at  Halle  which  bears  his 
name.  He  published  the  New  Testament  for  about  8 cents,  and  the  whole  Bible  at  a 
proportionate  price.  He  wrote  a Life  of  Spenser,  a Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  and  other 
theological  works. 

CANT,  on  shipboard,  is  a name  given  to  such  timbers,  near  the  bow  and  stern,  as  lie 
obliquely  to  the  line  of  keel.  It  is  also  a general  term  for  anything  sloping,  inclined,  or 
turned  aside.  “ Canting”  is  to  turn  anything  over,  or  out  of  its  proper  position. 

CANT,  Andrew,  a Scottish  divine  of  the  17th  c.,  was  first  minister  of  Pitsligo,  in  the 
n.  of  Scotland,  and  afterwards  in  Aberdeen.  In  July,  1638,  he  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners sent  to  that  city,  to  compel  the  inhabitants  to  subscribe  the  national  covenant; 
and  in  Nov.  of  the  sarne  year,  he  was  a member  of  the  memorable  general  assembly,  held 
at  Glasgow,  which  abolished  Episcopacy  in  Scotland.  He  was  with  the  Scots  army  when 
it  obtained  possession  of  Newcastle,  Aug.  30,  1640;  and  in  1641,  on  the  second  visit  of 
(Charles  I.  to  Scotland,  C.  preached  before  his  majesty  at  Edinburgh.  In  1660,  in  con- 
sequence of  a complaint  presented  to  the  magistrates  of  Aberdeen,  charging  him  with 
having  published  a seditious  book,  entitled  Lex  Lex,  and  with  fulminating  anathemas 
and  imprecations  against  many  of  his  congregation,  C.  relinquished  his  charge  and  left 
the  town.  He  died  about  1664. 

CANTAB'ILE,  in  music,  is  found  in  several  significations.  In  general,  it  is  placed  over 
passages  of  easy  and  flowing  melody,  as  well  in  instrumental  as  vocal  music.  In  songs, 
the  melodies  which  lie  chiefly  in  the  middle  region  of  the  voice  are  marked  C. ; extreme 
tones  of  the  voice  have  a peculiar  timbre  and  character  quite  foreign  to  the  cantabile.  C. 
marked  at  the  beginning  of  a piece  means  rather  slow  than  quick.  In  the  C.  style  the 
finest  effects  can  be  produced  by  the  singer  in  swelling,  sustained  sound,  the  portamento, 
etc.  C.  is  also  called  cantilene.  ’ 


Cantabri. 

Canterbury. 


400 


Cil^TA'BRI,  a rude  race  of  mountaineers  in  ancient  Spain,  were  of  Iberian  origin, 
and  lived  in  the  district  now  known  as  Burgos,  and  on  the  coasts  of  the  bay  of  Biscay, 
which  derived  from  them  its  name,  Oceanus  Cantahricus.  The  most  important  of  their 
nine  towns  were  Juliobrica  (near  the  source  of  the  Ebro),  Vellica,  and  Concana.  The 
C.  are  described  as  like  the  Scythians  and  Thracians  in  hardihood  and  martial  character, 
sleeping  on  the  bare  earth,  enduring  extreme  pain  without  a murmur,  and,  like  most 
savages,  leaving  agricultural  toil  to  their  women.  Their  bravery  was  evinced  in  the 
Cantabrian  war,  a six  years’  contest  with  the  Romans,  begun  under  Augustus,  and  con- 
cluded by  Agrippa,  25-19  b.c.  Tiberius  afterwards  stationed  garrisons  in  the  towns  of 
the  conquered  C, ; but  some  portion  retreated  into  their  fastnesses  among  the  mountains, 
where  they  preserved  their  independence.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  ancestors  of  the 
Basques  (q.v.). 

CANTA'BRIA,  a district  in  Spain  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  bay  of  Biscay.  The  old 
geographers  give  the  name  to  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Biscayan  coast,  but  it  is  now 
restricted  to  the  province  of  Santander  and  the  e.  portion  of  Asturias;  indeed,  Cantabria 
is  not  now  a geographical  division. 

CANTABRIAN  MOUNTAINS,  the  general  name  of  the  several  ranges  of  coast  and 
boundary  mountains,  extending  along  the  n.  coast  of  Spain,  from  cape  Finisterre,  to 
the  southern  base  of  the  w.  Pyrenees,  and  so  dividing  the  coast  districts  from  the 
interior  elevated  plateau  of  Castile.  The  summits  of  the  mountains  here  and  there 
reach  the  lower  line  of  the  snow  region,  with  a more  gentle  slope  on  the  s.  side,  and 
forming  plateau  districts  from  1600  to  2,000  ft.  high  on  the  n.,  where  the  slopes  are  steeper 
and  intersected  by  coast  liters,  leave  in  several  parts  only  narrow  stripes  of  flat  coast- 
land,  and  running  out  into  the  sea  form  several  bold  promontories.  The  whole  group 
of  mountains  is  named  variously  by  the  people  of  various  localities,  and  includes  the 
Sierra  de  Aralar,  Salvada,  Anagna,  Sejos,  Albas,  and  Altuna — all  more  or  less  wild  and 
romantic,  but  having  those  fertile  and  prosperous  trading  districts  which  distinguish 
the  Basque  Provinces  and  Asturias  from  the  sterile  central  plateau  of  Spain. 

CANTACUZE'NUS,  Johannes,  b.  about  1300  at  Constantinople;  a statesman,  gen- 
eral, and  historian,  and  under  Andronicus  II.  had  principal  charge  of  the  government. 
When  Andronicus  died  he  was  left  regent,  the  successor  being  John  Palaeologus,  then 
only  nine  years  old.  C.  was  suspected  by  the  empress,  fled  from  Constantinople,  and 
got  himself  crowned  in  another  place.  Six  years  of  civil  war  followed  in  which  the 
rivals  employed  foreign  mercenaries  of  every  description,  and  nearly  ruined  the  empire. 
C.  formed  an  alliance  with  the  sultan  of  Broussa,  agreeing  to  send  his  daughter  to  his 
ally’s  harem,  and  to  permit  the  sultan  to  make  slaves  of  the  Greek  subjects.  In  1346,  he 
entered  Constantinople  and  became  joint  emperor  with  John,  but  retained  full  power 
during  John’s  minority.  He  badly  governed  the  almost  ruined  empire  until  1354,  when 
John  made  an  easy  success,  and  C.  took  refuge  in  a monastery,  where  he  wrote  a history 
of  his  life  and  times. 

CANTAL,  a central  department  of  France,  formed  out  of  the  s.  portion  of  the  old 
province  of  Auvergne.  It  has  an  area  of  2,090  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  in  ’76  of  231,086.  See 
Auvergne. 

CANTALIVER,  or  Cantliver,  a large  bracket  used  in  architecture  for  supporting 
cornices,  balconies,  and  even  stairs.  Cantalivers  are  often  highly  ornamented. 

CANTALOUPE,  or  Musk-Melon,  a well-known  fruit,  taking  its  name  from 
Cantalupo  in  Italy.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  and  is  much 
esteemed  for  the  table. 

CANTARINI,  Simone,  also  known  as  Simone  da  Pesaro  or  il  Pesarese,  an  Italian 
painter,  was  b.  at  Pesaro  in  1612.  He  studied  under  Guido  Reni  at  Bologna;  but  his 
intolerable  arrogance  made  him  numerous  enemies,  and  in  consequence  he  left  the  city, 
and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  won  a high  reputation,  and  was  thought  by  many  to  excel 
even  his  master  in  the  graceful  finish  of  his  brush.  On  his  return  to  Bologna,  he 
opened  a school,  but  shortly  after  accepted  an  invitation  from  the  duke  of  Mantua  to 
visit  that  city.  Here  also  his  excessive  self-esteem  involved  him  in  disagreeable  relations 
with  everybody,  and  at  last  he  quarreled  with  the  duke  himself,  on  which  he  left  for 
Verona,  where  he  died  in  1648,  under  suspicion  either  of  having  poisoned  himself,  or  of 
having  been  poisoned  by  a Mantuan  painter  whom  he  had  injured.  C.  was  distinguished 
in  modeling  and  flesh-coloring.  A “ Madonna  upborne  by  Angels,”  and  a head  of  Guido 
when  old,  in  the  gallery  at  Bologna;  and  others  elsewhere,  remain  as  proofs  of  his  skill. 
His  37  etchings  closely  resemble  the  etchings  of  Guido  Reni,  and  have,  in  several  in- 
stances, been  fraudulently  sold  with  the  mark  of  the  master  forged  upon  them. 

CANTA'TA,  in  music,  is  a name  given  to  a vocal  composition;  but  it  is  so  very  indef-. 
inite,  that  it  in  no  way  shows  in  what  respect  such  composition  differs  from  any  other. 
In  Zedler  of  Halle’s  great  Lexicon,  the  C.  is  defined  as  a “long  vocal  composition,  the 
text  of  which  is  Italian,”  etc. ; while  in  Sulzer’s  Theorie  der  Schonsii  Kdnste,  it  is  said  to 
be  “a  short  piece  of  vocal  music  of  a pathetic  nature,”  etc.  The  C.  is  always  more 
extended  and  wrought  out  than  the  simple  song,  and  consists  of  different  movements. 


401 


Cantabri. 

Canterbury. 


CANTEEN',  is  a refreshment-house  in  a barrack,  for  the  use  of  the  soldiers.  Tho 
chief  articles  of  food  are  supplied  to  the  troops  direct  the  government;  but  wine, 
malt  liquor,  and  small  grocery-wares,  the  soldier  is  left  to  buy  for  himself ; and  the  C. 

is,  or  is  intended  to  be,  a shop  where  he  can  make  these  purchases  economically  without 
tlie  necessity  of  going  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  barrack.  No  soldier  is  obliged  to  buy 
^iny thing  at  the  C. ; he  may  lay  out  his  small  sums  elsewhere  if  he  prefer.  Formerly, 
the  canteens  were  under  civilians  called  canteen-tenants,  and  spirits  were  sold.  Between 
the  years  1836  and  1845,  it  was  found  that,  among  112  canteens  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  rent  and  head-money  paid  varied  from  £4  per  annum  (one  at  Guernsey)  to  £1344  per 
annum  (one  at  Woolwich);  they  brought  in  collectively  to  the  government  about  £70,000 
annually.  Great  intoxication  having  resulted  from  the  sale  of  spirits  at  the  canteens, 
the  war  office  prohibited  such  sale  in  1847;  as  a consequence,  the  rents  had  to  be  lowered 
to  the  extent  of  £20,000  in  the  following  year,  the  cantineers  finding  their  profits  much 
reduced.  The  rent  paid  was  found  to  be  injurious  to  the  soldiers,  vffio  were  charged 
higher  prices  within  the  barrack  than  without,  and  who  were  thence  driven  to  places 
where  dangerous  temptations  are  at  hand.  The  result  of  this  system  being  undeniably 
bad  and  demoralizing,  the  war  office  now  makes  the  C.  a regimental  establishment,  con- 
trolled by  a committee  of  officers  and  with  a canteen-sergeant  as  salesman.  Pensioned 
non-commissioned  officers  may  be  appointed  canteen-sergeants.  The  profits  are  applied 
for  the  benefit  of  the  men  of  the  corps. 

In  French  barracks,  the  C.  is  a sort  of  club-room  for  the  whole  regiment.  The 
cantineer  is  a non-commissioned  officer,  who  acts  merely  as  an  agent  for  all,  selling 
the  liquors  and  commodities  at  prime  cost. 

CANTEEN,  besides  its  application  to  a room  or  building,  is  a name  also  given  to  a 
vessel  used  by  soldiers  to  contain  whatever  beverage  may  be  obtainable  on  the  march 
or  in  the  field.  It  is  sometimes  of  tin,  sometimes  of  wood.  In  the  British  army,  the 
C.  is  a wooden  vessel,  holding  about  three  pints,  painted  blue,  and  inscribed  with  the 
number  or  designation  of  the  regiment,  battalion,  and  company  to  which  the  soldier 
belongs. 

There  is  still  another  use  of  the  word  C.,  as  a name  for  a leathern  or  wooden  chest, 
•divided  into  compartments,  and  containing  the  plate  and  table-equipage  for  a military 
officer  when  on  active  service. 

CAN'TEMIR,  Anti'ochus,  or  Constantine  Deme'trius,  1704-44;  the  youngest  son 
of  Demetrius  Cantemir.  He  was  a member  of  the  St.  Petersburg  academy;  wrote 
satires,  and  assisted  in  fixing  versification  and  developing  Russian  poetry.  At  the  age 
of  30  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Great  Britain,  and  in  1736  to  France.  He  was  a suc- 
oessful  diplomatist,  and  was  highly  esteemed  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Besides  trans- 
lating into  Russian  the  main  works  of  Anacreon  and  Horace,  he  wrote  odes,  satires,  and 
fables,  and  translated  important  works  from  French  and  Italian. 

CAN'TEMIR,  Deme'trius,  1673-1723;  a son  of  a Moldavian  prince  and  heir  to  the 
throne^  which,  however,  he  never  claimed,  preferring  to  serve  the  Turks.  In  1 710,  he 
was  appointed  prince  to  resist  the  expected  invasion  of  Peter  the  great.  Convinced  that 
ruin  would  come  to  the  Turks,  C.  joined  the  czar  and  shared  in  the  unfortunate  cam- 
paign on  the  Pruth  in  1711.  When  peace  was  made,  Peter  refused  to  surrender  him  to 
the  Turks,  and  kept  him  employed  in  Russia,  where  he  became  a great  favorite.  His 
most  important  work  was  a history  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

CANTERBURY,  a municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  aco.  by  itself,  a cathedral  city, 
and  seat  of  the  metropolitan  see  of  all  England,  in  East  Kent,  on  the  Stour,  56  m.  e.s.e 
of  London,  on  the  high-road  from  London  to  Dover.  The  distance  from  London  by  the 
South-eastern  railway  is  81  m. ; by  the  London,  Chatham,  and  Dover  line,  about  60. 
It  stands  on  a flat  between  hills  of  moderate  height.  It  has  the  aspect  of  an  old  town, 
many  of  the  houses  along  the  high  street  having  gabled  ends  and  projecting  fronts.  It 
has  little  manufacture  or  traffic.  The  chief  trade  is  in  corn,  wool,  and  hops.  Pop.  ’71, 
'20,962.  Many  are  engaged  in  the  hop-grounds.  C.  returns  two  members  to  parliament. 
It  is  noted  for  its  brawn.  Some  remains  of  the  walls  (If  m.  in  circuit  and  20  ft.  high) 
which  formerly  surrounded  C.,  and  one  of  the  gates,  still  exist.  Near  the  city  wall  is  a 
large  artificial  mound,  known  as  the  Dane  John  (probably  Donjon),  and  connected  with 
this  mound  is  a public  garden,  laid  out  in  the  end  of  the  18th  c.,  from  the  top  of  which 
is  a fine  view  of  the  country  around.  But  the  great  glory  of  C.  is  its  magnificent 

Cathedral.  When  St.  Augustine  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  597  a.d.,  he 
■consecrated,  under  the  name  Christ’s  church,  a church  said  to  have  been  formerly 
used  by  Roman  Christians.  Cuthbert,  the  11th  archbishop,  740  a.d.,  added  a church  to 
the  e.  of  this.  In  the  course  of  ages,  it  received  numerous  additions,  until  it  assumed 
its  present  magnificent  form.  Among  those  who  helped  to  repair,  enlarge,  and  rebuild 

it,  were  archbishops  Odo  (940  a.d.),  Lanfranc  (1070),  and  Anselm  (1093).  In  1174,  the 
choir  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  in  order  to  the  rebuilding  of  it,  a number  of  French 
and  English  artificers  were  summoned.  Among  the  former  was  a certain  William^  of 
Sens,  and  to  him,  a man  of  real  genius,  the  work  was  intrusted.  The  church  was  rich 
in  relics:  Plegemund  had  brought  hither  the  body  of  the  martyr  Blasius  from  Rome; 
there  were  the  relics  of  St.  Wilfred,  St.  Dunstan,  and  St.  Elfege;  the  murder  of  Thomas 
Becket  (q.v.)  had  recently  added  a still  more  popular  name  to  the  list  of  martyrs.  The 

U.  K.  III.— 26 


Canterbury, 

Canticles. 


402 


offerings  at  these  shrines,  especially  the  last,  contributed  greatly  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  the  magnificent  work.  William  of  Sens  did  not,  however,  live  to  see  its  completion. 
He  was  succeeded  by  another  William,  an  Englishman,  and  to  him  we  owe  the  comple- 
tion of  the  existii^  unique  and  beautiful  choir,  terminated  by  the  corona  or  circular 
chapel  called  Becket’s  crown.  Gervasius,  a monk,  who  witnessed  the  fire  of  1174,  and 
has  left  an  account  of  it,  tells  us  that  the  parts  of  Lanfranc’s  church  which  remained  in 
his  time  were  the  nave,  the  central  and  western  towers,  the  western  transepts,  and  their 
eastern  chapels.  In  the  14th  c.,  the  nave  and  transepts  were  transformed  into  the  per- 
pendicular style  of  that  period.  The  central  tower,  called  the  Angel  steeple,  was  carried 
up  (1486-1504)  to  about  double  its  original  height,  also  in  the  perpendicular  style;  it  is 
' 234  ft.  high,  and  35  ft.  in  diameter.  The  n.w.  tower  was  taken  down  in  1834;  it  was 
113  ft.  high,  and  divided  into  five  stories.  The  Norman  plinth  still  remains  on  each  side 
of  the  nave  in  the  side  aisles,  and  portions  of  Norman  ashlaring  may  still  be  seen  about 
the  transepts  outside  the  w.  wall,  and  on  the  eastern  piers  of  the  great  tower.  The 
indiscriminate  use  of  the  “round”  or  “Norman,”  and  the  “pointed”  or  “early  Eng- 
lish ” arch,  is  also  a very  striking  feature  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  building.  The  Lady 
chapel,  now  called  the  Dean’s  chapel,  stands  on  the  n.  side  of  the  church,  and  was  built 
in  1468;  the  roof  is  a fan- vault.  The  n.  transept  is  called  the  Martyrdom,  for  here  took 
place  the  murder  of  Becket,  on  Tuesday,  Dec.  29,  1170.  Fifty  years  later,  his  remains 
were  translated  from  the  crypt  to  a shrine  in  the  newly  erected  Trinity  chapel,  eastward 
of  the  choir.  About  the  year  1500,  the  yearly  offerings  at  this  shrine  amounted  to 
£4,000;  but  they  had  then  declined  much  in  value.  A curious  mosaic  pavement  still 
remains  in  front  of  the  place  where  the  shrine  stood,  and  the  stone  steps  which  lead  up 
to  it  are  worn  by  the  knees  of  countless  pilgrims ; but  the  shrine  itself  was  demolished 
in  1538,  and  the  bones  of  the  saint  burned  by  order  of  Henry  YIII.  In  1643,  the  build- 
ing was  further  “purified,”  as  it  was  called,  by  order  of  parliament.  Still  very  many 
most  interesting  monuments  remain— such  as  the  tombs  of  Stephen  Langton;  that  which 
is  commonly,  but  wrongly,  supposed  to  be  the  tomb  of  archbishop  Theobald;  with  those 
of  the  black  prince,  of  Henry  IV.,  of  archbishops  Maphan,  Peckham,  Chicheley,  Courte- 
nay, Sudbury,  Stratford,  Kemp,  Bourchier,  Warham,  and  of  cardinal  Pole.  The  total 
exterior  length  of  the  catliedral  is  545  ft.,  by  156  in  breadth  at  the  eastern  transept.  The 
crypt  is  of  greater  extent  and  loftier — owing  to  the  choir  being  raised  by  numerous  steps 
at  the  east  end — than  any  other  in  England. 

The  archbishop  of  C.  is  primate  of  all  England,  metropolitan,  and  first  peer  of  the 
realm.  He  ranks  next  to  royalty,  and  crowns  the  sovereign.  His  ecclesiastical  province 
includes  all  England,  except  the  six  northern  counties.  Among  his  privileges,  he  can 
confer  degrees  in  divinity,  law,  medicine,  and  music.  His  seats  are  at  Lambeth  and. 
j Addington  park.  He  is  patron  of  149  livings,  and  has  an  income  of  £15,000  a year. 
There  are  14  old  churches  in  C.,  mostly  of  rough  flint,  and  containing  fragments  of  still, 
older  structures.  St.  Martin’s  church  stands  on  the  site  of  one  of  the  7th  c.,  and  is 
partly  built  of  ancient  Roman  brick  and  tile.  Attached  to  the  cathedral  is  a gram- 
mar school,  remodeled  by  Henry  VIII.  Part  of  St.  Augustine’s  Benedictine  abbey  still 
remains,  with  its  fine  gateway,  near  the  cathedral.  It  occupied,  with  its  precincts,  16* 
acres.  The  old  buildings  have  lately  received  large  modern  additions,  in  order  to  fit  them 
for  the  purposes  of  a missionary  college  in  connection  with  the  church  of  England. 
Another  recent  institution  for  education  is  the  clergy  orphan  school,  which  occupies  a 
conspicuous  position  on  St.  Thomas’s  hill,  about  a mile  out  of  the  city.  The  ruins  of  a 
Norman  castle,  88  by  80  ft.,  the  third  in  size  in  England,  stands  near  the  city  wall.  C. 
stood,  in  Roman  times,  at  the  union  of  two  Roman  roads  from  Dover  and  Lympne,  the 
chief  seaports  of  the  Romans.  C.  was  the  capital  of  Kent,  and  the  center  from  which' 
England  was  Christianized.  St.  Augustine,  the  apostle  of  England,  sent  b}^  Gregory  I., 
was  the  first  archbishop,  and  baptized  king  Ethelbert  of  Kent.  C.  was  the  Saxon  Caer 
Cant,  city  of  Kent,  and  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Kent.  The  Danes,  in  the  9th,  10th, 
and  11th  centuries,  often  ravaged  and  burned  the  city.  Henry  VIII.  confiscated  the 
treasures  of  the  cathedral,  and  Edward  VI.  levied  fresh  exactions  from  it.  The  cathe- 
dral suffered  much  in  the  parliamentary  struggles,  but  it  has  since  been  repaired. 

CANTERBURY,  a settlement  of  about  13,000  sq.m.,  on  the  e.  coast  of  South  island. 
New  Zealand,  with  Christchurch  as  its  capital,  and  Lyttleton  as  its  port.  The  district 
was  settled  in  1850  by  the  Canterbury  association,  a society  of  peers,  bishops,  and  com- 
moners interested  in  the  colonization  of  New  Zealand.  It  has  a coast-line  of  about  200 
m.,  and  is  well  watered  by  numerous  rivers.  Coal  (in  abundance),  iron-ore,  fire-clays, 
and  quartz  have  been  discovered  in  the  province,  and  several  coal-mines  are  in  oppa- 
tion.  On  the  eastern  side  of  tlie  great  range  of  hills  are  the  far-famed  Canterbury  plains, 
the  great  sheep  district  of  the  colony — “3,000,000  of  acres  rolling  back  in  gentle  rise 
40  m.,  to  the  foot  of  the  central  highlands,  watered  by  20  rivers,  and  spreading  n.  and  s. 
further  than  the  eye  can  reach.”  The  natural  pastures  of  C.  are  very  fine;  and  to  this 
circumstance  is  mainly  due  the  rapid  advance  in  prosperity  of  the  country.  Pop.  ’75, 
78,715.  In  1876,  wheat  occupied  57,500  acres,  estimated  to  yield  1,770,363  bushels; 
oats,  72,522  acres,  estimated  to  yield  2,788,688  bushels;  barley,  16,820  acres,  estimated 
to  yield  620,699  bushels;  and  the  estimated  yield  of  potatoes  was  17,895  tons.  The 
total  value  of  exports  in  1875  was  £42,750;  of  imports,  £1,302,440.  Very  excellent 
timber  grows  in  the  province. 


403 


Canterbury, 

Canticles. 


CANTEEBUEY  BELLS.  See  Campanula. 

CANTHAEEL'LUS.  See  Fungi,  Edible. 

CANTHAE'IDINE.  See  Cantharis. 

CAN'THAEIS  (Gr.  a small  beetle,  plural  canthar'ides),  a genus  of  insects  of  the  order 
iioleoptera,  section  heteromera.  See  Coleoptera.  It  belongs  to  a family  called  trachel- 
ides,  or  necked  beetles,  the  head  being  separated  from  the  thorax  by  a distinct  neck  or 
pedicle,  and  forms  the  type  of  a subdivision  of  that  family  called  cantliaridim,  rrtany  of 
the  species  of  which  possess  blistering  properties  analogous  to  those  of  the  common 
Blistering  Fly,  Spanish  Fly,  or  Blister  Beetle  {(J.  'Desicatoria).  This  insect,  the 
best  known  and  most  important  of  the  genus,  is  about  an  inch  long;  has  a large  heart- 
shaped  head,  rather  broader  than  the  thorax;  thread-like  anteimm  three  times  longer 
than  the  head ; a nearly  quadrangular  thorax ; and  soft  elytra  (wing-covers)  concealing 
the  abdomen,  and  of  equal  breadth  throughout.  It  is  of  a bright  glossy  green  color. 
The  common  blistering  fly  is  found  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  in  the  s.  of  Siberia.  It  is 
abundant  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Spain,  in  the  s.  of  France,  and  in  some  parts  of  Germany 
iind  Russia.  It  is  rare  in  England.  The  larva  is  not  well  known.  The  perfect  insect 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  ash,  privet,  lilac,  elder,  and  honeysuckle ; and  rests  on  them 
during  the  night,  the  day  being  its  time  of  activity.  It  is  therefore  taken  by  beating 
the  branches  of  the  trees  in  the  morning  or  evening,  when  it  is  comparatively  lethargic, 
R cloth  being  spread  below  to  receive  the  insects  as  they  fall.  The  gathering  of  canthar- 
ides  takes  place,  in  the  s.  of  France,  in  the  month  of  May.  It  requires  great  caution 
to  prevent  injury  to  those  who  engage  in  it,  the  insects  emitting  a volatile  substance 
with  a strong  smell,  which  causes  inflammation  of  the  eyes  and  eyelids,  convulsive 
sneezing,  and  irritation  of  the  throat  and  bronchial  tubes,  nor  can  they  be  handled 
without  danger  of  blistering.  Those  who  collect  them,  therefore,  generally  wear 
gloves  and  veils.  Unpleasant  effects  have  been  experienced  from  even  sitting  under 
trees  on  the  leaves  of  which  cantharides  were  numerous.  Various  methods  are  employed 
for  killing  cantharides  when  they  have  been  taken;  the  cloths  containing  them  are 
very  generally  immersed  in  hot  vinegar  and  water,  and  they  are  afterwards  carefully 
dried;  sometimes  they  are  killed  by  the  vapor  of  vinegar,  and  sometimes  by  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. Unless  kept  with  great  care,  they  soon  begin  to  lose  their  active  properties, 
although,  in  stoppered  bottles,  they  remain  fit  for  use  for  years.  They  are  very  liable 
to  be  injured  by  mites,  and  afford  a favorite  food  also  to  a kind  of  moth  and  to  some 
Gther  insects.  They  are  imported  into  Britain  from  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  also  from  St. 
Petersburg. 

The  active  principle  of  the  blistering  flies  is  cantharidine,  which  possesses  such  pow- 
erful blistering  properties,  that  of  a grain  placed  on  the  lip  rapidly  causes  the  rise 

of  small  blisters.  Administered  internally,  blistering  flies  cause  heat  in  the  throat, 
stomach,  intestines,  respiratory  organs,  etc. ; and  if  in  large  doses,  they  give  rise  to 
inflammation  of  a serious  nature,  and  sufficient  to  cause  death.  Externally,  they  are 
■employed  as  a blistering  agent.  There  are  various  medicinal  preparations  of  blistering 
flies,  such  as  rinegar  of  cantharides,  obtained  by  macerating  blistering  flies  in  acetic 
acid;  tincture  of  cantharides,  procured  by  digesting  blistering  flies  in  proof-spirit,  etc.; 
but  that  most  commonly  employed  is  piaster  of  cantharides  or  blistering  plaster,  obtained 
by  mixing  equal  parts  of  blistering  flies,  yellow  wax,  resin,  and  lard.  See  Blister. 

CANTICLES,  a word  which  literally  signifies  songs,  but  which  is  specially  applied  to 
a canonical  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  called  in  Hebrew  The  Song  of  Songs — i.e.,  the 
most  beautiful  song.  The  author  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  Solomon,  and  in  the  rich 
luxurious  splendor  of  its  coloring,  it  admirably  harmonizes  with  the  “golden  time”  of 
that  magnificent  monarch.  The  theme  which  it  celebrates  is  love;  but  what  kind  of 
love,  whether  earthly  or  spiritual,  is  a question  that  has  perplexed  Biblical  critics.  The 
oldest  interpretations  are  allegorical,  and  are  either  political  or  religious.  The  former 
■of  these,  considered  C.  as  the  symbolical  expression  of  a deep  longing  for  the  reunion  of 
the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel;  the  latter,  of  the  love  of  God  for  his  chosen  people, 
the  Jews.  The  religious  interpretation  passed  over  from  Judaism  to  Christianity,  and 
assumed  a new  aspect  in  consequence.  Origen  found  the  beloved  bridegroom  in  Christ, 
and  the  bride  in  the  church  or  the  believing  soul.  Only  among  the  theologians  of  the 
Syrian  school  do  we  find  an  effort  made  to  adhere  to  more  intelligible  principles  of  inter- 
pretation, but  the  “ mystical  view”  obtained  the  upper  hand,  and  has  continued  to  be  the 
predominant  view  of  the  poem  amongst  orthodox  theologians.  For  a while  an  attempt 
was  made  to  distinguish  between  a primary  and  a secondary  sense,  both  more  or  less 
directly  present  to  the  mind  of  the  author;  but  modern  scholarship  in  the  main  contents 
itself  with  endeavoring  to  fix  the  primary  or  literal  meaning.  Nor  is  this  an  easy  task. 
Some  commentators  hold,  for  example,  that  C.  is  an  anthology  of  detached  idyls;  others 
argue  that  it  is  a dramatic  unity  composed  of  connected  parts.  Ewald  has  done  much 
to  establish  the  latter  view.  Ewald’s  followers  hold  that  the  poem  was  written  about 
the  middle  of  the  10th  c.  b.c.  in  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  conceived  in  a 
spirit  of  hostility  against  the  luxurious  court  of  Zion.  Solomon,  the  type  of  a sensual 
monarch,  has  carried  off  to  his  harem  a northern  shepherd  maiden,  who  in  the  poem 
appears  surrounded  by  the  ladies  of  his  court.  The  king  fails  even  by  the  proffer  of 
honorable  espousals  to  overcome  the  maiden’s  fervent  attachment  to  her  shepherd  lover 


Cantire. 

Canton. 


404 


in  the  north  country,  and  wholly  abashed,  ceases  to  press  his  suit.  Finally,  true  and 
chaste  love  triumphs  in  the  union  of  the  peasant  lovers. 

CANTIRE,  or  Kintyre  (Gaelic,  headland),  a long  narrow  peninsula  of  Argyleshire,, 
running  n.  and  s.  between  Arran  isle  and  the  Atlantic,  and  united  at  the  n.  end  with 
the  mainland  of  Scotland,  by  the  isthmus  of  Tarbet,  a mile  broad  between  e.  loch  Tar- 
bet,  a small  loch  or  bay  of  loch  Fyne,  and  w.  loch  Tarbet.  It  is  40  m.  long,  and,  on 
an  average,  6|  broad.  The  surface  is  much  diversified  by  low,  undulating,  moorish 
hills,  with  many  lochs.  The  highest  point  is  Bennear,  1515  feet.  It  contains  much 
cultivated  land.  The  n.  four  fifths  of  C.,  and  the  s.w.  corner  round  the  Mull, or  promon- 
tory, of  Kintyre,  consist  chiefly  of  mica  slate.  Old  red  sandstone  occurs  on  the  s.e. 
shore.  Coal  is  found  between  Campbelton  and  the  w.  coast.  A light-house,  297  ft. 
above  the  sea,  stands  on  the  Mull  of  Kintyre.  C.  includes  10  parishes.  Pop.  about 
18,000.  Campbelton  (q.v.)  is  the  chief  seat  of  population.  C.  was  in  ancient  times  peo- 
pled by  Piets  and  Celts  more  densely  than  the  rest  of  Scotland.  The  Scots  from  Ireland 
subdued  it  in  210  a.d.,  were  expelled  from  it  in  446,  but  returned  in  503  under  Fergus, 
the  first  Scottish  king,  who  fixed  his  seat  at  Campbelton.  Kenneth  II.  (MacAlpine),  on 
defeating  the  Piets  in  843,  removed  to  Forteviot.  From  the  8th  to  the  12th  c.,  C.  was 
occupied  by  Northmen  from  Scandinavia,  and  afterwards  by  the  Macdonalds  of  the 
isles,  and  more  lately  by  the  Campbells.  Many  burying-grounds  and  small  ruined 
chapels  or  monasteries  in  C.,  show  its  former  populousness.  Near  these  chapels,  and 
in  the  villages,  are  many  high,  upright  slate  crosses,  with  rude  figures  and  inscriptions 
on  them.  C.  contains  many  ancient  watch  or  ward  forts  often  vitrified. 

CANTIUM,  a Roman  district  in  ancient  Britain,  covering  nearly  the  same  territory^ 
as  the  modern  co.  of  Kent.  Caesar  speaks  of  the  inhabitants  as  the  most  civilized 
people  of  the  island. 

CANTO  FERMO,  in  church  music,  means  plain  song,  or  choral  song  in  unison,  and  in 
notes  all  of  equal  length.  Its  introduction  into  the  Clhristian  church  is  attributed  tO' 
pope  Gregory  the  great,  before  the  invention  of  the  modern  notation.  See  also  Gre- 
gorian Tones. 

CAN'TON.  In  heraldry,  the  C.  occupies  a corner  of  the  shield,  either  dexter  or  sinis- 
ter, and  in  size  is  the  third  of  the  chief.  It  is  one  of  the  nine  honorable  ordinaries, 
“ and  of  great  esteem.” 

CANTON  (from  the  Fr.  canton,  a corner,  a district;  Ger.  kante,  a point,  corner,  bor- 
der; allied  to  Eng.  cantle)  signifies  in  geography  a division  of  territory,  constituting  a 
separate  government  or  state,  as  in  Switzerland.  In  France,  C.  is  a subdivison  of  an 
arrondissement. 

CANTON,  a city  in  Fulton  co..  111.,  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy,  and 
the  Toledo,  Peoria  and  Western  railroads;  210  m.  from  Chicago,  and  28m.  from  Quincy; 
pop.  ’70,  3,308.  Manufacturing  and  coal  mining  are  the  main  industries. 

CANTON,  a t.  in  Lewis  co..  Mo.,  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  Western  railroad,  200  m.  above  St.  Louis,  and  22  m.  below  Keokuk;  pop.  ’70,  2,363. 
It  is  a prominent  shipping  place,  has  a number  of  manufactories,  and  is  the  seat  of  Can- 
ton university,  an  educational  institution  under  the  charge  of  the  Christian  denomina- 
tion. 

CANTON,  a t.  in  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  Grass  river  and  the  Rome,  Watertown 
and  Ogdensburg  railroad;  60  m.  n.e.  of  Watertown;  pop.  ’75,  6,123.  It  is  the  co. 
seat,  and  has  a court-house,  almshouse,  St.  Lawrence  university,  and  several  churches. 
There  is  abundant  water-power,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber,  flour,  etc. 

CANTON,  a t.  in  Stark  co.,  O.,  on  the  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago  rail- 
road, 100  m.  n.e.  of  Columbus.  There  is  abundance  of  water-power,  and  considerable 
manufacturing  is  carried  on.  Coal  and  limestone  are  found,  and  the  surrounding  coun 
try  is  a fine  wheat-growing  district. 

CANTON,  a large  commercial  city  and  port  in  the  s.  of  China,  and  capital  of  the 
province  of  Kwang-tung  (of  which  the  name  C.  is  merely  a corruption).  It  is  situated 
in  lat.  23°  7'  10”  n.,  and  long.  113°  14'  30”  e.,  on  the  n.  side  of  the  Chookeang,  or  Pearl 
river,  in  a rich  alluvial  plain,  32  m.  from  the  sea.  The  river  (the  entrance  to  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Boca  Tigris,  a Portuguese  translation  of  the  Chinese  Hu-mun 
(“  Tiger’s  Mouth”),  is  very  picturesque.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a brick  rampart  6 m. 
in  circumference,  and  entered  by  12  gates,  to  each  of  which  a guard-house  is  attached. 
It  forms  an  irregular  square,  and  is  divided  by  a wall  into  the  n.  and  s.,  or  old 
and  new  city.  The  former  is  inhabited  by  the  'Tartar  population,  the  latter  bj^  Chi- 
nese; and  between  the  two,  communication  is  maintained  b}'  four  gates  in  the  separat 
ing  wall.  The  suburbs  are  very  extensive,  and  in  one  of  these,  facing  the  river,  stood 
the  Euro^iean  factories  or  hongs.  Most  of  the  streets  of  C.  are  crooked  and  labyrinthine 
beyond  description,  but  there  are  a small  number  of  straight  thoroughfares  which  make 
it  easy  enough  for  a stranger  to  find  his  way.  As  a rule,  a tolerablj^  straight  street  leads 
from  the  water-side  to  each  gate  of  the  city  on  the  southern  front,  and  is  more  or  less 
prolonged  through  the  interior.  Many  of  the  streets  are  devoted  to  distinct  trades;, 
thus,  there  is  “Carpenter”  street,  “Apothecary”  street,  etc.  The  Joss-houses,  chiefly 


405 


Cantire. 

Canton. 


Buddhist  temples,  are  said  to  be  124  in  number.  The  largest  of  these,  on  Honam  island,, 
covers  seven  acres,  and  has  175  priests  attached.  It  is  called  Hae  Chwang  8ze,  or  “ the 
temple  of  the  ocean  banner,”  Another  famous  structure  is  “the  temple  of  the  five 
hundred  gods,”  situated  in  the  western  suburbs.  There  are  also  several  many-storied 
towers  or  pagodas,  a Mohammedan  mosque,  founded  about  a,d,  850  by  the  Arabian 
voyagers,  who  then  were  accustomed  to  visit  C,,  a foundling-hospital,  an  English  and 
an  American  missionary  hospital,  Streets  of  wooden  houses  were  formerly  to  be  seen 
on  the  river-side,  but  these  were  swept  away  during  the  late  quarrel  with  Yeh;  and  one 
large  site  that  they  occupied  was  walled  in  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  new  foreign  fac- 
tories, the  old  ones  having  been  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  A very  remarkable  example 
of  life  upon  the  water  is  the  boat-town  of  Canton,  The  total  population  of  the  city  has 
been  vaguely  estimated  at  1,000,000,  The  climate  of  C,  may  be  pronounced  healthy; 
though  the  heat  from  June  to  Sept,  is  oppressive,  and  the  thermometer  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  stands  at  100°  in  the  shade.  In  ordinary  years,  the  winter  minimum  is- 
42°,  and  the  summer  maximum  96°,  The  n,e,  monsoon  commences  in  Oct,,  and 
is  the  prevailing  wind  till  Mar,,  when  the  s,w,  monsoon  sets  in.  Its  average  tem- 
perature is  70i°  P,,  and  the  annual  fall  of  rain  70,625  inches.  The  Cantonese  are  notori- 
ous for  their  turbulence  and  hatred  of  foreigners,  and  the  European  factories  have 
more  than  once  been  attacked  by  infuriated  mobs,  who  were  only  kept  at  bay  by 
force  of  arms.  This  hostility  may,  however,  be  greatly  due  to  the  baneful  infiuence  of 
those  in  power;  for  here  the  government  of  the  mandarins  of  the  present  Manchu 
Tartar  dynasty  appears  to  have  reached  its  maximum  of  corruption  and  barbarity,  and 
and  was  fitly  represented  by  the  notorious  Yeh,  late  governor-general  of  Kwang-tung 
and  Kwang-se,  The  author  of  Twelve  Tears  in  China  gives  us  some  startling  facts 
illustrative  of  mandarinic  rule  in  this  part  of  China,  After  the  defeat  of  the  Triad 
rebels,  who  besieged  C,  in  1844-45,  it  is  estimated  that  1,000,000  of  people  perished  ia 
the  province. 

The  admirable  situation  of  C,  for  conducting  traffic  explains  how,  from  an  early 
period,  it  was  a favorite  port  with  foreign  merchants.  The  Arabs,  as  has  been  said, 
made  regular  voyages  hither  as  early  as  the  9th  century.  The  Portuguese  found 
their  way  to  it  in  the  16th  c,,  and  were  followed  by  the  Dutch  a hundred  years  later. 
These  in  turn  were  overtaken  and  supplanted  by  the  English  before  the  close  of  the  17th 
c.,  and  an  immense  trade  was  carried  on  by  the  agents  of  the  East  India  company. 
Their  monopoly  ceased  on  the  22d  April,  1834.  Since  that  date  the  proceedings  of 
the  C,  government  officers  have  originated  two  wars  with  the  British.  The  city  was 
captured  by  the  allied  French  and  English  forces  Dec.,  1857,  and  continued  to  be 
garrisoned  by  them  till  Oct.,  1861.  See  China.  After  the  treaty  of  Nankin  (signed 
Aug.  29,  1842),  C.  was  known  as  one  of  the  five  ports;  Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai  having  also  been  thrown  open  to  foreign  commerce. 

The  chief  exports  from  C.  are  tea,  silk,  sugar;  the  chief  imports,  raw  cotton, 
piece-goods,  opium,  metallic  wares,  etc.  War  and  rebellion”  (say  the  authors  of 
the  Treaty  Ports  of  China  and  Japan,  Lond.  and  Hong-Kong,  1867),  “the  opening  of 
Hankow  as  a shipping  port  for  tea,  and,  above  all,  the  proximity  of  Hong-Kong  and 
Macao  to  the  delta  of  the  Canton  river,  with  its  unrivaled  facilities  for  smuggling, 
have  robbed  C.  of  the  pre-eminence  it  so  long  enjoyed  in  commercial  prosperity.” 
Yet  the  following  statistics  show  that  the  city  is  recovering  ground: 


Total  Value  of  Imports  Total  Value  of  Exports 

in  Mexican  Dollars.  in  Mexican  Dollars. 

1860  18,415,727  16,257,623 

1861  12,977,353  15,811,512 

1862  10,580,928  17,742,590 

1863  9,505,285  16,083,062 

1864  8,192,795  13,659,177 

1865  10,556,602  18,054,577 

1866  14,171,101  18,832,622 

1867  14,090,581  18,403,154 

1868  12,991,266  18,491,156 

1869  11,487,679  20,010,626 

1870  12,053,394  19,857,543 

1871..... 15,661,889  23,612,439 


In  1874,  the  total  value  of  exports  was  £4,610,470;  of  imports,  £1,985,701,  exclusive 
of  treasure. 

The  Middle  Kingdom,  by  Dr,  S.  W.  Williams;  The  Chinese,  by  sir  John  Davis; 
Meadow’s  Chinese;  Twelve  Tears  in  China  (Edin.  1860);  Report  of  the  Missionary  HospitaZ 
in  the  Western  Suburbs  of  Canton;  Treaty  Ports  of  China  and  Japan  (Lond.  and  Hong- 
Kong,  1867). 

CANTON,  John,  1718-72;  an  English  natural  philosopher,  who  made  valuable  dis- 
coveries in  the  then  new  science  of  electricity.  For  constructing  artificial  magnets  he 
was  honored  with  the  membership  and  a gold  medal  of  the  royal  society,  and,  in  1751, 
he  became  one  of  the  council  of  the  society.  He  was  the  first  person  in  England 
to  verify  Franklin’s  theory  of  the  identity  of  lightning  and  electricity,  having,  in  1752, 


Cantonments, 

Caoutchouc. 


406 


obtained  fire  from  the  clouds  during  a thunder-storm.  He  and  FranlHin  almost  simulta 
neously  discovered  that  some  clouds  were  charged  with  positive  and  others  with  nega- 
tive electricitj^,  a circumstance  that  made  them  warm  personal  friends.  C.  opposed  the 
theory  then  generally  accepted  that  water  was  incompressible. 

CANTONMENTS,  in  the  general  operations  of  European  araiies,  are  temporary  rest- 
ing-places. Many  circumstances,  especially  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the  supply  of 
food,  influence  a gen.  in  determining  whether  to  go  into  C.  or  to  encamp,  in  the  inter- 
vals between  active  operations ; or  he  may  take  the  former  course  during  an  armistice. 
The  quartermaster-gen.  previously  examines  the  district,  and  determines  how  many 
men  and  horses  to  place  in  each  village;  arrangements  are  also  made  for  a main-guard, 
cavalry  pickets,  alarm-posts,  road-barricades,  lines  of  sentries,  mounted  orderlies,  etc. , 
to  guard  against  a sudden  surprise  from  the  enemy.  In  C.  the  men  are  not  generally 
under  canvas,  as  described  in  Camp. 

In  India,  C.  are  permanent  places,  regular  military  towns,  distinct  and  at  some  little 
distances  from  the  principal  cities.  If  on  a large  scale,  such  a cantonment  contains  bar- 
racks for  European  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery;  rows  of  bungalows  or  houses,  each 
inclosed  in  a garden,  for  the  officers;  rows  of  huts  for  the  native  soldiery;  magazines 
and  parade-grounds ; public  offices  and  buildings  of  various  kinds ; and  a bazaar  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  native  troops.  During  the  revolt  in  1857-58,  most  of  the  out- 
breaks began  in  the  cantonments.  It  was  in  the  cantonment  outside  Cawnpore  that  Nana 
Sahib  commenced  his  treachery. 

CANTONNEE,  in  heraldry.  When  a cross  is  placed  between  four  other  objects,  e.g., 
scallop  shells,  it  is  said  to  be  cantonnee. 

CANTON’S  PHOSPHORUS,  or  Pyro'phorus,  is  obtained  by  heating  in  close  a vessel 
8 parts  oyster-shells  and  1 part  sublimed  sulphur,  when  the  sulphuret  of  calcium  (CaS)  is 
formed,  which  takes  fire  when  exposed  to  or  thrown  into  the  air. 

CANTOR.  See  Precentor. 

CANTU,  Cesare,  one  of  the  best  of  modern  Italian  authors,  was  b.  Sept.  5,  1805,  at 
Brescia,  in  northern  Italy,  and  was  educated  at  Sondrio,  where  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  belles-iettres.  Having  been  imprisoned  for  the  offense  of  expressing  liberal 
tendencies  in  a historical  work  on  Lombardy,  C.  spent  his  leisure  hours  in  describing 
the  sorrows  of  a prisoner  in  the  form  of  a historical  romance,  Margherita  Pusterla 
(Florence,  1845).  C.  has  also  written  several  religious  hymns  and  songs,  which  have 
become  popular;  but  his  great  work  is  the  Storia  JJ nimrsale  Turin,  1837-42). 

His  History  of  Italian  Literature  appeared  in  1851 ; History  of  the  Last  Hundred  Tears, 
1852;  History  of  the  Italians,  1859;  and  Milano,  Storia  del  Popolo  epel  Popolo,  1871. 

CANTURIO,  or  Cantu',  a t.  in  northern  Ital}’",  5 m.  s.e.  of  Como.  It  is  situated  in 
the  midst  of  a rich  district,  has  a church  with  an  elegant  tower,  which  served  as  a bea- 
con during  the  middle  ages,  and  manufactures  of  iron-wares.  Pop.  5,500. 

CANUN,  a Turkish  musical  instrument,  strung  with  gut-strings;  is  played  on  by  the 
fingers,  on  which  are  thimbles  of  tortoise-shell,  pointed  with  pieces  of  cocoa-nut,  form- 
ing plectra  for  striking  the  strings  with.  The  C.  is  a favorite  instrument  with  the  ladies 
in  seraglios,  many  of  whom  produce  very  pleasant  music  and  harmony  on  it. 

• CANUTE,  or  Cnut,  succeeded  to  the  rulership  of  the  Danes  in  England  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  Swein  or  Sweyn,  and  was  by  them  proclaimed  king  of  England.  On  the 
death  of  Ethelred,  he  shared  the  sovereignty  with  Edmund  Ironside,  who  ruled  over 
the  s.,  while  C.  was  monarch  over  the  n.  of  England.  The  sudden  decease  or  assassina- 
tion of  Edmund  made  C.  sole  ruler  in  1017,  and  he  continued  to  reign  until  his  death, 
in  1035  or  1086.  His  rule  was  marked  at  first  by  cruelty,  but  when  all  who  were  likel}^ 
to  interfere  with  his  power  had  been  disposed  of,  he  exhibited  great  mildness  and  jus- 
tice, combined  with  talent  and  judgment.  The  Anglo-Saxons,  whose  complete  subju- 
gation he  had  effected,  did  not  feel  their  chains:  they  had  experienced  no  such  good 
government  since  the  time  of  Alfred  and  Athelstane.  He  was  easily  accessible  to  all 
his  subjects;  and  won  the  hearts  of  the  people  by  his  love  song  and  ballad,  and  his 
liberal  patronage  of  gleemen.  One  verse  of  an  English  song  written  by  C.  is  still 
extant.  As  soon  as  English  affairs  were  settled,  C.  superseded  his  brother  Harold  as  king 
of  Denmark;  and  in  1028  he  extended  his  dominion  over  Norway — becoming  thus  one 
of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  Europe.  In  his  latter  years  he  was  devout. 

CANVAS,  regarded  from  an  artist’s  point  of  view,  is  the  principal  material  upon  which 
oil-paintings  are  made.  Two  kinds  are  prepared  for  this  purpose,  of  which  the  best  is 
called  ticking.  Before  it  is  put  into  the  artist’s  hands,  it  is  usually  or  grounded 

(see  Ground)  of  a neutral  gray,  or  other  tint,  as  he  may  direct.  Certain  sizes  of  C. 
being  in  greater  request  than  others,  are  kept  ready  stretched  on  frames.  Those  used 
for  portraits  are  known  by  the  names  of  kit-cat,  which  measures  28  or  29  in.  by  86: 
three-quarters,  25  by  30  in.;  half-length,  40  by  50;  Bishop's  half-length,  44  or  45  by  56; 
Bishop's  whole  length  , 58  by  94. 

CANVAS,  Snip’s.  See  Sail,  Sailci.oth. 


407 


Cantonments^ 

Caoutchouc. 


CANVAS-BACK,  fuUgina  {athya)  valUsneria,  a species  of  duck  frequenting  the- 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  greatly  prized  for  its  flesh.  The  canvas-back  reaches 
its  highest  perfection  in  and  around  Chesapeake  bay,  where  these  birds  pass  the  winter 
after  returning  from  their  breeding  grounds  in  the  far  north-west.  In  its  annual  migra- 
tions it  is  taken  in  great  numbers  in  the  marshes  which  surround  the  southern  extremity 
of  lake  Michigan,  where  the  zostera  vallisTieria,  or  so-called  wild  celery,  known  to  be 
identical  with  the  plant  of  that  name  in  the  Chesapeake  baj^  abounds. 

CANZO  NE  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  prized  forms  of  the  Italian  lyric. 
The  word  is  borrowed  from  the  Proven9als,  whose  cansos  or  chansos,  however,  were  not 
restricted  to  any  precise  form,  but  were  simply  verses  intended  to  be  sung.  The  Italian 
writers  first  attempted  to  regulate  the  wayward  and  arbitrary  character  of  the  Proven9al 
cansos;  Dante,  and  subsequently  Petrarch,  being  especially  successful.  The  canzone 
Petrarchesca  or  loscana  was  any  considerable  lyrical  poem,  composed  of  stanzas  exactly 
corresponding  to  one  another  in  number  of  lines,  measure,  and  position  of  rhymes,  and 
which  customarily  closed  with  a short  stanza.  About  the  end  of  the  16th  c.,  the  Italian 
writers  began  to  deviate  from  the  strict  form  of  the  Petrarchian  canzone.  Torquato- 
Tasso  and  Chiabrera  are  the  most  notable  names  in  the  new  movement.  The  most  of 
tile  canzones  of  the  latter — called  by  their  author  canzonette — are  written  in  short  lines- 
ifcftd  stanzas,  the  position  of  the  rhymes  being  also  completely  arbitrary. 

CAOUTCHOUC',  Gum  Elastic,  or  India  Rubber,  a substance  wdiich,  on  account  of 
i.is  peculiar  properties,  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  and  of  which  the  use  is  continually 
und  rapidly  increasing.  It  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  wonderful  chemistry  of  nature, 
being  found  in  the  milky  juices  of  plants,  and  most  abundantly  in  the  natural  orders 
'^.noracem,  artocarpacece,  eupliorbiacem,  apocynacem,  asdepiadaceos,  and  papayaceoc.  It  exists 
in  the  milky  juice  of  plants  growing  in  temperate  climates;  but  it  is  only  in  tropical 
and  subtropical  countries  that  it  occurs  so  abundantly  as  to  be  of  economical  importance. 
Its  uses  to  the  plants  in  which  it  is  elaborated  have  not  been  ascertained ; and  the  con- 
jectures of  theorists  on  this  subject  are  not  supported  by  arguments  sufficient  to  give 
them  much  probability.  In  the  milky  juice,  the  C.  is  diffused  in  the  form  of  minute 
globules,  and  not,  strictly  speaking,  in  solution;  and  when  the  juice  is  extracted  from 
the  plant,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a short  time,  these  globules  separate  from  the  w’atery 
part  of  it,  and  form  a sort  of  cream  on  the  top,  or,  in  close  vessels,  appear  throughout  it 
as  a flaky  coagulum.  C.,  as  well  as  some  of  its  useful  and  curious  properties,  must  have 
been  known  in  America  at  a very  early  period,  because  balls  made  of  the  gum  of  a tree, 
lighter  and  bouncing  better  than  the  wind-balls  of  Castile,  are  mentioned  by  Herrera 
when  speaking  of  the  amusements  of  the  natives  of  Hayti,  in  his  account  of  Columbus” 
second  voyage.  In  a book  published  in  Madrid  in  1615,  Juan  de  Torquemada  mentions 
the  tree  which  yields  it  in  Mexico,  describes  the  mode  of  collecting  the  gum,  and  states 
that  it  is  made  into  shoes;  also  that  the  Spaniards  use  it  for  w^axing  their  canvas  cloaks 
to  make  them  resist  water.  More  exact  information  regarding  C.  was  afterwards  fur- 
nished by  M.  de  la  Condamine,  who  visited  South  America  in  1735,  but  it  is  curious  to 
note  that  some  of  the  purposes  for  which  india-  rubber  is  most  extensively  used  at  the 
present  time  are  the  same  as  those  for  which  it  was  employed  in  South  America  nearly 
three  centuries  ago.  It  was  at  first  known  by  the  name  of  elastic  gum,  and  received  that 
of  india-rubber  from  the  discovery  of  its  use  for  rubbing  out  black-lead  pencil  marks, 
for  which  purpose  it  began  to  be  imported  into  Britain  in  small  quantities  about  the  end 
of  last  c. , being  much  valued  by  artists,  and  sold  at  a high  price.  Even  before  this- 
time  its  employment  for  the  manufacture  of  flexible  tubes  for  the  use  of  surgeons  and 
chemists  had  been  successfully  attempted ; but  the  expensive  character  of  the  solvents 
then  known  for  it,  prevented  its  general  application  to  any  purpose  in  the  arts.  It  was 
not  till  1830  that  its  employment  began  to  extend  beyond  the  rubbing  out  of  pencil 
marks,  although  in  the  meantime  the  quantity  imported  had  considerably  increased. 
Its  application  to  the  manufacture  of  water-proof  cloth  first  gave  it  commercial  impor- 
tance. About  the  same  time  a method  was  discovered  of  fabricating  articles  of  various; 
kinds  by  casting  C.  in  molds.  Its  elasticity  and  flexibility,  its  insolubility  in  water,  and 
its  great  impenetrability  to  gases  and  fluids  in  general,  have  now  been  found  to  adapt 
it  to  a great  variety  of  uses ; but  for  by  far  the  greater  number  of  its  applications  it  is 
now  employed  in  the  vulcanized  state. 

The  C.  of  commerce  is  obtained  most  largely  from  South  America,  but  considerable 
quantities  are  also  procured  from  British  India,  the  Indian  archipelago,  the  west  coast 
of  Africa,  and  the  Mauritius.  During  the  year  1873,  the  actual  imports  of  this  material 


into  Great  Britain  were< 

Cwts. 

.'Trom  Brazil 68, 143 

''  New  Granada^  Ecuador,  and  Central  America 16,390 

' British  India.  . 13,855 

Strait  Settlements 15,396 

West  Coast  of  Africa 14,135 

Mauritius 10,433 

Other  Countries 18,863 


Total 157,114 


Caoutchouc. 


408 


In  1852,  the  total  imports  were  only  15,269  cwts. ; in  1862,  59,703  cwts. ; and  in  1876, 
157,509  cwts.  The  average  annual  yield  of  Brazil  for  the  five  years  preceding  1871, 
according  to  a table  sent  from  that  country  to  the  Vienna  exhibition  of  1873,  was  about 
5,000,000  kilogrammes.  The  value  of  the  159,753  cwts.  of  C.  imported  in  1877  was 
jei,484,794. 

Brazilian  C.  is  the  product  of  several  species  of  siphonia  (natural  order  euphorhiacem), 
\mt  siphonia  elastica.  Bates  says  that  “this  tree  is  not  remarkable  in  appear- 

ance; in  bark  and  foliage  it  is  not  unlike  the  European  ash,  but  the  trunk,  like  that  of 
all  forest  trees,  shoots  up  to  an  immense  height  before  throwing  off  branches.”  The 
C.  of  New  Granada,  Ecuador,  and  Central  America  is  obtained  from  castilloa  elastica 
(nat.  ord.  artocarpacecB),  that  of  East  India  from  the  beautiful  glossy-leaved  ficus  elastica 
(nat.  ord.  moracece),  now  so  common  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  our  conservatories,  that 
of  Borneo  from  urceola  elastica,  and  that  of  western  Africa  from  several  species  of 
landolphia,^  and  also  Jicus.  Species  of  vahea,  willughheia,  euphorbia,  and  other  genera 
likewise  yield  useful  varieties  of  C.,  and  the  sources  of  some  kinds  are  unknown. 

C.  is  sometimes  collected  by  cutting  the  trees  down,  but  much  more  usually  by  mak- 
ing simple  incisions  in  the  trunks.  The  method  of  collecting  and  preparing  the  liquid 
C.  is  thus  described  in  a work  recently  published  at  Rio  Janeiro.  In  a few  hours,  the 
juice  which  flows  out  fills  the  basins,  made  of  large  leaves  and  plastic  clay,  which  are 
adapted  to  the  lower  part  of  the  tree.  It  is  then  poured  into  other  vessels  of  various 
shapM3S;  in  a short  time  it  becomes  thickened,  and  solidifies  in  consequence  of  the  evapo- 
ration of  the  liquid  part.  In  order  to  dry  it  completely,  the  practice  is  to  expose  it  to  a 
gentle  heat;  for  this  purpose  it  is  suspended  over  a brazier  lighted  with  wood,  and  the 
flame  maintained  \vith  the  fruits  of  auricuri,  in  such  a manner  that  it  may  receive  the 
smoke,  hence  the  blackish  color  which  the  C.  of  commerce  generally  presents.  Whilst 
it  is  liquid,  it  is  fashioned  by  means  of  molds,  according  to  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 
destined.  An  attempt  has  recently  been  made  to  import  the  juice  of  the  tree,  and  sub- 
ject it  to  the  drying  process  in  this  country,  but  little  has  as  yet  been  imported  into 
Britain.  The  characters  of  the  juice  are,  that  it  possesses  the  consistence  of  cream,  has 
a yellow  color,  is  miscible  with  water,  but  n«t  with  naphtha  or  other  of  the  solvents  of 
ordinary  C.,  and  its  specific  gravity  varies  from  1.02  to  1.41 — ordinary  C.  being  930.  The 
juice  contains  about  30  per  cent  of  caoutchouc.  When  heated,  it  coagulates  (as  the 
glaire  of  egg  does),  owing  to  the  presence  of  albumen ; and  exposed  to  the  air,  it  dries 
up  and  leaves  a film  of  caoutchouc.  In  the  preparation  of  pure  C.,  the  natural  juice  is 
mixed  with  five  or  six  times  its  bulk  of  water,  and  then  either  heated  or  mixed  with 
common  salt  or  hydrochloric  acid,  when  the  pure  C.  separates  as  a white  opaque  sub- 
stance. which  becomes  transparent  when  dry.  Pure  C.  is  a carbo-hydrogen,  its  compo- 
sition beiog  carbon  87.5  and  hydrogen  12.5. 

Para  C.  is  the  best,  and  commands  the  highest  price  in  the  market.  The  other 
South  American  kinds  are  of  medium  quality.  East  Indian  rubber — naturally  a fine 
quality — is  too  often  injured  by  adulteration  and  careless  collecting.  The  poorest  kind 
is  the  w.  African,  being  clammy,  offensive  in  its  odor,  and  only  slightly  elastic. 

Commercial  C.  is  a tough  fibrous  substance,  possessing  elastic  properties  in  the  high- 
est degree.  Reduced  to  the  temperature  of  freezing  water  (32°  F.),  it  hardens,  and  in 
greater  part,  if  not  entirely,  loses  its  elasticity,  but  does  not  become  brittle.  When 
heated,  as  by  placing  in  boiling  water,  it  softens,  and  becomes  very  much  more  elastic 
than  at  ordinary  temperatures,  though  it  does  not  in  any  degree  dissolve  in  the  water. 
If  suddenly  stretched  to  seven  or  eight  times  its  original  length,  it  becomes  warm ; and 
if  kept  in  this  outstretched  form  for  several  weeks,  it  appears  to  lose,  in  great  part,  its 
elastic  properties,  and  in  this  condition  is  readily  cut  into  those  thin  threads  which  are 
used  in  the  elastic  put  in  gloves,  bonnets,  etc. , and  the  elasticity  of  which  is  readily 
renewed  by  the  application  of  gentle  heat.  Of  late  years,  however,  elastic  thread  is 
usually  prepared  with  vulcanized  rubber.  Commercial  C.  is  insoluble  in  water  and 
alcohol,  is  not  acted  upon  by  alkalies  or  acids,  except  when  the  latter  are  concentrated, 
and  heat  is  applied;  but  is  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  naphtha, 
petroleum,  benzol,  and  the  essential  oils  of  turpentine,  lavender,  and  sassafras.  Many 
other  essential  and  fixed  oils,  when  heated  with  C.,  cause  it  to  soften,  and  produce 
thick  glutinous  compounds,  especially  linseed  oil,  which,  in  the  proportion  of  If  lb.  of 
the  oil  to  4 ozs.  C.  in  thin  strips  or  films,  yields  a solution  which,  when  strained,  is  of 
great  use  in  rendering  shoes,  cloth,  etc  , water-proof.  When  heated  to  248°  F.,  C. 
fuses;  and  at  600°  it  is  volatilized,  at  the  same  time  undergoing  decomposition,  and 
yields  a liquid  called  caoutchoucine  or  caoutchisine,  with  the  specific  gravity  680,  and 
possessing  great  solvent  powers  over  C.  and  other  substances.  Qaoutchoucine  is  neces- 
sarily very  expensive,  and  hence  its  use  is  limited ; but  cordage  steeped  in  it  and  dried 
acquires  great  supple  and  tenacious  properties,  and  cloth  saturated  with  it,  and  dried  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  becomes  water-tight. 

In  the  emplo}"ment  of  C.  as  a branch  of  manufacture,  the  first  operation  is  the  puri- 
fication of  the  crude  material  as  it  comes  from  abroad.  The  crude  material  is  cut  into 
minute  shreds,  and  washed  by  powerful  machinery,  immersed  in  water,  which  releases 
the  solid  impurities,  and  the  pure  C.  being  removed,  is  placed  on  iron  trays,  and  dried 
in  a room  heated  by  steam.  The  material  then  undergoes  a process  of  kneading  under 
very  heavy  rollers,  which  causes  the  adhesion  of  the  various  pieces  of  G.  to  each  other. 


409 


Caoutchouc. 


and  ultimately  yields  a mass  or  block  of  C.  in  which  the  condensation  is  so  perfect  that 
all  air-holes,  and  other  cells  and  interstices,  disappear.  The  block  of  C.  is  then  cut 
under  water  by  powerful  knives  or  shears  into  sheets,  from  which  the  pieces  sold  by 
stationers  may  be  shaped  out,  or  from  which  C.  bands  or  thread  may  be  obtained.  In 
the  manufacture  of  square  threads,  mere  cutting  is  had  recourse  to;  and  the  delicacy  of 
the  operation  may  be  understood  when  it  is  stated  that  1 lb.  of  C.  will  yield  32,000  yds. 
of  thread.  The  round  thread  elastic  is  prepared  from  C.  which  has  been  treated  with 
about  double  its  weight  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  containing  about  5 per  cent  of  alcohol, 
which  yields  a soft  material  resembling  in  consistence  bread  dough  or  putty;  and  this 
being  squeezed  through  a series  of  small  holes,  is  obtained  in  minute  round  threads, 
which  are  first  received  on  an  endless  piece  of  velvet  and  ultimately  on  an  endless 
web  of  common  cloth  500  to  600  yds.  long,  during  the  transit  of  the  threads  across 
which,  the  solvent  or  bisulphide  of  carbon  evaporates,  and  leaves  the  caoutchouc. 
When  it  is  wished  to  weave  these  threads  into  cloth,  they  are  wound  upon  bobbins, 
taking  care  to  stretch  the  C.  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to  deprive  it,  for  the  time  being, 
of  its  elasticity;  and  after  it  has  been  woven  into  the  cloth,  a hot  iron  is  passed  over  the 
fabric,  and  immediately  the  C.  resumes  its  elasticity. 

In  the  manufacture  of  water-proof  clothing,  or  Mackintoshes  (see  Mackintosh), 
which  was  the  first  application  of  rubber  on  a large  scale,  the  C.  is  made  into  a solu- 
tion with  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  other  solvent,  and  spread  upon  the  cloth;  when 
thus  coated,  the  fabric  is  pressed  between  heavy  rollers.  This  variety  of  water-proof 
cloth  has  now,  however,  been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  another  kind  made  with 
vulcanized  rubber,  which  we  shall  notice  presently. 

Vulcanized  Caoutchouc. — Pure  india-rubber  is  now  used  only  to  a limited  extent  in  the 
arts,  but  it  is  applied  in  the  vulcanized  state  to  an  almost  endless  variety  of  pur- 
poses. The  remarkable  change  which  C undergoes  when  mixed  with  sulphur  and 
heated,  according  to  circumstances,  from  240°  to  310°  F.,  was  discovered  by  Charles 
Goodyear,  in  America,  in  1843,  and  independently,  about  the  same  time,  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Hancock,  in  England.  In  the  process  of  vulcanizing,  the  rubber,  as  a preliminary  step, 
is  either ' torn  into  shreds  or  crushed  into  thin  pieces  by  machinery,  and  afterwards 
washed.  There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  vulcanized  rubber,  one  hard  and  horny  in  its 
texture,  the  other  soft  and  elastic.  In  the  case  of  the  former,  the  C.  is  mixed 
with  about  one  third  of  its  weight  of  sulphur,  and  heated  for  several  hours,  the  tem- 
perature finally  rising  to  fully  300°  F.  For  the  soft  kind  of  vulcanized  rubber,  on  the 
other  hand,  a much  smaller  proportion  of  sulphur  is  required — namely,  from  2^  to> 
10  per  cent,  and  the  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  the  vulcanizing  chamber  is  con- 
siderably less.  Usually,  too,  with  this  latter  kind,  the  articles  are  made  before  the 
rubber  is  heated.  The  sulphur  is  commonly  added  in  the  ground  state,  but  sometimes 
the  rubber  is  treated  with  some  solution  containing  this  element,  such  as  the  bisulphide 
of  carbon 

Although  sulphur  is  the  only  essential  ingredient  required  for  vulcanizing  rubber, 
yet  other  substances  are  usually  added.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  machinery  belting,  pipes, 
and  some  other  articles,  the  silicate  of  magnesia  (French  chalk)  is  used  to  prevent  adhe- 
siveness. Litharge,  or  carbonate  of  lead,  again,  is  frequently  mixed  with  the  rubber 
and  sulphur  for  certain  purposes;  but  there  is  really  a long  list  of  materials  more  or 
less  used  in  preparing  different  qualities  of  vulcanized  C.,  each  manufacturer  using 
mixtures,  the  exact  nature  of  which  he  is  careful  not  to  divulge.  Asphalte,  tar,  lamp- 
black, whiting,  rosin,  sulphide  of  antimony,  and  ground  cork  are  some  of  the  ingredients 
most  commonly  employed  in  this  way.  Belting  for  machinery,  and  some  kinds  of 
tubing,  are  formed  of  alternate  layers  of  canvas  and  vulcanized  rubber 

Natural  C.,  as  already  stated,  is  elastic,  cohesive,  impervious  to  gases,  insolu- 
ble in  water,  and  resists  many  chemical  re-agents ; but  it  loses  its  elasticity  by  cold, 
softens  by  heat,  and  is  destroyed  by  many  fixed  oils.  After  being  vulcanized,  C.  has  its 
elasticity  greatly  increased,  is  not  hardened  by  cold,  and  does  not  soften  or  become  viscid 
at  any  temperature  short  of  its  absolute  decomposition.  Besides,  it  is  barely  soluble  in 
turpentine,  naphtha,  and  the  other  solvents  of  pure  C. ; nor  does  oil  readily  penetrate 
or  soften  it. 

It  would  be  a hopeless  task  to  attempt  to  specify  the  many  useful  purposes  ta 
which  vulcanized  C.  is  applied,  even  if  we  had  the  space  to  spare.  From  the  year 
1843,  when  it  was  first  made,  to  the  present  time,  the  various  patented  applications  of  it 
must  be  two  or  three  thousand  in  number.  The  mere  abridgments  of  the  specifications 
connected  with  this  material,  issued  by  the  English  patent  office,  form  a thick  volume. 
Under  the  head  Goloshes,  will  be  found  a brief  description  of  the  process  of  making 
india-rubber  shoes.  Water-proof  coats  are  now  made  in  a similar  way,  the  mixture  of 
rubber  and  vulcanizing  materials  being  pressed  on  the  surface  of  any  suitably  woven 
fabric  by  heated  iron  rollers  in  a calender.  The  coats  are  then  cut  out  and  the  various 
pieces  put  together,  without  sewing,  by  some  solvent,  such  as  turpentine,  which  makes 
the  edges  adhere.  They  are  afterwards  heated  in  the  vulcanizing  chamber.  Both  coats 
and  shoes  of  this  material  have,  however,  the  objectionable  property  of  preventing  the 
escape  of  moisture  from  the  skin.  Belting,  buffers,  wheel  tires,  washers,  valves,  pipes, 
fire-hose,  and  other  engineering  appliances,  form  a large  branch  of  the  rubber  trade.  For 
medical  and  surgical  purposes,  many  articles  are  made  of  this  material.  Of  such  an 


Cap 

•Cape. 


410 


apparently  trivial  matter  as  vulcanized  rubber  threaa,  one  English  firm  turns  out  about 
•3,000  lbs.  per  day,  and  another  single  small  article — namely,  tobacco  pouches — is  made 
in  another  factory  at  the  rate  of  3,000  per  diem. 

Hard  vulcanized  rubber,  termed  vulcanite,  and  sometimes  ebonite,  is  made  into  a 
great  many  small  .iiticies,  such  as  combs,  chains,  bracelets,  boxes,  penholders,  paper- 
knives,  knife-handles,  buttons,  etc.,  as  a substitute  for  materials  like  horn,  bone,  ivory, 
and  jet.  As  in  the  case  of  these  substances,  it  is  formed  into  various  objects  by  molding, 
cutting,  carving,  polishing,  and  other  processes.  Vast  numbers  of  these  articles  are  now 
sold,  but  some  time  must  yet  elapse  before  the  quality  of  this  material  is  thoroughly 
tested.  The  black  color  of  vulcanite  ornaments  has  still  a tendency  to  turn  gray,  but 
the  brittleness  which  was  a fault  of  combs  made  of  it  a few  years  ago,  seems  to  be  over- 
come. With  respect  to  objects  of  considerable  size,  vulcanite  has  been  made  into 
furniture,  ornamental  tiles,  and  even  rails  for  railroads.  A kind  of  vulcanite  is  now 
very  largely  employed  as  an  insulator  in  electric  cables,  experience  having  shown  that 
there  are  certain  objections  to  gutta'-percha  being  used  for  this  purpose. 

There  are  some  useful  applications  of  india-rubber  in  the  liquid  or  semi-liquid  state, 
which  it  is  worth  while  to  note;  thus,  when  melted  at  398°  F.,  and  mixed  with  half  its 
weight  of  slaked  lime,  it  forms  a useful  cement  or  lute,  which  can  be  easily  loosened, 
but  it  will  dry  and  harden  if  red  lead  is  added.  A very  tenacious  glue  is  formed  by 
heating  C. , coal  tar,  and  chell-!.ac  together.  It  forms  an  ingredient  in  some  special  kinds 
of  varnishes,  and  it  also  imp:  eves  the  lubricating  qualities  of  mineral  oils,  when  a small 
quantity  is  dissolved  in  them. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  six  or  eight  large  india-rubber  factories,  each  employing 
from  400  to  600  hands,  besides  a great  number  of  smaller  works.  The  manufacture 
of  C.  is  also  an  extensive  industry  in  the  United  States,  and  in  some  continental 
countries,  especially  France.  According  to  an  estimate  made  by  M.  Ballard  in  1867,  the 
annual  French  consumpt  of  raw  india-rubber  was  then  180,000  lbs.,  the  value  of  which 
in  a manufactured  state  was  fully  £3,000,000.  This  would  indicate  that  the  industry  is 
more  largely  developed  in  France  than  in  England.  In  most  india-rubber  factories  a 
large  number  of  the  work-people  are  females;  and  with  respect  to  the  operatives  engaged 
in  them  generally,  there  is  this  peculiarity,  that  as  no  great  skill  is  required  on  their  part, 
employment  in  such  works  has  proved  quite  a boon  to  many  persons  who  have  never 
learned  a trade. 

CAP,  in  ship-building,  is  a strong,  thick  block  of  wood  fixed  near  the  top  of  each 
mast;  it  has  a hole  to  receive  the  upper  end  of  the  lower  mast,  and  another  to  receive 
the  lower  end  of  the  topmast,  with  eyebolts  to  aid  in  hoisting  the  topmast.  There  is  also 
a C.  of  smaller  size  at  the  point  of  junction  between  the  topmast  and  the  top-gallant- 
iiast.  When  made  of  iron,  the  C,  is  called  a crance. 

CAP.  See  Percussion  Caps. 

* CAPACITY,  Legal,  is  such  a condition  of  individuals,  in  regard  to  their  natural  quali- 
fies and  actual  position  under  the  constitution  of  the  country,  as  fits  them  for  the  appli- 
cation of  the  laws  civil  and  criminal.  Generally  speaking,  all  persons  have  this  legal 
capacity  excepting  aliens,  persons  attainted,  convicts,  insane  persons,  and  to  some  extent 
pjso  infants,  femmes  coverts  or  married  women,  and  persons  under  duress;  see  these  heads. 
See  also  Conveyance,  Contract,  Plaintiff,  Pursuer,  Defendant,  Suit. 

CAPANNORI,  a city  of  Italy,  5 m.  e.  of  Lucca;  situated  in  a fertile  plain,  on  the  rail- 
road from  Pisa  to  Florence;  pop.  ’71,  48,313. 

CAP-A-PIE'  (Fr.  head  to  foot),  in  the  military  language  of  the  middle  ages,  was  applied 
io  a knight  or  soldier  armed  at  all  points,  or  from  head  to  foot,  with  armor  for  defense 
and  weapons  for  attack. 

CAPAR'ISONED,  in  heraldry.  A war-horse  completely  furnished  for  the  field  is  said 
to  be  caparisoned. 

CAPE,  in  geography,  the  extremity  of  a portion  of  land  projecting  into  the  sea  beyond 
the  general  line  of  the  shore.  On  a low  sandy  coast,  a C.  generally  forms  an  obtuse 
angle,  being  merely  a change  in  the  trending  of  the  land.  On  rocky  shores,  capes  usually 
form  acute  angles,  and  are  here  sometimes  called  points  or  promontories. 

CAPE  AGULHAS.  See  Agulhas,  ante. 

CAPE  ANN,  in  n.  e.  Massachusetts,  31  m.  from  Boston;  42°  38'  n.,  70°  35'  w. ; has 
two  fixed  lights  90  feet  above  tide,  and  about  half  a mile  apart.  There  are  two  other 
lights  on  Thatcher’s  island,  anout  a mile  off  shore.  There  are  valuable  stone-quarries  at 
the  cape.  The  whole  rocky  peninsula  generally  included  under  this  name,  projects  about 
30  m.  into  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

CAPE  BAB-EL-MANDEB.  See  Bab-el-mandeb,  ante. 

CAPE  BIANCO,  the  most  northerly  point  of  Africa,  on  the  Mediterranean;  37°  20'  n., 
9°  48'  east. 

CAPE  BLANCO,  or  Orford,  in  s.w.  Oregon,  42°  45'  n.,  125°  45'  w. ; 25  m.  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rogue  river.  A little  s.  of  the  cape  is  Port  Orford;  on  the  cape  is  a light 
1 25  ft.  above  tide. 


411 


Cap. 

Cape. 


CAl^E  BLANCO,  on  the  w.  coast  of  Africa.  See  Blanco,  ante, 

CAPE  BOE'O,  the  w.  point  of  Sicily,  a mile  from  Marsala;  37°  28'  n.,  12°  25'  eas.. 
Oft  this  cape,  in  241  b.c.,  the  Romans  gained  a naval  victory  over  the  Carthaginians, 
closing  the  first  Punic  war. 

CAPE  BOJADOR'.  See  Bojador,  ante. 

CAPE  BON,  or  Ras  Adder,  in  Tunis,  Africa,  37°  6'  n.,  11°  3'  e.,  at  clie  entrance  a: 
uhe  gulf  of  Tunis. 

CAFE  BRET'ON,  a rocky  island  of  irregular  form  in  British  North  America,  stretching 
in  n.  lat.  between  45°  and  47°,  and  in  w.  long,  between  60°  and  61°  SO'.  It  is  separated 
from  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  by  Chebucto  or  Chedabucto  bay  and  the  gut  of  Canso, 
contains  3,120  sq.m.,  with  a pop.  (1871)  of  26,454.  Its  principal  exports  are  pine,  oak, 
birch,  maple,  fish,  and  coal.  Though  the  island  produces  maize  and  other  grains,  yet  it 
depends  for  its  breadstuffs  chiefly  on  the  United  States.  C.  B.,  originally  a French  pos- 
session, was  taken  by  the  English  in  1745;  but  being  subsequently  restored  to  France,  it 
was  again  captured  in  1758,  and  ceded  in  1763.  After  having  been  for  a time  a distinct 
colony,  it  now  forms  part  of  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia.  'The  towns  are  Sydney,  Ari- 
chat,  and  Port  Hood,  the  once  famous  Louisbourg,  stripped  of  its  fortifications,  having 
bdcome  merely  a village. 

CAPE  BRET'ON,  a co.  in  e.  Nova  Scotia,  a part  of  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
nearly  surrounded  by  the  ocean;  pop.  ’71,  76,424.  Coal  is  the  chief  production.  Chiei 
town,  Sydney. 

CAPE  CANAV'ERAL,  about  the  middle  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Florida,  28°  27'  n., 
GO*  33'  west.  It  has  a revolving  light  139  ft.  above  the  water.  There  are  dangeroue 
choals  around  the  cape. 

CAPE  CHARLES  at  the  n.e.  entrance  of  Chesapeake  bay,  Virginia.  On  Smith’s 
island  there  is  a revolving  light  37°  3'  n.,  76°  2'  west.  This  cape  is  the  extreme  s.  pro- 
jection of  the  “eastern  shore  ” of  Maryland. 

CAPE  CLEAR,  a high  promontory  on  the  s.  side  of  Clear  island,  co.  Cork,  Ireland, 
usually  the  first  land  seen  when  steamers  are  approaching  England  from  America. 
'JL'here  are  two  lights,  one  in  51°  26'  n.,  9°  29  w. ; and  one  on  Fastnett  rock,  3^  m.  n.w. 
hj  s.  from  the  cape,  148  ft.  above  high  water. 

CAPE  COAST  CASTLE,  the  chief  settlement  of  Great  Britain  in  north  or  upper  Guinea,, 
lat.  5°  5'  n.,  and  long.  1°  13'  west.  The  place,  as  its  name  implies,  is  defended  by  a 
fort,  or  rather  by  three  forts.  It  has  a pop.  of  10,000.  During  1871,  the  external  trade 
of  the  entire  Gold  Coast,  C.  C.  C.  being  the  capital,  was  as  follows:  imports,  £364,672; 
exports,  £327,012.  Under  the  latter  head,  the  principal  articles  were  palm-oil,  gold-dust, 
tortoise-shell,  and  maize. 

CAPE  COD,  properly  a narrow  peninsula  of  Massachusetts,  which,  with  a length  of 
(35  m.,  forms  the  s.e.  boundary  of  the  great  bay  of  that  state.  The  northern  extremity, 
marked  by  a revolving  light  155  ft.  high  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  in  lat.  42°  3'  40" 
II.,  and  long.  70°  14'  48"  west. 

CAPE  COD  {ante),  ^he  n.w,  point  of  the  long  sandy  strip  running  around  Cape  Cod 
bay  and  forming  Barnstable  co.,  Mass.,  inclosing  Provincetown  and  Cape  Cod  harbors, 
tl'he  name  is  applied  also  to  the  whole  strip  of  land.  On  Race  point,  at  the  n.  extremity, 
there  is  a revolving  light  155  ft.  above  tide,  in  42°  4'  n.,  70°  15'  west.  There  are  also 
ueveral  other  lights.  The  cape  was  discovered  by  Gosnold  18  years  before  the  arrival 
of  the  pilgrims. 

CAPE  COLONY.  See  Cape  op  Good  PIope,  ante. 

CAPE  COM'ORIN,  See  Comorln,  ante. 

CAPE  DIAMOND,  the  high  rock  at  the  junction  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Sp 
Charles  on  which  stands  the  citadel  of  Quebec. 

CAPD  DISAPPOINTMENT,  or  CapeH  .\ncock,  the  s.w.  point  of  Washington  terri- 
tory, at  the  entrance  of  Columbia  river;  46°  16'  n.,  124°  2'  w.;  has  a white  light  232  ft, 
above  the  water. 

CAPE  DU  CA’TO.  See  Ducato,  ante. 

CAPE  ELIZABETH,  in  the  town  of  that  name  in  Cumberland  co..  Me.,  6 m.  s.e.  of 
Portland,  43°  33'  n.,  70°  11'  w.  There  are  two  lights,  one  fixed  and  one  floating.  The 
town  is  a suburb  of  Portland,  and  a popular  summer  resort;  pop.  ’70,  5,106. 

CAPE  FAREWELL,  the  s.  point  of  Greenland,  a precipitous  headland  on  an_ 
island;  59°  49'  n.,  43°  54'  w.  The  currents,  the  ice,  and  the  winds  combine  to  make 
this  probably  the  most  boisterous  point  on  the  globe. 

CAPE  FEAR,  the  s.  point  of  Smith’s  island  at  the  mouth  of  Cape  Fear  river  in 
North  Carolina;  33°  48'  n.,  77°  57'  w.  There  is  a light  about  a mile  from  the  shore. 


■Cape. 


412 


CAPE  FEAR  RIVER,  in  North  Carolina,  formed  by  the  Haw  and  Deep  rivers,  and 
affording  navigation  from  the  ocean  to  Wilmington,  and  further  for  steamboats.  It 
■enters  the  Atlantic  n.  of  Smelt  island. 

CAPEFIGUE,  Baptiste  Honore  Raymond,  a French  publicist  and  historian,  was  b., 
1802,  at  Marseilles.  He  studied  law  at  Aix,  and  in  1821  proceeded  to  Paris,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  completing  his  juridical  course,  but  soon  betook  himself  to  journalism  and  autlior- 
-ship.  He  held  a post  in  the  foreign  office  until  1848.  This,  however,  did  not  interfere 
with  his  amazing  activity.  Besides  contributing  extensively  to  many  of  the  Parisian 
journals,  he  has  “manufactured”  not  less  than  a hundred  volumes  of  history — not, 
indeed,  intrinsically  valuable,  but  indicating  wonderful  facility  in  the  use  of  the  pen. 
The  best  is  theHistoire  de  la  Bestauration  (3d  edit.,  1842).  He  has  published  of  late  years 
many  interesting  biographical  works. 

CAPE  FINISTERRE'.  See  Finisterre,  ante. 

CAPE  FLATTERY,  the  extreme  w.  point  of  the  United  States  (except  Alaska),  in 
Washington  territory,  s.  of  the  strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  On  an  island  half  a mile  from 
the  cape  is  a light,  48°  20'  n.,  124°  43'  48"  west. 

CAPE  FLORIDA,  the  s.  extremity  of  Key  Biscayne  in  Dade  co.,  Fla.,  e.  of  the 
Everglades.  There  is  a fixed  white  light. 

CAPE  GAT  A,  or  Cape  de  Gatte,  a promontory  of  Spain  in  the  province  of  Gra- 
nada extending  into  the  Mediterranean ; a mass  of  rock  about  24  m.  in  circumference. 
The  most  notable  of  the  pile  is  the  ancient  Promitorium  Charidemi,  the  Moorish 
Kheyran,  and  is  formed  chiefly  of  agates,  spars,  and  crystals.  The  cape  was  once  a 
resort  of  Moorish  pirates. 

CAPE  GIRARDEAU,  a co.  in  s.e.  Missouri,  on  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Louis 
and  Iron  Mountain  railroads.  It  is  level,  fertile,  and  well  cultivated ; producing  wheat, 
corn,  oats,  potatoes,  tobacco,  etc.;  875  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  20,998 — 1994 colored.  Co.  seat, 
Jackson. 

CAPE  GIRARDEAU,  a city  in  the  co.  of  the  same  name  in  Missouri  on  the 
Mississippi  river,  100  m.  below  St.  Louis;  pop.  ’70,  3,585.  It  is  in  a rich  and  well  culti- 
vated section.  St.  Vincent’s  college,  Roman  Catholic,  is  the  principal  public  institution. 

CAPE  GUARDAFUI'.  See  Guardafui,  ante. 

CAFE  HATTERAS,  a dangerously  low  point  of  North  Carolina,  U.  S.,  in  lat.  35°  14' 
n.,  and  long.  75°  30'  w.  It  forms  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  insular  banks  of  the  same 
name,  projecting  virtually  into  the  Florida  stream,  and  marking  the  spot  where  the 
coast-line  abruptly  turns  from  the  direction  of  n.e.  to  that  of  due  north. 

CAPE  HATTERAS  {ante),  the  point  of  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  stretching  fur- 
thest into  the  Atlantic,  and  by  far  the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  American  coast  for 
navigators,  on  account  of  shoals  and  frequent  gales  and  storms.  Coasting  vessels  are 
npt  to  be  crowded  up  towards  this  cape  by  the  gulf  stream,  which  is  only  about  20  m. 
cast.  There  is  a light  near  the  cape  192  ft.  above  the  sea.  Cape  Hatteras  is  off  about 
the  middle  of  Pamlico  sound,  and  is  one  of  the  most  desolate  and  barren  regions  on  the 
U.  S.  coast. 

CAPE  HAYTIEN  (formerly  called  Cape  Frangais  and  Cape  Henri),  a seaport  t.  of 'the 
island  of  Hayti,  on  its  n.  coast,  in  lat.  19°  40'  n.,  long.  72°  54'  west.  It  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  a small  bay,  partly  encircled  by  hills,  has  wide  and  well-paved  streets,  and  some 
handsome  squares.  A great  portion  of  it,  however,  is  in  ruins,  the  effects  of  the  revo- 
lutionary wars  at  the  end  of  last  century.  Safe  anchorage  is  found  within  the  harbor, 
which,  however,  is  rather  difficult  of  access.  C.  H.  carries  on  a considerable  trade  with 
the  United  States.  Pop.  stated  at  from  12,000  to  16,000. 

CAPE  HENLO'PEN,  on  the  e.  coast  of  Delaware,  at  the  s.  entrance  of  the  Dela- 
ware bay,  13  m.  s.s.w.  of  cape  May,  which  is  in  New  Jersey,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
entrance.  Cape  Henlopen  is  in  38°  47'  n.,  75°  5'  w.,  and  has  a fixed  light  182  ft.  above 
the  sea. 

CAPE  HENRY,  on  the  coast  of  Virginia,  at  the  s.  entrance  to  Chesapeake  bay, 
opposite  to  cape  Charles  in  Maryland ; 36°  56'  n. , 76°  4'  w. ; has  a fixed  light  120  ft.  above 
the  sea. 

CAPE  HORN,  or  Hoorn,  the  most  southerly  point  of  America,  terminating  an  island 
of  its  own  name,  in  the  archipelago  of  Terra  del  Fuego.  It  is  in  lat.  55°  58'  40"  s.,  and 
long.  67°  16'  w.,  having  a perennially  antarctic  climate,  and  being  in  itself  merely  a 
detached  link,  bare  and  rugged,  of  the  chain  of  the  Andes.  It  was  discovered  by 
Schouten,  a native  of  Hoorn  in  Holland,  about  90  years  later  than  the  strait  of  Magellan, 
and  since  then  the  course  of  navigation  of  sailing  vessels  has  been  round  the  cape  instead 
of  through  the  strait. 

CAP'EL,  Arthur,  Lord,  1600-49;  representative  of  Hertford,  in  the  Long  parlia- 
ment of  1640.  He  was  a roj’^alist  officer,  acting  with  lord  Colchester  and  Edward  Hyde 
SLS  a general,  and  was  in  the  actions  of  Bristol,  Exeter,  and  Taunton.  At  Colchester, 


413 


Cape. 


he  was  compelled  by  famine  to  surrender  to  Fairfax.  He  was  tried  for  treason  and  exe- 
cuted' Mar.  9,  1649.  He  was  the  author  of  Daily  Observations  or  Meditations. 

CAP'EL,  Thomas  John,  b.  1835;  an  English  Roman  Catholic  priest.  When  but  17 
years  old,  he,  with  others,  founded  a normal  training  college  for  the  education  of  school- 
teachers, of  which,  in  1856,  he  was  made  vice-principal.  Being  compelled  to  seek  southern 
Europe  on  account  of  ill  health,  he  founded  at  Pau  a mission  for  English-speaking 
Roman  Catholics,  in  consequence  of  which  the  pope  advanced  him  to  “ mousigoore,”  a 
position  equivalent  to  that  of  bishop.  Returning  to  England,  in  1873  he  established  the 
Roman  Catholic  public-school  at  Kensington,  and  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  preach- 
ing. In  1874,  he  published  a Reply  to  Gladstone’s  Political  Expostulation. 

CAPE  LA  HAGUE,  a promontory  of  France,  forming  the  n.w.  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Cotehtin,  in  the  department  of  Manche.  It  juts  out  into  the  English  channel, 
opposite  the  island  of  Alderney,  and  about  16  m.  n.n.w.  of  Cherbourg,  and  50  m.  s.  of 
St.  Alban’s  Head,  in  Dorsetshire. 

CAFE  LA  HOGUE,  often  confounded  with  cape  la  Hague,  is  situated  on  the  e.  side 
of  the  same  peninsula.  Here  the  united  English  and  Dutch  fleets  defeated  the  French 
in  1692. 

CA'FELIN,  Mallotus  Grcenlandicus,  a small  fish  of  the  family  of  salmonidoe,  extremely 
abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland,  and  much  used  as  bait  in  the  cod-fishery.  It 
h also,  in  a dry  state,  an  article  of  commerce,  and  is  imported,  although  not  very 
largely,  into  Britain,  where  it  sometimes  appears  on  the  breakfast  or  supper  table.  Its 
flavor,  which  is  very  agreeable,  suggests  to  most  persons  the  idea  of  its  belonging  to  the 
herring  rather  than  the  salmon  family.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  smelt,  but  the  teeth  are 
smaller  and  more  numerous.  It  is  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus. — Shoals  of  cape- 
lins arrive  periodically  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  the  vast  numbers  changing  the 
very  color  of  the  sea. 

CAP'ELL,  Edwakd,  1713-81 ; b.  in  Suffolk,  England ; a Shakespearean  annotator 
and  critic.  As  deputy-inspector  of  plays,  he  became  so  much  disturbed  by  the  inaccura- 
cies in  the  current  edition  of  Shakespeare,  that  he  projected  an  entirely  new  print,  care- 
fully compared  with  the  original  as  far  as  possible.  This  was  published  at  the  expense 
of  the  London  book-sellers.  He  continued  his  Shakespearean  researches  during  his  life, 
and  shed  much  light  on  the  great  author’s  works.  He  also  published  a volume  of  ancient 
poems  under  the  title  of  Prolusions. 

CAFELLA,  a bright  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  on  the  left  shoulder  of  Auriga.  C.  is 
also  called  Capra  or  the  She-goat,  a name  also  sometimes  given  to  Capricorn. — ^The  poets 
fable  C.  to  be  Amalthea’s  goat,  which  suckled  Jupiter  in  his  infancy. 

CAFELLA.  See  A Capella. 

CAFELLA,  Martianus  Mineus  Felix,  a learned  author  belonging  to  the  second  half 
of  the  5th  c.,  was  born  in  Africa,  but  where  is  not  definitely  ascertained.  Of  his  life 
nothing  whatever  is  known.  The  work  which  has  preserved  his  name  to  posterity  is  the 
Satiricon,  a kind  of  encyclopaedia,  highly  esteemed  during  the  middle  ages  as  a work  of 
reference.  It  is  written  in  a medley  of  prose  and  verse,  and  is  full  of  curious  learning, 
but  possesses  no  literary  value ; the  style  has  all  the  bombastic  pomp  of  the  African 
school  of  later  Latinists.  It  consists  of  nine  books.  The  first  two  consist  of  an  allegory. 
The  Nuptials  of  Philology  and  Mercury,  while  the  remaining  seven  are  devoted  to  the 
■"‘liberal  arts,”  grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric,  geometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  and 
music.  The  first  edition  of  the  Satiricon  appeared  in  1499,  under  the  care  of  Franciscus 
Bodianus;  the  best  in  1836,  under  the  care  of  U.  F.  Kopp. 

The  book  on  astronomy  is  remarkable  as  containing  a hint  of  the  true  theory  of  the 
solar  system.  Mercury  and  Venus  are  there  declared  to  move  round  the  sun,  and  not 
round  the  earth;  and  their  relation  to  these  bodies  is  properly  explained.  Now  as  Coper- 
nicus knew  C.,  and  quotes  from  him,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  derived  the  first  idea  of 
his  doctrine  from  this  writer. 

CAPE  LOOKOUT,  on  the  e.  coast  of  North  Carolina,  85  m.  s.w.  of  cape  Hatteras; 
34°  7'  n.,  76°  33'  w.,  having  a fixed  white  light  100  ft.  above  tide. 

CAPE’  MATAPAN',  the  s.  extremity  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  Greece, 
between  the  gulf  of  Laconia  and  Kalamatia,  36°  23'  n.,  22°  29'  east.  The  ancient  Greeks 
called  it  Tsenarium,  and  made  it  sacred  to  Neptune,  whose  temple  stood  near  the  cape, 
the  remains  of  which  are  yet  to  be  seen. 

CAPE  MAY,  the  s.  point  of  New  Jersey,  at  the  n.e.  entrance  to  Delaware  bay. 
There  is  a revolving  light  152  ft.  above  tide;  38°  56'  n.,  74°  57'  west. 

CAPE  MAY,  a co.  in  s.  New  Jersey,  on  the  ocean  and  Delaware  bay,  intersected  by 
the  Cape  May  and  Millville  railroad;  250  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  9765.  The  surface  is  level,  and 
somewhat  swampy,  with  alluvial  soil,  producing  grain,  hay,  and  fruit.  In  one  of  the 
swamps  is  a deposit  of  cedar  trees,  the  timber  of  which  is  still  good,  though  it  must  have 
been  under-ground  more  than  2000  years.  Co.  seat,  Cape  May  Court-house. 


Cape. 


414 


CAPE  MAY,  or  Cape  Island,  a t.,  village,  and  celebrated  watering  place,  in  Cape 
May  CO.,  N.  J. ; connected  with  Philadelphia  by  railroad;  sometimes  called  Cape  city  «r 
Cape  Island  city.  There  is  a line  beach  several  miles  long,  and  the  bathing  facilities  are 
of  the  first  order.  The  hotels  are  numerous,  and  of  modern  construction,  and  in  sum- 
mer the  place  is  the  favorite  resort  of  Philadelphians  as  well  as  of  people  from  cities 
more  remote.  The  climate  is  usually  equable  and  pleasant. 

CAPE  MENDOCI'NO,  in  Humboldt  co.,  Cal.,  the  extreme  w.  point  of  the  state; 
40*  1.6'  24"  n.  , 124°  23'  27"  west.  There  is  a flashing  light  428  ft.  above  the  water. 

CAPE  NORTH.  See  Mageroe,  ante. 

CAPE  ORTEGAL',  the  n.  extremity  of  Spain,  projecting  into  the  bay  of  Biscay  in 
the  province  of  Corunna;  43°  47'  n.,  7°  56'  w. ; on  a rugged  and  barren  coast. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE,  popularly  regarded  as  the  most  southerly  promontory  of  Africa, 
though  it  is  half  a degree  to  the  n.  of  cape  Agulhas.  The  latter  is  merely  a projection, 
on  a coast-line,  which  diverges  inconsiderably  from  a parallel;  but  the  former  is  really 
the  turning-point  from  s.  to  e.  on  the  voyage  from  Europe  to  India.  Tliis  celebrated 
promontory  is  in  lat.  34°  22' s.,  and  long.  18°  29'  e.,  being  the  termination  of  Table  moun- 
tain, which,  as  it  recedes  towards  the  bay  of  its  own  name,  rises  from  the  height  of  lOOO 
ft.  above  the  sea  to  that  of  3,582.  The  cape  (for  so  it  is  called  by  way  of  eminence)  was 
discovered  and  doubled  by  Diaz,  a Portuguese  navigator,  as  earl}'-  as  1486 — six  years 
before  Columbus,  in  aiming  at  the  same  goal  by  a different  route,  led  the  way  to  Amer- 
ica. But  it  was  only  in  149^7  that  Vasco  da  Gama  realized  the  value  of  Diaz’s  discovery, 
by  rounding  it  on  his  adventurous  voyage  from  Lisbon  to  Calicut.  The  result  was  not 
merely  to  open  a new  channel  for  the  traffic  of  the  east,  but  it  was  also  to  transfer  trad- 
ing superiority  from  the  republics  of  Italy  to  the  states  of  Western  Europe. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE,  a British  colony,  was  so  called  from  the  cape  on  its  s.w. 
extremity.  It  was  established  by  the  Dutch  in  1652,  some  attempts  at  a settlement  hav- 
ing been  previously  made  by  the  Portuguese.  The  former  only  intended  it  at  first  as  an 
intermediate  station  between  Holland  and  their  East  Indian  possessions;  and  at  first 
occupied  only  a small  tract  of  ground  on  the  slopes  of  Table  mountain,  with  some  por- 
tion of  the  adjoining  flats;  but  they  had  in  their  neighborhood  scattered  tribes  of 
improvident  natives,  singularly  feeble  of  purpose,  and  incapable  of  organization  on  a large 
scale.  The  tide  of  immigration  set  in  from  Holland,  and  when  the  country  was  finally 
taken  possession  of  by  the  British  in  1806  (there  having  been  a brief  occupation  of  it 
from  1796  till  1803),  the  Dutch  hhd  extended  their  dominion  as  far  to  the  e.  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Great  Fish  river,  and  from  that  point  in  a waving  line  a.cross  the  country  to  the 
w.,  a little  s.  of  Orange  river. 

In  entering  upon  the  government  of  this  large  territory,  the  British  found  themselves, 
face  to  face  with  a race  of  a totally  different  sort  from  that  of  the  purposeless  Hottentot 
— a people  styled  Kaffirs,  mainly  of  Arab  descent,  consisting  of  tall,  athletic,  finely 
formed  men,  of  warlike  dispositions,  with  an  incurable  propensity  to  steal  from  any  one, 
provided  he  was  not  of  their  own  tribe,  and  particularly  so  if  he  was  a foreigner.  The 
inevitable  result  was  a succession  of  wars — those,  namely,  of  1812,  1819.  1828,  1835-36, 
1846-47,  1851-52. 

Cape  Colony  proper  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  Orange  river  and  the  Kei.  But  of 
late  the  area  of  this  British  possession  has  been  greatiy  extended  by  the  annexation  of 
districts  lying  to  the  northward.  Of  these  successive  annexations  the  most  important 
are  that  of  British  Kaffraria  (see  Kappraria)  in  1866;  of  Basuto-land,  lying  in  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Orange  river,  in  1868;  of  two  vast  districts  across  the  Kei  called  Fingo-kand 
and  Noman’s-land,  now  called  Griqua-land  East  (q.v.),  in  1875;  of  Griqua-land  West,  in 
1876;  and  of  the  'Transvaal  (q.v.)  in  1877.  The  area  of  cape  Colony  proper  is  181,592; 
sq.m.,  and  its  pop.  in  1875,  496,381.  The  area  of  the  whole  colony,  with  the  newly 
incorporated  districts,  is  estimated  at  329,495  sq.m.,  and  its  pop.  at  1,142,782. 

The  highest  range  of  mountains  within  the  colony  is  9,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  The 
mountains  keep  at  a distance  from  the  coast-line  of  from  30  to  about  100  m.,  and  receive 
different  names  on  their  course,  such  as  the  Stormberg,  Sneeuwberg,  Nieuwveld,  Rog- 
geveld,  and  Kamiesberg.  Between  this  principal  range  and  the  sea  on  the  e.,  there  are 
two  other  ranges  less  continuous  and  regular,  the  intermediate  one  generally  more  dis- 
tant from  the  first  than  they  are  from  each  other. 

South  Africa  being  not  far  from  the  region  of  the  trades,  s.e.  winds  prevail,  especially 
in  the  summer  time;  the  only  other  wind  that  may  be  said  to  blow  is  that  from  the 
11.  w.,  which  prevails  during  the  colder  months.  But  whichever  of  these  two  winds 
predominates — the  one  bearing  a supply  of  rain  from  the  Indian  ocean,  the  other,  if  less 
frequent,  more  richly  laden  from  a part  of  the  Atlantic  nearer  the  line  than  the  country 
which  it  fertilizes — it  fails  to  deposit  its  stores  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  principal 
water-shed  which  crosses  its  path.  Hence  the  curious  fact  of  the  transposition  of  sea- 
sons in  the  same  latitude.  As  the  harvest  in  such  latitudes  depends  more  on  the  sup- 
ply of  rain  than  anything  else,  people  are  reaping  on  the  one  side  of  the  country  whilst 
they  are  sowing  and  planting  on  the  other.  Certain  parts  of  the  country  are  liable  to 
long  continued  droughts,  because  while  very  heavy  rain-falls  take  place,  the  rain  is 
confined  to  a particular  part  of  the  year.  The  country,  however,  is  admirably  adapted 


415 


Cape. 


for  the  storage  of  water.  In  many  places  one  meets  with  the  successive  beds  of  dried- 
up  lakes,  with  a narrow  outlet  at  the  lower  ends,  through  which  a periodic  stream 
flows.  By  closing  up  this  outlet,  artificial  lakes  or  dams  may  be  formed  to  almost  any 
extent,  and  of  unlimited  number;  and  from  the  steepness  of  the  slope,  the  lands  lower 
down  admit  easily  of  being  laid  under  water. 

As  regards  minerals,  the  diamond  fields  are  in  Griqualand  (q.v.),  till  recently  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  colony,  and  in  the  free  state.  In  1874,  the  lieutenant  of  West  Griqua- 
land issued  an  order  for  the  better  management  of  diggings  and  mines  of  precio.us 
stones  and  minerals,  in  which  he  requires  that  miners  shall  have  a certificate,  dealers  a 
license,  and  the  mines  be  under  official  inspection.  This  ordinance  created  a great  out- 
cry against  it  by  a great  body  of  dealers,  but  it  seems  necessary  that  such  protection 
should  shield  the  weak  and  the  dealer  who  wishes  to  trade  according  to  recognized  law. 
Gold  is  confidently  reported  to  have  been  found  in  the  Transvaal  in  payable  quantities; 
but  the  only  mineral  within  the  colony  which  has  greatly  added  to  its  wealth  is  the 
rich  copper  ore  found  in  Namaqualand. 

There  is  in  the  colony  almost  a total  want  of  navigable  rivers,  but  the  system  of  rail- 
ways is  rapidly  extending.  Already  the  copper  mines  are  connected  with  Port  Nolloth; 
the  line  which  connected  Cape  Town  with  Wellington  has  been  carried  forward  to 
Worcester.  When  completed,  it  will  be  a trunk  line  extending  from  one  end  of  the 
colony  to  the  other.  Another  line  has  been  begun  at  Port  Elizabeth,  in  order  that  it 
may  pierce  the  gaps  in  the  mountain  regions,  and  open  up  the  way  to  the  country 
behind  them.  A line  is  projected  from  East  London  with  a similar  view.  The  ship- 
ping at  Cape  Town  is  now  secure  by  a breakwater  and  docks.  The  same  cannot  be 
said  of  Port  Elizabeth,  East  London,  and  the  Kowie;  but  measures  are  being  taken 
which,  it  is  hoped,  will  result  in  making  these  also  safe  from  the  fierce  s.e.  winds. 

This  splendid  country  is  at  present  occupied  by  an  assemblage  of  very  varied  races. 
The  Portuguese  were  the  first  Europeans  who  landed  here.  The  Dutch  are  probably 
still  the  most  numerous,  notwithstanding  the  exodus  to  the  Orange  river  free  state, 
prompted  by  the  slave  question.  Next  in  number  are  the  English,  by  whom  some  parts 
-of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  e.,  are  occupied  almost  exclusively.  The  French, 
.are  also  largely  represented,  many  refugees  having  settled  in  it  subsequently  to  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  but  they  are  now  nearly  absorbed  in  the  Dutch 
population.  They  were  at  first  located  principally  in  the  w.,  where  they  introduced 
the  culture  of  the  vine,  but  their  names  are  now  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  land. 
There  is  also  a considerable  importation  of  Germans,  who  have  been  settled  on  the 
frontiers  adjoining  the  Kaffirs  for  defensive  purposes.  *As  regards  the  colored  inhabit- 
ants, large  numbers  of  Kaffirs  have  been  retained  in  the  districts  which  they  formerly 
occupied,  and  others  have  come  into  the  country  as  shepherds  and  servants.  There  is 
a large  number  of  people  of  Malay  origin  in  and  around  Cape  Tow^,  and  in  towns  on 
the  e.  coast,  who  gain  a livelihood  as  fishermen,  porters,  and  the  more  laborious  sorts 
of  skilled  labor.  There  are  a few  Mozambiqueres  and  Hottentots,  besides  a number  of 
half-castes,  to  whom  the  name  of  Africander  properly  belongs. 

The  constitution  of  the  country,  after  several  changes,  was  fixed  in  its  present  form, 
by  an  act  passed  by  the  colonial  legislature  in  1872,  which  provides  for  responsible  gov- 
ernment. There  are  two  elective  chambers,  the  upper  house,  consisting  of  21  members, 
11  of  whom  represent  the  western  province  as  one  constituency,  and  10  the  eastern. 
They  are  presided  over  by  the  lord  chief-justice.  To  the  lower  house,  or  house  of 
assembly,  two  representatives  are  appointed  by  each  division  of  the  colony,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Cape  district,  which,  as  being  more  populous,  returns  four.  They 
amount  in  all  to  68,  and  are  presided  over  by  a speaker  of  their  own  choice.  The 
16  electoral  divisions  into  which  the  western  and  eastern  provinces  are  each  divided, 
are  again  subdivided  for  magisterial  and  fiscal  purposes.  The  governor  carries  on 
the  administration  along  with  a ministry  of  5 members — the  colonial  secretary,  the 
attorney-general,  the  treasurer-general,  the  commissioner  of  crown  lands  and  public 
works,  the  secretary  for  native  affairs.  The  supreme  court,  which  has  its  sittings  in 
Gape  Town,  has  two  judges  beside  the  lord  chief -justice.  Another  court  holds  its 
sittings  in  Graham’s  Town,  in  which  there  are  two  judges  only,  but  there  lies  an  appeal 
to  the  supreme  court.  In  other  parts  of  the  colony,  justice  is  administered  by  the 
judges  going  on  circuit.  A colonial  university  has  recently  been  founded. 

Wool  is  the  staple  product  of  the  colony;  ostrich  farming  and  the  culture  of  the 
vine  are  carried  on.  The  following  tables  show  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  colony 
for  recent  years: 


Imports.  Exports. 

1870 £2,352,043  £2,453,768 

1874 5,725,412  4,468,747 

1877 5,158,348  3,634,073 


The  Cape  Colony  is  not  exceptional  in  showing  a decline  in  imports  and  exports 
in  1877;  but  the  insecurity  caused  by  the  troubles  ending  in  the  Zulu  war  of  1879 
has  told  against  the  prosperity  of  the  colony.  The  official  tables  include  in  the 
returns  of  revenue  also  the  loans  raised  by  the  government;  the  increase  since  1873  is 
accordingly  not  to  be  regarded  as  normal. 


Cape. 

Capetiau. 


416 


Revenue.  Expenditure. 

1870 £831,211  £795,695 

1873 2,078,220  2,159,658 

1875 2,246,179  2,272,275 

1877 2,631,602  3,428,392 


CAPE  PALMAS,  the  s.  extremity  of  Liberia,  Africa,  4°  27'  n.,  7°  44'  west.  This 
was  the  point  at  which  the  Maryland  colony  of  free  colored  emigrants  settled  in  1834. 
The  surrounding  country  is  one  of  the  Liberian  states,  and  is  called  Maryland.  There 
is  a light-house  on  the  cape. 

CAPE  PRINCE  OF  WALES,  in  Behring  sea,  the  w.  point  of  the  mainland  of 
Alaska,  directly  opposite  to  East  cape  in  Siberia,  the  strait  between  the  two  being  the 
narrowest  water  between  America  and  Asia.  The  cape  is  a few  miles  s.  of  the  Arctic 
circle,  and  terminates  in  a bold  bluff,  n.  of  which  are  dangerous  shoals. 

CAPE  RACE,  the  s.e.  point  of  Newfoundland,  usually  the  first  American  land  seen 
by  steamers  from  England,  46°  40'  n. , 52°  54'  west.  There  is  a revolving  light  180  ft. 
above  the  sea  The  cape  terminates  in  a bold  rough  headland. 

CAFERCAIL'ZIE,  Capercaillie,  Wood-grouse,  or  Cock  of  the  Woods  {tetrao  uro- 
gallus),  the  largest  of  the  gallinaceous  birds  of  Europe.  It  is  a species  of  grouse  (q.v.), 
almost  equal  in  size  to  the  turkey ; the  male,  which  is  the  largest,  sometimes  weighing 
fifteen  pounds  or  more.  In  figure  and  appearance,  it  much  resembles  the  black-cock, 
but  the  tail  of  the  male  C.  is  rounded,  and  not  forked,  as  in  that  species;  and  the  male 
C.  has  the  feathers  of  the  head  elongated.  The  general  color  of  the  adult  male  is 
brownish  black,  minutely  freckled  with  grayish  white,  and  with  lighter  brown;  the 
qn ill-feathers  dark  brown;  the  tail-feathers  nearly  black,  some  of  the  longer  tail-coverts 
on  the  sides  of  the  tail  tipped  with  white ; the  chest  is  of  a shining  dark  green ; there  is 
a small  scarlet  patch  of  naked  skin  above  the  eye,  and  the  bill  is  whitish.  The  general 
color  of  the  female  and  of  young  males  is  dark  brown,  freckled  with  yellowish  brown; 
the  front  of  the  neck  and  the  chest  are  yellowish  chestnut;  and  the  feathers  of  the  under 
parts  are  generally  edged  with  white.  The  C.  has  the  feet  feathered  to  the  toes,  but  the 
toee  are  naked.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  pine-w^oods;  feeds  on  berries,  seeds,  worms, 
insects,  etc.,  and  on  the  young  shoots  of  the  pine,  greatly  preferring  the  Scotch  fir  to 
the  spruce;  occasionally  also  eating,  at  least  in  winter,  the  buds  of  the  birch  and  other 
trees.  The  female  makes  her  nest  on  the  ground,  and  lays  from  six  to  twelve  eggs,  of  a 
pale  reddish  or  yellowish  brown,  spotted  with  other  shades  of  brown,  and  more  than 
2 in.  long.  Like  the  black-cock,  the  C.  is  polygamous. — The  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  the  C.  is  very  extensive : it  is  found  on  the  pine-covered  mountains  of  all 
parts  of  Europe,  from  Spain  and  Italy  almost  to  the  North  cape,  and  is  abundant  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Asia.  It  was  at  one  time  found  both  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  but  was 
completely  extirpated  about  the  end  of  the  18th  or  beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
Through  the  exertions,  however,  of  the  earl  of  Fife  and  other  proprietors  of  great  High- 
land estates,  but  particularly  of  the  marquis  of  Breadalbane,  it  has  again  been  restored 
to  the  forests  of  the  Highlands  of  Scottand.  The  C.  is  very  capable  of  domestication, 
and  breeds  readily,  if  aUowed  the  range  of  a space  containing  a few  pine-trees.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  market  of  Stockholm  is  well  supplied  with  it  in  win- 
ter; and  since  the  establishment  of  steam  communication,  it  has  been  regularly  brought 
from  Scandinavia  to  London. 

CAFE  RIVER,  properly  Vaunks,  taking  its  popular  name  from  the  proximity  of  its 
mouth  to  cape  Gracias  a Dios,  on  the  e.  reach  of  the  Mosquito  shore  in  Central  America. 
After  a generally  n.e.  course  of  nearly  300  m.,  it  enters  the  Caribbean  sea,  about  lat.  14° 
69'  n.,  and  long.  83°  11'  w.,  being  navigable  for  a considerable  distance  upw^ards. 

CAFERNAUM,  meaning  “the  field  of  repentance,”  or  “city  of  comfort,”  w^as  in  the 
time  of  our  Savior  a favorite  and  exalted  city,  and  one  of  the  three  which  he  upbraided 
“because  they  repented  not.”  It  was  situated  on  the  north-western  coast  of  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  or  lake  of  Gennesareth.  It  is  now  a heap  of  ruins,  extending  more  than  a mile 
along  the  shore  and  back  towards  the  mountains,  so  overgrown  with  grass  and  bushes, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  move  among  them.  C.  is  called  by  the  natives  of  Syria  Tell-hfin. 

CA'FERS  are  the  pickled  flower-buds  of  the  caper-bush  {capparis  spinosa).  They  have 
an  agreeable  pungency  of  taste,  with  a slight  bitterness,  and  have  long  been  in  very  gen- 
eral use  as  a condiment  and  ingredient  of  "sauces,  along  with  boiled  mutton  and  other 
kinds  of  food.  They  possess  medicinal  properties,  being  antiscorbutic,  stimulant,  and 
laxative.  They  are  of  a grayish  green  color,  to  improve  which,  however,  copper  is  some- 
times used,  as  in  the  case  of  gherkins  and  other  pickles,  rendering  them  poisonous. 
This  can  be  detected  by  thrusting  a polished  iron  rod  into  the  vessel  which  contains  the 
C.;  the  surface  of  the  rod  soon  becoming  coated  with  copper,  if  it  is  present.— The 
caper-bush  is  a native  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  other  countries  near  the  Mediterra- 
nean. It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  the  s.  of  France  and  in  Italy, 
but  most  of  all  in  Sicily.  It  succeeds  in  the  open  air  even  at  Paris,  but  in  Britain 
requires  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  It  is  a trailing,  rambling  shrub,  loving  dry  places, 
and  often  growing  on  rocks  or  walls,  adding  a fresh  charm  of  beauty  to  many  an  ancient 


417 


Cape. 

Capetian. 


ruia.  It  begins  to  flower  early  in  summer,  and  continues  flowering  till  winter.  The 
l)uds  are  gathered  every  morning,  and  are  immediately  put  into  vinegar  and  salt:  at  the 
'cnd  of  the  season,  they  are  sorted  according  to  their  size  and  color,  the  greenest  and 
least  expanded  being  the  best,  and  are  again  put  into  vinegar,  the  finest  being  sent  to 
the  market  in  bottles,  the  coarser  in  small  barrels.  The  fruit,  which  is  a small  berry,  is 
also  pickled  in  the  s.  of  Italy.  The  flower-buds  of  the  caper  of  Mount  Sinai  {cappa- 
ris  Sinaica)  are  pickled  like  those  of  the  common  species;  the  seeds  are  also  pickled, 
4ind  are  called  by  a name  signifying  mountain  pepper.  The  fruit  of  capparis  aphylla  is 
made  into  a pickle  in  India.  Species  of  capparis  are  numerous  in  India,  the  warm  parts 
of  America,  etc.  See  Capp abided. — Various  substitutes  for  C.  are  sometimes  used, 
as  the  flower-buds  of  the  marsh  marigold  {caltha  palustris),  those  of  the  Indian  cress 
■{tropmlum  majus),  and  those  of  the  bean  caper  {zygophyllum  fahago). 

CAPERS,  William,  d.d.,  1790-1855;  a Methodist  minister  of  South  Carolina,  in 
■early  life  a missionary  among  the  Indians  in  Georgia.  He  was  for  several  years  presid- 
ing elder  in  Charleston,  where  he  edited  the  Wesleyan  Journal,  afterwards  merged  in 
Tdon's  Herald,  and  still  later  changed  to  the  Christian  Advocate  and  Journal,  of  New 
York.  In  1838,  he  was  representative  to  the  Wesleyan  conference  in  England,  and  in 
1855  was  chosen  professor  of  the  evidences  of  Christianity  in  the  South  Carolina  uni- 
versity. In  1846,  he  was  elected  bishop,  and  fllled  the  oflice  until  his  death. 

CAPE  SABLE,  the  s.  point  of  the  mainland  of  Florida,  and  the  s.e.  extremity  of 
the  mainland  of  the  United  States,  26°  55'  n.,  81°  15'  west.  The  cape  is  occupied  by 
fort  Poinsett. 

CAPE  SABLE,  the  s.  point  of  Nova  Scotia,  43°  26'  n.,  66°  38'  west.  There  is  a light 
on  Cape  Sable  island,  which  island  has  a pop.  of  about  600  flshermen. 

CAPE  SAN  LUCAS,  the  s.  point  of  the  peninsula  of  Lower  California,  22°  44'  n. 
109°  54'  west.  Directly  e.  across  the  gulf  is  the  Mexican  port  and  city  of  Mazatlan. 

CAPE  SAN  ROQUE,  in  n.e.  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Rio  Grande,  5°  28' s.,  35°  16' 
west.  Behind  the  cape  is  a bay,  on  which  is  the  town  of  St.  Joseph. 

CAPE  SPARTIVEN'TO,  in  s.  Italy,  in  the  Mediterranean,  37°  57'  n.,  16°  5'  east.  The 
^incients  called  it  “ Hercules’  Promontorium,”  and  supposed  it  to  be  the  most  southerly 
point  of  Italy. 

CAFE  ST.  VINCENT,  a headland  forming  the  s.w.  extremity  of  Portugal,  in  lat.  37° 
:2'  n.,  long.  9°  w.,  is  celebrated  on  account  of  two  naval  battles  in  which  British  ships 
were  engaged,  fought  off  it,  one  in  1693,  the  other  in  1797.  In  the  former,  admiral 
Rooke,  who  with  some  20  English  and  Dutch  men-of-war  was  convoying  a fleet  of  some 
400  merchantmen,  was  attacked  off  this  point  by  the  French  admiral  De  Tourville,  and 
after  a running  flght  lost  several  ships  and  80  merchantmen.  In  Feb.  1797,  sir  John 
Jervis,  with  a fleet  of  15  sail,  gave  battle  to  a Spanish  fleet  of  27  sail  of  the  line, 
and  defeated  them,  capturing  four  ships  and  driving  the  rest  into  Cadiz  bay,  where  they 
were  blockaded. 

CAPE  ST.  VINCENT,  the  s.w.  extremity  of  Portugal,  37°  2'  n.,  9°  west.  Off  the 
•cape,  Feb.  14,  1797,  the  English  admiral  Jervis  defeated  a Spanish  fleet  much  larger 
than  his  own. 

CA'PETIAN  DY'NASTY,  the  third  Frankish  dynasty,  founded  about  the  close  of  the 
10th  c.,  when  Hugo  Capet  ascended  the  throne.  The  surname  Capet  has  been  derived 
from  cappetus,  “a  monk’s  hood,”  because,  though  duke  of  France,  Hugo  was  also  abbot 
of  St.  Martin  de  Tours.  On  the  death  of  the  last  Carlovingian  monarch  (Louis  V.,  sur- 
named  Le  Faineant — i.e.,  the  Slothful),  Hugo^,  the  most  powerful  of  French  vassals, 
seized  the  throne,  and  by  moderation  and  prudent  concessions  made  to  the  authorities 
of  the  church,  as  well  as  to  his  brother-nobles,  who  had  made  themselves  independent, 
■contrived  to  retain  the  power  he  had  seized.  He  was  crowned  at  Noyon,  July  3,  987. 
In  order  to  establish  his  dynasty,  Hugo  caused  his  eldest  son  Robert  to  be  crowned  as 
co-regent,  988.  Capet  first  made  Paris  the  capital  of  France.  He  died  in  996;  when  his 
son  Robert,  a well-disposed  but  feeble  ruler,  ascended  the  throne,  who  died  1031,  beloved 
by  his  domestics,  but  despised  by  his  neighbors  and  vassals,  forgotten  by  his  people,  and 
permitting  all  power  to  vanish  from  his  hands.  It  was  during  his  long  lethargic  reign 
that  the  towns  and  cities  of  France  began  to  form  themselves  into  corporations,  to  act  in 
their  own  name,  to  contract  obligations,  and  lay  the  foundations  of  middle-class  free- 
dom. In  many  other  ways,  also,  the  happy  dissolution  of  royal  power  sowed  the  seeds 
of  national  prosperity.  Robert’s  sons  were  Henry,  who  succeeded  him,  and  Robert, 
ancestor  of  the  older  house  of  Burgundy. 

Henry  left  two  sons — Philippe  I. , who  ascended  the  throne,  and  Hugo,  who  distin- 
^ished  himself  in  the  first  crusade  (1096),  and  died  1102.  Philippe,  under  the  regency 
■of  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  came  to  the  throne  when  only  eight  years  old,  and  first 
really  began  to  reign  after  the  death  of  the  regent  (1066).  He  took  hardly  any  part  in 
the  great  movements  and  events  of  his  times,  but  supported  Robert,  son  of  William  the 
-conqueror,  in  his  rebellion  against  his  father.  Consequently,  William  commenced  an 
•expedition  against  Paris,  and  would  probably  have  dethroned  Philippe,  but  died  in 
U.  K.  HI.— 27 


Cape. 

Capias. 


418 


1089.  By  his  dissolute  course  of  life,  Philippe  fell  under  a sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion issued  by  pope  Gregory  VII.  in  1094,  and,  after  doing  penance,  died  in  1108. 

His  successor,  Louis  VI.,  surnamed  Xe  Gros,  had,  during  Philippe’s  lifetime,  been 
active  in  the  support  of  the  crown,  and  now  extended  the  royal  power,  which  had  been 
almost  entirely  confined  within  the  duchy  of  Paris.  By  bold  and  vigorous  measures 
he  brought  everywhere  his  vassels  into  real  subjection  to  his  authority,  liberated  the 
towns  from  baronial  oppression,  partly  abolished  feudal  bondage,  and  extended  con- 
siderably the  jurisdiction  of  the  crown.  His  life  was  an  almost  incessant  contest 
with  the  small  and  turbulent  vassals  who  had  rioted  in  the  license  afforded  them  by  the 
weakness  of  his  predecessors.  He  died  1137,  leaving  a numerous  family. 

As  his  eldest  son  and  co-regent,  Philippe,  had  died  during  the  reign  of  Louis,  his 
second  son,  Louis  VII. , le  Jeune,  now  came  to  the  throne,  and  by  his  marriage  with 
Eleanor  of  Guienne,  heiress  of  the  duke  of  Aquitaine,  gained  a considerable  accession 
to  the  power  of  the  crown.  He  engaged  in  the  second  crusade,  and  led  100,000  men  to 
the  east;  but  was  unsuccessful,  and  returned  to  France  after  an  absence  of  two  years. 
In  1152,  he  divorced  his  unfaithful  wife  Eleanor,  who  subsequently  married  Henry 
Plantagenet,  afterwards  Henry  II.  of  England.  This  marriage  made  Henry  far  morn 
powerful  than  the  king  of  France,  and  Louis  would  probably  have  lost  his  crown  had. 
not  the  disturbances  in  England — the  quarrels  with  Becket  and  with  his  own  sons — 
proved  sufficient  to  occupy  Henry’s  attention.  Louis  le  Jeune  died  1180. 

Philippe  Auguste  (q.v.),  his  son  by  a third  marriage,  ascended  the  throne  ten  months 
before  his  father’s  death,  and  proved  himself  the  most  able  ruler  of  the  Capetian  dynasty. 
Against  the  wishes  of  his  family,  he  married  Isabelle  of  Hainault,  great-granddaughter 
of  the  last  of  the  Carlovingians,  and  thus  finally  united  the  two  houses.  His  successor, 
Louis  VIII. , who  died  1226,  was  said  to  have  been  poisoned  by  the  count  of  Champagne, 
paramour  of  the  queen,  Blanca  of  Castile.  Louis  VIII.  was  followed  by  his  son,  Louis: 
IX.  (Saint  Louis,  q.v.),  who  died  at  Tunis,  1270.  Of  the  eleven  children  of  St.  Louis, 
the  eldest,  Louis,  died  aged  16  years,  while  the  youngest,  Robert,  became  the  founder  of 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  (see  Bourbon).  The  second  son,  Philippe  HI.,  lehardi,  succeeded 
his  father,  and,  by  the  decease  of  two  brothers  and  two  uncles,  acquired  possession  of 
Poitou,  Auvergne,  and  Toulouse.  His  son  (Philippe  IV.,  le  heJ)  acquired  by  marriago 
Champagne  with  Navarre.  These  acquisitions,  and  his  attempt  to  secure  for  his  uncle, 
Charles*  of  Anjou,  the  throne  of  Naples,  involved  Philippe  III.  in  contentions  with  Italy 
and  Spain.  He  subjugated  Navarre,  1276,  and  died  of  the  plague  in  1285.  Philippe 
IV.,  le  hel,  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  17  years  old.  He  soon  gave  signs  of  a despotic 
’ character,  plundered  the  estates  of  the  church,  defied  papal  authority,  persecuted  the 
order  of  Templars  (q.v.),  and  removed  the  residence  of  the  pope  to  Avignon.  The  atro- 
cious act  of  burning  the  grand-master,  with  sixty  knights,  of  the  order  of  Templars,  after 
they  had  recalled  all  the  confessions  drawn  from  them  by  torture,  has  left  an  inefface- 
able blot  on  the  name  of  Philippe  le  bel.  He  died  1314,  and  left  three  sons  and  a 
da.ughter. 

The  eldest  son,  Louis  X.,  lehutin,  who  ascended  the  throne,  displayed  remarkable 
weakness  of  character,  and  died  1316.  He  was  succeeded  by  Philippe  V.,  le  long, 
second  son  of  Philippe  le  bel,  who  died  without  issue.  By  his  death  (1322)  the  crown 
came  to  Charles  IV.,  le  hel,  third  son  of  Philippe  le  bel,  and  the  last  of  the  direct  line  of 
the  Capetian  kings.  He  died  1328,  leaving  by  his  third  marriage  a daughter,  named 
Blanche,  who  married  Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  and  died  (1392)  leaving  no  issue. 
Isabelle  (daughter  of  Philippe  le  bel)  married  Edward  II.  of  England,  and  was  mother 
of  Edward  III.,  who  consequently  took  the  title  of  king  of  France,  which  was  retained 
by  the  kings  of  England  until  the  reign  of  George  III. ; but  Philippe  of  Valois,  cousin  of 
the  last  Capetian  king,  and  grandson  of  Philippe  HI. , le  hardi,  claimed  the  crown  of 
France  by  virtue  of  the  Salic  law,  and  so  founded  the  dynasty  of  Valois  (q.v.). 

CAPE  TITMOUSE,  Rarus  capeusis,  a small  bird  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  remark- 
able for  its  curious  nest,  which  is  built  of  cotton  or  other  fiber  in  the  form  of  a bottle, 
and  suspended  from  the  limb  of  a tree.  On  the  outside,  near  the  opening,  is  built  a 
pouch  or  pocket,  in  which  the  male  bird  rests  while  the  female  is  on  the  nest,  and  when 
she  leaves  he  manages  by  strokes  of  his  wings  to  close  the  mouth  of  the  nest,  to  prevent 
intrusion  while  they  are  in  search  of  food. 

CAPE  TOWN,  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony,  faces  Table  bay  to  the  n.e.,  is  fianked  by 
the  mountain  Lion’s  Head,  with  its  continuation  to  Lion’s  Rump  or  Signal  hill,  and  has 
behind  it  the  precipices  of  Table  mountain.  Its  lat.  is  33°  56' s.,  its  long.  18°  28'  7"  east. 
Its  mean  temperature  58.3°  F.  for  winter,  76.6°  for  summer,  and  67.3°  for  the  whole 
year.  Pop.  40,000.  Two  lines  of  passenger  wagons  connect  it  with  the  diamond  fields, 
which  are  reached  in  about  a week,  railways  with  Worcester,  etc.,  and  electric  telegraphs 
with  the  principal  parts  of  the  colony.  It  is  the  principal  port  for  the  coasting  trade  as  well 
as  foreign  exports  and  imports;  is  well  supplied  with  fish,  as  well  as  meat,  dairy  prod- 
uce, and  every  sort  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  at  a moderate  price.  It  has  a supply  of  fresh 
water  of  excellent  quality.  C.  T.  is  the  seat  of  the  government,  the  supreme  court,  and 
a college  and  university.  All  the  churches  are  well  represented — the  English  Episcopal, 
the  Roman  Catholic,  and  representatives  of  Presbyterians,  Lutherans,  Wesle5’’ans,  Con- 
gregationalists,  a Free  church  (chiefly  an  off-break  from  the  Dutch  church),  a Jewish 


419 


Cape. 

Capias. 


synagogue,  and  a Mohammedan  mosque,  the  Malay  population  being  of  that  faith.  There 
are  also  banks  and  insurance  offices.  The  town  is  built  upon  a double  slope,  which  sub- 
sides into  a plain  on  the  n.e.  side.  Its  streets,  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  are  lined 
with  houses,  for  the  most  part  of  an  eastern  type,  with  heavy  walls,  flat  roofs,  and  large 
public  apartments,  interspersed  with  increasing  numbers  of  shops  and  warehouses,  of  the 
-sort  to  be  met  with  in  England. 

The  most  remarkable  structures  are  the  breakwater,  with  the  docks  and  patent  slip ; 
the  castle,  with  its  outworks  and  bastions;  the  barracks  for  the  military,  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  with  a few  other  places  of  worship;  the  museum  and  library,  with 
the  Botanic  gardens  in  front ; and  between  it  and  Government  house,  a park,  with  its 
avenues  shaded  by  stately  oaks.  Out  of  town,  a little  distance  to  the  n.w.,  is  Somerset 
hospital,  and  the  Royal  observatory,  about  two  and  a half  m.  to  the  n.e. 

C.  T.  returns  four  members  to  the  colonial  assembly.  The  municipality  is  adminis- 
tered by  a town-council  of  18  members — three  from  each  of  six  separate  districts — and 
is  presided  over  by  a mayor  elected  annually  by  the  council.  In  Sept.,  1873,  it  possessed 
44  vessels,  and  their  united  tonnage  was  4,416.  There  are  5 newspapers  in  C.  T.,  which 
are  issued  three  times  a week;  3 bi-weeklies,  1 weekly,  1 fortnightly,  and  3 monthly 
magazines. 

CAPE  TRAFALGAR'.  See  Trafalgar,  ante. 

CAPE  VERB,  the  most  westerly  headland  in  Africa,  jutting  out  into  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  between  the  rivers  Gambia  and  Senegal,  in  lat.  14°  43'  n.,  long.  17°  34'  west.  It 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  about  1445,  and  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from 
a group  of  gigantic  baobab  trees  which  adorns  its  summit. 

CAPE  VERB  ISLANBS  {llhas  Verdes),  a group  of  islands  belonging  to  Portugal,  lying 
in  lat.  14°  45' to  17°  19'  n.,  and  long.  33°45'  to  35°  35'  w.,  and  distant  about  330  m.w.  of  the 
cape  from  which  they  take  their  name.  The  principal  islands  are  ten — viz. , Santiago, 
the  largest  and  most  important,  Fogo,  Brava,  Maio,  Boavista,  San  Nicol^o,  San  Antonio, 
San  Vicente,  San  Luzia,  and  Sal.  There  are  besides  four  islets,  barren  and  uninhabited. 
The  total  area  is  about  1700  sq.m.,  with  a pop.  (1873)  of  76,000.  The  islands  are  all 
very  mountainous,  and  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  submarine  volcanoes.  The 
highest  elevation  is  reached  in  a volcanic  peak,  9,157  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  island 
-of  Fogo,  and  which  is  still  active.  The  climate  is  unhealthy  during  the  rainy  season. 
Though  water  is  deficient,  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  yielding  African  and  southern 
European  products.  Sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  indigo  are  grown,  and  the 
trade  in  archil,  monopolized  by  government,  has  in  some  seasons  yielded  as  much  as 
£34,000.  Several  of  the  European  domestic  animals  thrive  well.  Turtles  are  abundant 
in  the  surrounding  seas,  and  whales  also  are  fished  by  British  and  American  vessels. 
Amber  is  found  on  the  coasts,  and  great  quantities  of  salt  formed  by  solar  evaporation 
is  obtained  from  the  lagunes  on  the  shores,  especially  on  the  island  of  Sal.  The  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  mostly  negroes,  indolent  but  harmless,  speak  a corrupted  form  of  Portu- 
guese, called  Lingua  Creoula.  The  revenue  for  1874-75  was  estimated  at  about  £43,000, 
and  the  expenditure  for  the  same  year  at  £43,000.  The  islands  are  under  a governor- 
general,  exercising  both  civil  and  military  authority.  The  chief  ports  are  Porto  Praya, 
on  the  island  of  Santiago,  and  Porto  Grande,  the  best  harbor  in  the  whole  group,  on 
the  island  of  San  Vicente.  The  islands  were  discovered  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
c.  by  the  Portuguese,  who  shoftly  after  colonized  them. 

CAPE  VINCENT,  a t.  in  Jefferson  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  St.  Lawrence  river;  pop.  of 
township,  ’75,  3,180.  The  village  is  a port  of  entry;  is  in  connection  with  Watertown 
by  railroad,  and  with  Kingston,  Canada,  by  ferry. 

CAPE  WRATH,  a pyramidal  promontory  of  unrivaled  wildness  and  grandeur, 
forming  the  n.w.  extremity  of  Scotland  and  of  Sutherland,  and  running  out  into  the 
Atlantic,  in  lat.  58°  38'  n.,  and  long.  4°  58'  5"  west.  It  consists  of  gneiss,  with  beds  of 
dark  hornblende  rock,  is  intersected  by  complex  granite  veins,  and  presents  deep  fissures 
and  tall  pinnacles.  From  it  a reef  of  rocks,  perforated  with  arches  and  caverns,  juts 
out  into  the  sea.  Off  the  cape  is  Stag  Rock,  a pillar  300  ft.  high.  C.  W.  is  600  ft.  high, 
and  there  is  a light-house  near  it,  400  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  seen  35  m.  off.  From  the 
cape  can  be  seen  N.  Rona,  50  m.  off;  Hoy  Head,  Orkney;  the  Butt  of  Lewis;  and  a 
grand  panorama  of  mountains  in  Sutherland. 

CA'PIAS,  in  the  practice  of  the  English  common  law,  is  a writ  directed  against  the 
person,  and  so  called  from  the  commencement  of  the  process  in  the  old  Latin  form.  It 
has  various  applications,  the  principal  of  which  are  the  following: 

Capias  ad  Respondendum  is  a writ  which  a plaintiff,  after  action,  may  sue  out 
upon  atfidavit  against  a defendant  who,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  is  about  to  quit  Eng- 
land, and  against  whom  there  is  a cause  of  action  to  the  amount  of  £50  or  upwards, 
whether  as  matter  of  contract  or  of  damage.  The  writ  directs  the  sheriff  to  arrest  the 
defendant,  who  remains  in  custody  on  such  arrest  until  he  shall  have  either  given  a 
bail-bond  with  reasonable  sureties.  This  arrest  is  only  when  the  defendant’s  absence 
will  prejudice  plaintiff. 

Capias  ad  Satisfaciendum,  or  Ca.  Sa.  This  is  one  of  the  writs  by  which  a plaintiff 
'Can  put  a judgment  recovered  by  him  in  execution.  The  object  of  it  is  to  imprison 


Capillaire. 

Capillary. 


420 


tlie  debtor  till  satisfaction,  when  imprisonment  is  still  permitted.  See  on  the  subject, 
of  Capias  generally,  Apprehend,  Arrest,  Attachment,  Execution,  and  Bail. 

CAPILLAIRE',  a medicinal  syrup,  used  as  a pectoral  in  chronic  catarrhs,  is  prepared 
by  adding  sugar  and  orange-flower  water  to  an  infusion  of  the  fern  called  maidenhair 
(q.v.),  or  by  pouring  boiling  syrup  on  the  fern. 

CAP'ILLARIES.  The  tubes  which  convey  the  blood  from  the  left  side  of  the  heart 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  body  are  termed  arteries,  while  those  which  return  it  to  the 
right  side  of  the  heart,  after  it  has  discharged  its  various  functions  in  the  body,  are 
known  as  veins.  The  name  of  capillary  (from  capilla,  a hair)  is  given  to  the  minute 
vessels  which  form  the  connection  between  the  terminal  branches  of  the  arteries  and  the 
commencements  of  the  trunks  of  the  veins.  These  little  vessels  are  of  various  sizes, 
some  admitting  only  one  blood-corpuscle  at  once,  while  others  are  large  enough  to  allow 
of  the  simultaneous  passage  of  two,  three,  or  more  corpuscles.  In  the  muscular  tissue 
their  average  diameter  is  0.003  of  a line ; they  are  smallest  in  the  brain,  and  largest  in 
bone.  Their  arrangement  varies  in  different  parts.  In  some  cases,  as  in  muscular 
tissue,  they  run  for  the  most  part  parallel  to  one  another;  in  other  cases  (as  around  fat- 
cells)  they  have  a spherical  arrangement,  and  in  the  skin  and  in  parts  of  the  intestines 
they  form  loops;  and  many  other  forms  of  distribution  might  be  mentioned.  These 
various  arrangements  have  been  discovered  by  the  microscopic  examination  of  tissues 
that  have  been  successfully  injected  with  colored  fluids. 

The  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the  C.  may  be  readily  seen  in  the  web  between 
the  toes  of  the  hind-foot  of  the  frog,  in  the  tongue  of  that  animal,  in  the  tail  or  gills  of 
the  tadpole,  in  the  wing  of  the  bat,  etc. 

The  principal  uses  of  the  capillary  system  of  vessels  will  be  noticed  in  the  articles  on 
DiGESTK»r,  Nutrition,  Respiration,  and  Secretion. 

CAP  ILLARY  AC'TION.  When  a clean  glass  tube  with  a fine  bore,  open  at  both  ends, 
is  plunged  into  a liquid  capable  of  wetting  it,  such  as  water,  the  liquid  is  found  (1)  to 
rise  in  the  tube  above  the  level  of  its  surface  in  the  vessel  containing  it ; (2)  to  rise  the^ 
higher  in  the  tube  above  that  level  the  finer  its  bore  is;  (3)  to  stand  above  the  general 
level  in  the  tube  where  it  approaches  the  sides  (as  in  fig.  1,  which  is  drawn  on  a greatly 
exaggerated  scale),  so  that  its  upper  surface  in  the  tube  is  curved  and  concave.  When 
a similar  tube  is  plunged  into  a liquid  incapable  of  wetting  it,  such  as  mercury,  phenomena 
of  a precisely  opposite  nature  are  presented.  The  liquid  stands  in  the  tube  below 

the  level  of  its  surface  in  the  vessel;  and,  where  it 
approaches  the  sides  of  the  tube,  it  stands  below  its 
general  level  in  the  tube,  so  that  its  upper  surface  is 
curved  and  convex  as  in  fig.  2,  the  convexity  and 
depression  in  the  tube  increasing  with  the  fineness  of 
its  bore.  While  such  is  the  case  with  the  two  classes 
of  liquids  described,  there  are  others  on  which  fine 
tubes  have  no  action,  so  that  they  stand  in  such  tubes^ 
at  the  same  level  as  in  the  vessel,  and  with  plane  upper  surfaces.  These  are  the  leading 
phenomena  to  be  explained  by  what  is  called  C.  A.,  the  tubes  with  fine  hair-like  bores 
being  called  capillary  tubes,  from  Lat.  capillus,  a hair.  The  phenomena,  however, 
though  connected  by  name  with  such  tubes,  are  not  dependent  on  them,  but  may  be 
produced  without  their  intervention  by  any  contrivance  which  gives  room  for  the 
so-called  capillary  action.  For  instance,  if  two  plates  of  glass  with  parallel  faces  be 
placed  together  with  two  of  their  edges  in  contact,  and  the  two  opposite  be  separated  a 
very  little  by  a fine  wedge;  and  then  if  they  be  put  standing  with  their  common  edge 
vertical  in  a trough  (fig.  3),  containing  a little  colored  fluid 
capable  of  wetting  the  glass,  the  fluid  will  rise  between  the 
plates,  the  height  attained  at  any  point  being  inversely  as 
the  distance  between  the  plates  at  that  point,  so  that  its  upper 
surface  will  be  a curve  of  the  kind  known  as  the  hyperbola 
— being  highest  near  the  common  edge,  and  lowest  near  the 
edges  separated  by  the  wedge.  If  the  same  apparatus  be 
placed  in  a trough  containing  mercury,  the  mercury  will  be 
depressed  between  the  plates  till  its  upper  surface  forms  a 
hyperbola  convex  to  the  zenith. 

To  understand  the  peculiar  action  producing  these  phe- 
nomena, it  must  be  kept  in  view  that  the  surface  of  a fluid  at 
rest  under  gravity  is  a horizontal  plane  (see  Hydrostatics), 
and  that  this  plane  is  maintained  by  gravity  and  the  mutual  attractions  of  the  particles 
of  the  fluid  mass.  Suppose  now  a fluid  at  rest  in  a vessel  to  have  a foreign  bod}’’,  such 
as  a capillary  tube,  suddenly  plunged  into  it,  and  separating,  as  by  walls,  a portion  of 
the  fluid  from  the  rest.  By  cohesion  (q.v.),  the  fluid  particles  inside  the  tube  will 
held  on — drawn  downwards— to  the  mass  of  the  fluid,  while  by  adhesion  (q.v.)  they  will 
be  drawn  upwards  towards  the  sides  of  the  tube.  By  the  ordinary  action  of  gravity,  as 
in  tubes  of  a large  size,  the  fluid  will  at  once  tend  to  rise  in  the  tube  to  its  level  in  the 
vessel.  Whether  it  will  succeed  in  doing  so,  or  whether  it  will  rise  still  higher,  must 
depend  on  the  adjustment  of  the  forces  of  cohesion  between  the  fluid  particles  and  their 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


421 


Capillalre* 

Capillary. 


(L 

arv 


!S  may  be  generally 

of 

m! 

7^ 

d, 

imS 

t 

Fig.  4. 


adhesion  to  the  solid  of  the  tube.  The  relation  of  these  forces  may 
explained  as  follows:  Let  mm'  (fig.  4)  be  the  surface  of  the 
column,  mn,  of  a liquid  contained  in  a space,  abb'a',  above  or 
below  the  surface,  nn',  of  the  external  liquid.  There  being 
equilibrium  between  the  liquid  in  the  tube  and  in  the  vessel, 
any  line  of  liquid  particles  may  be  taken  and  supposed  to  be 
detached  from  the  rest  and  inclosed  in  a tube,  without  altering 
the  forces  exerted.  Let  the  line  included  between  the  dotted 
lines  be  conceived  so  detached.  The  actions  which  the  particles 
©f  the  liquid  in  the  tube  exert  on  each  other,  or  sustain  from  the 
sides  of  the  tube,  have  no  tendency  to  make  the  liquid  move 
either  up  or  down.  But  the  column,  mb,  in  the  tube  has  some 
action  exerted  on  it  by  the  sides  of  the  tube  above  the  surface, 
mm'.  Let  A,  depending  on  the  force  of  adhesion,  represent 
this  upward  action  of  the  tube.  The  column  is  also  attracted 
downwards  by  the  detached  column  be,  i.e.,  by  the  liquid  in  the 
imaginary  tube.  Let  C,  depending  on  the  force  of  cohesion, 
represent  this  downward  action  of  the  liquid.  Also  the  part  be  of  the  liquid  is  attracted 
upwards  by  the  tube  ab  by  the  attraction  which  we  have  represented  by  A.  Thus  the 
liquid  column  is  acted  on  by  two  upward  actions =2 A,  and  a downward  action,  C.  The 
whole  force  acting  on  it,  excluding  gravity,  is  2A  — C.  Gravity  would  make  the  liquid 
rise  to  nn'  at  once,  i.e.,  till  it  stood  as  high  in  the  tube  as  in  the  vessel.  Whether,  then, 
it  will  rise  above  nn',  or  be  depressed  below  it,  must  depend  on  whether  2A  is  greater 
than  C,  equal  to  it,  or  less  than  it.  If  2A=C,  the  liquid  will  stand  in  the  tube  at  the 
level  nn',  as  if  these  forces  did  not  act  at  all.  If  2A  be>C,  then  2A— C will  be  an 
upward  force,  and  the  column  will  be  raised  above  the  level  nn'.  If  2A  be<C,  then 
2A— C will  be  a downward  force,  and  the  column  be  depressed. 

Kegarding  the  forms  of  the  upper  surfaces  of  columns  of  liquid  in  capillary  tubes,  it 
can  be  demonstrated  mathematically  that  the  same  relations  of  the  forces  of  attraction  and 
cohesion  which  determine  the  elevation  or  depression  of  the  liquid  column,  determine 
also  the  form  of  its  upper  surface  in  the  two  cases  of  elevation  and  depression.  In 
fact,  the  case  of  the  elevated  column  resembles  that  of  a cylinder  of  any  very  elastic 
substance  (so  elastic  as  to  suffer  change  of  form  very  readily  under  pressure),  supported 
wholly  by  the  rim  at  one  of  its  ends;  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  by  vertical  forces  act- 
ing in  the  lines  composing  its  outer  surface.  Gravity  draws  down  the  concentric  shells, 
of  which  the  cylinder  may  be  conceived  to  be  composed,  the  further  the  more  remote 
they  are  from  the  outermost,  or  that  which  is  directly  supported,  the  central  rod  being 
the  most  depressed.  It  would  appear  that  the  form  of  the  surface  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  cause  of  the  production  of  the  whole  phenomena. 

The  third  fact  of  observation — viz.,  that  the  liquid  rises  higher  or  is  more  depressed 
the  finer  the  bore  of  the  tube — is  thus  explained  in  the  case  of  elevation : Since  the 
action  of  adhesion  is  confined  to  the  superficial  layer  of  the  fluid,  and  between  the 
same  substances  is,  cceteris  paribus,  constant  in  quantity  for  an  equal  extent  of  surface, 
the  wider  the  tube  the  shorter  must  be  the  column  sustained,  as  the  contents  of  the 
column  raised  by  cohesion  increase  more  rapidly  when  the  bore  increases  than  the 
attracting  surface.  The  column  increases  with  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  tube, 
while  the  attracting  surface  increases  only  with  the  diameter.  The  height,  therefore, 
is  inversely  as  the  breadth  of  the  tube.  That  the  depression  must  increase  as  the  bore 
of  the  tube  diminishes,  appears  from  reasoning  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  case  just 
discussed. 

The  degree  of  elevation  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  fluid,  the  variation  depending 
partly  on  the  difference  of  cohesion  between  the  particles  of  the  fluid,  and  partly  on 
the  difference  of  adhesion  between  the  fluid  and  glass.  It  is  found  that  temperature 
affects  these  forces,  so  that  the  height  diminishes  as  the  temperature  rises. 

The  depression  of  mercury  in  a fine  glass  tube  makes  it  necessary  to  use  a correc- 
tion in  reading  off  the  height  of  the  mercurial  column  in  the  barometer,  which,  owing 
to  it,  stands  always  a little  lower  than  the  height  due  to  the  atmospheric  pressure. 
Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  the  capillary  depression  is  nearly  one-half  less  in 
tubes  which  have  had  the  mercury  boiled  within  them  than  in  unboiled  tubes,  as  by 
the  boiling  a film  of  air,  which  in  unboiled  tubes  adheres  to  the  glass,  is  expelled.  By 
widening  the  bore  of  the  tube  also,  the  error  may  be  diminished  so  as  to  be  neglected 
altogether.  In  a tube  of  i in.  in  diameter,  in  which  the  mercury  has  been  boiled,  the 
depression  is  0.02  in.,  while  with  a similar  tube  of  ^ in,  diameter  it  is  only  0.003.  The 
depression  of  mercury,  it  is  found,  is  slightly  increased  by  an  elevation  of  temperature. 
It  may  be  mentioned  that  in  reading  off  the  level  of  mercury  in  any  instrument,  such 
as  the  barometer,  the  height  should  be  taken  from  the  convexity  of  the  curve.  If  the 
liquid  used  in  the  instrument,  however,  wets  the  tube,  the  height  should  be  taken  from 
the  concavity. 

As  already  stated,  the  phenomena  are  not  dependent  on  the  intervention  of  tubes; 
any  capillary  cavity  suflQces  to  produce  them.  When  two  light  bodies,  such  as  two  bits 
of  cork,  are  left  to  float  on  water,  near  each  other,  they  soon  come  together,  moving  at 
last  with  a rush.  This  is  sometimes  given  as  an  example  of  the  gravitation  that  draws 


Capistrano. 

Capital. 


422 


the  planets  to  the  sun ; but  it  is  really  owing  to  this  capillaiy  action  that  we  are  con- 
sidering. When  the  liquid  wets  the  floating  bodies,  it  rises  slightly  all  round  them,  and 
this  sustained  liquid  hangs  as  a weight  on  them  on  all  sides.  So  long  as  it  rises  equally 
there  is  no  motion ; but  when  the  bodies  come  near  each  other,  the  space  between  them 
becomes  like  part  of  the  inside  of  a capillary  tube,  the  water  rises  higher  there  than  on 
the  other  sides,  and  the  bodies  move  towards  the  sides  that  are  most  strongly  pulled. 
When  the  floating  bodies  are  not  wetted  by  the  liquid,  the  surface  between  the  two 
bodies  is  depressed,  as  that  of  mercury  is  inside  a glass  tube,  and  the  bodies  descend, 
as  it  were,  down  the  opposing  slopes,  and  meet  in  the  bottom  of  the  hollow.  If  one  of 
two  bodies  floating  on  water  is  smeared  with  oil  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  from  adhering, 
instead  of  coming  together,  the  two  will  recede  from  each  other,  for  reasons  analogous 
to  the  above. 

C.  A.  plays  a most  important  part  in  nature  in  a great  variety  of  ways.  An  instance 
of  its  employment  by  man  is  seen  in  the  wicks  of  lamps  and  candles,  which,  being 
composed  of  flbrous  materials,  furnish  hair-like  channels  by  which  the  melted  oil  is 
elevated  to  the  flame,  and  supplied  as  fast  as  it  is  consumed.  C.  A.  influences  the  cir- 
culation of  fluids  in  the  porous  tissues  of  animals,  and  it  is  the  principal  mode  in  which 
water,  with  the  various  substances  which  it  holds  in  solution,  is  supplied  to  the  roots  of 
growing  plants.  It  is  through  it  that  in  summer  droughts  moisture  is  raised  to  the  sur- 
face for  the  maintenance  of  vegetable  life.  C.  A.,  too,  affects  many  phenomena 
usually  considered  under  the  head  Diffusion  (q.v.)  of  fluids  and  gases.  The  reader, 
on  referring  to  the  article  Osmotic  Action,  will  also  see  that  it  enters  into  the  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomena  known  as  exosmose  and  endosmose. 

A familiar  illustration  of  C.  A.  is  furnished  when  one  end  of  a towel  happens  to  be 
left  in  a basin  of  water,  while  the  other  hangs  over  the  side  below  the  level  of  the 
water;  the  basin  is  soon  emptied  of  its  contents.  It  is  important  to  observe  that, 
although  the  towel  will  become  w^et,  not  a drop  will  flow  from  it,  unless  the  outside 
end  reach  below  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  basin.  In  this  respect  C.  A.  resembles 
that  of  the  siphon.  And  this  shows  the  error  of  supposing  that  water  may  rise 
through  the  earth  by  C.  A.,  and  flow  out  as  springs  at  a higher  level  than  the  source 
whence  it  is  drawn. 

Some  very  interesting  experiments  have  been  made  by  M.  Poisenille  {Ann.  de  Chimie 
et  de  Phys.  III.  xxi.  76)  concerning  the  flow  of  liquids  through  capillary  tubes,  the 
results  of  which  must  here  be  stated.  It  appears  that  when  the  tube  exceeds  a certain 
length — which  is  greater  as  the  bore  increases — the  following  laws  regulate  the  rate  of 
efflux  of  the  liquid,  the  efflux  taking  place  under  pressure:  1.  The  flow  increases  directly 
as  the  pressure,  so  that  under  double  the  pressure,  double  the  amount  is  discharged  in 
equal  times.  2.  In  tubes  of  equal  diameter,  the  quantities  discharged  vary  inversely  as 
the  length  of  the  tube.  If  a tube  2 in.  long  discharge  100  grains  in  5 minutes,  a tube  4 
in.  long  will  only  discharge  50  grains.  3.  In  tubes  of  equal  lengths,  but  different  diam- 
eters, the  flow  is  as  the  fourth  power  of  the  diameters.  If  one  be  of  an  inch  in  bore, 
and  the  other  the  efflux  from  the  larger  will  be  16  times  as  great  as  from  the  smaller. 
It  is  further  found  that  the  efflux  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  liquid,  the  material  of 
the  tube  not  appearing  to  affect  the  result  in  any  great  degree.  No  law  of  the  rate  of 
efflux  has  yet  been  discovered,  depending  on  the  density,  capillarity,  or  fluidity  of  the 
fluids. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  in  conclusion,  that  the  tubes  to  be  used  in  the  experiments  on 
capillarity  should  be  perfectly  clean  and  dry.  If  wetted,  the  film  of  moisture  on  the 
tube  forms  a new  tube,  and  the  action  will  be  the  same  as  with  a tube  of  the  sub- 
stance forming  the  fllm.  The  reader  should  consult  Miller's  Elements  of  Chemistry, 
and  J.  Clerk  Maxwell’s  Theory  of  Heat,  where  the  phenomena  are  treated  from  a differ- 
ent point  of  view;  the  phrases  “superflcial  energy ’’and  “superficial  tension”  being 
substituted  for  “capillarity,”  and  the  hypothesis  of  molecular  attraction  being  avoided. 

CAPISTRA'NO,  Giovanni  di,  1386-1456;  an  Italian  lawyer  who  became  a Fran- 
ciscan monk  and  a powerful  and  popular  preacher.  In  1450,  the  pope  sent  him  to  Ger- 
many to  preach  against  the  Hussites,  and  also  to  forward  the  projected  crusade  against 
the  Turks,  who  threatened  to  overrun  Europe.  He  failed  to  start  the  crusade,  but  in 
the  siege  of  Belgrade  he  led  the  inhabitants  with  the  cross  in  his  hand  in  three  success- 
ful sorties.  He  was  canonized,  and  his  tomb  became  a popular  resort  for  pilgrims. 

CAPITA,  Distribution  per — i.e.,  distribution  by  heads,  or  by  numbers,  equally— 
occurs  in  the  case  of  several  claimants  to  the  property  of  a deceased  person,  all  severally 
claiming  in  their  own  right,  in  equal  degree  of  kindred,  and  not  under  any  right  of  rep- 
resentation. See  Inheritance,  Succession. 

CAPITAL  (Lat.  capitulum,  from  caput,  the  head),  the  head  of  a column,  pilaster,  etc. 
Till  the  period  of  the  renaissance,  the  head  of  a column  in  English  was  called  chapiter 
(chapter),  its  diminutive  being  chapitrell.  See  Column. 

CAPITAL,  in  fortification,  is  an  imaginary  line  dividing  a defense- work  into  two  sim- 
ilar and  equal  parts.  The  C.  of  a bastion  is  a right  line  drawn  from  the  point  or  salient 
angle  to  the  middle  of  the  gorge  or  entrance  in  the  rear.  The  C.  of  a ravelin  is  a right 
line  drawn  from  the  re-entering  angle  of  the  counterscarp  to  the  salient  angle  of  the 
ravelin. 


423 


Capistrano* 

Capital. 


CAPITAL,  in  geography,  the  principal  city  or  town  of  a country,  that  in  which  the 
sovereign  usually  resides,  and  where  the  legislature  meets,  and  the  chief  legal  courts  are 
held. 

CAPITAL,  in  trade  and  political  economy,  is  in  its  restricted  sense  applied  to  the 
money,  or  the  property  convertible  into  money,  with  which  a trader  or  producer  car- 
ries on  his  business.  In  this  sense,  Adam  Smith  and  many  other  writers  call  it  stock; 
and  there  is  a convenience  in  having  a separate  term  for  expressing  this  sense  of  the 
word  C.,  since  it  is  totally  different  from  its  wider  sense  as  an  element  in  political 
economy.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  define  C.  in  its  general  sense,  but  with 
very  imperfect  success,  since  no  sooner  is  a restrictive  definition  laid  down,  than  some 
one  can  point  at  things  which  are  C.,  and  yet  are  not  included  in  the  definition.  It  has, 
for  instance,  been  called  the  produce  of  past  labor  stored  up  and  applied  to  the  facilitat- 
ing of  future  labor;  but,  as  we  shall  see,  many  things  become  C.  which  the  hand  of  man 
has  never  touched.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  existence  of  C.  arises  out  of 
the  fact  of  labor  or  industry  having  been  exercised ; and  perhaps  a good  general  under- 
standing of  its  character  may  be  derived  from  treating  it  as  the  impulse  or  impetus  which 
past  industry  gives  to  facilitate  future  industry.  Wherever  something  is  reserved  from 
immediate  consumption,  and  made  to  serve  in  future  production,  there  is  capital. 
We  cannot  have  a better  illustration  than  in  the  first  bow  and  arrow  made  by  the  savage. 
He  has  expended  on  this  machine  for  securing  his  food  a portion  of  the  time  and  labor 
which  he  might  have  given  to  the  tedious  task  of  catching  his  food  with  his  own  hands, 
and  at  this  sacrifice  he  has  obtained  the  means  of  more  easily  and  economically  obtain- 
ing it  in  future.  All  C.  is  not,  however,  directly  made  by  the  industry  of  the  owner,  or, 
indeed,  by  industry  at  all.  The  accidental  finder  of  a diamond,  or  a pearl,  worth  £100, 
possesses  so  much  capital.  His  acquisition,  however,  would  have  no  value  but  for  those 
productions  of  industry  which  it  is  permitted  to  represent,  and  if  pearls  and  diamonds 
were  often  found,  they  would  cease  to  be  valuable ; the  trade  of  finding  them  is  as  labo- 
rious and  as  ill  remunerated  in  the  long-run  as  most  others.  The  owner  of  a barren 
heath,  which  was  intrinsically  worth  nothing,  finds  it  become  suddenly  valuable  by  the 
progress  of  a large  town;  but  it  is  the  industry  of  that  town  which  has  given  the  value, 
and  the  owner  having  the  good-fortune  to  have  a hold  on  a portion  of  the  produce  of 
that  industry,  becomes  a capitalist.  It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  elements  of 
which  C,  in  the  general  sense  consists,  or  all  the  ways  in  which  it  can  be  made.  What- 
ever thing  done  enables  some  other  thing  to  be  done  which  supplies  any  of  the  necessi- 
ties or  wishes  of  the  human  race  becomes  capital.  Thus,  the  education  and  skill  of  the 
barrister,  the  physician^  and  the  artist — the  agility,  acquired  through  long  and  toilsome 
practice,  of  the  rope-dancer  and  the  juggler — all  are  capital.  It  makes  C.  to  shift  the 
place  of  a thing,  bringing  it  from  where  it  is  not,  to  where  it  is,  wanted.  So,  also,  the 
changing  of  a person’s  place  may  become  C.  to  him,  as  where  he  leaves  a district  in 
which  his  trade  is  not  required,  or  exceeds  the  demand,  for  one  where  he  can  pursue  it 
to  advantage.  Successful  emigration  thus  creates  C.,  bringing  into  human  use  districts 
of  land  which  previously  lay  useless.  The  total  C.  at  any  time  in  existence  consists  of 
an  aggregate  of  the  several  capitals  at  the  command  of  individuals  or  communities.  But 
it  is  essential  to  any  unit  of  C.  that  it  should  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  it  is  intended 
for,  otherwise  it  may  seem  to  be,  but  will  not  in  reality  be,  a part  of  the  general  aggre- 
gate—it  will,  in  fact,  be  lost.  If  an  expenditure  of  £1000  be  necessary  to  raise  a sunk 
ship,  and  only  £900  are  expended,  that  sum,  which  might  have  been  available  for  some 
other  purpose,  is  lost.  C.,  as  distinguished  from  property  or  wealth,  is  a moving  fm'ce; 
and  if  it  be  not  sufficiently  strong  for  accomplishing  its  purpose,  it  is  lost.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  important  truths  in  all  political  economy,  since  most  of  the  great  losses  suf- 
fered by  communities  and  individuals  arise  from  undertakings  for  which  they  have  not 
adequate  C.,  or  for  which  that  which  seems  to  be  C.  does  not  really  turn  out  to  be  so. 
Perhaps  the  most  memorable  mistake  of  this  kind  ever  made  was  when  the  French  revo- 
lutionary government  issued  assignats  (q.v.).  These  were  ostensibly  issued  on  a good 
security — namely,  the  security  of  the  forfeited  land.  But,  however  valuable  that 
land  might  be  in  the  long-run,  it  was  not  available  to  pay  the  assignats;  there  was  no 
purchaser  for  it ; and  the  assignats  consequently  fell  in  value.  Gold  to  a far  less  amount 
than  the  money  value  of  the  land — that  is  to  say,  than  the  price  which  would  be  paid 
for  it  when  sold  in  the  natural  course  of  things — would  have  been  a suff dent  C.  for  the 
issue  of  these  assignats.  The  same  mistake  is  often  exhibited  on  a small  scale  when  a 
landed  proprietor  keeps  together  a large  estate  which  he  cannot  afford  to  improve  and 
cultivate  properly.  It  loses  its  power  of  C.  in  his  hands;  and  he  would  be  much  better 
off  if  he  sold  a portion  of  it  for  money  to  be  invested  in  improvements  on  the  remainder. 
Probably  19  out  of  every  20  bankruptcies  arise  from  the  bankrupts  having  undertaken 
enterprises  beyond  the  reach  of  their  C. — from  over-trading,  or  over-speculating,  as  it 
is  otherwise  called.  When  speculation  becomes  epidemic,  the  whole  community  suffers 
from  undertakings  too  great  for  its  C.,  and  a crisis  occurs.  Such  was  the  great  railway 
crisis  of  1847.  Parliament  had,  in  the  previous  year,  passed  bills  for  the  construction  of 
railways,  which,  if  they  had  all  been  made,  would  have  cost  upwards  of  £130,000,000 — 
a sum  which  the  country,  rich  as  it  was,  could  not  afford  to  advance.  Though  it  is  an 
axiom  that  people  cannot  trade  beyond  their  C.,  yet  what  can  be  accomplished  by  any 


Capital. 


424 


given  amount  of  C.  must  depend  on  the  skill  and  sagacity  of  the  person  employing  it. 
Competition  no  doubt  tends  to  equalize  profits,  but  competition  is  itself  a contest  in 
which  each  tries  to  drive  a more  profitable  trade  than  his  neighbors,  and  some  are  more 
successful  than  others.  A frequent  element  of  success  is  the  rapid  circulation  of  C.,  by 
which  it  is  made  to  return  many  profits,  though  perhaps  small  ones,  in  the  course  of 
the  year.  The  trader  who  turns  over  his  C.  ten  times  at  a profit  of  3 per  cent,  makes 
more  than  he  who  draws  a single  profit  of  10. 

If  the  nature  of  C.,  as  the  produce  of  past  and  the  promoter  of  future  industry,  were 
better  understood  by  the  worMng-classes,  they  would  be  saved  from  much  unhappiness 
and  mischief.  Whatever  C.  may  be  to  the  rich  man,  it  is  bread  itself  to  the  working 
family.  The  withdrawal  of  the  C.  embarked  in  the  cotton  trade  alone  would  starve 
millions;  and  yet  many  educated  men  have  endeavored  to  teach  working-people  that  C. 
is  their  natural  enemy.  Its  strength  may  no  doubt  be  sometimes  used  for  evil  purposes, 
but  none  save  evil  results  can  arise  from  destroying  it.  The  only  way  in  which  any  man 
can  effectually  protect  himself  from  such  mischief  as  he  supposes  it  may  do,  is  to  save, 
and  become  a participator  in  it.  Itself  the  result  of  industry,  it  is  a more  powerful 
instrument  in  the  hands  of  him  who  has  made  it  than  in  any  other’s.  The  savings  of 
working-men  are  the  best  laid  out  C.  in  the  world.  The  first  pound  laid  past  is  the  most 
profitable  of  all — it  represents  freedom  from  debt,  and  the  capacity  of  its  owner  to  pur- 
chase *what  he  wants  with  ready  money — a privilege  probably  bringing  him  a profit  of 
many  pounds,  or  many  hundreds  per  cent  upon  his  capital. 

CAPITAL  ACCOUNT— such  is  the  name  given  to  what  concerns  the  capital  stock 
of  a railway  or  other  public  company.  In  authorizing  a railway  company — which 
we  take  as  an  example — parliament  gives  power  to  raise  so  much  money  by  shares, 
and  so  much  by  borrowing.  The  amount  that  may  be  borrowed  is  equal  to  a 
third  of  the  share  stock,  but  it  cannot  be  legally  borrowed  until  at  least  one  half 
of  the  share  stock  has  been  paid  up.  The  form  of  borrowing  is  that  of  giving  a 
mortgage  on  the  whole  property  of  the  railway ; the  deed  of  mortgage,  which  is  called 
a debenture,  expresses  the  sum  lent,  the  rate  of  interest  that  is  to  be  paid,  and  the  period 
for  which  the  loan  is  given.  See  Debenture.  Unitedly,  the  money  got  for  shares  and 
by  debentures  forms  the  capital  of  the  company;  and,  deposited  in  a bank,  constitutes 
the  capital  account.  On  this  fund  the  directors  of  the  company  make  draughts  to  pay 
for  the  land,  and  all  the  works  connected  with  the  line,  as  also  rails,  locomotives,  car- 
riages, and,  in  short,  everything  involved  in  perfecting  the  railway  up  to  the  point  of 
working.  From  the  first,  the  holders  of  debentures  receive  interest,  which  must  be  paid 
in  all  circumstances,  and  the  principal  must  be  returned  at  the  conclusion  of  the  period 
for  which  it  has  been  borrowed ; at  least,  such  are  the  ordinary  obligations  towards 
debenture  holders.  For  the  share  part  of  the  capital  no  return  is  made  till  the  railway 
has  been  in  operation,  and  drawings  come  in  from  the  traffic. 

As  soon  as  traffic  commences,  there  begins  a new  account  called  the  revenue  account, 
and  which,  kept  in  the  same  or  a different  bank,  has  no  connection  with  the  capital 
account.  This,  it  may  be  judged,  at  once  introduces  a great  complexity  into  the  finan- 
cial affairs  of  railways.  In  ordinary  businesses,  the  profits  of  a concern  are  the  free  pro- 
ceeds after  deducting  interest  on  capital  and  all  expenses ; and  no  attempt  is  made  to 
keep  two  accounts,  or  to  detach  one  part  of  the  revenue  from  the  other.  As  sharehold- 
ers in  a railway  occupy  the  position  of  partners  in  a business,  it  might  be  expected  that 
they  would  receive  a divisible  part  of  the  proceeds  equal  to  their  respective  claims  after 
all  expenses  whatsoever  had  been  paid.  This  is  not  the  plan  usually  adopted.  In  gen- 
eral, the  shareholders  are  only  temporary  partners ; they  buy  shares  in  order  to  sell  them 
at  an  advance.  What  they  mainly  look  to  is  the  rise  on  shares  in  the  market,  and  there- 
fore any  process  of  management  which  can  promote  this  important  object  meets  their 
approval.  Hence,  the  keeping  of  two  accounts,  two  bank  pass-books,  and  two  books  of 
checks.  From  the  revenue  account  are  drawn  all  payments  for  wages,  rates,  and  taxes, 
coke,  oil,  and  other  petty  furnishings,  also  repairs  on  carriages  and  locomotives,  main- 
tenance of  way,  and  general  management.  What  remains  is  the  fund,  whence  is  paid, 
first,  the  interest  on  debentures,  and  second,  the  dividend  of  the  shareholders.  From 
the  C.  A.  are  drawn  all  other  outlays : first,  the  repayment  of  principal  to  debenture 
holders,  and,  second,  the  expenditure  for  new  carriages  and  locomotives,  new  rails,  and 
other  substantial  repairs  upon  and  additions  to  the  plant.  As  all  railway  traffic  exceeds 
the  expectations  formed  respecting  it,  the  demands  on  the  C.  A.  for  fresh  additions  of 
one  kind  or  other  become  exceedingly  onerous.  Were  the  shareholders  to  look  to 
ultimate  advantages,  they  would  sanction  the  payment  for  permanent  improvements 
out  of  the  current  revenue;  but,  as  has  been  stated,  shareholders  for  the  most  part  care 
nothing  for  the  remote  and  contingent  prosperity  of  the  undertaking,  and  will  not  or 
cannot  make  a corresponding  sacrifice.  Greatly  diminished  by  primary  outlay,  and  now 
operated  upon  for  all  sorts  of  additions  and  improvements,  the  C.  A.  is  at  length 
exhausted,  and  new  powers  have  to  be  got  from  parliament  to  create  new  shares  and 
new  debentures,  and  which  shares  are  only  taken  up  by  being  guaranteed  a preferable 
claim  on  the  funds  of  the  company.  Where  a large  extension  of  traflic  must  be  pro- 
vided for,  the  creation  of  fresh  capital  is  indispensable  and  legitimate;  but  it  is  equally 
open  to  remark  that  the  C.  A.,  as  usually  conducted,  affords  the  means  of  enormously 


425 


CapltaL 


increasing  the  company’s  obligations,  and  is,  in  fact,  an  expedient  to  give  good  divi- 
dends to  present  holders  of  stock  at  the  cost  of  their  successors.  Perceiving  what  must 
be  the  consequences,  those  among  the  proprietary  of  the  small  and  more  prudently  man- 
aged railways  who  look  to  permanent  investment,  lose  no  opportunity  to  urge  “ that  the 
C.  A.  shall  be  closed,  and  the  whole  expenditure  of  the  company,  including  the  pay- 
ment of  dividends  and  interests,  be  taken  from  revenue.”  Objections  are  raised  to 
these  remonstrances,  sometimes  on  plausible,  sometimes  on  sufficiently  valid,  grounds; 
and  it  may  be  said  that  in  remarkably  few  cases  have  railway  companies  been  able,  or 
been  disposed,  to  close  their  capital  account.  See  Railways  (Legislation  and  Manage- 
ment). w.  c. 

CAPITAL  FELONIES.  See  Felon. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT  in  criminal  jurisprudence  is  the  punishment  of  death.  It 
is  called  capital  punishment  because  the  head  (Lat.  caput),  from  being  the  most  vital,  is 
usually  that  part  of  the  body  which  is  acted  on.  This  applies  especially  to  beheading 
and  hanging;  but  almost  all  modes  of  depriving  a criminal  of  life  appear  to  have  in  view 
the  peculiar  vulnerability,  and,  at  the  same  time,  vitality  of  the  head.  This  extreme 
penalty,  notwithstanding  the  practice  of  the  world  from  the  remotest  times  down  to  the 
present  day,  has  frequently  been  reprobated  by  philosophers  and  philanthropists,  who 
have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  deny  the  right  so  to  punish  to  any  earthly  power.  The 
weight  of  authority,  however,  appears  in  favor  of  capital  punishment.  Mr.  Bentham, 
one  of  the  most  reasonable  and  discriminating  authorities  on  the  subject,  in  his  well- 
known  and  valuable  treatise,  says  that  the  idea  of  C.  P.  would  naturally  suggest  itself 
in  the  infancy  of  a state.  When  any  one  had  committed  an  offense,  and  disturbed  the 
peace  of  society,  the  question  would  then  first  arise:  “How  shall  we  prevent  these 
things?”  and  the  answer  most  likely  to  occur  to  a set  of  barbarians  would  be:  “ Extir- 
pate the  offender,  and  give  yourself  no  further  trouble  about  him.”  And  in  conformity 
with  this  view  of  the  matter,  he  alludes  in  a note  to  the  case  of  the  Hottentots,  who 
have  no  fixed  laws  to  direct  them  in  the  distribution  of  justice,  and  consequently,  when 
an  offense  has  been  committed,  there  is  no  form  of  trial,  or  proportion  of  punishments 
to  offenses;  but  the  kraal  (village)  is  called  together,  the  delinquent  is  placed  in  the 
midst,  and,  without  further  ceremony,  demolished  with  their  clubs,  the  chief  striking 
the  first  blow.  The  marquis  Beccaria,  in  his  remarkable  Essay  on  Grimes  and  Punish- 
ments, strongly  argues  against  the  capital  sentence  being  carried  out  in  any  case,  denying 
the  right,  in  fact,  of  government  so  to  punish,  and  maintaining,  besides,  that  itis  a less 
efficacious  method  of  deterring  others,  than  the  continued  example  of  a living  culprit  con- 
demned, by  laboring  as  a slave,  to  repair  the  injury  he  has  done  to  society.  Bentham, 
on  the  contrary,  holds  that  death  is  regarded  by  most  men  as  the  greatest  of  all  evils ; 
and  that  especially  among  those  who  are  attached  to  life  by  the  ties  of  reputation,  affec- 
tion, enjoyment,  hope,  or  fear,  it  appears  to  be  a more  efficacious  punishment  than  any 
other.  On  the  question  of  right,  Beccaria  is  still  more  pointedly  refuted  by  sir  Samuel 
Romilly,  who  observed:  “Beccaria  and  his  disciples  confess  that  itis  not  the  greatest 
of  evils,  and  recommend  other  punishments  as  being  more  severe  and  effectual,  forget- 
ting, undoubtedly,  that  if  human  tribunals  have  a right  to  infiict  a severer  punishment 
than  death,  they  must  have  a right  to  inff ict  death  itself”  {Memoirs,  vol.  iii.  p.  278).  It 
is  not  a little  interesting  to  know  that  such  was  the  opinion  of  one  who  did  so  much  as 
a statesman  to  mitigate  the  severity  of  the  criminal  law. 

Against  C.  P.  arguments  are  often  urged  from  Scripture,  based  on  the  general  prin- 
ciple of  Christian  charity.  To  these  it  is  replied  that  they  proceed  on  a misapprehen- 
sion and  misapplication  of  the  principle ; and  reference  is  confidently  made  to  the  Old 
Testament  as  sufficiently  exhibiting  the  mind  of  the  great  Lawgiver  in  regard  to  this 
matter. 

Death  was,  in  former  times  in  England,  the  ordinary  punishment  for  all  felonies, 
and  the  certain  doom  of  those  who  could  not  avail  themselves  of  benefit  of  clergy  (q.v.), 
i.e.,  the  common  law  infiicted  death  on  every  felon  who  could  not  read,  and  the  law 
implied  that  punishment,  where  a statute  made  any  new  offense  felony.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  numerous  acts  of  parliament  creating  felonies  without  benefit  of  clergy,  show 
that  the  statute  law  was  still  more  sanguinary,  so  that  of  the  160  offenses  referred  to  by 
Blackstone  as  punishable  with  death,  four  fifths  had  been  made  so  during  the  reign  of 
the  first  three  Georges.  That  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  such  Draconian  justice  as 
was  then  established,  we  may  mention  the  following  as  among  the  offenses  which 
involved  sentence  of  death : stealing  in  a dwelling  house  to  the  amount  of  40s. ; steal- 
ing privately  in  a shop  goods  of  the  value  of  5s. ; counterfeiting  the  stamps  that  were 
used  for  the  sale  of  perfumery;  and  doing  the  same  with  the  stamps  used  for  the  certifi- 
cates for  hair  powder.  Thanks,  however,  to  the  exertions  of  sir  Samuel  Romilly,  the 
inhumanity  and  impolicy  of  such  a state  of  the  criminal  code  gave  way,  towards  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  to  a course  of  legislation  which  has  reduced  the  application 
of  death  as  a punishment  within  its  present  humane  limits.  Practically,  indeed,  it  is 
only  in  the  case  of  treason  and  murder  that  the  capital  sentence  is  ever  pronounced ; and 
even  then,  it  is  not  always  carried  out,  for  the  crown  reserves  to  itself  and  exercises  a 
right  of  review  which  frequently  leads  to  such  a change  in  the  convict’s  fate  as  at  least 
spares  his  life.  This  discretionary  control  on  the  part  of  the  executive  is  essential  in 


Capital. 


426 


the  present  state  of  the  law,  which  affords  no  means  for  a judicial  appeal  on  the  merits; 
for  the  very  nature  of  the  punishment,  when  finally  executed,  precludes  the  idea  of  all 
benefit  to  the  sufferer,  should  the  verdict  of  the  jury  afterwards  turn  out  erroneous,  and 
the  innocence,  instead  of  the  guilt,  of  the  accused  be  established.  The  law  as  it  stands, 
indeed,  allows  a capital  sentence  to  be  reversed  if  technical  error  can  be  shown  on  the 
face  of  the  judgment  or  other  matter  of  record — but  what  avails  that,  after  the  sentence 
has  been  executed. 

In  Scotland,  the  administration  of  the  criminal  law  has  perhaps  been,  on  the  whole, 
as  severe  as  in  England.  Mr.  Erskine  says  that  “ those  crimes  that  are  in  their  conse- 
quences most  hurtful  to  society,  are  punished  capitally  or  by  death,  ” a category  that  is 
certainly  sufficiently  indefinite ; and  anciently,  it  might  be  shown  that  the  executions 
in  Scotland  for  offenses  corresponding  to  those  which  were  capitally  punished  in  Eng- 
land, were,  in  proportion  to  the  population,  quite  as  numerous  as  those  in  the  latter 
country.  But  in  the  more  modern  practice  of  Scotland,  capital  sentence  was  only  pro- 
nounced in  the  four  pleas  of  the  crown — viz.,  murder,  rape,  robbery,  and  willful  fire- 
raising,  to  which  may  be  added  housebreaking.  At  present  the  penal  system  in  Scot- 
land may  be  said  to  be  identical  with  that  in  England,  death,  as  a punishment,  being 
only  inflicted  in  the  case  of  convictions  for  murder. 

With  respect  to  the  mode  of  executing  C.  P.,  we  need  not  detain  the  reader  by  any 
account  of  the  obsolete  cruelties  and  tortures  of  former  times.  It  may  suffice  to  state 
that  hanging  and  beheading  are  the  two  methods  which  now,  for  the  most  part,  are  prac- 
ticed in  the  different  European  states — indeed,  with  the  exception  of  Spain,  by  all.  In 
the  last  country,  the  death  of  the  culprit  is  instantaneously  caused  by  the  garrotte  (q.v.). 
In  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  in  all  the  dependencies  of  the  crown,  the  con- 
vict is  hanged;  while  in  France  he  is  decapitated  by  guillotine  (q.v.),  an  instrument 
which  an  old  Scotch  machine  called  the  maiden  (q.v.),  and  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
very  much  resembled.  In  most  of  the  German  states,  beheading  is  the  mode  of  execu- 
tion adopted;  but  in  Austria,  criminals  convicted  of  capital  offenses  are  hanged,  as  in 
England.  See  Execution. 

The  following  works  may  be  consulted  on  the  subject  of  this  article:  Basil  Montagu 
On  the  Punishment  of  Death,  3 vols.  (1809,  1812,  1813),  in  which  he  collects  the  opinions 
of  different  eminent  authorities ; Memoirs  of  Sir  Samuel  Bomilly,  3 vols.  (1840),  and  his 
miscellaneous  law  pamphlets;  Jeremy  Bentham’s  Rationale  of  Punishment  (1830);  Bec- 
caria’s  Essay  on  Grimes  and  Punishments  (1775);  Edward  Gibbon  Wakefield’s  Facts 
Relating  to  the  Punishment  of  Death  in  the  Metropolis  (1831);  and  Frederic  Hill’s  Crime, 
its  Amount,  Causes,  and  Remedies  (1853). 

Capital  Punishments  in  the  Army  and  Navy. — 1.  In  the  army. — The  law  on  this 
subject  is  contained  in  the  19th  of  the  articles  of  war  now  in  force,  which  prescribes 
death  as  the  punishment  of  the  following  offenses,  or  such  other  punishment  as  by  a 
court-martial  shall  be  awarded.  (1)  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  excite  or  join  in 
any  mutiny  or  sedition  in  any  forces  belonging  to  her  majesty’s  army,  or  royal  marines, 
or  who  shall  not  use  his  utmost  endeavors  to  suppress  it,  and  knowing  of  it,  shall  not 
give  immediate  information  of  it  to  his  commanding  officer;  or  (2)  who  shall  hold  cor- 
respondence with,  or  give  advice  or  intelligence  to  any  rebel  or  enemy  of  her  majesty; 
or  (3)  who  shall  treat  with  any  rebel  or  enemy  without  her  majesty’s  license,  or  license 
of  the  chief  commander;  or  (4)  shall  misbehave  himself  before  the  enemy;  or  (5)  shall 
shamefully  abandon  or  deliver  up  any  garrison,  fortress,  post,  or  guard  committed  to 
his  charge ; or  (6)  shall  compel  the  governor  or  commanding  officer  to  deliver  up  or 
abandon  such  place;  or  (7)  shall  induce  others  to  misbehave  before  the  enemy,  or  abandon 
or  deliver  up  their  posts;  or  (8)  shall  desert  her  majesty’s  service;  or  (9)  shall  leave  his 
post  before  being  regularly  relieved,  or  shall  sleep  on  his  post;  or  (10)  shall  strike  or  offer 
any  violence  to  his  superior  officer,  being  in  the  execution  of  his  office,  or  shall  disobey 
any  lawful  command  of  his  superior  officer;  or  (11)  who,  being  confined  in  a military 
prison,  shall  offer  any  violence  against  a visitor  or  other  his  superior  military  officer, 
being  in  the  execution  of  his  office. 

By  article  20,  it  is  declared  that  no  judgment  of  death  by  a court-martial  shall  pass, 
unless  two  thirds  at  least  of  the  officers  present  shall  concur  therein;  and  by  article  21,  it 
is  provided  that  judgment  of  death  may  be  commuted  for  penal  servitude  for  any  term 
not  less  than  four  years,  or  for  imprisonment  for  such  term  as  shall  seem  meet. 

It  would  appear  that  the  employment  of  a soldier  in  the  service  subsequent  to  his 
arrest  on  a capital  charge,  may  operate  as  a remission  of  the  sentence  of  death.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  case,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Prendergast  in  his  Law  Relating  to 
Officers  in  the  Army  (2d  ed.,  1855,  p.  245):  In  1811,  private  John  Weblin  of  the  3rd  buffs 
was  sentenced  to  be  shot.  The  commander-in-chief,  the  duke  of  Wellington,  in  his 
“remarks”  upon  the  proceedings,  took  notice  that,  through  some  extraordinary  inat- 
tention, the  prisoner  had  actually  been  permitted  to  serve  in  an  engagement  with  the 
enemy,  after  he  had  been  put  into  arrest  for  his  crime.  On  this  ground,  the  duke  pro- 
nounced that  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  pardoning  the  prisoner. 

In  the  army,  C.  P.  is  indicted  by  the  offender  being  either  shot  or  hanged — the 
latter  being  the  more  disgraceful  mode  of  execution. 

2.  In  the  navy. — These  are  regulated  by  the  22  Geo.  II.  c.  33,  amended  by  the  10  and 
11  Viet.  c.  59.  By  the  first  of  these  acts,  certain  offenses  in  the  navy,  whether  on  board 


427 


Capital. 


ship  or  on  shore,  were  pnnished  with  death  absolutely,  without  any  discretion  in  the 
court  to  alter  or  mitigate  the  sentence.  But,  by  the  10  and  11  Viet.,  this  severity  is 
removed  (excepting  in  the  cases  of  murder  and  other  unnatural  offenses  mentioned  in 
the  act),  and  courts-martial  are  authorized  to  abstain  from  pronouncing  judgment  of 
death,  if  they  shall  think  fit,  and  to  impose  such  other  punishment  instead  as  the  nature 
and  degree  of  the  offense  may  deserve.  In  this  discretionary  sense,  the  following 
offenses  are  punishable,  in  the  navy,  with  death : (1)  The  holding  illegal  correspondence 
with  an  enemy;  (2)  the  not  acquainting,  within  12  hours  after  the  opportunity  to  do 
so,  the  commander-in-chief,  or  other  superior  officer  of  the  squadron,  with  any  message 
from  an  enemy  or  rebel ; (3)  all  spies  bringing  seducing  letters  from  an  enemy  or  rebel, 
or  endeavoring  to  corrupt  any  one  in  the  fleet  to  betray  his  trust;  (4)  the  relieving  an 
enemy  or  rebel  in  any  way,  directly  or  indirectly;  (5)  not  preparing  for  fight  when  duty 
commands,  or  not  making  due  preparations  on  likelihood  of  engagement,  and  not  encour- 
aging the  inferior  officers  and  men  to  fight  courageously ; (6)  the  treacherously  or  cow- 
ardly yielding  or  crying  for  quarter;  (7)  disobeying  orders  in  time  of  action,  or  not  using 
all  possible  endeavors  to  put  the  same  effectually  in  execution ; (8)  being  guilty  of  coward- 
ice or  neglect  of  duty  in  time  of  action ; (9)  through  cowardice,  negligence,  or  disaffec- 
tion, forbearing  to  pursue  the  chase  of  any  enemy,  pirate,  or  rebel,  beaten  or  flying,  or  not 
relieving  or  assisting  a known  friend  in  view  to  the  utmost ; (10)  deserting  to  the  enemy, 
or  running  away  with  any  of  her  majesty’s  ships  or  their  belongings,  or  any  pieces  to 
the  weakening  of  the  service,  or  cowardly  or  treacherously  yielding  up  the  same; 
(11)  deserting  simply,  or  enticing  others  so  to  do;  (12)  making,  or  endeavoring  to  make, 
any  mutinous  assembly  on  any  pretense  whatsoever;  (13)  uttering  words  of  sedition  or 
mutiny;  (14)  concealing  traitorous  or  mutinous  practices  or  designs;  (15)  striking  a 
superior  officer  or  offering  any  violence  to  him,  being  in  execution  of  his  office,  on  any 
pretense  whatsoever;  (16)  unlawfully  burning  or  setting  fire  to  any  ship,  property  or  fur- 
niture, not  then  appertaining  to  an  enemy,  pirate,  or  rebel;  (17)  neglect  in  steering  any 
of  her  majesty’s  ships,  so  that  the  same  be  stranded,  split,  or  hazarded ; (18)  sleeping  on 
watch,  or  negligently  performing  duty,  or  forsaking  station;  and  (19)  robbery. 

It  is  stated  hy  Mr.  Prendergast,  in  the  work  to  which  we  have  referred  (p.  244), 
that  a sentence  of  death  pronounced  by  a court-martial  does  not  operate  as  an  absolute 
dismissal  from  the  service ; for  if  the  offender  should  be  pardoned,  he  5s  restored  to  his 
former  position. 

But  though  a pardon  operates  as  a restoration  to  the  service,  the  greater  question 
still  remains  to  be  judicially  decided,  whether  a restoration  to  the  service  operates  as  a 
pardon.  This  question  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  fate  of  the  gallant  but  unfor- 
tunate sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He  had  been  condemned  to  death  for  alleged  participation 
in  a treasonable  plot  to  raise  Arabella  Stuart  to  the  throne;  and,  after  undergoing  13 
years’  imprisonment,  he  received  from  James  I.,  by  a commission  under  the  great  seal, 
the  command  of  a fleet  and  army  fitted  out  against  the  Spanish  possessions  in  South 
America,  with  power  of  life  and  death  over  the  king’s  subjects  serving  in  the  expedition. 
The  enterprise  failed;  and  on  sir  Walter’s  return  to  England,  James  caused  his  head  to 
be  struck  off,  according  to  the  sentence  originally  pronounced.  On  showing  cause 
against  his  execution,  sir  Walter  pleaded  that  his  commission  was  tantamount  to  a par- 
don, and  quoted  a case  of  a man  who  had  been  condemned  for  felony,  having  been  par- 
doned on  account  of  his  subsequent  service  in  the  wars  of  Gascony.  Lord  chief- justice 
Montague,  however,  held  that  though  an  implied  pardon  of  the  kind  cited  might  hold 
good  in  felony,  that  treason  could  only  be  pardoned  by  express  words.  There  is  the 
high  legal  authority  of  the  late  lord  chancellor  Campbell*  for  saying  that  the  chief-justice 
declared  and  expounded  the  law  soundly;  and  that  in  strictness  sir  Walter’s  attainder, 
under  the  former  judgment,  could  only  be  done  away  with  by  letters-patent  under  the 
great  seal,  expressly  reciting  the  treason,  and  granting  a free  pardon.  See,  on  the  sub- 
ject of  these  two  articles.  Articles  op  War,  and  Mutiny  Act. 

As  to  the  mode  of  C.  P.  in  the  navy,  the  culprit,  where  he  is  an  officer,  is  shot;  where 
he  is  a common  seaman,  he  is  usually  hanged  at  the  yard-arm. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT  (ante)  under  the  laws  of  the  United  States  may  be 
inflicted  for  treason,  murder,  arson,  rape,  piracy,  robbery  of  the  mails  with  jeopardy  to 
the  lives  of  persons  in  charge,  rescue  of  a convict  going  to  execution,  burning  a vessel  of 
war,  and  corruptly  destroying  a private  vessel.  Until  within  a few  years  C.  P.  was  the 
rule  for  the  highest  crimes  in  all  the  states,  but  it  was  abolished  in  Wisconsin  and  in 
Maine  in  1874,  and  had  been  about  that  time  abolished  in  Iowa;  but  in  the  latter  state 
it  was  restored  in  1878,  the  argument  showing  from  the  record  that  during  its  abolition 
crimes  of  violence  had  largely  increased.  Under  the  present  law,  a year  must  intervene 
between  the  sentence  and  execution,  and  the  term  may  be  further  extended  by  reprieve. 
There  is  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  effect  of  the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty, 
and  perhaps  no  settled  conclusion  can  be  reached.  The  effect  of  its  abolition  has  not 
thus  far  supplied  any  very  strong  reasons  for  the  stand  of  those  who  would  abolish  it 
altogether.  Perhaps  the  most  notable  suspension  of  this  punishment  in  all  history  was 
during  the  war  of  the  rebellion  in  the  United  States,  when,  in  the  face  of  the  most  pow- 


Lives  of  the  Chief-Justices,  vol.  i.  pp.  357,  358,  591 


Capitals. 

Capo. 


428 


erful,  open,  and  dangerous  treason,  not  one  person  was  deliberately  executed  for  that 
crime,  the  extreme  penalty  visited  even  upon  the  captured  leader  of  the  rebellion  being 
the  loss  of  the  political  (but  not  the  personal)  rights  of  a citizen. 

CAPITALS  {majuscula),  in  contradistinction  to  small  letters  {minuscula),  are  the  large 
letters  employed  in  writing  and  printing  to  help  the  eye,  to  relieve  the  uniformity  of  the 
page,  to  increase  the  facility  of  keeping  and  finding  the  place,  to  mark  the  beginnings  of 
sentences,  proper  names,  etc.  Among  the  ancients,  and  during  the  earlier  part  of  the 
middle  ages,  no  distinction  of  C.  and  small  letters  was  known;  and  after  the  practice 
had  been  introduced  of  beginning  books  and  chapters  with  great  letters  often  adorned 
or  illustrated  with  much  artistic  ability,  it  was  long  before  C.  were  employed  in  such  a 
way  as  could  afford  much  real  advantage  to  the  reader.  At  the  present  day,  they  are 
universally  employed,  even  in  the  printing  of  Greek  and  Latin  books.  Considerable 
diversity  has  existed  at  different  times  with  regard  to  the  employment  of  them,  the  books 
of  the  17th  and  18th  c.  exhibiting  a much  greater  proportion  of  them  than  those  of  the 
present  day.  In  German  books,  all  substantives  usually  begin  with  a capital  letter;  in 
English  and  French  books  of  the  present  day,  they  in  general  appear  only  at  the  begin- 
nings of  sentences  and  of  proper  names.  Adjectives  formed  from  proper  names,  as  Eng- 
lish, French,  etc. , are  generally  begun  with  a capital  in  English  books,  but  not  in  French 
nor  in  German  ones. 

CAPITANA'TA,  or  Foggia,  a province  of  Italy,  tYieBaunia  of  the  ancients,  is  bounded 
n.  and  e.  by  the  Adriatic,  and  on  the  s.w.  by  the  Apennines.  It  stretches  along  the 
Adriatic  about  70  m.  in  a straight  line,  and  its  average  breadth  is  about  45  m. ; but  its 
coast-line,  measuring  round  the  great  promontory  of  Monte  Gargano,  which  has  been 
called  “the  spur  of  Italy,”  is  fully  100  m.,  and  its  breadth  between  the  extremity  of 
that  projection  and  the  Apennines,  75  miles.  Pop.  ’71,  319,164.  The  greater  part  of 
the  surface  is  a sandy  plain  sloping  from  the  Apennines  to  the  Adriatic,  and  watered 
only  by  some  inconsiderable  streams.  The  rearing  and  feeding  of  cattle  form  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  Wheat,  wine,  and  fruits  of  various  kinds  are  produced 
in  quantities  sufficient  to  admit  of  exportation.  There  are  important  salt-works,  quarries 
of  alabaster,  and  potters’  clay.  Foggia  is  the  chief  town. 

CAPITATION,  from  the  Latin  caput,  a head,  means  something  applicable  to  all  per- 
sons, or  to  the  people  by  the  head.  A tax  levied  on  all  persons,  without  reference  to 
property  or  other  incidents,  is  called  a C.  tax,  and  sometimes  a poll  tax.  The  former 
term  was  often  used  in  France  for  the  tax  better  known  as  the  taille,  although  this 
offensive  impost  was  not  imposed  on  all  alike,  the  nobility  enjoying  many  exemptions 
from  it. 

CAPITOL,  the  fortress  of  ancient  Rome,  and  site  of  the  national  sanctuary  the  temple 
of  Jupiter,  was  situated  on  the  Mans  GapitoUnus,  the  smallest  but  most  famous  of  the 
seven  hills  on  which  Rome  was  built.  The  hill  itself  was  first  termed  Mons  Saturninus^ 
afterwards  Mons  Tarpeius  and  Rupes  Tarpeia,  and  after  the  foundation  of  the  capitol, 
Mons  Gapitolinus,  though  a particular  portion  of  it  retained  its  ancient  name  of  Rupes 
Tarpeia.  It  was  steep  and  abrupt  in  almost  every  part,  formed  a natural  fortress,  and 
was  strengthened  here  and  there  by  towers.  The  C.  was  founded  by  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  and  completed  by  Tarquinius  Superbus,  who  tasked  the  people  to  work  at  it. 
The  whole  mount  had  a circumference  of  about  800  paces.  During  the  civil  wars 
under  Sulla,  the  temple  was  burned  (according  to  Tacitus,  by  design),  and  after  its  res- 
toration, destroyed  during  the  Vitellian  riots.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Vespasian,  after  whose 
death  it  was  again  destroyed  by  tire,  but  was  once  more  restored  by  Domitian,  who 
instituted  here  the  capitoline  games.  Domitian’s  structure  lasted  to  a late  period  of  the 
empire.  Regarding  the  site  of  the  C.,  there  has  been  great  dispute;  the  German 
scholars,  for  the  most  part,  maintaining  that  it  occupied  the  s.w.  summit  of  the  hill, 
and  the  Italians,  the  n.e.  The  latter  situation  has  the  weight  of  probabilities  in  its 
favor.  From  that  portion  of  the  mount  named  the  Tarpeian  rock,  state  criminals  were 
thrown  down.  According  to  the  description  given  by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  the 
temple  of  Jupiter,  with  its  peristyle  of  columns,  was  200  ft.  long  by  185  ft.  wide,  and 
was  divided  into  three  cellae,  separated  from  each  other  by  walls,  and  respectively  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva.  In  the  spacious  portico,  the  people  feasted  on 
triumphal  occasions.  The  scanty  ruins  remaining  in  the  present  day  consist  of  a sub- 
structure of  peperino  or  volcanic  tufa,  a wall  of  the  same  materials,  and  some  remains 
of  the  s.  front,  together  with  a portion  of  the  great  flight  of  steps  leading  to  the  temple. 

The  modern  0.  {Gampidoglio),  built  on  the  site,  and  partly  on  the  foundation  of  the 
ancient  C. , was  designed  by  Michael  Angelo,  but  is  one  of  his  inferior  works.  The 
main  entrance,  however,  presents  a splendid  view.  It  is  used  as  a kind  of  hotel-de-ville 
and  museum. 

Besides  the  great  temple  of  Jupiter,  the  most  important  structures  on  the  Capitolina 
Mount  were  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  built  by  the  emperor  Augustus ; and  the 
magnificent  Tabularium,  containing  archives,  and,  in  connection  with  the  ^rarium 
(“Treasury”),  serving  as  a library  and  place  for  lectures,  etc.  The  remains  of  this  struc- 
ture, built  by  Quintus  Catulus,  73  b.c.,  have  still  an  imposing  aspect. — For  the  U.  S. 
Capitol,  see  W ashengton. 


429 


Capitals. 

Capo. 


CAP'ITOLINE  GAMES,  instituted  387  b.c.,  in  commemoration  of  the  preservation 
of  the  Roman  capitol  (fortress)  from  the  Gauls.  Nero  revised  them,  modeled  them  after 
the  Olympian  games,  and  proposed  to  institute  a new  computation  of  time  founded  upon 
the  5-year  period  intervening  between  the  celebrations. 

CAP'ITOLINE  HILL.  See  Capitol,  ante. 

CAPITOLI'NUS,  Julius,  a Latin  historian  of  the  3d  c.,  who  wrote  the  lives  of  sev- 
eral of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  Historia  Augusta. 

CAPIT'ULARIES  (Lat.  capitularia).  Capitularium  is  literally  a book  divided  into 
chapters ; and  the  plural  of  the  word  was  the  name  given  to  the  laws  issued  by  the  kings 
of  the  first  and  second  of  the  Frankish  races,  from  Charles  Martel  downwards.  These 
laws  proceeded  from  the  great  assemblies  of  the  king,  nobles,  and  bishops,  which 
formed  the  states  of  the  kingdom,  and,  from  their  general  character,  were  opposed  to 
the  laws  issued  for  the  separate  states,  which  were  called  leges.  They  were  divided  into 
general  and  special  C. , according  to  the  more  or  less  general  nature  of  the  interests 
which  they  embraced,  and  the  mode  of  their  publication.  They  have  by  no  means  been 
all  preserved.  The  most  famous  are  those  of  Charlemagne  and  of  St.  Louis.  In  827, 
abbot  Angesius,  of  Pontenelles,  made  a collection  of  the  C.  of  Charlemagne,  and  of  his 
son,  Louis  le  Debonnaire.  Other  collections  were  made  by  private  persons,  and,  in  847, 
one  by  authority  of  the  king,  but  they  are  all  very  imperfect  and  ill  arranged.  After 
Charles  the  simple,  in  922,  no  more  C.  were  issued,  and  no  similar  laws  or  statutes  exist 
from  that  period  till  the  time  of  Louis  le  Gros,  in  1100.  The  best  collections  are  those 
of  Baluze  (Paris,  1677  and  1780),  and  of  Pertz,  in  the  Monumenta  OermanicB. 

CAPITULATION,  a treaty  consisting  of  several  specified  conditions  (Lat.  capitula, 
heads).  In  the  military  sense  of  the  word,  a C.  is  a treaty  of  surrender  to  an  enemy. 
When  a place  can  no  longer  be  defended,  on  account  of  failure  of  ammunition  or  pro- 
visions, or  the  progress  made  by  the  besieging-party,  a white  flag  is  commonly  put  up, 
^is  a sign  that  the  b^esieged  are  willing  to  capitulate.  According  to  the  kind  and  degree 
of  peril  in  which  the  fortress  is  placed,  so  are  the  terms  which  the  governor  may  reason- 
ably expect  from  his  successful  opponent.  Sometimes  the  arms  and  military  stores  are 
left  to  the  besieged,  but  more  frequently  they  are  taken  by  the  besiegers,  except  articles 
of  private  property  belonging  to  the  officers  and  men.  The  “honors  of  war,”  the 
marching  out  with  drums  bleating  and  colors  flying,  are  usually  stipulated  for,  unless 
^he  conqueror  exacts  very  severe  terms.  The  mildest  form  of  a C.  is  a convention, 
tgreed  to  when  the  conqueror  is  not  strong  enough  to  insist  on  stringent  conditions. 

CAPIZ',  a t.  on  the  island  of  Panay,  in  the  Philippine  archipelago.  It  is  situated  on 
a plain  on  the  n.  coast,  near  the  rivers  Panay,  Panitan,  and  Ivisan,  by  which  it  is  some- 
times inundated  during  the  rainy  season.  It  is  defended  by  a small  fort,  and  is  the 
residence  of  a Spanish  alcalde.  Pop.  11,000. 

CAP'NOMANCY,  a word  formed  from  the  Greek  capnos,  smoke,  and  manteia,  divina- 
tion. The  ancients  practiced  it  in  two  different  ways — either  they  threw  grains  of 
jasmine  or  poppy  on  the  burning  coals,  and  watched  the  motions  and  the  density  of  the 
smoke  that  rose  from  them,  or  they  watched  the  smoke  of  sacrifices.  This  latter  kind 
of  C.  was  most  generally  employed,  and  that  to  which  the  greatest  importance  wa,s  at- 
tached. If  the  smoke  was  thin,  and  ascended  in  a right  line,  instead  of  being  blown 
back  by  the  breeze,  or  spreading  over  the  altar,  the  augury  was  good.  It  was  also 
believed  that  the  inhalation  of  the  smoke  rising  from  the  victims  or  from  the  fire  which 
consumed  them,  gifted  the  priests  with  prophetic  inspiration. 

CA'PO  D’IS'TRIA,  a fortified  seaport  t.  of  Austria,  situated  on  a rocky  island  in  the 
gulf  of  Trieste,  8 m.  s.w.  of  the  city  of  Trieste.  It  is  capital  of  the  circle  of  Istria, 
with  the  peninsula  of  which  it  is  connected  by  a stone  causeway,  nearly  half  a mile  long. 
Its  old  buildings,  ruinous  walls,  and  narrow  streets  give  the  town  a gloomy  aspect.  It 
has  a cathedral,  manufactures  of  leather  and  soap,  and  a trade  in  wine,  oil,  and  salt. 
Pop.  ’69,  7,539.  In  ancient  times,  this  place  was  known  as  ^gida,  and  afterwards  as 
Justinopolis,  in  honor  of  Justin  II.,  who  restored  it. 

CAPO  D’ISTRIA,  or  CAPO  D’ISTRIAS,  John  Anthony,  Count,  president  of  the 
Greek  republic  from  1827  to  1831,  was  b.  in  Corfu,  1780.  His  family  had  been 
settled  in  that  island  since  the  14th  c. , but  originally  came  from  the  Illyrian  town  of 
Capo  d’Istria  (q.v.),  near  Trieste.  He  devoted  himself  to  political  life,  and  after  having 
held  a high  position  in  the  Ionian  islands,  he  entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  Russia. 
Here  his  diplomacy  tended  to  the  separation  of  Greece  from  Turkey.  In  1827,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Greece;  and  in  Jan.,  1828,  he  landed  in  Greece,  and  entered  upon 
the  duties  of  his  office.  He  was  a patriot,  a philanthropist,  and  an  able  diplomatist, 
but  by  no  means  equal  to  the  task  which  he  now  undertook.  Everything  was  in  dis- 
order; the  people  had  been  long  enslaved,  and  knew  not  how  to  use  their  freedom;  and 
the  president  had  been  so  much  imbued  with  the  centralizing  principles  prevalent  at  the 
courts  which  he  had  frequented,  that  some  of  his  measures,  especially  that  restricting 
the  liberty  of  the  press,  gave  off^se  to  the  most  temperate  of  the  enlightened  lovers  of 
civil  liberty.  His  career  was  cut  short  by  his  assassination  in  a church  at  Nauplia  on 
Oct.  9,  1831.  The  assassins  were  relatives  of  Peter  Mauromichali,  against  whom  he 
was  urging  on  a prosecution,  for  alleged  offenses  against  the  state. 


Cap. 

Caprification* 


430 


CAP  OF  MAIN'TENANCE,  Dignity,  is  a cap  worn  by  noble  and  royal  personages 
on  certain  state  occasions.  Such  a cap  was  sent  by  pope  Julius  II.  to  king  Henry  Vlft.^ 
for  writing  his  book  against  Martin  Luther. 

CAFONIEBE',  or  Caponniere,  in  fortification,  is  a parapet  8 or  10  ft.  high,  with  a 
superior  slope,  terminating  in  a small  glacis.  It  is  placed  in  the  ditch  of  a fortified 
place,  to  cover  or  screen  the  defenders  while  passing  from  one  defense-work  to  another. 
Generally,  it  has  a banquette,  on  which  musketeers  may  stand  to  fire  over  the  crest. 
If  there  is  a passage  between  two  such  parapets,  it  is  a full  caponniere;  if  on  ono 
side  only,  a half  caponniere.  Generally,  the  parapets  are  of  earth,  and  the  passage 
open  overhead ; but  sometimes  caponnieres  are  vaulted  galleries  of  brickwork,  loopholedL 
at  the  sides  for  musketry;  while  in  field-works,  palisade  caponnieres  are  occasionally 
thrown  across  the  ditches  of  redoubts. 

CAPPADO'CIA,  anciently,  a province,  and  subsequently  a kingdom  in  the  w.  of  Asia, 
(in  part  the  present  Caramania).  It  was  bounded  by  Lycaonia  on  the  w.,  by  Cilicia  and 
Syria  on  the  s.,  by  Armenia  on  the  e.,  and  by  Pontus  on  the  north.  During  the  time  that 
it  belonged  to  the  Persian  empire,  however,  it  included  Pontus,  which  was  called 
Lesser  Cappadocia.  In  17  a.d.,  C.  was  erected  into  a separate  province  of  the  Roman 
empire,  by  Tiberius. 

CAP'PAGH  BROWN,  a bituminous  earifh,  which  yields  pigments  of  various  shades  of 
brown,  the  two  most  strongly  marked  being  known  as  light  and  dark  Cappagh  brown. 
The  coloring  matter  are  oxide  of  manganese  and  iron.  The  Cappagh  browns  ar» 
transparent  and  permanent;  and  when  not  applied  too  thickly,  they  dry  well  in  oil. 
The  name  is  derived  from  Cappagh,  near  Cork,  in  Ireland.  C.  B.  is  also  called  encrome 
mineral,  and  more  frequently  manganese  brown. 

CAPPARIB'E.S,  or  CAPPARiDA'CEiE,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  allied  ta 
cruciferm,  and  including  about  350  known  species,  herbaceous  plants,  shrubs,  and  trees, 
mostly  natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries.  The  leaves  are  generally  alternate, 
ptalked,  undivided,  or  palmate;  the  flowers  solitary  or  clustered;  the  calyx  of  four 
sepals,  sometimes  cohering  in  a tube ; the  corolla  of  four,  or  sometimes  eight  petals, 
sometimes  wanting,  the  stamens  generally  a multiple  of  four,  or  indeflnitely  numerous, 
placed  on  a hemispherical  or  elongated  disk;  the  ovary  one-celled,  the  style  thread-like 
or  wanting;  the  ovules  curved;  the  fruit  either  dry  and  pod-like  (tribe  cleomeoe),  or  a 
berry  (tribe  capparm). — To  this  order  belongs  the  well-known  caper-bush.  See  Capers. 
Many  of  the  species  possess  stimiilant  properties;  some  are  poisonous.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  plants  of  the  order  is  the  siwak  {capparis  sodata),  a bush  or  small  tree, 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  vegetation  of  Africa,  from  the  Great 
Desert  to  the  Niger,  the  small  berries  of  which  have  a pungent  taste  like  pepper,  and, 
when  dried,  constitute  an  important  ingredient  in  the  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  those 
regions;  whilst  the  roots  when  burned  yield  no  small  quantity  of  salt. — Barth's  Travels. 

CAPPE,  Newcome,  1732-1800;  an  English  dissenting  clergyman  who  studied  under 
Doddridge,  and  adhered  to  Dr.  Priestley’s  Unitarian  doctrine.  He  was  pastor  of  a dis- 
senting congregation  in  York  for  more  than  40  years,  and  was  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  eloquent  of  his  denomination.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a number  of  devotional 
works. 

CAPPEL,  a village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Zurich,  and  10  m.  s.s.w.  of  the 
city  of  that  name.  It  is  interesting  as  the  place  where  the  great  reformer  Zwinglius 
wa3  killed  in  a conflict  with  troops  of  the  Roman  Catholic  cantons,  Oct.,  1531.  A 
monument  has  been  erected  here  to  his  memory. 

CAPPEL,  a French  family  of  scholars,  theologians,  and  lawyers.  Guillaume,  in 
1491,  had  the  boldness  to  refuse  the  payment  of  tithes  demanded  by  the  pope.  Jacques, 
his  son,  was  councilor  of  state  under  Francis  I.,  and  in  1537  made  a powerful  speech 
against  Charles  V.  Louis,  son  of  Jacques,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Sedan,  and 
more  than  once  risked  his  life  in  the  cause  of  Protestantism.  One  of  his  acts  was  to 
present  to  Charles  IX.  the  confession  of  faith  drawn  up  by  the  Protestants  of  Paris. 
Two  others,  a son  and  grandson  of  Jacques,  were  distinguished,  one  in  the  law,  and  the 
other  in  theology,  history,  philogy,  and  antiquities.  Both  these  were  named  Jacqu^; 
and  the  younger  was  the  father  of  Louis,  the  most  celebrated  member  of  the  family 
(1585-1658),  who  studied  at  Sedan,  Oxford,  and  Saumur,  and  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  the  latter  place.  He  devoted  much  attention  to  the  text  of  the  Scriptures.  On  th^ 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  I^ouis  fled  to  England,  where  he  died.  His  life  wa» 
published  by  his  nephew  James,  who  at  only  19  years  of  age  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Saumur. 

CAPRA'RA,  Giovanni  Battista,  1733-1810;  an  Italian  statesman  and  bishop,  wh^ 
served  as  papal  legate  or  nuncio  at  Cologne,  Lucerne,  Vienna,  and  to  the  French  repub- 
lic in  1801,  where  he  arranged  the  concordat  of  that  year  re-establishing  the  Roman 
Catholic  form  of  worship.  In  May,  1805,  he  crowned  Napoleon  as  king  of  Italy. 

CAPBE'RA,  or  Cabrera,  one  of  a group  of  smaP  islands  called  the  Buccinari  islands, 
in  the  strait  of  Bonifacio,  to  the  e.  of  the  n.  point  of  Sardinia  (q.v.V  They  belong  to 
the  Italian  province  of  SassarL  C.  is  separated  from  the  coast  of  Sardinia  by  a strait  of 


431 


Cap. 

Caprificatloo* 


.little  more  than  a mile  in  breadth,  and  by  a similar  narrow  strait  from  the  island  of 
Maddalena,  which  lies  to  the  west.  Its  greatest  length,  from  n.  to  s.,  is  about  6 m.,  and 
Its  breadth  is  from  2 to  3 miles.  Like  Maddalena  and  the  rest  of  the  Buccinari 
isles,  and  the  neighboring  coast  of  Sardinia,  C.  is  rocky,  bare,  and  unfertile.  It  has  no 
streams,  and  is  in  few  places  adapted  either  for  the  pasture  of  cattle  or  for  the  plow. 
In  former  times,  it  was  the  abode  only  of  wild  goats — whence  its  name  (Lat.  and  Ital. 
cajyra,  a goat) — and  rabbits,  and  was  occasionally  visited  by  goat-herds  and  fishermcm. 
It  has  of  late  years  acquired  celebrity  as  the  ordinary  residence  of  Garibaldi,  who 
acquired  a property  and  built  a house  here  in  1854.  He  dwelt  here  from  1854  to  1858, 
and  again  made  it  his  abode  in  the  autumn  of  1860.  It  was  to  C.  that  he  was  sent  in 
Sept.,  1867,  in  honorable  banishment  by  the  Italian  government,  after  having  been 
taken  prisoner  at  Asinalunga,  in  consequence  of  his  design  of  entering  the  Roman  terri- 
tory to  promote  an  insurrection  and  overthrow  the  papal  government,  and  in  C.  he  still 
resides,  when  not  in  Rome. 

CA'PRI  (the  ancient  Caprem),  a charming  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  bay  of  Naples,  about  3 m.  from  cape  Campanella,  and  20  m.  s.  of  the  city  of 
Naples.  On  its  small  area  of  about  11  m.  in  circumference,  it  displays  a rich  variety  of 
beautiful  scenery,  ruins  of  antiquity,  and  points  of  historical  interest,  and  contains  a 
pop.  of  about  6,000  souls.  The  island  is  composed  of  two  mountain  masses,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  a depression  like  the  seat  of  a saddle.  That  on  the  w., 
called  monte  Solaro,  which  is  the  highest  and  largest,  has  an  elevation  of  about  1900 
feet.  The  eastern  part  does  not  attain  a height  of  more  than  860  ft.  above  the  sea.  At 
the  base  of  the  eastern  mountain  is  situated  the  town  of  C. , built  on  a shelving  rock, 
and  guarded  by  walls,  gates,  and  draw-bridges,  with  a cathedral,  and  a pop.,  including 
the  district,  of  about  4,000.  It  commands  a beautiful  prospect,  and  communicates  with 
the  little  town  of  Anacapri,  on  the  western  table-land,  % a flight  of  535  rude  steps,  cut  in 
the  face  of  the  rock.  There  are  only  two  safe  landing-places  on  the  island,  and  these 
are  at  C.  and  near  it.  C.  was  a celebrated  place,  in  the  times  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius. 
Ruins  are  still  found  of  Roman  baths  and  aqueducts,  and  of  the  12  grand  villas  or 
palaces  built  in  honor  of  the  12  chief  deities  by  the  emperor  Tiberius,  who  passed  the 
last  10  years  of  his  life  here  in  the  practice  of  the  grossest  licentiousness  and  cruelty. 
The  inhabitants  now  consist  of  flshermen,  sailors,  and  a few  traders,  with  vine-dressers 
and  cultivators  of  olives  in  Anacapri.  Wherever  a tree  can  be  planted,  the  hopeful  and 
industrious  people  have  prepared  for  it  a soil  by  persevering  toil  in  terrace-culture. 
Delicious  quails,  which  in  vast  numbers  alight  on  the  island  during  their  migrations  to 
and  from  Africa,  in  spring  and  autumn,  are  taken  in  nets,  and  form  an  important  item 
in  the  resources  of  Capri.  To  the  w.  of  the  town  of  C.  is  situated  the  Orotta  Azzurra 
<blue  grotto),  a remarkable  cavern,  entered  from  the  sea  by  a narrow  opening  not  more 
than  3 ft.  high.  Inside,  however,  it  is  found  to  be  of  magnificent  proportions,  and  of 
marvelous  beauty,  the  gorgeous  coloring  being  said  to  be  produced  by  the  reflection  and 
refraction  of  the  sun’s  rays  through  the  water.  Elliptical  in  form,  it  has  a length  of  165 
ft.,  a breadth  of  100  in  the  widest  part,  and  a height  of  40  in  the  loftiest,  with  48  ft.  of 
water  beneath. 

CAPRIC'CIO  (Ital.),  in  art,  is  applied  to  a picture  or  other  work  which  designedly  vio- 
lates the  ordinary  rules  of  composition.  Foliated  ornaments,  with  cupids  or  other  fig- 
ures appearing  in  them  in  situations  not  strictly  natural,  are  capriccios. 

CAFRICCIO,  in  music,  is  a species  of  free  composition,  without  being  subject  to  rule 
as  to  form  or  figure.  Locatelli,  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c.,  composed  capriccios  for 
the  violin.  The  most  celebrated  C.  of  modern  times  is  Mendelssohn’s  B minor  C.  for 
pianoforte  and  orchestra. 

CAPRICORNUS,  the  Goat,  a southern  constellation,  and  th^  tenth  sign  of  the  zodiac 
<q.v.);  denoted  by  the  sign  V3,  representing  the  crooked  horns  of  a goat.  It  is  usually 
represented  on  the  globe  as  having  the  forepart  of  a goat,  but  the  hinder  part  of  a fish. 
It  is  one  of  the  least  striking  of  the  zodiacal  constellations.  It  w’^as,  however, 
celebrated  among  the  ancients,  who  regarded  it  as  the  harbinger  of  good-fortune,  and  as 
marking  the  southern  tropic  or  winter  solstice,  wherefore  they  called  it  the  “ Southern 
Gate  of  the  Sun.”  It  contains  no  large  stars,  the  two  largest,  which  are  situated  in  the 
horns,  being  only  of  the  third  magnitude.  Neither  of  these  rises  above  the  horizon  in 
our  latitude.  See  Tropics. 

CAP'RIDS,  a family  of  ruminant  quadrupeds,  which,  as  defined  by  some  naturalists, 
may  be  described  as  the  sheep  and  goat  family,  including  the  Linnaean  genera  oms  (sheep, 
q.v.)  and  eapra  (goat,  q.v,);  but  which  is  extended  by  others  to  include  antelopes,  their 
persistent  horns  being  regarded  as  the  great  distinction  between  them  and  the  cermdoe  or 
deer  family.  In  the  more  restricted  sense,  the  name  designates  a very  natural  family, 
yet  differing  from  the  hovidcB  or  ox  family  more  in  general  appearance  than  in  other 
characters;  whilst  links  of  connection  with  the  antelopes  are  not  wanting,  a very 
remarkable  one  being  found  in  the  prong-horn  of  America. 

CAPRIFICATION,  a method  which  has  long  been  employed  in  the  Levant  for  securing 
and  hastening  the  maturation  of  figs,  and  which  consists  in  suspending  fruit-bearing 
branches  of  the  wild  fig  above  or  beside  those  of  the  cultivated  tree.  The  notion  once 


Caprifoliaceae. 

Captain. 


432 


entertained,  that  this  practice  is  analogous  to  that  by  which  the  fecundation  of  the? 
female  palm-tree  is  secured,  is  inconsistent  with  the  now  well-known  fact,  that  the  fig  ha& 
both  male  and  female  flowers  within  its  own  receptacle;  and  it  is  therefore  supposed 
that  the  effects  of  C.  may  result  from  the  agency  of  a species  of  insect,  of  which  the 
eggs  have  been  deposited  in  the  early  wild  figs,  and  which  may  promote  fecundation  by 
entering  the  receptacle  of  the  cultivated  fig,  or  perhaps  by  puncturing  it  may  cause  it  to 
ripen  sooner.  In  hope  of  a similar  advantage,  some  French  and  English  cultivators  have- 
inserted  into  figs  straws  dipped  in  olive-oil.  But  C.  is  scarcely  practiced  in  the  western 
parts  of  Europe,  and  has  even  been  discontinued  as  unnecessary  in  some  parts  of  the 
east  where  it  once  prevailed. 

CAPEIFOLIA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  shrubs  and 
herbaceous  plants,  which  have  opposite  leaves  without  stipules,  and  flowers  disposed  in 
corymbs,  in  heads,  or  in  whorls.  The  calyx  is  4 to  5 cleft ; the  corolla  monopetalous, 
tubular,  or  wheel-shaped,  sometimes  irregular.  The  stamens  are  adherent  to  the  corolla 
at  its  base,  and  alternate  with  its  lobes.  The  ovary  is  free,  1 to  5 celled.  The  fruit  is 
generally  a berry,  sometimes  dry,  but  not  splitting  open  when  ripe.  The  order  is  very 
nearly  related  to  cinchonacem,  differing  chiefly  in  the  want  of  stipules.  More  than  200 
species  are  known,  chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  To  this  order  belong  the  honeysuckle,  elder,  viburnum,  and  snowberry. 
Emetic  and  cathartic  properties  are  prevalent  in  it. 

CAPRIMUL'GID.E,  a family  of  birds,  of  the  order  insessores,  and  tribe  Jissirostres, ' 
nearly  allied  to  the  hinindmid(jB  or  swallow  tribe,  but  differing  from  them  in  the  still 
greater  width  of  gape,  and  in  having  long  stiff  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  They  are 
insectivorous  birds.  They  have  very  long  wings,  short  legs,  and  toes  united  at  the  base 
by  a membrane.  The  European  goatsucker  may  be  said  to  be  the  type  of  the  family, 
which  includes  also  the  whip-poor-will  and  night-hawk  of  America,  with  many  other 
species  widely  distributed  over  the  globe,  and  now  arranged  by  naturalists  in  a number 
of  genera. 

CAPRO'IC,  Capry'lic,  and  Capric  Acids  are  represented  by  the  formulae  Ci!iHi204» 
C16H16O4,  and  C20H20O4,  and  are  members  of  the  acetic  or  fatty-acid  series.  They  derive 
their  names  from  capra,  a goat,  in  consequence  of  their  more  or  less  resembling  in  smell 
the  odor  of  that  animal.  They  may  all  be  obtained  from  butter  by  pressing  out  the  por- 
tion which  remains  liquid  at  60°,  saponifying  this  oil,  and  distilling  the  soap  which  is 
thus  formed  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  liquid  which  passes  over  contains  these  three 
acids,  together  with  butyric  acid,  which,  by  being  converted  into  baryta  salts,  are  separa- 
ble from  one  another.  All  three  of  these  acids  are  also  obtained  by  the  oxidation  of 
oleic  acid  by  nitric  acid ; and  capric  acid  is  also  obtained  by  acting  upon  oil  of  rue  with 
fuming  nitric  acid;  hence  it  is  frequently  called  rutic  acid. 

CAPSA'LI,  a seaport  t.  of  the  Ionian  islands,  capital  of  Cerigo,  or  Cythera,  is  built 
upon  a narrow  ridge,  terminating  in  a precipitous  rock  near  the  s.  end  of  the  island.  It 
has  an  old  castle  and  a good  harbor.  Pop.  5,000. 

CAPS  AND  HATS,  names  of  political  parties  in  Sweden  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
c. , the  former  favoring  and  the  latter  opposing  the  alliance  with  Russia. 

GAFSICINE,  an  alkaloid,  is  the  active  principle  in  capsicum  or  Cayenne  pepper,  and 
can  be  obtained  from  it.  It  is  a thick  liquid,  of  a reddish  color,  and  possessing  such 
acrid  properties  that  half  a grain  diffused  through  a large  room  causes  every  one  therein 
to  sneeze  violently. 

CAPSICUM,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  solanacm,  having  a wheel-shaped 
corolla,  projecting  and  converging  stamens,  and  a dry  berry.  The  species  are  all  of  a 
shrubby,  bushy  appearance,  and  have  more  or  less  woody  stems,  although  they  are 
annual  or  biennial  plants.  The  number  of  species  is  very  uncertain,  some  botanists  dis- 
tinguishing many,  whilst  others  regard  them  as  mere  varieties  of  a few.  They  are  natives 
of  the  warm  parts  of  America  and  of  Asia,  have  simple  leaves,  and  rather  inconspicuous 
flowers,  and  some  of  them  are  in  very  general  cultivation  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
countries  for  their  fruit,  which  is  extremely  pungent  and  stimulant,  and  is  employed  in 
sauces,  mixed  pickles,  etc. , often  under  its  Mexican  name  of  chillies;  and  when  dried  and 
ground  forms  the  spice  called  Cayenne  pepper.  As  a condiment  it  improves  the  flavor  of 
food,  aids  digestion,  and  prevents  flatulence.  In  tropical  countries,  it  counteracts  the 
enervating  influence  of  external  heat.  In  medicine,  it  is  used  as  a stimulant,  rubefacient, 
and  vesicant ; is  often  administered  in  combination  with  cinchona ; and  is  particularly 
valuable  both  internally  administered  and  as  a gargle ; not  only  in  relaxed  conditions  of 
the  throat,  but  in  some  of  those  diseases  in  which  the  throat  is  most  dangerously  affected. 
As  a medicine,  C.  is  administered  in  pills,  mixed  with  bread;  in  the  form  of  tincture, 
obtained  by  digesting  the  bruised  C.  in  alcohol,  or  of  an  infusion,  procured  by  digestion 
in  water,  with  varying  proportions  of  salt  and  vinegar.  A gargle  of  C.  is  prepared  by 
infusing  it  in  water,  along  with  candy-sugar  and  vinegar,  and  thereafter  adding  a little 
infusion  of  roses.  It  has  no  narcotic  properties.  It  owes  its  power  chiefly  to  capsicine 
(q.v.).  The  fruits  of  the  different  species  of  C.  differ  in  form,  being  round,  oval,  coni- 
cal, heart-shaped,  etc. ; they  vary  from  half  an  inch  to  4 in.  in  length,  and  are  sometimes 
of  a bright  red,  sometimes  of  a yellow  color.  In  all,  the  dry  berry  has  an  inflated  appear- 


433 


Caprifoliaceee. 

Captain. 


ance,  and  contains  numerous  whitish  flattened  seeds,  which  are  even  more  pungent  than 
the  leathery  epidermis,  or  the  spongy  pulp.  Cayenne  pepper  consists  chiefly  of  the 
ground  seeds.  G.  annuum,  sometimes  called  common  C.,  or  Chilly  pepper,  is  perhaps 
the  most  common  species  in  cultivation ; and  in  the  sourthern  parts  of  Britain,  if  raised 
on  a hot-bed  as  a tender  annual,  it  produces  fruit  in  the  open  border.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  it.  C.  frutescens,  sometimes  called  goat  pepper,  and  G.  haccatum,  sometimes 
called  bird  pepper,  have  great  pungency,  and  the  former  is  generally  described  as  the 
true  Cayenne  pepper.  G.  cerasiforme,  with  a small  clierry-like  fruit,  and  therefore  called 
cherry  pepper,  and  G.  grossum,  with  a large,  oblong,  or  ovate  fruit,  known  as  bell 
pepper,  are  frequently  cultivated. — The  fruit  is  used  either  ripe  or  unripe,  except  for 
making  Cayenne  pepper,  for  which  ripe  fruit  is  employed.  The  fruit  brought  from 
South  America  is  sometimes  sold  by  druggists  under  the  name  Guinea  pepper. 

CAPSTAN,  on  shipboard,  is  a ponderous  mass  of  timber,  whose  uses  are  to  heave 
the  anchor,  hoist  up  masts  and  guns,  take  in  and  discharge  cargo,  etc.  It  has  very  firm 
supports  on  the  deck  underneath  it.  It  comprises  a barrel,  round  which  a rope  or  a 
chain  coils ; whelps,  or  pieces  of  timber,  which  enlarge  the  diameter  without  greatly 
increasing  the  weight ; the  drum-head,  a polygonal  flat  piece  of  timber  at  the  top,  pierced 
laterally  with  holes;  the  step,  or  lowest  part,  which  rests  upon  and  is  bolted  to  the  beams; 
the  saucer,  an  iron  socket  let  into  the  top  of  the  step ; the  piwt  or  spindle,  which,  resting 
on  the  saucer,  forms  the  axis  around  which  the  C.  turns;  the  pawls,  short  bars  of  iron, 
to  prevent  the  reaction  of  the  C. ; bars,  which  enter  the  holes,  and  are  the  levers  for 
enabling  the  sailors  to  work  the  C. ; pins,  placed  vertically  through  the  drum-head,  for 
temporarily  retaining  the  bars  in  their  places;  and  the  shifter,  a rope  connecting  the  outer 
ends  of  the  bars.  Among  many  improvements  made  in  the  arrangement  and  action  of 
capstans  is  Wardill’s,  for  increasing  the  bite  or  holding  of  a chain-cable  around  the  cir- 
cumference. In  large  vessels  they  are  generally  worked  by  steam. 

CAPSULE,  in  botany,  a dry  fruit,  syncarpous  (or  formed  of  several  carpels  united 
together  into  one),  and  opening  either  by  valves,  as  in  the  fox-glove,  primrose,  and  rho- 
dodendron, or  by  pores  near  the  summit,  which  some  regard  as  a sort  of  valves,  and  of 
which  beautiful  examples  may  be  seen  in  the  poppy  and  snapdragon.  Capsules  are 
either  one-celled  or  many-celled.  The  pyxidium  is  a variety  of  C.,  which  opens  as  if  cut 
around  near  the  summit,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a cup  with  a lid,  of  which  a very 
beautiful  example  may  be  seen  in  the  anagallis,  or  pimpernel ; and  another  in  the  great 
woody  fruit  of  the  different  species  of  lecythis  and  other  lecythidacem. 

CAPTAIN,  Militaky,  is  perhaps  the  most  general  designation  given  to  an  officer  of 
land  forces;  something  equivalent  to  it  being  found  in  most  European  languages.  As 
a word,  it  simply  means  a head  or  leader,  and  may  be  applied  to  a chief  over  any  number 
of  men.  Gaptain-general  is  in  some  countries  a very  high  command.  In  the  time  of 
queen  Elizabeth,  there  was,  among  other  high  military  officers,  a capt.gen.  of  footmen. 
In  the  organization  of  the  British  army  at  the  present  day,  there  is  one  C.  to  every  com- 
pany of  infantry,  and  every  troop  of  cavalry.  Formerly  every  battery  of  artillery  had 
two  captains — a first  and  a second,  the  latter  being  called  capt.lieut.  Now,  the  first  in 
command  has  the  title  of  maj.,  and  the  second  that  of  capt.  The  first  in  command  of  a 
battery  of  artillery,  even  when  styled  C.,  was  considered  higher  than  a C.  of  infantry 
or  cavalry,  and  was  privileged  to  be  mentioned  by  name  in  military  dispatches  like 
cols,  and  majs. 

The  duty  of  the  C.  is  to  see  to  the  men  of  his  company  in  everything  that  relates 
to  discipline,  exercises,  billeting,  pay,  settlement  of  accounts,  mess,  kit,  clothing,  arms, 
ammunition,  accouterments,  stores,  barracks,  cooking,  etc. ; to  receive  orders  concern- 
ing these  matters  from  the  maj.,  and  to  enforce  these  orders  among  the  men.  He  is 
responsible  to  the  maj.,  and  is  assisted  in  his  duties  by  the  lieut.  and  sub-lieut.  The 
number  of  captains  on  the  peace  establishment  of  the  British  army,  in  its  several 
branches,  are  about  239  cavalry,  1236  infantry,  248  artillery,  115  for  engineers,  and  28 
for  colonial  corps — 1866  in  all,  in  full  commission.  The  former  value  of  a C.’s  com- 
mission, and  the  circumstances  of  purchase  connected  with  it,  are  noticed  under  Com- 
missions, Akmy. 

CAPTAIN,  Militaky  {ante).  In  the  II.  S.  army  a C.  is  responsible  for  the  camp 
and  garrison  equipage  and  the  arms  and  clothing  of  his  company.  The  rank  is  between 
lieutenant  and  major. 

CAPTAIN,  Naval,  is  the  general  designation  for  the  commander  of  a ship.  It  is 
not  universal,  for  some  vessels  of  war  are  commanded  by  officers  lower  in  rank  than  C. ; 
while  the  chief  officer  of  a merchant- vessel  is  often  called  master.  The  commanders  of 
all  rated  ships  are  capts.  The  capts.  rise  to  the  command  of  larger  and  larger  ships, 
with  increase  of  pa^,  according  to  length  of  service.  The  C.  is  responsible  for  every- 
thing on  shipboard,  in  discipline,  navigation,  equipment — all,  in  short,  that  concerns  the 
personnel  or  the  materiel  of  the  ship.  If  his  ship  belongs  to  a particular  fleet  or  naval 
station,  he  is  responsible  to  some  admiral  or  commodore ; if  not,  he  is  directly  responsi- 
ble to  the  admir^ty.  The  C.  of  that  particular  ship  in  a fleet  which  carries  the  admiral 
is  called  C.,  and  is  for  the  moment  higher  in  rank  than  others.  A naval  officer  is 
always  on  half-pay,  except  when  attached  to  a ship  in  actual  commission;  and  thus  in 
U.  K.  III.— 28 


Captain. 
Cap  u lets. 


434 


times  of  peace  there  have  been  always  more  naval  capts.  on  half  than  on  full  pay; 
but  recent  measures  have  been  adopted  Ito  assuage  this  evil.  The  number  of  capts.  in 
the  naval  service  during  peace  are  about  83  in  commission  on  full-pay.  About  142  are 
on  half-pay,  under  the  designation  of  the  active  list;  these  are  eligible  for  re-employment; 
while  on  the  reserved  list  and  the  retired  list  there  are  426  more.  They  rank  in  dignity 
with  lieut.cols.  in  the  army,  and  with  cols,  after  three  years’  service. 

The  word  C.  is  used  in  other  \\^ays  also  in  the  navy.  The  C.  of  the  fleet  is  a temporary 
oflScer  in  large  fleets ; he  promulgates  the  admiral’s  orders,  and  receives  all  the  reports 
and  returns.  Ailing,  in  short,  a post  equivalent  to  that  of  chief  of  the  staff  in  an  army. 
Among  the  seamen  on  board  a ship,  the  chief  of  each  gang  is  called  C. ; such  as  the  G. 
of  the  after-guard,  of  the  forecastle,  of  the  hold,  of  the  main-top,  of  each  gun,  etc. 

CAPTAIN,  Naval  {ante),  in  the  U.  S.  navy,  ranks  with  a col.  in  the  army,  and  next 
below  a flag-officer  in  the  navy.  Before  the  war  of  the  rel  ellion  there  was  no  definite 
legal  rank  in  the  navy  higher  than  captain.  A C.  of  marines  ranks  with  a lieutenant 
in  the  navy  and  with  C.  in  the  army. 

CAPTION,  in  the  practice  of  the  law  of  England,  may  be  defined  as  that  part  of  a 
legal  instrument  which  shows  the  authority  under  which  it  is  executed,  or  taken,  as  the 
word  implies.  It  also  states  the  time  and  place  of  the  execution.  The  word  C.  is  also 
improperly  used  in  England  to  signify  an  arrest — a meaning  which  it  strictly  and  tech- 
nically bears  in  Scotland,  where,  until  the  passing  of  the  1 and  2 Viet.  c.  114,  called  the 
personal  diligence  act,  which  authorizes  more  simple  forms  of  legal  process,  it  was  the 
only  recognized  civil  warrant  for  the  apprehension  of  a debtor  or  obligee.  This  word  is 
also  used  in  Scotland  to  denote  a summary  warrant  of  imprisonment,  granted  on  the 
application  of  the  clerk  of  court,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  back  the  pleadings  and 
other  papers  in  a lawsuit,  which  had  been  borrow^ed  by  the  party  against  whom  tl  e C. 
has  issued,  and  by  whom  they  are  unduly  and  illegally  retained.  See  on  the  subject  of 
this  article  Indictment,  Commission,  Diligence,  Waekant,  Horning. 

CAPTIVES.  It  is  laid  down  by  Blackstone,  that,  as  in  the  goods  of  an  enemy,  so  also 
in  his  person,  a man  may  acquire  a sort  of  qualified  property  in  him  as  a captive,  or 
prisoner  of  war — at  least  till  the  ransom  of  the  captive  is  paid.  In  Scotland,  all  legal 
proceedings  against  a captive  are  stopped  till  his  liberation,  although,  in  some  cases, 
execution  against  his  estate  may  proceed. 

CAPTURE  may  be  simply  defined  as  prize  taken  in  time  of  war.  The  law  on  this 
subject  is  stated  with  precision  in  a paper  addressed  on  behalf  of  the  British  govern- 
ment to  the  American  ambassador  at  London  in  Sept.,  1794:  “ When  two  powers  are  at 
war,  they  have  a right  to  make  prizes  of  the  ships,  goods,  and  effects  of  each  other, 
upon  the  high  seas.  Whatever  is  the  property  of  the  enemy,  may  be  acquired  by  cap- 
ture at  sea;  but  the  property  of  a friend  cannot  be  taken,  provided  he  observes  his  neu- 
trality. Hence  the  law  of  nations  has  established — that  the  goods  of  an  enemy  on 
board  the  ship  of  a friend  may  be  taken — that  the  lawful  goods  of  a friend  on  board 
the  ship  of  an  enemy  ought  to  be  restored — that  contraband  goods  going  to  the  enemy, 
though  the  property  of  a friend,  may  be  taken  as  prize ; because  supplying  the  enemy 
with  what  enables  him  better  to  carry  on  the  war,  is  a departure  from  neutrality.” 
The  procedure  to  be  adopted  for  determining  whether  the  C.  be  or  be  not  lawful  prize, 
is  now  regaulted  by  the  3 and  4 Viet.  c.  65. 

During  the  Russian  war  in  1854,  there  appeared  in  the  London  Gazette,  under  date 
the  28th  Mar.,  of  that  year,  a declaration  stating,  inter  alia,  that  her  majesty  would 
waive  the  right  of  seizing  enemy’s  property  laden  on  board  a neutral  vessel,  unless  it  be 
contraband  of  war,  and  that  it  was  not  her  majesty’s  intention  to  issue  letters  of 
marque  for  the  commissioning  of  privateers.  The  right  of  seizing  enemy’s  property  on 
board  a neutral  vessel,  whether  contraband  of  war  or  not,  had  always  before  been  main- 
tained by  England.  On  the  re-establishment  of  peace  with  Russia,  a treaty  was  signed, 
and  the  following  declarations  adopted:  1.  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished;  2. 

A neutral  flag  covers  an  enemy’s  goods,  wdth  the  exception  of  contraband  of  war;  3. 
Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  C.  under  an 
enemy’s  flag;  4.  Blockades,  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be  effectual — that  is  to  say, 
maintained  by  force  sufficient  to  prevent  effectually  access  to  the  coast  of  the  eneiny. 

As  to  the  right  to  property  captured  from  the  enemy,  and  its  distribution  as  prize  or 
booty  of  war  among  the  officers  and  men  of  the  army  and  navy,  see  Booty  and  Prize. 

CAPTURE  {ante).  See  International  Law,  ante. 

CAP'UA,  a fortified  city  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  beautifully  situated  in  a 
rich  plain,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volturno,  about  18  m.  n.  of  the  city  of  Naples,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  a military  station  of  the  first  class,  its  defenses 
having  been  greatly  extended  and  improved  by  Vauban.  As  it  is  the  only  fortress 
which  guards  the  approach  to  Naples  from  the  n.,  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  keys  of 
the  former  kingdom  of  that  name.  The  only  objects  of  interest  in  the  city  are  the  cathe- 
dral, with  some  splendid  granite  columns  from  ancient  Ca&ilinum,  upon  whose  site  C. 
was  built  in  the  9th  c.;  the  church  of  Annumiata  yfiGa.  some  bas-reliefs;  and  the 
arch  of  the  Piazza  dei  Oiudici,  under  which  many  ancient  inscriptions  still  exist.  Pop. 
’71, 12,174 


435 


Captain. 

Capulets. 


The  ancient  Ca/pua,  which  enjoyed  a reputation  for  wealth  and  population  second 
only  to  Rome  and  Carthage,  was  situated  about  2 m.  s.e.  of  the  present  city,  where  its 
ruins  are  still  to  be  seen,  its  site  being  occupied  by  the  modern  town  of  Santa  Maria  di 
Capua.  C.  was  founded  by  the  Etruscans,  under  the  name  of  VoUurnum,  as  early, 
according  to  some  authorities,  as  800  b.c.,  and  was  the  chief  city  of  the  twelve  said  ta 
have  been  founded  by  them  in  this  part  of  Italy.  Its  present  name  was  derived  from 
the  Samnites,  who  captured  it  in  423  b.c.  After  the  battle  of  Cannae,  216  b.c.,  the 
popular  party  opened  the  gates  to  Hannibal,  whose  army  was  greatly  enervated  by  its 
luxurious  winter-quarters  here.  The  Romans  obtained  possession  of  the  city  in  211  b.c. 
In  the  5th  c.,  a.d.,  C.  was  devastated  by  the  Vandals  under  Genseric.  It  recovered  its 
prosperity  again  to  some  extent,  but  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  840. 
The  citizens,  who  had  fled  to  the  mountains,  were  induced  by  their  bishop  to  return 
some  16  years  later,  and  found  the  modern  Capua.  From  the  existing  remains  of  the 
walls  and  fortifleations  of  ancient  C.,  it  has  been  estimated  that  it  had  a circumfer- 
ence of  5 or  6 miles.  It  had  seven  gates.  Among  the  Roman  antiquities,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  amphitheater,  built  of  bricks,  and  faced  with  white  marble. 
Well-preserved  arches,  corridors,  and  seats  for  spectators,  still  remain.  It  is  calculated 
to  have  been  capable  of  holding  60,000  persons,  and  must  have  been  altogether  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  buildings  of  the  kind  in  Italy. 

CAP'UCHIN  MONKEY,  or  Capuchin  Sapajou,  a name  often  given  to  cehus  capucliu 
nus,  and  some  other  species  of  the  genus  cebus,  South  American  monkeys,  which  have 
the  head  covered  with  short  hair,  so  disposed  as  to  resemble  the  cowl  of  a capuchin, 
the  face  being  almost  naked,  or  only  covered  with  a little  down.  See  Cebus.  Pithe- 
cia  chiropotes,  a South  American  monkey  of  a genus  allied  to  cehus,  is  also  sometimes 
called  the  C.  M. , or  capuchin  of  the  Orinoco. 

CAP'TJCHINS,  a branch  of  the  order  of  Franciscans  (q.v.l,  so  designated  from  the 
capuche  which  is  their  head-dress. 

CAPU'CHINS,  ante,  a branch  of  the  Franciscan  order  whose  rule  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  friars  minor,  or  Minorites.  They  were  founded  by  Matthew  da  Bassi, 
a Franciscan  of  Ancora,  and  were  authorized  by  a bull  of  Clement  VII.  in  1528.  At 
first  they  were  persecuted  by  the  other  orders,  but  through  the  influence  of  the  duchess 
Cibo,  wife  of  the  duke  of  Camerino,  they  obtained  papal  favor,  and  were  permitted  to 
impart  their  peculiar  hooded  habit  to  any  who  might  be  willing  to  join  them,  to  live  as 
hermits  in  wild  and  desolate  places,  to  go  barefoot,  to  wear  beards,  and  to  call  them- 
selves “ Hermits  Friars  Minor.”  The  pope,  however,  soon  gave  them  the  nickname 
“ Cappucino,”  referring  to  the  hood,  one  of  their  more  conspicuous  articles  of  apparel. 
They  grew  rapidly,  and  Matthew  became  the  superior  of  the  first  convent.  They  have 
always  had  the  reputation  of  great  success  in  making  converts.  By  late  accounts  they 
had  82  missions,  in  Europe,  Asia,  the  East  Indies,  Africa,  and  South  America.  In  the 
United  States  they  have  houses  in  the  states  of  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Wisconsin, 
Nuns  of  the  order  were  first  established  at  Naples  in  1538. 

CAPUDAN-PASHA',  the  high  admiral  of  Turkey.  He  has  the  entire  command  of  the 
navy  and  the  management  of  all  naval  affairs.  The  port  of  Pera,  the  Turkish  islands 
in  the  archipelago,  and  a number  of  seaports  and  maritime  districts,  are  under  him. 
even  in  their  civil  administration. 

CAPXJLETS  AND  MONTAGUES,  the  English  spelling  of  the  names  of  the  Cappelletti  and 
Montecchi,  two  noble  families  of  northern  Italy,  chiefly  memorable  from  their  connec- 
tion with  the  legend  on  which  Shakespeare  has  founded  his  play  of  Borneo  and  Juliet. 
According  to  tradition,  both  families  belonged  to  Verona;  but  this  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  the  case.  The  Cappelletti  were  of  Cremona,  and  the  fact  that  their  burying- 
ground  and  the  tomb  of  Juliet  are  shown  at  Verona,  only  proves  how  easy  it  is,  in  a 
country  of  ruins  like  Italy,  to  connect  fact  with  fable.  It  has  also  been  asserted  that  one 
family  was  Guelph  and  the  other  Ghibelline;  but  this  is  disproved  by  a reference  to  them 
in  the  Purgatorio  of  Dante  (canto  vi.  1.  106).  The  poet  is  blaming  the  emperor  Albert 
for  neglecting  Italy,  the  very  garden  of  his  domain.  “ Reckless  man,”  he  says,  “ come 
see  how  the  Montecchi  and  the  Cappelletti  are  oppressed ;”  and  the  context  shows  that 
the  Guelphs  were  the  oppressors  in  both  cases  of  these  great  Ghibelline  families.  The 
emperor  Albert  was  murdered  in  1308,  and  this  event  has  supplied  the  Veronese  with  a 
date  for  their  legend.  The  first  publication  in  which  we  recognize  the  essential  inci- 
dents of  Shakspeare’s  play  is  the  novel  La  Qiulietta,  by  Luigi  da  Porto,  printed  in  1535, 
after  the  death  of  the  author.  He  states,  in  an  epistle  prefixed  to  the  work,  that  the 
story  was  told  him  “by  one  Perigrino,  a man  fifty  years  of  age,  much  experienced  in 
the  art  of  war,  a pleasant  companion,  and,  like  almost  all  the  Veronese,  a great  talker.” 
In  1554,  Bandello  published  in  his  collection  of  tales  another  Italian  version  of  the 
legend.  It  was  entitled  The  unfortunate  Death  of  two  unhappy  Lovers,  one  hy  Poison  a'nd 
the  other  of  Orief.  Both  writers  fix  the  date  of  the  event  by  saying  it  took  place  when 
Bartholomew  dalla  Scala  or  Scaliger  ruled  Verona.  A French  version  of  the  tale  was 
published  by  Pierre  Borsteau  in  Belief orest’s  Histoires  Tragiques.  It  was  translated  into 
English  in  1567,  and  published  in  Painter’s  Palace  of  Pleasure.  About  the  same  time, 
Arthur  Brooke  published  an  English  poem  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  The  Tragicsal 


Caput. 

Caracci 


436 


History  of  Romeus  and  Juliet,  written  first  in  Italian  hy  Bandell,  and  now  in  English. 
Tliere  is  evidence  that  an  English  play  had  appeared  previously,  and  that  before  Shake- 
speare’s time  the  story  was  so  well  known  in  England  that  it  had  supplied  subjects 
for  tapestries.  Shakespeare’s  play  seems  to  have  been  principally  based  on  the  English 
poem.  It  was  Brooke  who  first  called  the  Montecchi  Montagues,  and  the  prince  of 
Verona  Escalus,  instead  of  Scala.  Wright  and  Cary,  in  translating  Dante,  have  followed 
the  example  of  Shakespeare,  and  render  the  Italian  names  of  the  Divina  Commedia  into 
the  familiar  “ Capulets  and  Montagues”  of  Romeo  and  Juliet.  The  historical  date  of  the 
tragedy  has  not,  however,  been  adopted  by  modern  stage  managers  and  Shakespearian 
critics,  who  very  properly  bring  down  the  action  from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of 
the  14th  c.,  when  commercial  opulence,  and  the  revival  of  arts  and  letters,  supply  acces- 
sories more  in  keeping  with  the  drama  than  the  ruder  age  to  which  history  must  assign 
the  “civil  broils”  and  the  fall  of  the  Capulets  and  the  Montagues. — See  notes  to  Dante 
in  Classici  Italiani,  and  Knight’s  and  Dyce’s  Shakespeare. 

CAP  UT  MOR'TUUM  VITKI'OLI,  or  Colcothar,  is  the  name  given  by  the  alchemists 
to  the  red  powder  (mainly  red  oxide  of  iron)  which  remains  in  the  retorts  when  green 
vitriol  or  the  sulphate  of  iron  is  calcined. 

CAFY'BARA,  Hydrocho&rus  capyhara,  a quadruped  of  the  order  glires  or  rodentia,  and 
of  the  family  cavidce,  strongly  resembling  the  cavy  or  Guinea-pig,  although  it  is  the  lar- 
gest existing  rodent  known,  and  aquatic  in  its  habits.  It  is  a native  of  South  America, 
and  abounds  in  many  of  the  large  tropical  rivers.  It  is  equal  in  size  to  a small  pig.  The 
dentition  resembles  that  of  the  cavy,  except  that  the  grinding  teeth  are  composed  of 
numerous  transverse  plates,  the  number  of  the  plates  increasing  as  the  animal  advances 
in  age ; an  interesting  point  of  resemblance  to  the  dentition  of  the  elephant,  and  a link 
of  connection  between  the  rodents  and  the  pachydermata.  The  C.  feeds  exclusively 
on  vegetable  food,  browsing  on  the  grass  near  the  rivers,  and  often  committing  great 
ravages  in  plantations  of  sugar-cane.  It  runs  badly,  but  swims  and  dives  well,  and  has 
the  power  of  remaining  under  water  for  seven  or  eight  minutes.  It  is  very  inoffensive, 
and  easily  tamed.  The  fiesh,  except  that  of  old  males,  is  good,  and  is  eaten  by  all  classes 
of  persons.  The  C.  is  sometimes  called  water-hog,  oi  ysihich.  hydrocTmrus' is,  a Greek 
translation.  In  Demerara,  it  is  called  water-horse,  a corruption  of  the  Dutch  water  haas 
— i.e.  water-hare. 

CARAB'IDJE,  a tribe  of  beetles,  or  coleopterous  insects,  of  the  section  pentamera  (see 
Coleoptera),  corresponding  with  the  genus  carabus  of  Linnjeus,  but  of  which  the 
species  are  extremely  numerous,  those  already  known  being  numbered  by  thousands. 
They  mostly  feed  on  other  insects,  worms,  etc.,  and  are  extremely  voracious  and  active, 
habits  which  are  fully  shared  by  their  larvae.  Some  of  them  burrow  in  the  earth;  most 
of  them  live  under  stones,  under  the  bark  of  trees,  among  moss,  etc. ; and  their  bodies 
are  adapted  to  this  mode  of  life,  being  very  firm  and  hard.  Their  legs  are  in  general 
pretty  long,  and  most  of  them  pursue  their  prey  rather  by  the  use  of  their  legs  than  of 
their  wings,  some  of  them  indeed  being  wingless,  or  having  only  rudimentary  wings. 
Many  of  them  exhibit  much  beauty  of  colors  and  metallic  lustre.  The  largest  British 
species  is  only  about  an  inch  long,  but  some  foreign  ones  are  much  larger.  Some  of  the 
species  of  the  restricted  genus  carabus  are  among  the  most  common  British  insects. 
Their  wings  are  not  fitted  for  flight. — A very  large  and  singular  insect  of  the  tribe  C.  is 
mormolyce  phyllodes,  a native  of  Java,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  extremely  depressed 
form  of  its  body,  resembles  some  of  the  mantidce  (q.v,),  and  the  insects  known  as  leaf- 
insects  (q.v,).  To  this  tribe  belong  also  the  bombardier  beetles  (q.v.). 

CARBIDES,  formerly  termed  Carburets,  are  compounds  of  carbon  with  metal 
None  of  them  occur  in  a natural  state. 

CARABO'BO,  a state  in  Venezuela  on  the  Caribbean  sea;  a fertile  well-watered 
region,  producing  grains,  fruits,  and  cattle.  The  chief  exports  are  coffee,  cacao,  indigo, 
rice,  corn,  rum,  and  fruits.  The  climate  is  good  in  the  inland  region,  but  the  coast  is 
subject  to  fevers.  Capital,  Valencia. 

CARABOU.  See  Reindeer. 

CARACAL,  Felis  caracal,  a species  of  lynx  (q.v.),  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia, 
and  throughout  the  whole  of  Africa;  and  more  probably  than  any  European  species,  tho 
lynx  of  the  ancients.  It  is  larger  than  a fox,  about  the  same  height,  but  much  monj 
powerful ; of  a uniform  deep  brown  or  wine-red  color,  except  two  spots  near  each  eye, 
the  under  parts  of  the  body,  and  inner  parts  of  the  legs,  which  are  white,  and  tufts  of 
long  black  hair  which  terminate  the  ears.  The  C.  is  powerful  enough  to  tear  a hound 
to  pieces.  It  is  often  represented  as  of  a very  savage  disposition ; but  it  is  capable  of 
being  tamed,  and  has  been  employed  in  hunting. 

CARACALLA,  properly  named  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  Bassianus,  a Roman 
emperor,  the  son  of  the  emperor  Septimius  Severus,  was  b.  at  Lyon,  188  a.d.  He 
was  playfully  named  by  his  father  Caracalla,  from  his  long  hooded  tunic,  made  in  the 
fashion  of  the  Gauls,  and  so  called  in  their  language.  After  his  father’s  death,  211  a.d., 
he  ascended  the  throne  as  co-regent  with  his  brother  Publius  Septimius  Antoninus  Geta, 
whom  he  afterwards  caused  to  be  murdered.  Having  bribed  (at  enormous  cost)  the 
Praetorians  to  overlook  this  foul  deed,  and  to  make  him  sole  emperor,  C.  next  directed  his 


437 


Caput. 

Caracci. 


cruelty  against  all  the  friends  and  adherents  of  Geta,  of  whom  twenty  thousand  of  both 
sexes — including  the  great  jurist  Papinianus — were  put  to  death.  Innumerable  acts  of 
oppression  and  robbery  were  employed  to  raise  supplies  for  the  unbounded  extravagance 
of  the  despot,  and  to  pay  his  soldiers.  In  his  famous  constitution,  he  bestowed  Roman 
citizenship  on  all  his  free  subjects  not  citizens — who  formed  the  majority,  especially  in 
the  provinces — but  simply  in  order  to  levy  a greater  amount  of  taxes  on  releases  and 
heritages,  which  were  paid  only  by  citizens.  In  his  campaigns,  he  imitated,  at  one  time, 
Alexander,  at  another  time,  Sulla;  while  his  main  object  was  to  oppress  and  exhaust  the 
provinces  which  had  been  in  a great  measure  spared  by  the  tyranny  of  former  emperorSr 
In  217,  he  was  assassinated,  at  the  instigation  of  Macrinus,  prefect  of  the  Praetorians,  by 
one  of  his  veterans  named  Martialis,  on  the  8th  of  April,  217,  on  the  wa}’’  from  Edessa  to 
Carrhae.  Historians  paint  the  life  of  C.  in  the  darkest  colors.  Among  the  buildings  of 
C.  in  Rome,  the  baths — Thermae  Caracallae — near  Porta  Capena  were  most  celebrated, 
and  their  ruins  are  still  magnificent. 

CABACABA,  or  Caracara  Eagle  {polyhorus),  a genus  of  birds  of  prey  peculiar  to 
America,  and  regarded  as  a connecting-link  between  eagles  and  vultures ; agreeing  with 
the  former  in  th^eir  strongly  hooked  bill  and  claws,  but  with  the  latter  in  their  naked 
face  and  propensity  to  prey  on  carrion.  The  name  C.  is  originally  Brazilian,  and  is 
derived  from  the  peculiar  hoarse  cry  of  a common  Brazilian  species  (P.  Braziliensis),  a 
bird  of  very  fine  plumage,  and  about  50  in.  in  expanse  of  wings,  which  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  over  a large  extent  of  the  American  continent,  and  is  sometimes  to  be  seen 
even  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States. 

CABAC'AS,  the  province  of  which  the  following  city  is  the  capital,  extends  in  n.  lat. 
from  7°  38'  to  10°  46',  and  in  w.  long,  from  65°  30'  to  68°,  and  contains  300,000  inhabit 
ants.  With  a generally  mountainous  interior,  the  immediate  coast  is  flat,  presenting 
besides  La  Guayra  mentioned  below,  several  harbors  or  roadsteads.  The  exports  of  the 
province  are  cocoa,  colfee,  dye-woods,  hides,  indigo,  and  sarsaparilla. 

CABAC'AS,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Venezuela,  the  most  northerly  state  in  South 
America,  with  Guiana  on  the  e.,  and  Columbia  on  the  w.,  is  situated  in  lat.  10°  30'  n., 
and  long.  67°  5'  w.,  16  m.  s.  of  La  Guayra,  its  port,  with  which  it  is  joined  by  railway. 
It  is  2,880  ft.  above  the  tide-level,  enjoying  from  this  elevation  a healthy  air  and  a tem- 
perature so  moderate  as  to  average  68°  and  72°  F.  in  Feb.  and  June  respectively. 
Standing  immediately  above  the  confluence  of  four  streams,  it  is  well  supplied  with  cool 
water,  which  is  distributed  by  means  of  fountains,  pipes,  and  reservoirs.  The  neighbor- 
hood is  subject  to  earthquakes — 12,000  citizens  having,  in  1812,  perished  from  this  cause. 
The  pop.  in  1873  amounted  to  48,897.  The  streets  are  straight  and  regular.  The 
most  splendid  edifice  is  the  church  of  Alta  Gracia  for  the  people  of  color,  excelling  the 
cathedral  in  the  richness  of  its  decorations.  C.  has  a university  founded  in  1778. 

C ABAC 'Cl,  a celebrated  family  of  Italian  painters,  the  founders  of  the  Bolognese 
school  of  painting. 

Caracci,  Ludovico,  the  son  of  a butcher,  was  born  at  Bologna,  1555.  As  a student, 
he  was  so  inapt  that  his  master  recommended  him  to  abandon  the  pursuit;  but  instead 
of  that,  he  went  to  Venice  and  Parma,  making  acquaintance  with  the  works  of  the  great 
masters  there,  and  returned  to  Bologna  imbued  with  art  principles  quite  opposed  to  the 
superficial  mannerism  then  prevailing  in  his  native  city.  In  conjunction  with  two  of  his 
cousins,  who,  instructed  by  him,  had  imbibed  the  same  ideas,  he  founded,  in  spite  of 
great  opposition,  the  school  which  afterwards  became  so  famous  in  the  history  of  paint- 
ing. The  first  principle  of  this  new  school  was,  that  “observation  of  nature  o^ught  to  be 
combined  with  imitation  of  the  best  masters.  ” The  allied  artists  found  numerous  pupils, 
to  whom  they  gave  practical  instructions  in  drawing  from  natural  and  artistic  models, 
with  theoretical  lessons  on  perspective,  anatomy,  etc.  So  great  was  their  success,  that,  in 
the  course  of  a short  time,  all  other  schools  of  painting  were  closed  in  Bologna.  Some  of 
the  finest  works  of  this  master  are  preserved  in  the  Academia  delle  Belle  Arte,  Bologna — 
among  others,  the  “Madonna  and  Child  Throned,”  “ Madonna  and  Child  Standing,”  the 
“ Transfiguration,”  and  the  “ Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.”  Ludovico  died  in  1619. 

Caracci,  Agostino,  cousin  of  Ludovico,  was  b.  (1558)  in  Bologna.  He  became  a 
disciple  of  his  cousin,  but  he  was  of  too  versatile  a genius  to  devote  himself  closely  to 
any  subject,  though  his  magnificent  painting  of  the  “ Communion  of  St.  Jerome”  proves 
that  he  might  have  attained  to  very  great  eminence  had  he  devoted  his  undivided  atten- 
tion to  the  art;  but  he  was  in  the  habit  of  abandoning  his  easel  for  literature,  poetry, 
and  engraving  on  copper.  As  an  engraver,  indeed,  he  holds  an  important  position  in 
Italian  art.  He  accompanied  his  younger  brother,  Annibale,  to  Rome,  and  there  assisted 
in  some  of  the  paintings  in  the  Farnese  gallery ; but  his  brother,  who  was  a slave  to 
his  art,  soon  quarreled  with  him  for  his  inattention,  and  he  left  Rome,  and  went  to  Parma. 
He  died  in  1602. 

Caracci,  Annibale,  brother  of  Agostino,  was  b.  (1560)  in  Bologna,  where  he 
learned,  under  his  father,  the  business  of  a tailor,  from  which  he  was  called  away  by 
Ludovico  Caracci.  His  progress  in  the  study  of  painting  was  rapid,  and  at  first  he 
took  principally  for  his  models  Correggio,  Titian,  and  Paul  Veronese.  His  picture  of 
“ St.  Roche  distributing  Alms”  first  gained  for  Annibale  C.  a wide  reputation.  His 
fame  reached  Rome,  and  he  was  employed  to  paint  the  Farnese  gallery  there,  which  is 


Caraccioli. 

Caravaca. 


438 


considered  his  greatest  work,  and  the  manner  of  which  partakes  somewhat  of  Haphael. 
and  Correggio.  On  this  gallery  he  was  employed  some  eight  years,  and  he  received  for 
his  work  the  incredibly  paltry  sum  of  500  crowns.  In  disgust  and  vexation,  the  artist 
threw  aside  his  palette.  He  died  in  Rome  in  1609,  where  his  remains  were  interred,  close 
to  Raphael’s  tomb,  in  the  Pantheon.  Annibale  C.  was  one  of  the  greatest  followers  of 
Correggio,  and  in  composition  approached  most  nearly  to  the  style  of  Raphael,  Ludo- 
vico had  a greater  talent  in  teaching,  and  Agostino  had  a more  versatile  invention,  but 
Annibale  was  unquestionably  the  greatest  artist  of  the  three  Caracci. 

Caracci,  Antonio,  natural  son  of  Agostino,  was  b.  at  Venice  1583;  d.  in  1618.  He 
was  a pupil  under  Annibale,  and  painted  some  excellent  pictures. 

Caracci,  Francesco  (styled  Franceschini),  brother  of  Agostino  and  Annibale,  was 
b.  in  1595,  and  distinguished  himself  as  an  eminent  designer.  He  died  1622. — The  best 
Italian  masters  of  the  17th  c. — Domenichino,  Guido  Rcni,  Albani,  and  others — proceeded 
from  the  school  of  the  Caracci. 

CAEACCI'OLI.  The  name  of  a Neapolitan  family  unfortunately  associated  with  the 
memory  of  lord  Nelson.  Several  members  of  this  family  were  employed  in  political 
offices. — Louis  Antoine  de  C.,  b.  in  Paris,  1721,  d.  1803,  was  the  author  of  a 
pseudograph,  entitled  Lettres  Interessantes  du  Pape  Clement  XIV.,  which  mystified 
many  readers  throughout  Europe. — Francesco  C.,  a meritorious  Neapolitan  admiral, 
entered  in  early  life  the  marine  service,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Toulon,  1793,  In 
the  year  1798,  the  offensive  conduct  of  the  court  of  Naples  toward  C.  induced  him  to 
return  from  Palermo,  where  the  court  was  then  residing,  to  Naples,  where  he  entered 
into  the  service  of  the  republic  established  by  the  French  invaders,  and,  with  a few 
vessels,  prevented  the  attempted  landing  of  a Sicilian  and  British  fleet.  In  1799,  when 
Ruffo  took  Naples,  C.  was  arrested,  contrary  to  the  terms  of  capitulation,  sentenced  to 
death  by  the  junta,  hanged  on  the  mast  of  a frigate,  and  his  corpse  thrown  into  the  sea. 
This  affair,  to  which  lord  Nelson  was  a consenting  party,  is  a stain  on  the  reputation  of 
the  English  admiral. 

CAR'ACOLE,  in  horsemanship,  a sudden  half  turn,  sometimes  performed  frequently 
in  an  attack  of  cavalry  to  mislead  the  enemy  as  to  the  point  at  which  the  assault  is  to 
be  made. 

CARACTACUS,  a king  of  the  Silures,  who  inhabited  s.  Wales,  was  one  of  the  most 
persistent  enemies  of  the  Romans  in  Britain.  For  nine  years  he  warred  gallantly  against 
the  invaders,  but  at  length  was  completely  overthrown.  His  wife  and  daughters  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  victors,  and  his  brothers  surrendered.  C.  himself  fled  to  Cartimaru 
dua,  queen  of  the  Brigantes,  who  delivered  him  up  to  the  Romans.  He  was  carried  to 
Rome,  51  a.d.,  and  exhibited  to  the  people  by  the  emperor  Claudius.  When  he  ap- 
proached the  imperial  seat,  we  are  told,  he  addressed  Claudius  in  so  noble  a manner,  that 
he  and  his  relatives  were  immediately  pardoned.  They  appear,  however,  to  have  lived 
during  the  remainder  of  their  lives  in  Italy. 

GAR'ADOC  SANDSTONE  and  Ba'la  Beds,  a division  of  the  lower  Silurian  system, 
so  named  from  their  development  at  Caer  Caradoc,  in  Shropshire.  They  consist  of 
sandstones,  grits,  and  slates,  with  occasional  beds  of  limestone.  Enormous  masses  of 
contemporaneous  igneous  rocks  are  interstratified  with  them.  They  attain  a thick- 
ness of  9,000  ft.,  not  including  the  igneous  rocks.  Fossils  are  very  abundant  in 
some  beds.  They  consist  chiefly  of  trilobites  (q.v.),  brachiopoda  (q.v.),  and  grapto- 
lites  (q.v.). 

The  Silurian  rocks  in  the  southern  districts  of  Ayrshire  belong  to  this  division. 

CARA'FA  DE  COLOBRANO,  Michele,  1785-1872;  an  Italian  composer ; in  early 
life  a soldier  in  the  French  army.  Among  his  operas  are  Masaniello  and  Le  Solitaire. 
He  was  a member  of  the  Paris  academy  of  fine  arts,  professor  in  the  conservatoire,  direc- 
tor of  military  music  at  the  gymnase,  and  a member  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

CARAGLIO,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Coni,  6 m.  w.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  situated  on  the  Grana,  and  has  manufactures  of  silk.  Pop.  ’72,  3,379. 

CA'RAITES.  See  Jewish  Sects,  ante. 

CARAMA'NIA.  See  Karaman. 

CAR  AMD  OLA,  an  East  Indian  fruit,  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a duck’s  egg,  but  with 
five  acute  angles,  or  longitudinal  ribs.  It  has  a yellow,  thin,  smooth  rind,  and  a 
clear  watery  pulp,  in  some  varieties  sweet,  in  others  acid,  of  very  agreeable  flavor.  It 
is  often  used  in  making  sherbets,  and  in  tarts  and  preserves;  and  is  known  to  th« 
British  in  India  as  the  Coromandel  gooseberry.  It  is  one  of  the  most  universally  cul- 
tivated and  abundant  of  the  fruits  of  India.  It  is  produced  by  the  averrhoa  carambola, 
a small  evergreen  tree,  or  bush,  of  the  natural  order  oxalideoe.  The  Bilimbi,  or  Blim- 
BiNG,  is  the  very  acid  fruit  of  another  species  of  the  same  genus,  A.  bilimhi,^  also  East 
Indian.  Both  species  are  now  much  cultivated  in  the  tropical  parts  of  America.  Both 
exhibit  an  irritability  of  leaf  resembling  that  of  the  sensitive  plant;  they  also  display  in 
a remarkable  degree  the  phenomena  known  to  physiologists  as  those  of  sleep  of 
plants  (q.v.). 


439 


Caraccioll. 

Caravaca. 


CARAMEL  is  the  name  applied  to  the  dark  brown  and  nearly  tasteless  substance  pro- 
duced on  the  application  of  heat  to  sugar  (q.v.).  It  is  likewise  formed  during  the  roast- 
ing of  all  materials  containing  sugar,  such  as  coffee,  chiccory,  and  malt  (see  Beer),  and 
is  one  cause  of  the  dark  color  of  porter  and  infusions  of  coffee.  It  is  also  employed  in 
the  coloring  of  whisky,  wines,  vinegar,  etc. 

CARAMNAS'SA,  a river  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  which  rises  in  lat.  24“  34'  n.,  and 
long.  83°  46'  e.,  and,  after  a course  of  about  156  m.,  enters  the  Ganges  from  the  right  in 
lat.  25°  28'  n.,  anti  long.  83°  58'  east.  It  is  remarkable  on  several  grounds.  Though, 
on  issuing  from  its  source,  it  is  clear  as  crystal,  it  is  yet  said  to  be  both  nauseous  and 
noxious — a peculiarity  which  the  natives  impute  to  various  supernatural  causes;  about 
60  m.  from  its  mouth,  it  is  crossed  by  a stone  bridge  of  three  wide  arches,  which  forms 
part  of  the  grand  road  from  Calcutta  to  Delhi;  and  lastly,  it  is  so  exceptionally  subject 
to  floods,  that  it  has  been  known  to  rise  25  ft.  in  a night,  when  scarcely  any  rain  had 
fallen  in  the  adjacent  plain  of  the  Ganges  itself. 

CARA'NA  RESIN,  more  commonly,  but  less  correctly,  called  Gum  Carana,  is  a resin- 
ous substance  imported  from  the  tropical  parts  of  America.  Its  properties  and  uses 
resemble  those  of  tacamahac.  It  is  entirely  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  melts  in  a slight 
heat.  It  is  not  well  known  what  tree  produces  it. 

CARAN' JA,  an  island  on  the  e.  side  of  the  ordinary  entrance  of  the  harbor  of  Bombay 
(q.v.),  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a narrow  and  unserviceable  channel  of  4 m.  in 
length.  It  is  itself  2 m.  broad,  being  comparatively  level  and  fertile,  with  the  exception 
of  two  hills — the  Little  Hill  in  the  n.,  and  the  Great  in  the  south. 

CARANX.  See  Scad. 

CARAFA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  meliacm,  natives  of  warm  climates. 
G.  Guianensis  or  guareoides,  sometimes  called  the  anderaba,  also  the  C.  tree,  is  a 
large  tree  with  beautiful  shining  pinnate  leaves,  which  have  many  leaflets,  a native  of 
Guiana  and  the  adjacerft  countries,  where  its  bark  has  a great  reputation  as  a febrifuge, 
and  the  oil  obtained  from  its  seeds  is  much  used  for  lamps.  Masts  of  ships  are  made  of 
its  trunk.  The  oil,  which  is  called  oil  of  carapa,  is  thick  and  bitter,  and  is  anthelmin- 
tic.— (7.  Touloucouna,  or  Guineensis,  an  African  species,  yields  a similar  oil,  which  is 
employed  by  the  negroes  for  making  soap,  and  for  anointing  their  bodies,  its  bitterness 
protecting  them  from  the  bites  of  insects,  a purpose  to  which  the  oil  of  C.  is  also  applied 
in  South  America. — These  species  are  very  similar,  and  are  supposed  by  some  botanists 
not  to  be  essentially  distinct. 

CARAPACE,  the  dorsal  shield  or  buckler  of  chelonian  reptiles  (tortoises  and  turtles), 
and  of  the  Crustacea  malacostraca  (crabs,  lobsters,  etc.).  In  animals  so  widely  different, 
however,  there  is  only, a general  similarity  in  the  appearance  of  the  C.,  and  the  purpose 
which  it  serves ; its  organic  relations  are  very  different.  For  notice  of  these,  we  refer  to 
the  articles  Chelonia  and  Crustacea. 

CAR'AT,  originally,  it  would  seem,  the  name  given  to  the  seeds  of  the  Abyssinian 
<joral  flower  (q.v.)  or  coral-tree  {erythrina  Abyssinica)-,  but  these,  which  are  small,  and 
very  equal  in  size,  having  been  used  in  weighing  gold  and  precious  stones,  C.  has 
become  the  designation  of  the  weight  commonly  used  for  weighing  precious  stones,  and 
particularly  diamonds.  The  seeds  of  the  carob  (q.v.)  tree  have  also  been  said  to  be  the 
original  C.  weights  of  jewelers,  but  with  less  probability. 

Goldsmiths  and  assayers  divide  the  troy  pound,  ounce,  or  any  other  weight,  into  24 
parts,  and  call  each  a C.,  as  a means  of  stating  the  proportion  of  pure  gold  contained  in 
any  alloy  of  gold  with  other  metals.  Thus,  the  gold  of  our  coinage  and  of  wedding-rings, 
which  contains  ||  of  pure  gold,  is  called  “22  carats  fine,”  or  22  C.  gold.  The  lower 
standard  used  for  watch-cases,  etc.,  which  contains  of  pure  gold,  is  called  18  C., 
and  so  on.  The  C.  used  in  this  sense  has  therefore  no  absolute  weight;  it  merely 
denotes  a ratio.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with  the  C.  used  for  weighing  dia- 
monds, which  has  a fixed  weight,  equal  to  3|  troy  grains,  and  is  divided  into  quarters, 
or  “C.  grains,”  eighths,  sixteenths,  thirty-seconds,  and  sixty-fourths.  These  C.  grains 
are  thus  less  than  troy  grains,  and  therefore  the  jeweler  has  to  keep  a separate  set  of 
diamond  weights. 

CARAU'SIUS,  a supposed  native  of  Holland,  of  whom  nothing  is  certainly  known 
except  that  he  had  a conspicuous  part  as  an  ally  of  the  Romans  in  the  conquest  and  rul- 
ing of  Britain  near  the  close  of  the  3d  century.  He  had  been  put  in  command  of  the  fleet 
in  the  English  channel  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  coasts  of  Britain  and  Gaul 
from  the  Frisian  pirates;  and  his  conduct  had  been  such  that  the  Roman  emperor  Max- 
imilian gave  an  order  for  his  death.  C.  immediately  assumed  the  title  of  emperor  of 
Britain,  and  held  power  for  about  seven  years,  his  independence  having  been  acknowl- 
edged b}’-  the  Romans,  whose  empire  was  rapidly  falling  into  ruin.  He  was  assassi- 
nated at  York  in  293  by  his  chief  officer  and  rival,  Allectus,  who  held  the  imperial  title 
for  three  years,  at  end  of  which  time  (296)  Constantine  Chlorus  re-established  the  rule 
of  Rome. 

CARAVA'CA,  a t.  in  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  about  39  m.  n.w.  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a hill  crowned  with  a fine  old  castle.  Its  principal 


Oaravagrgrio. 

Carbohydrogens. 


440 


streets  are  wide,  clean,  and  well  paved;  it  has  a fine  church,  with  a miraculous  cross, 
that  is  annually  taken  down  and  bathed  in  the  waters  of  the  town,  to  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  communicate  sanitary  properties.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen 
fabrics,  soap,  paper,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

CARAVAG'GIO,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Bergamo,  about  24  m.  e.  of 
Milan.  In  the  principal  church  are  some  esteemed  paintings  by  Campi ; and  C.  is  also  cel- 
ebrated as  the  birthplace  of  the  painters  Polidoro  Caldara,  and  Michael  Angelo  Merighi, 
both  surnamed  Caravaggio.  In  the  neighborhood  is  a sanctuary  of  the  Madonna,  built 
from  designs  of  Pellegrini  (1575).  Pop.  about  7,000. 

CARAVAG'GIO,  Michael  Angelo  Amerighi  or  Merighi  da,  a celebrated  Italian 
painter,  was  b.  1569,  at  Caravaggio,  in  Lombardy,  northern  Italy.  His  father,  who  was 
a mason,  employed  him  in  making  paste  for  the  fresco-painters,  and  in  this  way  the 
artistic  genius  of  the  boy  was  stirred.  After  studying  the  works  of  the  great  masters 
in  Milan  and  Venice,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  for  some  time  in  very  reduced 
circumstances.  At  length  a picture  of  his  attracted  the  notice  of  cardinal  del  Monte, 
who  now  patronized  the  young  artist;  but  the  ferocious  and  quarrelsome  character  of  C. 
soon  involved  him  in  difficulties.  Having  fled  from  Rome  to  Malta,  on  account  of  man- 
slaughter, he  obtained  the  favor  of  the  grand-master  by  painting  an  altar-piece  in  the 
church  of  St.  John,  and  other  pictures.  His  quarrelsome  nature  soon  forced  him  to 
flee  from  Malta;  and,  in  making  his  way  back  to  Rome,  he  was  wounded,  lost  all  his 
baggage,  caught  a violent  fever,  and  on  reaching  Porto  Ecole,  lay  down  on  a bank  and 
died  (1609),  at  the  age  of  40.  Triieness  to  nature  was  the  object  aimed  at  by  C.,  who 
left  all  schools,  and  devoted  himself  to  paint  life  as  he  found  it  in  lanes,  alleys,  and 
other  resorts  of  the  lower  classes.  He  studied  no  such  matters  as  refined  sentiment  or 
elevation  of  realities,  but  gave  in  his  paintings  expression  to  his  own  wild  and  gloomy 
character.  One  of  his  best  paintings,  “The  Fraudulent  Gamblers,”  is  preserved  in  the 
Sciarra  gallery,  at  Rome.  His  shadows  are  deep,  his  backgrounds  very  obscure;  in 
consequence  of  which  the  whole  picture  seems  to  possess  a kmd  of  mysterious  great- 
ness, that  is  very  imposing.  Even  Rubens  confessed  that  C.  was  his  superior  in  chiaro- 
oscuro.  When  he  painted  sacred  subjects,  he  remained  falsely  faithful  to  the  low  real- 
ities of  Italian  life ; so  that  several  of  his  pictures  painted  for  churches,  had  to  be 
removed  from  their  places,  because  they  could  not  be  harmonized  with  sacred  asso- 
ciations. Kugler,  the  German  critic,  has  justly  said  of  one  of  C.’s  most  celebrated 
works,  a “Burial  of  Christ,”  that  it  appears  “ like  nothing  better  than  the  funeral  of  a 
gypsy  chieftain.” — An  earlier  Italian  painter  of  less  eminence,  Polidoro  Caldara  da. 
Caravaggio,  was  born  in  1495,  and  murdered  in  1543. 

CARAVAN  (from  the  Persian  karvan,  i.e.,  trader),  the  name  given  to  the  great  assem- 
blages of  travelers  which,  at  stated  times,  traverse  the  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
Many  caravans  are  entirely  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  the  merchants  associating  them- 
selves for  mutual  help  and  protection.  A C.  sometimes  has  so  many  as  1000  camels, 
which  follow  each  other  in  single  file,  so  that  it  may  be  a mile  or  more  in  length.  The 
most  celebrated  caravans  are  those  formed  by  pilgrims  going  to  Mecca,  particularly 
those  which  annually  assemble  at  Cairo  and  at  Damascus.  The  latter  consist  of  30,00(> 
to  50,000  pilgrims,  and  is  under  the  special  protection  of  the  Turkish  sultan.  The  car- 
avan by  which  the  Persians  travel  to  Mecca  starts  from  Bagdad,  and  is  the  vehicle  of  a 
very  important  trade.  The  great  Indian  C.  to  Mecca,  which  started  from  Muscat, 
has  been  long  given  up.  Mecca,  upon  the  arrival  of  the  caravans,  bringing  goods  from 
so  many  different  parts  of  the  world,  presents  all  the  appearance  of  a vast  fair.  The 
trade  between  Tripoli  and  the  interior  of  Africa  is  exclusively  carried  on  by  caravans, 
likewise  that  between  Darfur  and  Egypt.  The  great  trade  between  Russia  and  China 
is  also  a C.  trade.  In  the  east,  caravans  in  which  the  camels  have  a load  of  500  to 
600  lbs.  are  called  caravans ; light  caravans  are  those  in  which  the  camels  have 

only  half  that  weight,  so  that  the  daily  journeys  may  be  longer.  Heavy  caravans  travel 
from  17  to  18  m.  a day;  light,  from  22  to  25.  The  caravans  are  generally  conducted, 
with  great  regularity,  and  assemble  at  and  start  from  stated  places  on  stated  days. 
The  leader  of  the  Mecca  caravans  is  called  emir-el-hadsch,  i.e.,  prince  of  the  pilgrims. 
In  trade-caravans,  a leader,  who  is  called  karwan-baschi,  is  elected  by  the  merchants 
from  their  own  number. 

Among  the  knights  of  Malta,  caravans  meant  the  troops  of  knights  appointed  by  the 
order  to  serve  in  garrisons,  and  also  the  cruises  of  their  galleys  against  the  Turks. 

CARAVANCES.  See  Chick  Pea. 

CARAVANSARAI,  or  Khan,  an  eastern  institution,  a sort  of  unfurnished  inn  to  pro- 
vide travelers  with  a shelter.  Those  in  towns  and  cities,  which  are  generally  built  for 
traders,  and  charged  a small  sum  a day,  are  handsomer  and  more  convenient — having 
doors  to  the  apartments — than  those  met  with  on  the  roads  or  outside  the  walls  of  the 
cities.  They  commonly  consist  of  a square  building  of  four  wings  built  round  a court- 
yard, in  which  the  beasts  of  burden  may  be  inclosed,  and  where  there  is  usually  a well 
of  water;  the  lodgings  are  small  rooms,  about  7 or  8 ft.  high,  which  run  round  the 
courtyard,  and  are  bare  of  every  article  of  furniture. 

These  caravansarais  are  an  institution  of  very  ancient  date,  being  the  “ inns”  of  Gen. 


441 


Caravaggio. 

Carbodydrogens. 


xlii,  27,  xliii,  21 ; and  it  was  in  the  stable  of  such  a place,  there  being  no  room  for  his 
parents  in  the  lodging  apartments,  that  our  Savior  was  born  (Luke  ii.  7).  They  belong 
cither  to  government,  to  some  private  individual,  or  are  the  property  of  the  church 
(mosques);  those  situated  in  towns  or  cities  are  charged,  but  not  more  than  two  or  three 
Turkish  piastres  a day ; those  situated  on  the  road  are  usually  free.  There  are  some 
large  and  very  handsome  caravansarais  at  Cairo,  Damascus,  Beyrout,  Aleppo,  etc.  The 
steward  or  keeper  of  a C.  is  called  a caramnseraskier. 

CARAVEL'LAS,  a seaport  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of  Espiritu  Santo,  near  a bay 
of  that  name;  pop,  about  5,000.  It  is  the  principal  port  of  the  surrounding  country, 
and  the  head-quarters  of  the  whale  fishery  of  the  Abrothos  islands,  which  lie  off  the 
coast, 

CARAWAY,  Carum  carui,  a plant  of  ^ the  natural  order  umhelUfercB,  growing  abun- 
dantly in  meadows  and  rich  pastures  in  the  middle  and  s.  of  Europe,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Asia,  naturalized  in  many  places  in  Britain.  In  some  parts  of  Holland 
and  Germany,  and  also  in  the  counties  of  Kent  and  Essex  in  England,  it  is 
extensively  cultivated  for  its  aromatic  seeds — in  more  strict  botanical  language, 
carpels — which  are  used  medicinally  as  a carminative  and  tonic,  and  are  also  very  much 
used  as  an  aromatic  condiment,  and  by  confectioners,  distillers,  and  perfumers,  enter- 
ing into  the  preparation  of  liqueurs,  cakes,  sweetmeats,  scented  soaps,  etc.  They  depend 
for  their  aromatic  properties  on  a volatile  oil  called  oil  of  C.,  which  is  obtained  by 
bruising  C.  seeds,  and  distilling  them  with  water,  and  is  at  first  limpid  and  colorless, 
but  becomes  yellow  and  subsequently  brown  by  keeping.  Oil  of  C.  is  used  medicinally 
to  relieve  flatulence,  and  to  correct  the  nauseating  and  griping  tendencies  of  some 
cathartic  medicines;  also  in  the  preparation  of  spirit  of  C.  and  G.  water. — Spirit  of  C., 
which  may  be  prepared  either  by  dissolving  the  oil  of  C.  in  proof -spirit,  or  by  distilling 
bruised  C,  seeds  along  with  proof -spirit,  is  much  used  in  Russia  and  Germany  as  a 
liqueur  {kiXmmel-hranntwein),  sweetened  with  sugar. — C.  has  a branching  stem  1 to  2 ft, 
high,  with  finely  divided  leaves,  and  dense  umbels  of  whitish  flowers.  The  fruit  is 
oblong,  each  carpel  having  five  thread-like  ribs,  with  a single  mlla  (see  Umbellifer^e) 
in  each  of  the  interstices.  The  white  carrot-shaped  root  of  C.  is  sometimes  used  like 
carrots  or  parsnips,  but  has  a very  strong  flavor.  — C.  has  a great  enemy  in  the  Cara- 
way Moth  Qiaemylis  daucella),  the  larva  of  which  destroys  both  its  stem  and  flowers. 

CARBAZO'TIC  ACID,  or  Picric  Acid,  is  a substance  of  great  importance  in  dyeing, 
which  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  strong  nitric  acid  and  heat  on  many  complex  organic 
materials,  such  as  silk,  indigo,  salicine,  and  a variety  of  resins.  On  a* commercial  scale, 
it  is  best  obtained  from  the  oil  of  tar,  which  distills  over  from  crude  tar  between  300° 
and  400°,  or  from  the  resin  of  xanfhorrhem  hastilis.  The  hot  nitric  acid  solution  is 
strained  from  impurities,  and  on  cooling,  yellow  crystals  separate  of  C.  A,,  which  can 
be  purified  by  washing  with  cold  water.  These  crystals  are  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether,  and  dissolve  in  80  or  90  times  their  weight  of  cold  water,  yielding  a yellow  solution, 
which  has  a very  bitter  taste,  and  stains  the  skin  yellow ; and  when  silk  which  has 
been  treated  with  a mordant  of  alum,  or  cream  of  tartar,  is  immersed  in  a solution  of  C. 
A.,  it  is  dyed  of  a beautiful  permanent  yellow  color.  The  bitter  taste  of  C,  A.  has  led 
to  its  being  fraudulently  employed,  instead  of  hops,  in  communicating  a bitter  taste  to 
beer. 

CARBINE  is  a light  kind  of  musket,  named  probably  from  the  Carabins.  See  next 
article.  It  is  now  used  by  the  cavalry,  the  yeomanry  cavalry,  the  Irish  constabulary,  and 
other  corps.  The  best  carbines  are  now  rifled,  A considerable  number  of  American 
carbines,  rifled  and  breech-loading,  were  purchased  at  a high  price  by  the  English  govern- 
ment in  1856.  This  American  C.  has  a barrel  only  22  in,  in  length,  and  a total  weight 
of  7i  lbs.  It  is  simple  in  construction,  has  a great  range,  hits  a mark  with  accuracy, 
maybe  fired  with  rapidity,  requires  little  cleaning,  can  be  loaded  without  a ramrod, 
and  supplies  itself  with  caps  from  a reservoir  in  the  hammer.  Among  English  makers, 
Mr.  Prince  has  successfully  applied  the  breech-loading  principle  to  carbines.  The  Vic- 
toria cavalry  C.  has  a barrel  26  in.  long,  with  0.733  in.  bore;  its  weight  is  7i  lbs.,  and  it 
is  fired  with  2i  drams  of  powder. 

CARBINEERS,  or  Carabineers,  are  said  to  have  derived  their  designation  from  the 
Arabs,  among  whom  the  Garabin  s or  Karahins  were  light  horsemen,  stationed  at  out- 
posts to  harass  the  enemy,  defend  narrow  passes,  etc, ; in  action,  they  took  the  place  of 
skirmishers.  A corps  under  the  same  name  was  raised  in  France  in  1560;  but  the  des- 
ignation has  not  been  much  used  in  that  country  since  the  introduction  of  hussars  and 
lancers.  In  the  English  army,  C.  was  at  one  time  a frequent  designation  for  cavalry; 
but  now  there  is  only  one  regiment,  the  6th  dragoon  guards,  known  by  this  title;  and 
the  distinction  between  them  and  other  cavalry  is  little  more  than  nominal. 

CARBOHY  DROGENS,  or  Hydrocar'bons,  are  a series  of  compounds  belonging  to 
organic  chemistry,  which  are  composed  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  in  such  proportions 
that  the  various  members  of  the  group  differ  from  each  other  in  definite  and  regular 
numbers  of  atoms  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  The  best  marked  group  of  hydrocarbons 
commences  with  methylene  (CaHiz),  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  step  in  the 
ladder,  and  by  the  successive  addition  of  other  Wo  atoms  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  we 


Carbolic. 

Carbon. 


442 


obtain  ethylene  or  olefiant  gas  (C4H4),  propylene  (CoHe),  butylene  or  oil  gas  (CsHg)^ 
amylene  (CioHio),  etc.  There  are  also  series  beginning  with  methyl  (C3H3),  then  ethyl 
(C4H6),  and  with  hydride  of  methyl  or  marsh  gas  (CaH4),  then  hydride  of  ethyl  (C4H6). 
The  members  of  these  groups  are  likewise  characterized  by  a gradual  ascending  differ- 
ence in  their  chemical  and  physical  properties,  especially  the  boiling-point,  which 
rises  by  a given  amount. 

CABBOLIC  ACID,  or  Phe'nic  Acid  (CeHeO),  is  the  principal  acid  substance  procured 
during  the  distillation  of  coal-tar.  It  is  produced  also  by  the  distillation  of  gum  ben- 
zoin and  the  resin  of  xanthorrlu&a  hastilis,  and  is  present  in  the  urine  of  the  cow  and 
some  other  animals.  It  crystallizes  at  ordinary  temperatures  in  colorless  needles.  It 
smells  like  tar  or  creosote,  and  has  a hot  taste.  It  is  a powerful  antiseptic,  and 
qui/3kly  arrests  all  putrefactive  and  fermentive  changes.  Hence  it  is  used,  freely 
diluted  in  water,  as  a dressing  in  the  antiseptic  system  of  treating  wounds,  first  prac- 
ticed by  Mr.  Lister,  when  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in  Edinburgh  university.  It  is 
also  used  for  purifying  or  rendering  inoffensive  sewage  (q.v.),  etc. 

CABBOLIC  ACID.  Since  the  article  on  this  substance  first  appeared  in  the  Encydo- 
pcBdia,  much  has  been  ascertained  regarding  its  uses,  both  as  a therapeutic  agent  and  as 
a disinfectant.  It  has  been  introduced  into  the  new  British  pharmacopoeia  (1867), 
where  its  characters  and  tests  are  thus  described : “In  colorless  acicular  crystals,  which 
at  a temperature  of  95°  become  an  oily  liquid,  having  a strong  odor  and  taste  resembling 
that  of  creosote,  which  it  also  resembles  in  many  of  its  characters  and  properties.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  1.065;  boiling  point,  370°.  The  crystals  readily  absorb  moisture  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  and  they  are  thus  liquefied ; the  acid,  however,  is  but  slightly  soluble 
in  water,  but  it  is  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  glycerine.  It  does  not  reddeu 
like  litmus  paper;  a slip  of  deal  dipped  into  it,  and  afterwards  into  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  then  allowed  to  dry  in  the  air,  acquires  a greenish-blue  color.  It  coagulates  albu- 
men. It  does  not  affect  the  plane  of  polarization  of  a ray  of  polarized  light.”  It  may 
be  taken  internally  in  doses  of  from  one  to  three  grains  in  the  same  class  of  cases  as 
those  in  which  creosote  is  prescribed.  Its  principal  uses  are  as  external  applications,  in 
which,  in  various  degrees  of  dilution,  it  is  serviceable  in  unhealthy  ulcerations,  gangren- 
ous sores,  ozgena  and  all  fetid  discharges,  gleet,  the  destruction  of  lice,  and  especially, 
as  prof.  Lister  has  shown,  as  an  application  in  compound  fractures  (in  which  it  coagulates 
all  albuminous  effusions,  and  forms  a solid  crust,  impermeable  to  air,  over  the  broken 
surface),  and  to  abscesses  immediately  after  they  have  been  opened.  Indeed,  it  is  most 
probable  that  his  investigations  on  the  treatment  of  abscess  will,  like  those  on  the  treat- 
ment of  compound  fractures,  lead  to  a total  alteration  in  this  department  of  surgery. 
The  observations  of  Pasteur  and  others  have  shown  that,  in  even  apparently  the  purest 
air,  numerous  organic  germs  are  always  floating.  In  a hospital  ward,  these  germs  are 
multiplied  to  an  extraordinary  degree.  In  any  wound  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  (as  a 
compound  fracture),  decomposition  takes  place  by  the  action  of  these  germs,  and  hence 
it  is  necessary  to  introduce  the  C.  A.,  vrhich  has  the  power  of  destroying  these 
germs,  into  the  interior.  In  an  unopened  abscess,  no  septic  organisms  are  present,  and 
the  object  of  the  surgeon  is  to  guard  against  their  introduction  from  without,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  afford  a free  exit  for  the  discharge  of  the  contents  of  the  abscess.  The 
following  are  the  outlines  of  prof.  Lister’s  mode  of  proceeding:  A square  piece  of  rag 
is  dipped  in  a solution  of  one  part  of  crystallized  C.  A.  and  four  parts  of  boiling 
linseed  oil,  and  is  laid  upon  the  skin  where  the  incision  is  to  be  made.  The  lower  edge 
being  raised,  a scalpel  dipped  in  the  oil  is  plunged  into  the  cavity  of  the  abscess,  and  a 
sufficient  opening  made ; and  the  moment  the  knife  is  drawn,  the  raised  part  of  the  rag 
is  dropped  upon  the  skin  as  an  antiseptic  curtain,  beneath  which  the  pus  escapes.  The 
cavity  of  the  abscess  is  firmly  pressed,  so  as  to  remove  as  nearly  as  possible  all  the  exist- 
ing pus,  and  if  it  should  seem  expedient,  a piece  of  lint  dipped  in  the  oily  mixture  may 
be  introduced,  so  as  to  check  bleeding  and  prevent  primary  adhesion  of  the  cut  surfaces. 
“Thus,”  says  prof.  Lister,  “the  evacuation  of  the  original  contents  is  accomplished  with 
perfect  security  against  the  introduction  of  living  germs.  This,  however,  would  be  of 
no  avail  unless  an  antiseptic  dressing  could  be  applied  that  would  effectually  prevent 
the  decomposition  of  the  stream  of  pus  constantly  flowing  out  beneath  it.”  He  finds 
that  the  most  suitable  dressing  is  made  as  follows:  Six  tea-spoonfuls  of  the  oily  solution 
are  mixed  with  common  whiting  (carbonate  of  lime)  so  as  to  form  a putty,  w'hich  is 
spread  upon  six  inches  square  of  common  tinfoil,  strengthened  with  adhesive  plaster 
to  prevent  its  tearing.  The  tin  thus  spread  with  putty  is  laid  upon  the  skin,  so  that 
the  middle  of  it  corresponds  with  the  point  of  incision,  the  antiseptic  rag  used  in  open- 
ing the  abscess  being  removed  the  moment  previously.  The  tin  is  then  fixed  with 
adhesive  plaster,  the  lowest  edge  being  left  free  for  the  escape  of  the  discharge  into  a 
folded  towel  placed  over  it,  and  secured  with  a bandage.  The  dressing  must  be  removed 
every  day,  and  a piece  of  rag  dipped  in  the  oily  solution  must  be  placed  on  the  incision 
when  the  first  tin  is  removed,  so  as  to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  the  entrance  of 
germs  during  the  cleansing  of  the  skin  with  a dry  cloth,  and  pressing  out  any  discharge 
that  may  exist  in  the  cavity.  If  a piece  of  lint  was  inserted  into  the  wound,  it  must 
be  removed  when  the  tin  is  applied.  From  the  absence  of  the  irritation  excited  by 
decomposition,  pus  alnmst  at  once  ceases  to  be  formed  under  this  treatment;  and  large 


443 


Carbolic. 

Carbon. 


abscesses,  after  their  original  contents  have  been  evacuated,  often  yield  in  24  hours  only 
a few  drops  of  serum  in  the  course  of  a few  days.  The  pharmacopoeia  gives  the  glyceride 
of  C.  A.  (consisting  of  one  part  of  the  acid  to  four  of  glycerine)  as  a good  form  for 
local  application;  but  the  proportion  of  acid  must  vary  with  the  case. 

The  value  of  C.  A.  as  a disinfectant  was  placed  beyond  all  doubt  by  the  investiga- 
tions made  at  the  request  of  the'  royal  commissioners,  who  were  appointed  to  obtain 
information  and  report  on  the  cattle  disease.  In  the  same  way,  C.  A.  is  highly  ser- 
viceable in  military  camps,  on  board  ship,  in  disinfecting  dunghills,  in  purifying  the 
air  of  sick-rooms,  stables,  bird-cages,  and  any  place  where  the  germs  of  disease  do  or 
may  lurk.  It  is  extensively  used  for  preserving  wood,  as  in  railway  sleepers.  It  has 
recently  acquired  importance  as  a source  of  dye-stuffs,  Victoria  orange,  phenicienne  or 
phenyl  brown,  coralline,  etc.  C.  A.  acts  as  a powerful  poison  on  animal  and  vege- 
table life  in  general.  The  creosote  (q.v.)  obtained  from  coal-tar  is  often  simply  a form 
of  carbolic  acid. 

CARBON  is  one  of  the  elementary  substances  largely  diffused  in  nature.  It  occurs 
uncombined  in  the  mineral  graphite,  or  black-lead  (q.v,),  and  in  the  diamond  (q.v.), 
which  is  pure  crystallized  carbon.  It  is  much  more  abundant,  however,  in  a state  of 
combination.  United  with  oxygen,  it  occurs  as  carbonic  acid  (CO2)  (q.v.)  in  the  atmos- 
phere, in  natural  water,  in  limestone,  dolomite,  and  ironstone.  In  coal,  it  is  found  com- 
bined with  hydrogen  and  oxygen;  and  in  plants  and  animals,  it  occurs  as  one  of  the  ele- 
ments building  up  wood,  starch,  gum,  sugar,  oil,  bone  (gelatine),  and  flesh  (fibrine). 
Indeed,  there  is  no  other  element  which  is  so  characteristic  of  plant  and  animal  organ- 
isms, and  it  ranks  as  the  only  element  never  absent  in  substances  obtained  from  the  two 
kingdoms  of  organic  nature.  Wood-charcoal,  coke,  lampblack,  and  animal  charcoal  are 
artificial  varieties,  more  or  less  impure,  of  carbon.  The  atomic  weight  or  equivalent  of 
C.  is  6 (new  sys.  12);  the  specific  gravity  greatly  varies;  that  of  the  diamond  is  3.330  to 
3.550  (water  being  1.000),  and  of  graphite  1.800.  C.,  in  its  ordinary  forms,  is  a good 

conductor  of  electricity;  in  the  form  of  diamond,  it  is  a non-conductor.  Of  heat,  the 
lighter  varieties  of  C.,  such  as  wood-charcoal,  are  very  bad  conductors;  graphite  in  mass 
has  very  considerable  conducting  powers.  At  ordinary  temperatures,  all  the  varieties  of 
C.  are  extremely  unalterable ; so  much  so,  that  it  is  customary  to  char  the  ends  of  piles 
of  wood  which  are  to  be  driven  into  the  ground,  so  as  by  this  coating  of  non-decaying 
C.  to  preserve  the  interior  wood ; and  with  a similar  object,  the  interior  of  casks  and 
other  wooden  vessels  intended  to  hold  water  during  sea-voyages,  are  charred  (coated 
with  C.),  to  keep  the  wood  from  passing  into  decay,  and  thereby  to  preserve  the  water 
sweet.  Its  power  of  arresting  odors  and  colors  likewise  varies  much.  See  Bone-black. 
In  the  simple  property,  even  of  combustion,  there  is  a marked  difference.  Wood-char- 
coal takes  fire  with  the  greatest  readiness,  bone-black  less  so ; then  follow  in  order  of 
difficulty  of  combustion — coke,  anthracite,  lampblack,  black-lead,  and  the  diamond. 
Indeed,  black-lead  is  so  non-combustible,  that  crucibles  to  withstand  very  high  heats 
for  prolonged  periods  without  breakage  or  burning,  are  made  of  black-lead;  and  the 
diamond  (q.v.)  completely  resists  all  ordinary  modes  of  setting  fire  to  it.  In  the  prop- 
erty of  hardness,  C.  ranges  from  the  velvet-like  lampblack  to  diamond,  the  hardest  of 
gems.  In  1879,  it  was  announced  that  a method  of  producing  pure  crystallized  carbon, 
or  diamond,  had  been  discovered  in  Glasgow. 

Carbon  for  electrical  purposes. — When  C.  is  obtained  of  sufficient  density,  it  is  found 
to  be  a good  conductor  of  electricity,  and  to  make  an  excellent  electro-negative  element 
in  a galvanic  pair.  Graphite  displays  these  qualities  to  advantage,  and  so  does  the  hard 
incrustation  of  C.  that  is  found  sublimed  in  gas  retorts.  Coke  and  wood-charcoal  are 
too  porous  to  possess  them  to  any  great  extent.  The  scarcity  of  graphite,  and  the  pre- 
carious supply  of  retort  C. , preclude  the  possibility  of  obtaining  much  practical  advan- 
tage from  the  electrical  properties  of  C.  with  these  substances  alone.  We  are  indebted, 
however,  to  prof.  Bunsen,  of  Heidelberg,  for  the  discovery  of  a process  whereby  a C.  of 
the  requisite  density  can  Idc  manufactured  with  great  ease  and  economy.  The  carbons 
thus  obtained  for  galvanic  batteries  rival  platinum  in  electric  energy,  and  they  have 
aided  in  no  small  degree,  from  their  cheapness,  in  heightening  the  utility  of  galvanic 
electricity.  The  Bunsen  carbons,  as  manufactured  in  Germany,  are  of  the  form  of  hol- 
low cylinders,  whereas  those  made  in  France  and  this  country  are  solid  rectangular 
prisms.  The  following  are  the  more  important  details  of  the  process.  Two  parts  of 
coke,  and  one  of  baking-coal — the  proportion  varying  to  some  extent  with  the  materials 
— are  ground  to  a fine  powder,  and  passed  through  a sieve.  The  powder  so  got  is  trans- 
ferred to  iron-plate  molds  of  the  required  shape,  the  seams  of  which  are  merely  clasped 
together,  and  luted  with  clay.  No  pressure  is  employed  in  filling  them,  other  than  that 
of  shaking.  When  the  molds  are  filled,  they  are  placed  in  a furnace,  and  kept  there 
till  all  carburetted  hydrogen  has  escaped  from  them.  They  are  then  taken  out,  and 
allowed  to  cool  before  the  mass  within  is  removed,  which  is  now  found  to  have  taken  a 
solid  form,  and  to  be  so  hard  that  it  may  be  turned  or  ground  to  the  exact  size  wanted. 
At  this  stage,  the  carbons  are  destitute  of  electrical  action,  and  they  must  consequently 
be  rendered  more  dense  by  a subsequent  process.  This  consists  in  soaking  them  thor- 
oughly in  thick  sirup,  or,  better  still,  in  gas-tar  thickened  by  boiling,  and  laying  them 
aside  till  dry,  after  which  they  are  packed  with  charcoal-dust  in  fire-proof  crucibles. 


Carbon. 

Carbonic. 


444 


and  exposed  for  a considerable  time  to  a high  heat.  If  one  soaking  and  charring  is  not 
enough,  the  same  may  be  repeated  until  sufficient  density  is  obtained.  Throughout  the 
process,  it  is  essential  that  all  flaming  matters  be  driven  off,  so  as  to  leave  only  the  C.  in 
the  mold;  and  care  must  be  taken  that  no  air  be  admitted  to  the  mold  when  under 
the  action  of  heat,  otherwise  there  would  be  a loss  of  C.  from  combustion.  The  manu- 
facture of  these  carbons  may  be  carried  on  contemporaneously  with  that  of  gas.  The 
sticks  of  C.  used  for  the  electric  light  are  obtained  by  sawing  up  either  C.  made  by  this 
process  or  the  C.  of  the  gas  retorts. 

CARBON,  a co.  in  e.  Pennsylvania;  400  sq.m.;  pop,  '80,31,922;  a mining  region, 
on  the  Lehigh  river,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley  and  other  coal-transporting  railroads.  Next 
to  the  mining  of  anthracite  coal,  the  chief  business  is  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Mauch 
Chuuk. 

CARBON,  a co.  in  Wyoming  territory,  extending  entirely  across  the  territory,  from 
Montana  to  Colorado;  15,000  sq.m.;  pop.  '80,  3438.  The  co.  is  crossed  by  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad.  Co.  seat,  Rawling’s  Springs. 

CABBONA'RI  (literally  “colliers”  or  “charcoal-burners”),  the  name  of  a secret  politi- 
cal society,  first,  in  some  degree,  made  known  in  1820.  The  constitution,  like  the  pre- 
cise objects  of  the  C.,  still  remains  in  a great  measure  secret;  though  they  have  printed 
instructions,  catechisms,  statutes,  rituals,  etc.,  for  their  associates.  The  statements 
respecting  the  high  antiquity  of  this  secret  confederacy  are  quite  fabulous.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  it  originated  during  the  last  French  regime  in  Naples.  Botta, 
in  his  Storia  d' Italia,  states  that,  under  Murat’s  government,  the  Neapolitan  republicans, 
equally  hating  the  French  and  king  Ferdinand,  escaped  into  the  wild  defiles  of  the 
Abruzzi,  and  here,  naming  themselves  “C.,”  formed  a secret  society.  It  is  said  that 
their  leader,  Capobianco,  had  great  powers  of  popular  eloquence,  and  that  their  motto 
or  war-cry  was,  “ Vengeance  for  the  lamb  torn  by  the  wolf.” 

The  peculiar  phraseology  of  the  C.  is  taken  from  the  vocation  of  charcoal-burners. 
For  instance,  they  are  (or  were)  wont  to  speak  of  “clearing  the  forest  of  wolves." 
The  ‘ ‘ wolves”  probably  meant  at  first  foreign  tyrants ; but  in  the  course  of  time,  after 
the  restoration  of  the  Neapolitan  Bourbons,  such  symbolical  expressions  had  reference 
to  their  despicable  misrule.  Among  themselves  the  initiated  were  styled  “good  cou- 
sins.” The  various  societies  do  not  seem  to  have  possessed  a common  center,  or  to  have 
been  properly  organized  for  combined  action.  A place  of  meeting  was  styled  “ a hut" 
(paracca)',  the  external  neighborhood  “the  forest;”  and  the  interior  of  the  hut  was  the 
vendita  or  “place  for  selling  coal.”  A union  of  several  of  these  huts  formed  a “ repub- 
lic.” The  superior  huts  (a^te  rendite)  at  Naples  and  Salerno,  endeavored,  but  without 
success,  to  effect  a centralization  of  the  Carbonari.  The  society,  soon  after  its  institu- 
tion, numbered  24,000  to  30,000  adherents,  and  increased  so  rapidly  in  Italy,  that  in 
Mar.,  1820,  it  is  said  as  many  as  650,000  new  members  were  initiated,  including  consider- 
able numbers  of  the  military  and  the  clergy.  The  religious  and  Protestant  character  of 
the  order  is  expressed  in  its  statutes,  which  include  the  article : ‘ ‘ That  every  carbonaro 
has  the  natural  and  unalterable  right  of  worshiping  God  according  to  his  own  convic- 
tions. ” Though  carbonarism  did  not  arise  from  the  lodges  of  freemasons  (as  several 
have  supposed),  it  has  borrowed  many  forms  of  masonry. 

After  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  several  secret  political  unions  were  formed  in 
France,  and  in  1820  were  confederated  with  the  Carbonari.  Paris,  after  the  prosecu- 
tions against  the  secret  societies  of  Italy,  was  made  the  head-quarters  of  a carbonarism 
which,  adopting  all  the  symbolic  phraseology,  rules,  and  regulations  of  the  Italian  socie- 
ties, received  from  the  rapidly  systematizing  genius  of  the  French,  an  organic  character 
which  it  had  never  before  possessed.  The  initiated  styled  themselves  bons  cousins,  and 
spoke  of  the  uninitiated  as  pagani  (heathens).  Written  documents  and  communications 
were  strictly  prohibited  by  the  heads  of  the  union,  and  treachery  was  to  be  punished  by 
assassination.  After  the  close  of  the  French  and  Spanish  war,  the  C.,  whose  activity  in 
contriving  plots  had  excited  the  terror  of  the  French  prefects,  restricted  its  endeavors 
to  the  circulation  of  republican  ideas,  without  direct  attempts  towards  insurrection. 
After  the  July  revolution,  several  of  the  leading  French  C.  attached  themselves  to  the 
new  regime,  and  their  society  w^as  gradually  dissolved.  In  its  place  the  new  CharhoTv- 
nerie  Democratique  was  founded,  having  for  its  object  the  establishment  of  a republican 
government,  founded  on  the  principles  of  Babeuf  (q.v.).  The  endeavor  of  these  new 
C.  to  make  Paris  the  center  of  all  political  movements,  led  to  the  secession  of  the  Italian 
refugees,  who  associated  themselves  under  the  title  “ Young  Italy.”  French  carbonar- 
ism is  not  known  to  exist  at  present,  and  it  is  possible  that  even  in  Italy  the  triumphs  of 
constitutional  patriotism  during  recent  times  have  rendered  its  existence  no  longer 
necessary,  but  it  certainly  was  alive  at  the  commencement  of  the  Franco-Sardinian  war 
with  Austria;  and  one  of  the  rumors  of  the  time  was,  that  the  French  emperor—' 
who,  in  his  young  republican  days,  had  been  a member  of  this  society — had  entered  on 
the  war  of  liberation,  to  conciliate  his  old  associates,  who  had  menaced  him  with  the 
fate  of  a traitor. 

CABBONATED  or  Acid'ulous  Waters  are  those  which  contain  a great  excess  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  The  amount  of  gas  in  ordinary  spring  and  well  waters  does  not 
amount  to  more  than  3 to  8 cubic  in.  in  100  cubic  in.  of  the  w^ater;  but  in  waters  enti- 


445 


Carbon. 

Carbonic* 


tied  to  be  called  C.,  the  proportion  of  gas  to  100  cubic  in.  of  water  rises  30  to  60,  when 
they  are  considered  rich;  100  to  200  when  they  are  very  rich;  and  in  the  waters  of  St. 
Nectaire  it  is  said  that  the  proportion  of  gas  is  as  high  as  400  volumes  to  100  of  the 
water.  These  waters  sparkle  much  when  poured  from  one  vessel  to  another.  The 
carbonic  acid  is  free,  but  is  generally  accompanied  (1)  by  bicarbonate  of  soda,  when  the 
water  is  called  carbonated-alkaline  or  acidulo-alkaline,  as  in  the  Seltzer,  Pyrmont,  Salz- 
brunn,  Altwasser,  and  Reinerz  acidulous  mineral  springs ; or  (2)  by  carbonate  of  iron,  when 
the  water  is  named  carbonated  or  acidulous  chalybeate.  See  Chalybeate  Waters.  The 
mineral  spring  at  Irkeston,  near  Nottingham,  is  the  only  water  of  this  nature  in  Britain. 
The  C.  or  acidulous  waters  are  very  refreshing  and  exhilarating,  and  are  useful  in  cer- 
tain disordered  states  of  the  stomach;  they  relieve  nausea,  and  generally  increase  the 
discharge  of  liquid  from  the  system.  They  are  objectionable  in  the  case  of  persons  of 
a full  and  inflammatory  state  of  body. 

CARBONATES,  chemical  substances  which  are  compounds  of  carbonic  acid  with  a 
base;  e.g.,  carbonates  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  iron,  lead,  copper,  silver,  etc.  Their  for- 
mulae are:  carbonate  of  lime  (marble),  CaO,Coa;  carbonate  of  potash,  KO,COa;  carbonate 
of  iron  (protoxide),  FeO,  CO2,  etc.  As  affinities  of  carbonic  acid  are  very  weak,  carbonates 
are  easily  decomposed : by  heat,  as  in  reducing  marble  and  limestone  to  lime ; by  a more 
powerful  acid,  as  in  the  preparation  of  certain  kinds  of  bread,  which  are  made  light  by 
the  carbonic  acid  set  free  from  the  bicarbonate  of  soda,  the  carbonate  of  potassa,  or 
the  carbonate  of  ammonia,  by  the  acid  of  sour  milk;  by  the  acid  tartrate  of  potash 
(cream  of  tartar) ; by  an  acid  phosphate,  prof.  Horsford’s  method ; or  by  hydrochloric 
acid ; or  as  in  the  preparation  of  so-called  soda-water,  which  is  merely  common  water 
surcharged  with  carbonic  acid  set  free  from  marble  chips  by  sulphuric  acid. 

CARBONDALE,  a city  in  Luzerne  co.,  Penn.,  near  the  head  of  the  Lackawanna 
river,  and  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  railroad;  110  m.  n.w.  of  Philadelphia;  pop.  ’70, 
6,393.  The  city  was  incorporated  in  1851,  and  is  in  the  midst  of  one  of  the  most 
important  coal-mining  districts  in  the  state. 

CARBON  DISULPHIDE,  or  Bisulphide,  also  called  by  workmen  sulphur  alco- 
hol, a chemical  compound  produced  by  burning  carbon  in  an  atmosphere  of  sulphur,  or 
by  distilling  certain  metallic  sulphides  with  charcoal.  It  is  a colorless  liquid,  of  spe- 
cific gravity  of  1.268,  and  boils  at  114°  Fahrenheit.  It  does  not  combine  with  water,  but 
readily  mixes  with  alcohol,  ether,  and  other  hydrocarbons.  It  readily  dissolves  India 
rubber,  gutta-percha,  resins,  oils,  camphor,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  iodine,  and  is  very 
inflammable.  With  oxygen  or  atmospheric  air  it  forms  an  explosive  compound.  It  is 
of  great  use  in  manufacturing  in  many  ways,  such  as  vulcanizing  India  rubber,  extract- 
ing fat  from  bones,  dissolving  oil  from  seeds,  removing  sulphur  and  bitumen  from  rocks, 
making  pure  spices,  purifying  paraffine ; also  for  destroying  vermin,  producing  artificial 
cold,  making  photographic  light,  cleaning  greasy  rags,  preservinghides  and  fresh  meat, 
and  making  delicate  perfumes.  It  is  also  used  to  some  extent  in  medicines.  The  odor 
of  the  crude  article  is  most  sickening.  It  has  a high  refracting  power,  and  is  used  in 
prismatic  glass  bottles  for  producing,  on  a large  scale,  a spectrum,  with  an  electric  or  a 
lime  light. 

CARBON'IC  ACID,  Fixed  Air,  or  Choke-Damp,  is  a substance  occurring  free  as  a 
gas  in  the  atmosphere,  to  the  extent  of  1 volume  to  2,500  of  air,  and  also  in  combination 
with  a variety  of  substances.  It  is  most  easily  prepared  for  experimental  purposes 
from  chips  of  marble,  water,  and  hydrochloric  acid,  which  are  placed  in  a gas  bottle 
with  tubes.  The  hydrochloric  acid  (HCl)  acts  on  the  marble  (CaO,C02),  and  forms 
chloride  of  calcium  (CaCl),  water  (HO),  and  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  which  escapes  as  gas 
with  effervescence,  and  may  be  conducted  by  a proper  tube  under  the  mouths  of  jars 
filled  with  water  and  placed  on  a pneumatic  trough.  Where  C.  A.  is  required  in  large 
quantities,  it  is  prepared  in  a leaden  vessel  from  chalk  (CaO,C02)  and  sulphuric  acid 
(SO3)  diluted  with  water,  when  sulphate  of  lime  (CaO,S03)  is  formed,  and  C.  A.  escapes 
as  gas. 

The  atomic  weight  or  equivalent  of  C.  A.  is  22;  it  is  a clear,  colorless  gas,  with  a 
pleasant  acidulous  smell  and  taste.  Under  great  pressure  and  cold,  it  can  be  condensed 
into  a liquid,  and  even  a solid  resembling  snow  in  appearance.  Under  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  C.  A.  dissolves  in  water  to  the  extent  of  2 volumes  of  gas  in  3 of  water; 
but  under  increased  pressure,  a very  much  larger  amount  of  gas  is  taken  up  by  the  water^ 
and  in  this  way  the  various  kinds  of  Aerated  Waters  (q.v.)  are  prepared.  The  gas 
is  more  than  half  as  heavy  again  as  ordinary  air,  being  1529.  It  is  incombustible,  and 
a non-supporter  of  combustion,  at  once  extinguishing  a lighted  candle,  gas  jet,  or  even 
a piece  of  burning  phosphorus,  when  these  are  placed  in  a jar  filled  with  the  gas,  or 
even  in  a mixture  of  C.  A.  and  air.  This  power  of  putting  out  flame  and  fire  has  been 
turned  to  account  in  the  extinguishing  of  burning  coal-mines,  where,  all  the  openings 
to  the  mine  being  properly  secured,  C.  A. , in  the  form  of  the  spent  air  from  an  ordi- 
npy  coal-furnace,  has  been  passed  into  the  mine,  with  the  result  of  successfully  stop- 
ping the  fire.  It  is  irrespirable  in  a concentrated  form,  producing  spasm  of  the  glottis, 
which  prevents  the  admission  of  the  gas  into  the  system;  and  when  mixed  with  air,  it 
can  be  breathed  without  suspicion,  and  then  acts  as  a narcotic  poison,  even  when  pres- 
ent only  to  the  extent  of  4 or  5 per  cent  of  the  air.  The  deadly  effects  of  C.  A.  are 


Carbonic. 

Carboniferous. 


446 


observed,  in  the  combustion  of  charcoal,  coal,  or  coal-gas,  in  chauffers,  furnaces,  or  in 
fireplaces  with  the  dampers  down,  when  the  deadly  fumes  of  C.  A.  steal  more  or  less 
quickly  over  the  inmates  of  the  room,  and  they  almost  unconsciously  become  its  vic- 
tims— thus  unknowingly  following  the  course  of  the  Parisian  suicide,  who  purposely 
lights  a charcoal  fire  in  the  center  of  his  room,  and  prepares  for  death ; and  in  over- 
crowded rooms  where  the  C.  A.,  exhaled  from  the  lungs  of  each  inmate  at  every  breath, 
poisons  the  air  of  the  apartment,  and  day  by  day  slowly  but  surely  robs  the  robust  of 
health,  and  ultimately  of  life.  In  such  cases  as  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  (q.v.),  where 
there  was  scarcely  any  outlet  for  the  poisonous  gas,  only  a few  hours  may  be  required 
to  complete  the  catastrophe. 

Though  poisonous  when  inhaled  by  the  lungs,  C.  A.  is  rather  refreshing  when  taken 
into  the  stomach.  Thus,  aerated  beverages  of  all  kinds — beer,  champagne,  and  car- 
bonated mineral  waters — owe  their  refreshing  and  invigorating  qualities  to  the  presence 
of  C.  A. ; and  if  the  gas  be  allowed  to  escape,  they  become  almost  tasteless,  stale,  and 
mawkish. 

Besides  abounding  everywhere  in  the  atmosphere,  C.  A.  is  largely  evolved  from 
fissures  in  the  earth,  especially  in  volcanic  districts.  In  the  poison  or  Upas  ralley  of 
Java,  which  is  a valley  of  an  oval  form,  about  f of  a mile  in  circumference,  and  30  to  35 
ft.  deep,  the  carbonic  rises  to  a height  of  about  18  ft.  from  the  surface,  and  the  whole 
bottom  of  the  valley  is  devoid  of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  and  is  strewn  here  and  there 
with  the  bleached  bones  of  man  and  other  animals  that  have  unluckily  stepped  within 
the  deadly  circle.  A dog  thrown  in  dies  in  14  seconds;  and  birds  attempting  to  fiy 
across  the  valley,  instantly  drop  down  dead.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  lake  of  Laach, 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  the  amount  of  C.  A.  evolved  every  day  has  been  estimated  at 
600,000  lbs.  weight.  In  a state  of  combination,  C.  A.  forms  an  ingredient  in  a great 
number  of  minerals  called  such  as  chalk,  limestone  of  various  kinds  (CaO,C02), 

black-band  iron-stone  (carbonate  of  iron,  FeO.COa),  malachite  (carbonate  of  copper, 
CuO,HO,-|-CuO,C02),  etc.  C.  A.  is  the  principal  product  of  combustion;  the  carbon 
of  the  burning  substance  (coal,  candle,  coal-gas,  wood,  paper,  etc.)  uniting  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  forming  C.  A.  (CO2).  It  is  also  a product  of  respiration 
(q.v.),  and  is  evolved  more  or  less  largely  by  all  animals,  not  only  by  the  mouth,  but  in 
exhalations  from  the  skin,  and  is  present  in  blood,  urine,  etc.  It  is  evolved  during  the 
fermentation  (q.v.)  of  beer,  wine,  etc.,  and  often  remains  in  brewers’  vats  when  the 
liquor  has  been  drawn  off.  During  the  decay  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter,  C.  A.  is 
produced,  and  in  explosions  of  fire-damp  in  coal  mines,  it  is  formed  in  large  quantity, 
and  fills  the  underground  passages. 

C.  A.  forms  the  largest  ingredient  in  the  food  of  vegetables,  and  is  therefore 
abstracted  in  large  quantity  from  the  air  by  plants.  It  enters  into  combination  with 
the  majority  of  the  oxides  of  the  metals  and  other  compounds,  to  form  a class  of  salts 
called  carbonates,  several  of  which  have  been  referred  to.  C.  A.  when  present  in  a 
vessel  in  quantity  may  be  recognized  by  the  power  of  extinguishing  a lighted  candle, 
or  by  not  burning  itself.  C.  A.  in  the  foriii  of  gas  may  be  readily  recognized  in  the 
atmosphere  by  exposing  a little  lime-water  in  a saucer,  or  other  shallow  vessel,  when 
the  lime  (CaO)  abstracting  the  C.  A.  (CO2)  from  the  air,  a white  film  of  carbonate  of 
lime  or  chalk  (CaO,C02)  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  A solution  of  baryta 
(q.v.)  in  water  is  more  delicate  in  its  action  on  the  C.  A.  of  the  air,  and  more  readily 
indicates  its  presence. 

CAEBONIC  OXIDE  is  a compound  of  one  atom  of  carbon  and  one  atom  of  oxygen,  is 
represented  by  the  symbol  CO,  and  has  the  atomic  weight  16.  It  does  not  occur  natu- 
rally, but  may  be  observed  burning  with  a pale-blue  flame  in  fire-places  and  stoves, 
especially  in  frosty  weather.  During  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  at  the  low’er  part  of  the 
grate,  the  oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  fuel  to  form  carbonic  acid 
(CO2);  and  this  gas  rising  up  through  red-hot  coal  or  carbon  (C),  has  part  of  its  oxygen 
abstracted  by  the  carbon,  and  two  atoms  of  C.  O.  (CO)  are  produced,  which,  taking 
fire  on  the  top  of  the  coals,  burn  with  the  characteristic  blue  flame,  abstracting  more 
oxygen  from  the  air,  and  re-forming  carbonic  acid  (CO2).  C.  O.  can  be  prepared 
for  experimental  purposes  by  heating  a mixture  of  oxalic  acid  (HO,  C2O3)  and  sulphuric 
acid  (SO3)  in  a retort,  when  the  latter  abstracts  the  water  from  the  oxalic  acid,  and  the 
other  elements  (C2O3)  escape  as  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  and  C.  O.  (CO).  On  passing  the 
mixed  gases  through  a solution  of  potash  (KO),  the  carbonic  acid  is  retained  as  carbonate 
of  potash  (KOCO2),  whilst  the  C.  O remains  as  gas.  C.  O.  is  a transparent,  colorless  gas, 
SL  little  lighter  than  air,  being  967,  and  has  never  been  liquefied  nor  solidified.  It  burns 
with  a biue  flame,  but  is  a non-supporter  of  combustion,  and  at  once  extinguishes  a 
lighted  candle  introduced  into  it.  It  is  very  poisonous,  and  even  w’hen  largely  diluted 
with  air,  if  inhaled,  it  produces  a sensation  of  oppression  and  tightness  of  the  head,  and 
ultimately  acts  as  a narcotic  poison.  It  does  not  take  part  in  any  natural  phenomena,  nor 
is  it  put  to  any  use  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  and  in  these  respects,  affords  a striking 
contrast  to  carbonic  acid,  which  has  so  many  duties  to  perform  in  nature  and  in  the 

CARBONIF'EROUS  LIMESTONE,  or  Mount  Am  Limestone,  one  of  the  lower  rocks 
of  the  carboniferous  system,  generally  of  coralline  formation,  containing  magnesia,  and 
rich  in  organic  remains.  Some  varieties  make  good  building  stone. 


447 


Carbonic. 

Carboniferous.. 


CARBONIFEROUS  SYSTEM,  the  name  given  to  the  strata  whidi,  in  geological  order, 
rest  upon  the  Devonian  measures,  and  are  capped  by  the  Permian  series.  They  derive 
their  designation  from  the  amount  of  carbon  contained  in  them,  for  to  them  the  great 
coal-fields  of  the  world  belong.  In  an  economic  sense,  they  are  the  most  valuable  series- 
of  rocks  in  the  earth’s  crust,  forming  the  great  store-house  from  which  is  obtained  the 
chief  supply  of  coal,  iron,  and  lime. 

The  rocks  of  the  system  are  composed  of  a vast  series  of  beds  of  sandstone,  lime- 
stone, shale,  and  coal.  In  some  coal-fields,  these  are  so  interstratified,  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  subdivide  the  strata  in  the  order  of  time.  In  the  Edinburgh  district,  there  are 
nearly  100  coal-seams,  omitting  all  under  6 in.  in  thickness.  Out  of  the  whole  depth 
of  the  strata,  amounting  to  about  6,300  ft.,  these  seams  occupy  only  204  feet.  The 
remainder  consists  of  sandstone  and  shale  in  the  upper  half;  towards  the  middle,  lime- 
stones appear,  and  these  increase  downwards  in  the  number  and  thickness  of  the  beds, 
but  are  still  intermixed  with  seams  of  coal.  The  same  arrangement  exists  in  the  other 
coal-fields  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  those  of  the  n.  of  England.  In  other  districts,  the 
limestone  is  confined  to  the  lower  portion  of  the  measures,  and  separated  from  the  coal 
bearing  strata,  so  as  to  form  a natural  subdivision  of  the  system  into— 1.  The  coal  meas- 
ures, consisting  of  shale,  sandstone,  and  grit,  with  occasional  seams  of  coal;  and  2.  Ihe- 
mountain  or  carboniferous  limestone,  a calcareous  rock,  containing  marine  shells  and 
corals,  and  devoid,  of  coal.  A coarse  quartzose  sandstone,  passing  into  conglomerate,  is^ 
occasionally  developed  to  a considerable  extent  between  these  two  divisions.  This  is  a 
local  deposit,  being  almost  confined  to  England,  and  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
coal  sandstones,  of  coarser  texture  than  usual.  Being  occasionally  used  for  millstones, 
it  is  called  millstone  grit.  It  is  accompanied  with  shales  containing  the  usual  coal  plants, 
but  generally  without  any  true  coal  seams.  Another  locally  developed  series  of  beds, 
consisting  of  indurated  shales,  sandstones,  and  grits,  occurs  below  the  carboniferous- 
limestone  in  South  Wales  and  Ireland,  and  is  known  as  the  lower  limestone  shales.  These 
rest  conformably  on  a series  of  yellow  sandstones,  which  have  been  generally  referred  te 
the  Devonian  measures,  but  which,  from  their  organic  contents,  as  well  as  from  their 
stratigraphical  position,  seem  to  be  basement  beds  of  the  carboniferous  series.  The 
existence  and  development  of  these  various  beds  in  the  United  Kingdom  will  be  better 
understood  by  an  examination  of  the  following  table.  The  maximum  thickness  of  the 
beds  is  given  in  feet  when  known;  the  blanks  show  the  absence  of  the  division  from  th© 
particular  coal-field: 


Edinburgh. 

Coal  Measures 6,300 

Millstone  Grit 

Mountain  Limestone  . . 

Lower  Limestone  Shales 

Yellow  Sandstone 


Glasgow. 

N.  York. 

Derby. 

* S.  Wales. 

Kerry. 

Clare.  N.  Ireland- 

2,800 

2,000 

2,700 

12,000 

2,000 

2,000  2,200 

400 

1,600 

1,000 

1,800 

1,659 

1,000 

1,500 

1,500 

3,000  6,400 

500 

4,650 

150  1,200 

3,000  unknown  depth  2,000 

In  the  midland  countries,  the  coal  measures  are  the  only  portion  of  the  C.  S.  present, 
and  these  rest  on  the  Silurian  or  older  rocks.  In  Devonshire,  there  occurs  an  exten- 
sive series  of  shales  and  sandstones,  with  a few  beds  of  earthy  anthracite  or  culm,  asso- 
ciated with  argillaceous  rocks,  probably  belonging  to  the  lower  limestone  shales,  much 
indurated,  and  traversed  by  slaty  cleavage. 

From  the  great  economic  value  of  the  contents  of  the  C.  S. , we  are  better  acquainted 
with  its  fossils  than  with  any  fauna  or  flora  that  flourished  before  the  tertiary  epoch. 
As  coal  is  the  result  of  the  mineralization  of  vegetable  matter,  the  coal  measures  must 
necessarily  abound  in  the  remains  of  plants.  No  less  than  294  species  have  been 
described  as  found  in  Britain  alone.  Numerous  impressions  of  plants,  as  well  as  traces 
of  structure,  are  found  in  the  seams  of  coal  themselves;  but  the  more  distinct  forms  ar& 
preserved  in  the  interstratified  beds  of  mud  and  ironstone,  often  in  great  number  and 
exquisite  beauty.  Such  remains  consist  chiefly  of  impressions  of  leaves  separated  from 
their  branches;  of  casts  of  trunks,  more  or  less  in  a broken  state;  and  of  roots  much 
compressed,  yet  occupying  their  original  position  in  the  clay  soil  now  indurated  into  shale ; 
with  these  occur  pieces  of  wood,  or  remains  of  trees,  in  which  the  vegetable  texture  is  to 
some  extent  preserved.  The  great  proportion  of  the  plants  seem  to  have  flourished  in 
marshy  swamps,  and  to  have  accumulated  where  they  grew,  like  peat,  the  material  after- 
wards converted  into  coal.  Hence  a stratum  of  shale  in  which  are  imbedded  the  roots- 
of  sigillaria,  calamites,  etc.,  is  the  invariable  floor  on  which  the  coal  seam  rests.  The 
chief  coal  plants  are  lepidodendron  (q.v.),  sigillaria  (q.v.),  calamites  (q.v.),  trigonocarpoii 
(q.v.),  and  ferns  (q.v.).  The  existence  of  cone-bearing  trees  during  this  epoch  has  bee;_ 
provedfrom  the  microscopic  examination  of  prepared  sections  of  fossil  woods,  in  whicl- 
the  small  discs  occur  that  are  characteristic  of  and  peculiar  to  the  coniferse. 

The  animal  remains  are  as  numerous  and  as  well  preserved  as  the  vegetable.  They^ 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  limestone ; the  greater  part,  indeed,  of  this  rock,  is  made  up 
bodily  of  corals  and  crinoids.  No  other  such  accumulation  for  extent  and  variety  is 
known;  it  has  its  nearest  parallel  in  the  somewhat  similar  formation  now  going  on 
in  the  southern  archipelago.  The  corals  and  crinoids  were  specifically  as  well  as  indi- 
vidually numerous.  The  terebratulae  and  other  allied  forms  of  bivalve  shells,  though 
belonging  to  a comparatively  limited  number  of  genera,  were  very  abundant.  The  more 
highly  developed  mollusca  were  also  numerous;  they  belonged  to  a great  number  of 


Carboniferong. 

Cardan. 


448 


generic  types.  But  the  most  remarkable  group  was  the  fishes.  At  no  time  were  they 
more  abundant.  They  belonged  to  the  ganoid  and  placoid  groups  of  Agassiz.  The 
ganoids,  having  their  entire  surface  covered  with  scales,  were  numerous;  some  of  them 
inhabited  shallow  water  near  the  shore,  and  fed  on  crustaceans  and  shell-fish,  for  crush- 
ing which  they  had  a formidable  apparatus  of  conical  teeth  of  a very  complicated  struc- 
ture. Others  were  inhabitants  of  deep  water,  and  were  more  powerful  and  predaceous, 
and  more  rapid  in  their  movements.  Their  jaws  were  produced  into  a long  snout,  like 
the  crocodile  of  the  Ganges,  and  armed  with  a double  series  of  enormous  teeth,  which 
were  sometimes  as  much  as  4 in.  long  by  2 in.  broad,  as  in  megalichthys  (q.v.),  dimen- 
sions rarely  attained  even  by  the  largest  known  reptiles.  Associated  with  these  were  a 
great  number  of  sharks  belonging  to  the  cestraciontidse  (q.v.),  a family  of  which  we  have 
only  a single  living  representative.  They  were  furnished  with  a long  bony  spine  tq 
strengthen  the  dorsal  fin,  and  thus  enable  them  to  turn  speedily  in  the  water,  as  they 
required  to  do  in  seizing  their  prey.  These  spines  are  often  found  fossil.  The  only 
remains  referred  to  a higher  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  yet  found  belong  to  the 
saurian  archegosaurus  (q.v.). 

CARBONIFEROUS  SYSTEM  {ante).  Most  of  the  great  coal  fields  of  the  world 
belong  to  this  system  of  formation.  In  this  country,  coal  is  widely  distributed  over 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Virginia,  and  other  states.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  400,000  sq.  m.  of  the  earth’s  surface  now  covered  by  productive  coal  fields. 
Now  as  there  are  about  3,100,000  sq.  yards  in  a m.,  and  as  a cubic  yard  of  coal  weighs 
nearly  a ton,  and  as  in  some  of  the  fields  the  vein  or  deposit  is  from  30  to  60  ft.  thick, 
there  would  not  seem  to  be  any  immediate  danger  of  failure  in  the  supply  of  coal.  See 
Anthracite,  and  Coal. 

CAKBON  PRINTING.  See  Positive  Printing. 

CARBUNCLE,  a name  given  by  lapidaries  to  the  beautiful  mineral  called  jpyrope  (q.v.) 
by  mineralogists.  The  C.  of  the  ancients  appears  to  have  been  either  pyrope,  or  the  deep- 
red  variety  of  noble  garnet  (see  Garnet),  which  is  in  every  respect  very  similar  to  it,  or 
probably  included  both. 

CARBUNCLE  (Lat.  carbunculus,  a little  coal)  derives  its  name  from  the  two  prominent 
symptoms — a glowing  fiery  redness,  and  a burning  pain.  It  consists  of  an  inflammation, 
caused  by  some  vitiated  condition  pf  the  blood,  or  some  atmospheric  influence,  attacking  a 
patch  of  skin  on  the  shoulders,  nape  of  the  neck,  or  indeed  on  any  part  of  the  body. 
The  part  swells  slightly,  feels  hard,  and  this  hardness  extends  deeply  into  the  tissues; 
the  pain  is  very  severe,  and  the  patient  much  depressed  with  loss  of  appetite,  and  general 
derangement  of  the  secretions.  As  the  disease  advances,  the  redness  assumes  a dark 
purple  or  livid  hue,  the  cuticle  rises  in  blisters,  and  many  small  specks  of  matter  appear 
on  its  surface,  which  discharge,  and  leave  apertures  like  those  in  the  rose  of  a watering- 
pot;  through  this  a thin  viscid  fluid  escapes,  and  occasionally  a small  slough  or  core  of 
the  true  skin  which  has  been  killed  by  the  disease.  Sometimes  these  apertures  meet, 
forming  large  openings,  and  in  others  the  whole  patch  of  skin  sloughs  and  comes  away. 

The  treatment  of  C.  consists  in  restoring  the  secreting  organs  to  a healthy  condition, 
the  agents  for  which  must  depend  on  the  individual  case ; in  supporting  the  patient’s 
strength  by  easily  digested  food,  wine,  brandy  and  bark,  with  nitric  acid ; relieving  pain 
by  opiates,  and  encouraging  suppuration  with  warm  poultices ; carrot,  turnip,  and  yeast 
poultices  being  favorite  applications  in  this  disease.  To  prevent  excessive  loss  of  skin, 
the  C.  must  be  divided  freely  with  a knife  from  one  margin  of  the  inflamed  patch  to  the 
opposite  one. 

CARBURETS.  See  Carbides,  ante. 

CARBURETED  HYDROGEN  is  a term  in  chemistry  applied  to  several  compounds  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen.  Thus,  light  carbureted  or  monocarbureted  hydrogen  (CHa)  is 
the  gaseous  compound  popularly  known  as  marsh  gas  and  fire-damp,  and  is  the  principal 
constituent  of  coal-gas.  See  Gas,  Heavy  carbureted  or  bicarbureted  hydrogen  (CaHa) 
is  otherwise  known  as  olefiant  gas  (q.v.). 

CARCAJENTE,  a t.  of  Valencia,  Spain,  about  28  m.  s.s.w.  of  the  city  of  Valencia, 
situated  on  a rich  plain  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Juncar.  It  is  well  built,  with  good 
streets,  and  has  a palace  belonging  to  the  marquis  of  Calzada.  It  has  some  manufac- 
tures of  linen  and  woolen,  and  a trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  district.  Pop. 
about  7,000. 

CARCANET,  a jeweled  chain  or  necklace.  Venice  was  famous  for  the  manufacture 
of  carcanets  in  the  15th  century. 

CARCASS,  in  military  pyrotechny,  is  a hollow  case  of  iron,  sometimes  globular,  and 
sometimes  ovate,  filled  with  combustibles.  It  is  fired  from  a mortar.  Its  chief  use  iS 
to  ignite  buildings  in  the  enemy’s  quarter,  and  to  give  sufficient  light  to  aim  the  shot 
and  shells.  Carcasses  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  one  of  the  princely  ecclesias- 
tics of  Germany,  the  bishop  of  Munster,  when  he  fought  against  the  duke  of  Luxem^ 


449 

CarboniferouB. 

Cardan. 

bourg  at  Groll,  in  1672.  The  oval  carcasses,  being  uncertain  in  their  flight,  are  now 
nearly  abandoned.  The  round  carcasses  now  made  are  chiefly  those  here  indicated: 

Diameter. 

13  inch 

10  “ 

Composition. 

18  lbs 

7 “ 

Weight. 

100  “ 

8 “ 

3 “ 

61  “ 

5 “ 

4|“  

7 “ 

17  “ 

9 “ 

Carcasses  are  not  intended  to  burst,  but  to  send  out,  through  holes,  a furious  and 
inextinguishable  fire,  which  lasts  from  3 to  12  minutes.  The  composition  with  which 
they  are  filled  consists  of  saltpeter,  sulphur,  meal  gunpowder,  pitch,  rosin,  tallow,  and 
Venice  turpentine,  about  half  being  saltpeter.  The  composition  is  packed  in  tightly 
through  one  of  the  holes;  and  the  holes  are  stopped  with  fuses  adjusted  to  ignite  the 
composition  after  a certain  space  of  time.  Sometimes  old  pistol  barrels,  loaded  to  the 
muzzle,  are  introduced  with  the  composition.  Compare  those  details  with  Case-shot, 
^ind  Shells. 

CARCASSONNE,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Aude,  France,  situated  on  the  river  Aude, 
and  the  Canal  du  Midi,  about  55  m.  s.e.  of  Toulouse.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
old  and  new  towns.  The  modern  town  is  well  built,  with  streets  running  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  squares  adorned  with  trees,  pleasant  boulevards,  and  several  marble  foun- 
tains. The  old  town,  built  on  a height,  is  much  more  picturesque,  with  its  ramparts 
and  towers,  some  parts  of  them  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Visigoths,  and  the  rest, 
with  the  castle,  from  the  11th  or  12th  century.  This  old  town  suffered  greatly  at  the 
hands  of  the  fierce  bigot  Simon  de  Montfort  and  his  crusaders,  who  here  burned  400  of 
the  Albigenses.  In  the  14th  c.  it  effectually  resisted  the  black  prince.  The  cloth  manu- 
factures are  important,  employing,  it  is  said,  upwards  of  7,000  people.  C.  has  also 
manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  linen,  and  soap.  Pop.  ’76,  exclusive  of  garrison,  23,517. 
The  ancient  name  of  the  town  was  Carcaso,  which  was  a place  of  some  note  in  the  time 
of  Caesar. 

CAECHARIAS.  See  Shark. 

CARCINO'MA.  See  Cancer,  ante. 

CARDAMINE.  See  Cress,  Bitter. 

CARDAMOMS  are  the  capsules  of  certain  species  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  scita- 
minecB  (q.v.),  and  belonging  to  at  least  two  genera,  amomum  and  elettaria.  They  are 
three-celled,  and  contain  numerous  wrinkled  seeds,  which  form  an  aromatic  pungent 
spice,  weaker  than  pepper,  and  with  a peculiar  but  agreeable  taste.  On  account  of 
their  cordial  and  stimulant  properties,  they  are  employed  in  medicine,  very  generally 
to  qualify  other  medicines;  they  are  also  used  in  confectionery,  although  not  to  a great 
extent  in  Britain;  but  in  Asia  they  are  a favorite  condiment;  and  in  the  n,  of  Germany, 
they  are  used  in  almost  every  household  to  flav  or  pastry. — The  C.  recognized  in  the 
British  pharmacopoeias,  and  called  true  or  officinal  C. , also  known  in  commerce  as  Malabar 
€.,  are  the  produce  of  elettaria  cardamomum,  a native  of  the  mountains  of  Malabar  and 
Canara.  They  depend  for  their  qualities  on  a peculiar  pungent  essential  oil,  called  oil 

cardamom,  which  may  be  obtained  from  them  by  distilling  them  with  water,  and 
when  fresh,  is  colorless.  Other  kinds  of  C.  occur  in  commerce,  but  none  is  equal  to 
the  true  C.  in  commercial  value.  The  different  kinds  of  C.  differ  not  only  in  strength, 
but  in  the  character  of  their  aroma.  The  plants  producing  them  have  much  general 
similarity. 

CARDAN,  Jerome,  a celebrated  mathematician,  naturalist,  physician,  and  philosopher, 
h.  at  Pavia,  Sept.  24,  1501,  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a physician  and  jurisconsult  at 
Milan.  He  received  his  early  education  at  home,  and  completed  his  studies  in  Pavia 
and  Padua.  After  some  years,  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  at  Milan.  ^ Here 
his  reputation  began  to  grow.  After  a few  years,  he  began  to  lecture  on  rnedicine,  to 
the  practice  of  which  he  ultimately  betook  himself.  By  1546,  his  reputation  had  so 
increased,  that  he  was  invited  by  the  king  of  Denmark  to  accept  a professorship  at 
Dopenhagen,  which,  however,  he  declined;  and,  in  1552,  we  find  him  proceeding  to 
Scotland,  on  an  invitation  from  Hamilton,  primate  of  that  country.  He  managed  to 
cure  the  primate  of  an  inveterate  asthma,  which  had  defied  the  skill  of  the  most  cele- 
brated physicians,  and  returned  to  Milan  enriched  b}'"  the  bounty  of  his  patient.  Here 
he  again  settled  for  some  time.  In  the  autumn  of  1559,  however,  he  removed  to  Pavia 
as  professor  of  medicine,  whence,  again,  in  the  same  capacity,  he  removed  to  Bologna, 
where  he  continued  teaching  till*1570,  when  we  find  him  imprisoned  for  debt.  Having 
regained  his  liberty  in  1571,  he  went  to  Rome  to  avoid'  his  creditors.  Here  he  was 
speedily  admitted  a member  of  the  medical  college,  and  pensioned  by  pope  Gregory  XII. 
The  rest  of  his  life  he  spent,  without  public  employment,  in  Rome,  where  he  died  Sept. 
2,  1576,  a few  weeks  after  finishing  his  autobiography.  Some  writers  assert,  but  on  no 
sufficient  authority,  that  he  starved  himself  to  death,  to  fulfill  a prediction  which  he  had 
made  as  to  the  time  when  he  should  die.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  he  was  a devoted 
astrologer,  and  cast  horoscopes  for  himself  and  others.  The  fancifulness  necessary  to 
U.  K.  HI.— 29 


Card-board. 

CardigauHkire. 


450 


support  the  faith  of  an  astrologer  imbued  all  his  scientific  writings.  These  were  very 
voluminous.  A summary  of  his  notions  on  physics  and  metaphysics  is  given  in  his  two 
works— Svhilitate,  in  21  books,  and  De  Rerum  Varietate,  in  17  books.  On  the  whole, 
he  wrote  122  treatises  on  physics,  mathematics,  astronomy,  astrology,  rhetoric,  history, 
ethics,  dialectics,  natural  history,  music,  and  medicine.  These,  it  need  scarcely  be 
said,  abound  in  incoherent  paradoxes,  contradictions,  and  capricious  abstractions,  more 
than  enough  to  overwhelm  the  few  profound  ideas  which  he  originated.  A formula  for 
the  solution  of  certain  kinds  of  cubic  equations  is  called  “ Cardan’s  formula,”  and  was 
published  by  him,  as  his  own  invention,  in  the  Are  Magna  dve  de  Begulis  Algebraici» 
(1545);  but  it  would  appear  that  the  formula  was  really  the  invention  of  one  Tartalea  or 
Tartaglia.  In  religion,  C.  was  heterodox,  and  commonly  reputed  an  atheist.  His 
numerous  writings  were  collected  and  edited  by  Charles  Sphon  (10  vols.,  Lyon,  1663). 

CARD-BOABB,  or  Card,  is  made  by  pasting  together  several  layers  of  paper,  accord- 
ing to  the  thickness  and  quality  required.  Bristol-board,  used  by  artists,  is  made  entirely 
of  white  paper;  ordinary  card-board,  of  fine  white  paper  outside,  with  one  or  more 
sheets  of  coarse  cartridge-paper  between.  According  to  the  number  of  layers,  they  are 
called  three,  four,  six,  or  eight  sheet  boards.  Mill-board,  used  by  book-binders  as  the  basis 
of  book-covers,  is  made  of  coarse  brown  paper,  glued  and  strongly  pressed. 

The  workman  arranges  the  paper  in  the  order  required  for  pasting,  and  the  pile^ 
called  a head,  is  placed  at  his  left  hand,  the  paste-tub  on  his  right.  He  lifts  a sheet  from 
the  head  with  his  left  hand,  brushes  it  over  with  paste  with  his  right;  then  another  is 
laid  upon  that  and  pasted,  until  he  comes  to  the  last  required  to  complete  the  thickness 
of  one  board,  when  he  removes  two  sheets,  and  only  pastes  the  upper  one,  which  thus 
forms  the  lower  sheet  of  another  board.  This  is  repeated  till  the  whole  head  is  pasted,, 
when  it  is  removed  to  a press,  and  the  water  of  the  paste  squeezed  out  at  the  edges. 
The  boards  are  then  separated,  and  dried  by  hanging  them  in  a room  artificially  heated. 
The  card-board,  which  is  now  rough  and  warped,  is  smoothed  and  flattened  by  making 
a pile  consisting  alternately  of  sheets  of  rough  card-board  and  copper  plates,  with  a. 
copper  plate  at  top  and  bottom.  This  pile  is  passed  between  iron  rollers,  and  the  smooth 
surface  of  the  copper  impressed  upon  the  card-board,  which  is  thus  flattened  and  beauti- 
fully polished. 

The  enameling  of  address-cards  is  produced  by  brushing  over  the  card-board  a 
mixture  of  china  or  kremnitz  white  (a  fine  variety  of  white  lead)  and  size.  After  drying, 
this  surface  is  rubbed  lightly  over  with  a piece  of  flannel,  previously  dipped  in  finely 
powdered  talc;  it  is  then  polished  by  rubbing  vigorously  with  a hard,  close-set  brush. 

CAR'DENAS,  a seaport  and  city  of  Cuba,  capital  of  a district,  105  m.  e.  of  Havana, 
on  a bay  of  the  n.  coast,  and  having  railroad  communication  with  Matanzas  and  Havana. 
There  is  good  anchorage  in  the  harbor.  Sugar  is  the  chief  article  of  export.  Pop.  11,- 
000.  The  streets  are  well  laid  out  and  lighted,  and  the  houses  are  usually  neat  and  solid. 
There  is  a bronze  statue  of  Columbus  in  one  of  the  squares.  Much  of  the  business  is. 
done  by  people  from  the  United  States,  a fact  that  gives  it  the  name  of  the  “ Americaa 
city.”  In  1850,  the  city  was  plundered  by  Lopez. 

CABBIA,  the  upper  orifice  of  the  stomach,  called,  on  account  of  its  vicinity  to  the 
heart,  by  the  same  Greek  name,  cardia,  and  probably  hardly  distinguished  from  it  in  the 
earliest  times  of  Greek  medicine. 

CARDIAC  MEDICINES,  stomachic  and  stimulating  remedies — cordials,  so  called  from 
their  action  on  the  heart  through  the  stomach.  See  Cardia. 

CARDI'AD^,  a family  of  bivalve  lamelli  branchiate  mollusks,  of  which  the  cockle 
is  a specimen. 

CARDIALGIIA,  pain  of  the  heart  or  stomach  (Cardia).  The  name  is  commonly 
applied  to  the  particular  variety  of  pain  called  heartburn,  arising  from  a disordered 
stomach,  and  accompanied  with  acid  eructations.  See  Indigestion. 

CARDIFF  Fort  of  theTaff),  a parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  and  sea- 

port, one  of  the  county  towns  of  Glamorgan,  South  Wales,  situated  on  the  river  Taff, 
170  m.^  w.  of  London  by  railway.  The  population  has  risen  from  2,000  in  1801,  to 
56,911  in  1871,  with  a floating  population  of  about  5,000.  C.,with  Cowbridge  and  Llantris- 
sant,  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  The  town  extends  about  one  mile  in  each  direc- 
tion from  the  town-hall.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  Glamorganshire  and 
Monmouthshire  infirmary,  town-hall,  free  library  and  museum,  county  jail,  law-courts, 
an  in^irmap^  a county  lunatic  asylum,  baths,  and  a theater.  There  are  also  many 
private  buildings  of  a superior  character,  and  a public  park.  Of  about  30  places  of 
worship  in  C.,  only  4 belong  to  the  church  of  England.  . 

The  port  of  C.  is  the  outlet  for  the  large  mineral  and  manufactured  produce  of  the 
central  portion  of  the  South  Wales  mineral-field,  in  which  are  the  populous  districts  of 
Merthyr-Tydvil,  Rhymney,  Aberdare.  and  the  Rhondda  valley,  with  which  this  port  ia 
connected  by  the  Taff  Vale,  the  Rhymney,  and  the  Ely  Valley  railways,  and  the 
(Glamorganshire  canal.  The  town  is  also  one  of  the  chief  stations  on  the  Great  Western 
line  from  London  to  Milford-Haven.  The  Bute  docks,  e.  and  w.,  with  an  area  of  7A 
acres,  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  Bute  estate,  have  cost  up  wards  of  a million, 
sterling,  and  belong  entirely  to  the  present  marquis.  There  are  about  40  staiths  on  the 


451 


Card-board. 
Card!  gauHhire. 


quHys  of  the  docks,  with  machinery  of  a peculiar  construction  for  the  purpose  of  load- 
ing vessels  with  coal,  by  which  the  breaking  of  the  coal  is  almost  entirely  prevented. 
Euch  of  these  staiths  is  capable  of  shipping  560  tons  of  coal  in  a day  of  12  hours.  There 
i«  also  a tidal  harbor,  with  7 staiths,  each  capable  of  shipping  400  tons  of  coal  per  day, 
and  a lower-water  pier  1400  ft.  in  length.  Height  of  water  at  spring-tide,  31  ft.  8^ 
inches;  at  neap-tide,  21  ft.  7|  inches.  Width  of  sea-gates,  55  ft. ; length  of  quays,  11,100 
ft. ; width  of  dock,  300  ft.  southern,  and  500  ft.  northern  part;  depth,  25  feet.  Exports 
during  1873 — coal,  3,591,218  tons;  iron,  154,570  tons;  coke,  1276  tons.  The  quantity  of 
coal  exported  has  immensely  increased.  In  1875,  5,450  vessels,  of  1,170,122  tons, 
•entered  the  port,  and  10,105,  of  2,428,721  tons,  cleared  it.  The  imports  to  C.  include 
copper  ore,  live  cattle,  salted  provisions,  foreign  fruit  and  vegetables,  corn  and  flour, 
etc.  The  Penarth  docks,  about  3 m.  to  the  westward,  form  another  outlet  for  the  trade 
of  the  district.  Steamers  ply  between  the  port  of  C.  and  New  York,  London,  Liver- 
pool, Glasgow,  Bristol,  Cork,  Whitehaven,  and  Burnham. 

The  assizes  (half-yearly,  alternately  with  Swansea)  and  the  quarter-sessions  are  held 
at  the  town-hall.  The  ancient  city  of  Llandaff , now  a mere  village,  is  almost  connected 
with  Cardiff.  Cardiff  castle,  built  in  the  11th  c.,  is  partly  now  in  ruins,  and  partly 
occupied  by  the  marquis  of  Bute,  to  whom  nearly  the  whole  of  the  modern  town 
belongs.  Robert  duke  of  Normandy,  brother  of  Henry  I.,  died  in  the  castle,  after 
being  a prisoner  for  28  years.  Cromwell  (1648)  got  possession  of  the  castle  by  treachery, 
after  bombarding  it  three  days;  and  he  afterwards  hanged  the  traitor,  as  an  example  to 
his  own  soldiery.  This  town  was  anciently  an  important  one,  successively  under  the 
British,  Romans,  and  Normans. 

CARDIFF  GIANT,  a rude  statue  of  a man  10^  ft.  high,  cut  (in  Chicago)  from  a block 
of  gypsum  sent  from  Iowa.  It  was  secretly  buried  near  the  village  of  Cardiff, 
Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  where  it  was  pretended  to  have  been  found  in  Oct.,  1869,  and  was 
exhibited  with  great  success  for  several  months  as  “the  petrified  giant,”  deceiving  even 
some  men  of  science.  The  fraud,  one  of  the  most  notable  in  recent  times,  was  finally 
confessed. 

CARDIGAN  (anciently,  Aherteifi,  Mouth  of  theTeify),  the  co.  t.  of  Cardiganshire,  a 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  and  seaport,  in  the  s.w.  corner  of  the  county,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Teify,  3 m.  from  its  mouth,  and  239  m.  n.  by  w.  of  London.  The 
vicinity  exhibits  romantic  scenery  on  the  Teify,  and  grand  rocks  on  the  coast.  The 
streets,  except  the  chief  one,  are  narrow  and  steep,  the  houses  built  of  slate-rock.  Pop. 
of  the  municipal  borough,  ’71,  3,461;  of  the  parliamentary  borough,  4,939.  With 
Aberystwith,  Lampeter,  and  Adpar,  C.  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  In  1875, 
G83  vessels,  of  31,486  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  The  general  trade  is  confined 
to  vessels  of  20  to  100  tons.  Vessels  of  400  tons  reach  the  town  by  spring-tides.  C. 
became  an  important  town  about  the  Norman  conquest.  The  Normans  were  frequently 
■defeated  before  mastering  it.  There  are  the  remains  of  a castle  on  a low  cliff  on  the 
Teify,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded,  in  1160,  by  a Norman  baron.  The 
town  suffered  much  in  the  struggles  between  the  Welsh  and  the  Normans.  The  Teify 
is  said  to  have  been  the  last  British  resort  of  the  beaver. 

CARDIGAN,  James  Thomas  Brudenell,  7th  earl  of;  also  baron  Brudenell, 
lieut.gen. ; 1797-1868.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  went  into  parliament  in  1818. 
In  1824,  he  entered  the  army  in  the  hussars,  and  rose  (1832)  to  be  lieut.col.  He  was 
overbearing  and  quarrelsome,  and  treated  his  men  with  great  severity,  so  that  out  of  a 
regiment  of  350,  he  made  within  two  years  700  arrests,  and  held  105  courts-martial.  In 
1837,  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage.  In  1840,  he  fought  a duel  with  capt.  Tuckett,  an 
officer  of  his  regiment,  in  which  his  adversary  was  wounded.  The  house  of  lords  sub- 
jected the  earl  to  a show  of  trial,  and  he  was  acquitted.  The  Crimean  war  sent  him  to 
the  field  as  commander  of  the  light  cavalry,  and  he  led  that  body  of  600  through  the 
desperate  charge  at  Balaklava,  cutting  his  way  through  six  times  the  number  of  Rus- 
sian heavy  cavalry,  but  leaving  half  his  men  dead  or  wounded  on  the  field.  This  charge, 
■celebrated  in  Tennyson’s  poem,  was  desperate  and  brilliant  work,  but  in  the  opinion  of 
many  critics  a wanton  and  needless  sacrifice  of  his  men.  In  1861,  he  was  made  lieut. 
gen.  He  left  no  children,  and  the  titles  passed  to  his  relative,  the  marquis  of  Ailesbury. 

CARDIGAN  BAY,  a semicircular  bend  of  St.  George’s  channel,  on  the  w.  coast  of 
Wales,  45  m.  wide  from  n.  to  s.,  and  20  m.  deep,  with  a sweep  of  coast  of  110  miles, 
Its  exterior  points  are  Brach-y-Pwll,  off  which  lies  Bardsey  isle,  in  Caernarvon,  and 
Sturm  Head,  in  Pembroke.  It  receives  the  rivers  Mawddach,  Dovy,  Ystwith,  Yren,  and 
Teify.  It  has  3 to  30  fathoms  water,  with  three  reefs.  A strong  current  sweeps  round 
the  bay  from  s.  to  north.  Almost  all  the  harbors  on  the  coast  are  obstructed  by  bars. 
A great  part  of  C.  B.  is  said  to  have  been  once  dry  land,  protected,  as  Holland  now  is, 
by  dams  and  dikes,  and  containing  16  towns,  and  the  land  is  said  to  have  been  sub- 
merged about  520  a.d. 

CARDIGANSHIRE,  a maritime  co.  in  South  Wales,  on  Cardigan  bay,  with  an  area  of 
675  sq.m. , a half  being  waste.  The  surface  is  hilly,  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys.  A 
Tugged,  bleak  range  of  hills  runs  through  the  middle  of  the  co.,  from  the  s.w.  to  the 
n.e.,  between  the  coast  and  the  Teify,  ending  abruptly  in  a shelving  beach  in  the  middle 


Cardinal. 


452 


of  the  coast,  but  on  other  parts  there  are  rich  flat  tracts.  The  co.  contains  little 
wood.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Teify,  which  rises  in  a small  lake  near  the  center  of 
the  co.,  and  runs  70  m.  s.e.  and  e.  along  the  s.  border  of  the  co.,  the  Claerwen,  Ystwith, 
and  llheidol.  C.  contains  some  romantic  water-falls,  especially  the  Rheidol  falls 
and  the  Devil’s  bridge,  and  above  20  small  lakes  or  llyns,  noted  for  their  wild  beauty. 
C.  reposes  on  lower  Silurian  slates  and  shales,  containing  few  or  no  organic  remains. 
Rich  veins  of  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  silver  occur.  The  climate  is  cold  and  wet,  but 
mild  though  wet  on  the  coast.  Snow  lies  long  on  the  hills  in  winter.  Summer  is 
delightful  in  the  valleys.  C.  is  an  agricultural  co.,  and  its  chief  branch  of  industry 
is  the  rearing  of  live-stock.  The  chief  crops  are  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  on  the  poor 
clay  and  peat  soils  of  the  mountains,  and  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes  on  the  flat  loams 
of  the  coast  and  valleys.  The  cattle  and  horses  are  small.  There  are  some  manufac- 
tures of  coarse  woolens  and  gloves,  stockings,  and  hats.  Oats,  barley,  cattle,  sheep, 
pigs,  butter,  slates,  and  woolens  are  exported.  Cardigan  is  the  co.  town ; the  other  chief 
towns  being  Aberystwith,  Lampeter,  Adpar,  Aberayron,  Tregaron.  C.  sends  one  member 
to  parliament.  Pop.  ’71,  62,712;  registered  electors,  5,554.  In  834,  the  king  of  C.  became 
king  of  all  Wales,  under  the  title  of  Roderick  the  great.  He  divided  Wales  among  his 
three  sons.  After  this,  the  Danes  and  Normans  overran  Cardiganshire.  The  co. 
has  many  remains  of  British  and  Roman  camps  and  roads,  Druidical  circles,  cairns,  and 
castles.  Many  Welsh  princes  and  bards  were  buried  in  the  abbey  of  Strata  Florida,  IG- 
m.  s.e.  of  Aberystwith,  and  some  of  the  records  of  the  principality  were  kept  here.  In 
C.  there  is  a curious  practice  of  sending  presents  {biddings)  to  a new-married  couple,  which, 
when  sold,  often  realize  £50  or  £60.  C.  was  disturbed,  1843-44,  by  the  Rebecca  riots. 

CAHDINAL  (Lat.  cardinalis,  principal,  from  cardo,  a hinge).  Cardinals  are  the  high- 
est dignitaries  in  the  Roman  church  after  the  pope,  whose  electors  and  councilors  they 
are.  The  title,  however,  had  at  first  a more  general  application.  The  pope  being  the 
sovereign  bishop  over  the  whole  Romish  church,  and  having,  as  such,  many  duties  to 
fulfill  inconsistent  with  those  of  a particular  diocese,  had,  from  very  early  times,  a num- 
ber of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  whom  he  appointed  his  vicars  and  coadjutors  for 
the  management  of  the  diocese  of  Rome.  The  bishops  exercised  the  episcopal  function 
in  the  pope’s  stead,  each  having  a peculiar  church  within  the  diocese.  The  priests  were- 
titular  parsons  of  the  churches  in  the  city  of  Rome,  and  had  the  cure  of  souls.  The 
deacons  had  charge  of  some  churches  and  chapels  of  devotion,  which  they  held  as  dea- 
conries,  with  the  additional  duty  of  assisting  the  pope  when  he  officiated  in  public. 
These  three  classes  of  ecclesiastics  were  called  cardinati  or  cardinales,  to  denote  that 
they  were  the  first  or  chief  over  the  rest,  and  that  all  the  affairs  of  the  diocese  of  Rome 
were  under  their  direction.  At  a subsequent  period,  the  priests  and  deacons  of  other 
cities  of  importance  assumed  the  title  of  C.,  to  distinguish  them  from  other  priests  and 
deacons  over  whom  they  claimed  supremacy;  but  the  popes  subsequently  ordained  that 
none  but  those  whom  they  had  chosen  should  be  honored  with  that  title.  Amongst 
those  whom  the  popes  thus  appointed  were  the  seven  bishops  sitburhicarii,  who  took 
their  titles  from  places  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome.  These  bishops  were  called  Jieb- 
domadarii,  because  they  attended  the  pope  for  a week  each  in  his  turn.  These  cardinals 
took  part  with  the  Roman  clergy  in  the  election  of  the  pope,  who  was  generally  chosen 
from  their  number.  About  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c.,  the  popes  having  formed  a 
regular  court,  began  to  bestow  the  rank  of  C.  priest  or  C.  deacon  on  any  individual  of 
the  clergy,  or  even  of  the  laity,  whom  they  chose  to  select;  and  to  each,  whether  Roman 
or  foreign,  they  gave  the  title  of  some  particular  church  in  Rome,  but  without  attaching 
to  it  any  obligatory  service.  Thus  the  cardinals  became  a separate  body  elected  for  lifp 
and  the  officiating  priests  of  the  Roman  parishes  were  gradually  deprived  of  the  title. 
In  1159,  Nicholas  II.  limited  the  right  of  election  to  the  popedom  to  the  cardinals  thus 
appointed,  leaving  to  the  rest  of  the  clergy  and  people  of  Rome  merely  the  right  of 
approving  of  the  election  of  a new  pope,  and  to  the  emperor  that  of^  confirming  it. 
Even  these  prerogatives,  in  course  of  time,  were  withdrawn.  Notwithstanding  the 
great  powers  thus  intrusted  to  them,  the  bishops  in  the  great  councils  of  the  church 
continued  to  take  precedence  of  the  cardinals;  and  it  was  not  till  1614  that  Louis  XIII. 
of  France,  in  the  sitting  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  adjudged  precedence  to  the 
cardinals  over  the  ecclesiastical  peers — bishops  and  abbots.  The  power  of  the  popes 
to  appoint  cardinals  has  often  been  contested,  and  their  right  to  precedence  denied,  by 
the  other  dignified  ecclesiastics.  In  1567,  pope  Pius  N.  forbade  any  clergyman  not 
appointed  by  the  pope  to  assume  the  title  of  C. ; and  Sixtus  V.,  in  Dec.,  1586,  fixed 
their  number  at  70 — viz.,  the  6 bishops  suburbicarii,  50  priests,  and  14  deacons,  and  on 
this  footing  they  have  since  remained,  though  the  number  is  seldom  complete,  the  pope 
generally  leaving  some  vacancies  for  extraordinary  cases.  The  number  has  frequently 
fallen  greatly  under  70.  When  Nicholas  III.  was  chosen  pope,  there  were  but^cight 
cardinals;  and  a little  before  the  death  of  Alexander  IV.,  there  were  but  four.  ^ Some- 
times before  Sixtus  V.  the  number  was  exceeded,  as  in  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IV., 
when  there  were  74.  The  body  of  cardinals  is  styled  the  sacred  college.  Most  of  the 
cardinals  reside  in  Rome,  and  either  enjoy  ecclesiastical  benefices,  or  are  employed  in 
the  administration.  When  not  so  provided  for,  the  cardinals  receive  an  allowance  of 
100  dollars  monthly  from  the  papal  treasury.  Some  cardinals  belong  to  monastic 


453 


CardinaL 


orders,  and  reside  in  their  convents  even  after  their  election.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  C. 
bishops  in  the  place  in  which  they  are  established  is  truly  episcopal,  but  they  are  not 
obliged  to  reside.  That  of  tlie  C.  priests  and  deacons  is  almost  episcopal,  but  extends  no 
further  than  the  church  and  sacristy.  They  have  there  an  episcopal  seat  under  a canopy, 
like  bishops,  and  they  there  solemnly  give  the  people  their  blessing.  The  creation  of 
cardinals  is  wholly  in  the  pope  If  the  new-created  C.  is  at  Rome,  he  goes  the  same  day 
to  visit  the  pope,  who  puts  the  red  cap  on  his  head.  The  red  hat,  which  Innocent  IV. 
ordained  that  cardinals  should  wear,  to  show  that  they  ought  to  expose  themselves  to 
the  shedding  of  their  blood  in  the  cause  of  the  church,  is  afterwards  given  in  a public 
consistory.  A number  of  symbolical  ceremonies  accompany  this  investiture.  The  car- 
dinals that  are  absent,  when  chosen,  have  the  cap  sent  them  by  a special  messenger 
from  the  pope.  The  hat  is  given  by  the  pope’s  own  hands;  and  many  cardinals  who  do 
not  visit  Rome,  die  without  ever  having  received  it.  The  only  exception  is  in  favor  of 
members  of  royal  houses,  to  whom  the  hat  is  sent.  Pope  Urban  VIII.,  in  1630,  gave  to 
the  cardinals  the  title  of  eminence,  which  they  shared  with  the  grand-master  of  the 
order  of  Malta,  and  the  ecclesiastical  electors  of  the  German  or  Roman  empire.  The 
pope  often  employs  cardinals  as  ambassadors,  and  the  individual  thus  employed  is 
styled  legate  a latere.  A C.  legate  acts,  or  recently  acted,  as  governor  of  the  northern 
provinces  of  the  Papal  states,  which  thence  received  the  name  of  legations.  The  chief 
secretary  of  state,  the  caimrlengo  or  minister  of  finances,  the  vicar  of  Rome,  and  other 
leading  officials,  are  always  chosen  from  among  the  cardinals.  The  council  of  car- 
dinals, when  assembled  under  the  presidency  of  the  pope  to  discuss  matters  of  church 
and  state,  is  called  the  consistorium.  There  are  public  consistories,  which  are  held  on 
great  occasions,  and  correspond  to  the  levees  of  other  sovereigns;  and  private  and 
secret  consistories,  which  are  the  privy  council  of  the  pope.  Moreri’s  Dictionary, 
voce  Cardinal,  contains  a list  of  cardinals  from  1119  to  1724,  with  their  names,  coun- 
tries, etc. , and  the  dates  of  their  election  and  death. 

CARDINAL  BIRD,  or  Red  Bird,  Quarica  cardinalis,  also  called  cardinal  finch,  car- 
dinal grosbeak,  and  Virginian  nightingale,  one  of  the  finest  song-birds  of  America, 
belongs  to  the  family  of  f ring ilUdce,  and  differs  from  the  true  grosbeaks  {coccotliraustes) 
in  having  the  beak  slightly  bulging.  The  general  color  of  the  male  is  red,  the  head 
being  vermilion,  and  only  a small  portion  of  the  plumage  around  the  base  of  the  bill 
being  black.  The  feathers  of  the  crown  are  long,  and  erected  into  a conical  crest, 
like  a red  cap.  The  C.  B.  abounds  in  Texas,  Florida,  and  the  southern  states  of 
America  generally,  migrating  northwards  in  spring,  but  never  further  than  Massachu- 
setts, where  only  a few  stragglers  are  seen.  Its  loud,  clear,  sweet,  and  varied  song  is  to 
be  heard  chiefly  in  the  mornings  and  evenings.  In  size  it  exceeds  any  of  the  British 
fringillidm,  being  about  equal  to  the  starling. 

CARDINAL  FLOWER.  See  Lobelia. 

CARDINAL  POINTS.  See  Compass,  Mariners’. 

CARDINAL  VIRTUES  (Lat.  cardinalis,  chief,  from  cardo,  a hinge).  The  C.  V.  of  the 
ancients  were  justice,  prudence,  temperance,  fortitude.  They  were  so  called  because 
the  whole  of  human  virtue  was  supposed  to  hinge  or  turn  upon  them.  In  other  words, 
they  were  considered  as  a full  and  comprehensive  classification  of  man’s  various  duties. 

This  mode  of  dividing  the  virtues  is  to  be  found  as  far  back  as  Socrates.  The 
ancient  moralists  treated  under  ethics  the  whole  sum  of  human  duty  and  virtue.  Thus, 
Aristotle  considers  the  great  problem  of  the  science  to  be  the  determination  of  man’s 
highest  good,  together  with  the  means  of  realizing  it.  Hence,  he  includes  both  the  social 
virtues  and  the  prudential  regard  to  the  welfare  of  the  individual  in  the  same  scheme. 
Of  the  four  C.V.,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first,  justice,  is  the  social  virtue ; that  prudence 
(which,  properly  speaking,  includes  temperance  also)  regards  the  well-being  of  the  indi- 
vidual ; while  fortitude  is  necessary  to  both.  This  last  was  a virtue  greatly  esteemed  in 
the  ancient  world,  each  one’s  lot  being  much  less  secure  than  with  us  in  the  present  day; 
it  was  impossible  to  say  what  sufferings  might  be  in  store  for  the  most  prosperously  sit- 
uated of  men. 

Dr.  Whewell  has  made  an  attempt  to  correct  the  more  obvious  defects  of  the  classifi- 
cation, and  has  substituted  one  which  he  deems  free  from  those  defects.  The  most 
notable  omission,  in  the  ancient  scheme,  judged  from  the  modern  point  of  view,  is  the 
absence  of  all  reference,  either  expressly  or  by  implication,  to  the  virtue  of  goodness  or 
benevolence.  This  was  characteristic  of  the  pagan  moralists;  for  although  good  deeds 
were  abundantly  practiced  among  the  ancients,  they  did  not  account  it  a part  of  human 
virtue  to  flow  out  spontaneously  in  every  kind  of  active  benevolence,  includina:  the  most 
wicked  and  worthless  among  the  objects  of  it.  Aristotle,  in  discussing  the  various  acts 
and  outgoings  of  friendship,  never  loses  sight  of  the  reciprocal  obligations  on  the  other 
side;  so  that  when  a rich  man  befriends,  with  his  wealth,  one  that  is  poor,  the  inequality 
must  be  made  good  by  a greater  amount  of  honor  or  respect  on  the  part  of  him  that  is 
so  befriended. 

Accordingly,  to  adapt  the  classification  to  the  altered  point  of  view,  benevolence  has 
to  be  added  to  the  list.  This  is  Dr.  Whewell’s  first  virtue;  the  others  are  justice,  truth, 
purity,  and  order.  But  the  scheme,  as  thus  amended,  is  scarcely  less  objectionable  than 
before.  The  virtue  named  last,  order,  which  means  obedience  to  authority,  cannot  but 


Carding. 

Cards. 


454 


contain  a very  large  portion  of  all  the  rest;  seeing  that  justice,  truth,  etc.,  are  enjoined 
by  positive  law.  Then,  what  is  understood  by  purity,  including  the  control  of  the  two 
powerful  appetites,  hunger  and  sex,  is  partly  prudential  and  partly  social. 

The  ethical  discussions  of  modern  times  may  be  very  much  aided,  if  we  divide  the 
totality  of  human  virtue  on  the  following  plan.  There  are  three  distinct  classes  of  human 
actions,  which  are  all  approved  of  or  accounted  virtuous,  but  on  different  grounds,  and 
in  a different  manner. 

1.  There  are  actions  which  are  forbidden  by  society  under  penalties;  in  other  words, 
men  are  punished  for  committing  them.  Such  are  theft,  breach  of  bargain,  slander, 
violence  to  the  person,  and  all  the  offenses  against  our  fellow-men  that  are  prohibited 
by  the  law  of  the  land.  The  avoiding  of  all  these  actions  is  signified  to  be  a part  of  our 
duty,  by  the  suffering  infiicted  on  the  doers  of  them.  The  law  fines,  imprisons,  or  puts 
to  death  those  who  will  not  conform  to  its  regulations. 

The  law  of  the  land  is  not  the  only  power  that  prescribes  conduct  enforced  by  penal- 
ties. The  public  opinion  of  the  country  at  large  forbids  certain  actions,  and  punishes 
transgressors  by  excluding  them  from  social  intercourse ; such,  for  example,  are  acts  of 
unchastity,  more  especially  when  committed  by  women.  There  are  also  codes  enacted 
by  particular  societies,  as  the  code  of  honor  among  gentlemen,  which  constitutes  some 
actions  offenses  that  are  not  so  by  law,  or  by  universal  opinion.  Cowardice  is  one  of  the 
qualities  most  obnoxious  to  the  code  of  honor. 

The  actions  prohibited  by  law  are  obviously  such  as  could  not  be  allowed  without 
the  entire  subversion  of  human  society.  If  murder  and  theft  were  to  go  unpunished, 
the  principal  end  for  which  men  associate  together  in  communities — that  is,  protection 
and  security — would  not  be  attained.  It  is  impossible  that  we  should  not  disappove  of 
all  such  actions,  and  approve  of  the  contrary. 

2.  There  are  some  actions  that  are  accounted  virtuous,  while  their  opposites  are  not 
punished,  as  in  the  case  of  those  now  mentioned.  Doing  good  to  persons  that  have  no 
claim  upon  us — in  other  words,  benevolence  or  philanthropy — is  considered  highly 
praiseworthy ; but  the  neglecting  of  this  is  not  usually  visited  with  any  punishment  or 
censure ; so  that  if  it  be  a duty  to  perform  acts  of  benevolence,  it  is  a duty  generically 
different  from  paying  our  debts,  and  respecting  the  person  and  property  of  our  neigh- 
bor. The  motives  brought  to  bear  on  the  two  cases  are  widely  contrasted : in  the  one, 
vfe punish  for  doing  the  action  forbidden;  in  the  other,  we  reward  for  doing  the  thing 
enjoined,  and  inflict  no  punishment  if  that  is  neglected.  Here  lies  the  difference  between 
duty,  strictly  so  called,  and  merit.  In  the  bare  performance  of  duty  there  is  no  merit ; a 
man  would  not  even  be  commended  for  the  punctual  payment  of  his  just  debts,  if  it 
were  not  that  many  people  are  deficient  in  this  respect,  and  in  the  comparison  with  these 
the  correct  person  excites  in  our  minds  a feeling  of  satisfaction.  Disapprobation  is  the 
sentiment  properly  concerned  with  duty,  or  rather,  with  breach  of  duty;  approbation  is 
bestowed  on  all  who  do  something  over  and  above  their  duty.  This  distinction  is  known 
in  every  department  of  practical  life;  while  speculative  moralists  habitually  lose  sight 
of  it. 

3.  The  virtues  included  under  prudence  are  in  a different  position  from  either  of  the 
foregoing  classes.  Bearing  the  common  names,  virtue  and  duty,  by  which  they  are  recog- 
nized as  worthy  of  approbation  or  commendation,  they  are  nevertheless  unaccompanied 
with  the  sanctions  either  of  punishment  or  of  reward.  The  imprudent  man  is  subject 
to  no  legal  penalty,  unless  he  clearly  involves  other  persons  in  his  imprudence ; and  the 
prudent  man  is  not  rewarded  with  the  praise,  esteem,  or  other  benefits  conferred  upon 
the  benevolent  man.  It  is  true  that  the  young  are  punished  by  parents  or  teachers  for 
imprudences;  and  some  governments  take  such  a paternal  care  of  their  subjects,  as  to 
punish  them  for  sins  against  themselves.  Men  have  been  sent  to  prison,  because  of  their 
endangering  their  own  salvation  by  embracing  heresy;  but  at  the  present  day,  such  a 
proceeding  is  considered  beyond  the  function  of  government.  Men  and  women,  arrived 
at  maturity,  are  expected  to  take  care  of  their  own  interests;  even  if  they  do  not,  no  one 
punishes  them;  if  they  do,  no  one  rewards  them.  We  have,  it  is  true,  a certain  feeling 
of  disesteem  in  the  one  case,  and  of  esteem  or  commendation  in  the  other;  neither  of 
which,  however,  attains  any  considerable  strength  until  more  than  the  individual’s  self 
is  involved.  In  short,  although  we  cannot  divest  ourselves  of  all  sentiment  as  lookers 
on,  when  men  behave  prudently  or  imprudently,  our  rule  is  non-interference;  and  this 
constitutes  a marked  distinction  between  the  self -regarding  and  the  social  vices  and 
virtues. 

Accordingly,  when  ethical  writers  are  endeavoring  to  probe  the  foundations  of  the 
moral  sense  in  man,  they  ought  to  consider  separately  those  three  different  species  of 
conduct,  for  the  sentiment  excited  by  each  is  marked  by  strong  peculiarities.  To  class 
social  duties  enforced  by  punishment,  social  virtues  stimulated  by  rewards,  and  pru- 
dence, which  is  accompanied  by  neither,  under  one  common  designation,  and  discuss 
them  as  if  they  were  essentially  the  same,  is  to  confuse,  instead  of  clearing  up,  the  first 
principles  of  morality. 

In  Roman  Catholic  systems  of  theology,  there  are  declared  to  be  four  cardinal  virtues 
— “prudence,  fortitude,  temperance,  and  justice” — from  which  all  other  “moral”  vir- 
tues are  represented  as  flowing.  But  there  is  a prior  division  of  virtues  into  the  two 
classes  of  theological  and  moi'dl;  the  theological  virtues  being  faith,  hope,  and  charity. 


455 


Carding. 

Cards. 


The  distinction  between  these  two  classes  is  represented  as  consisting  in  this,  that  the 
theological  virtues  “ immediately  God;”  and  the  moral  virtues  do  not  immediately 

regard  God,  but  are  commanded  and  rewarded  by  God,  and  are  beneficial  to  ourselves. 

CABBING  OP  COTTON,  etc.,  the  process  of  disentangling  and  arranging  in  parallel 
rows  the  fibers  of  cotton.  This  operation  may  be  compared  to  the  combing  and  brush- 
ing of  one’s  hair,  and  the  card  combines  the  properties  of  the  comb  and  brush,  being  a 
brush  with  wire  teeth  instead  of  hairs.  These  teeth  are  inserted  in  strips  of  leather 
which  are  fixed  upon  the  surface  of  a cylinder.  Several  such  cylinders  are  arranged  so 
that  the  ends  of  the  teeth  are  nearly  in  contact;  and  the  cotton  being  brought  to  them, 
is  caught  up,  passed  from  one  to  the  other,  and  combed  out  as  the  cylinders  revolve  in 
the  form  of  beautiful  films  or  fieeces,  which  are  removed  by  a smaller  dnim-card,  called 
the  “doffer,”and  again  from  this  by  the  “ doflSng-knife.  ” These  films,  which  are  of 
the  width  of  the  drum,  are  next  contracted  to  a narrow  ribbon,  by  being  passed  through 
a funnel;  and  thus  narrowed,  are  called  the  “ card  ends”  or  “slivers,”  and  are  now  ready 
for  the  next  process  of  “ drawing”  or  “ doubling.  See  Spinning, 

CABDINIA,  a genus  of  fossil  conchiferae,  containing  85  species,  which  extend  from 
the  Silurian  to  the  inferior  oolite.  They  have  an  oval  or  oblong  shell,  attenuated  poste- 
riorly, and  marked  with  lines  of  growth,  and  an  external  ligament.  They  occur  abun- 
dantly in  the  valuable  layers  of  clay-ironstone  called  “mussel-bands.”  In  Derbyshire, 
this  material  is  wrought,  like  marble,  into  vases. 

CABDI'TIS,  or  infiammation  of  the  heart,  a form  of  disease  of  very  rare  occurrence,  if 
the  term  be  limited  in  its  application  to  cases  of  true  acute  inflammation  of  the  muscular 
structure  of  the  heart  itself.  C. , however,  was  commonly  understood  in  a wider  sense, 
so  as  to  include  certain  forms  of  disease  of  the  external  and  internal  lining  membrane  of 
the  heart ; and  it  is  only  since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  that,  owing  to  the 
improvements  in  medical  pathology  and  diagnosis,  the  names  of  pericarditis  and  endo- 
carditis (q.v.)  have  come  prominently  into  view  as  indicating  the  most  ordinary  inflam- 
matory affections  of  the  heart.  See  Heart,  Diseases  op  the. 

CABDITJM  AND  CABDIA'CE.£.  See  Cockle. 

CABDO'NA,  a t.  of  Catalonia,  Spain,  about  44  m.  n.w.  of  Barcelona.  It  is  situated 
on  a declivity  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cardener,  is  surrounded  by  walls,  pierced  with 
six  gates,  and  commanded  by  a castle  on  a height.  It  is  celebrated  on  account  of  a 
mountain  of  salt  in  its  vicinity,  which  has  a height  of  about  500  ft.,  and  measures  a 
league  round.  When  the  sun  shines  on  this  gigantic  mass,  the  effect  is  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  gorgeous  description.  Pop.  about  2,500. 

CABDOON',  Cynara  cardunculus,  a perennial  plant  of  the  same  genus  with  the  arti- 
choke (q.v.),  a native  of  the  s.  of  Europe  and  the  n.  of  Africa.  It  very  much  resem- 
bles the  artichoke,  but  is  of  larger  size,  whilst  the  flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  are 
smaller.  Tt  has  long  been  in  cultivation,  for  the  sake  of  the  blanched  leaf -stalks  and 
midribs  of  the  leaves,  which  are  used  as  a salad,  or  more  generally  as  a boiled  vegetable 
during  winter. 

CABDS.  All  that  we  know  of  C. , for  certain,  is,  that  they  are  of  ancient  and  eastern 
origin.  What  is  asserted  by  count  de  Gebelin  and  the  earliest  writers  upon  the  subject, 
that  in  their  primary  stage  they  constituted  some  sort  of  symbolic  and  even  moral  game, 
is  not  so  well  established.  The  Hindu  and  Chinese  C.  are,  however,  emblematic  in  a 
very  high  degree — the  former  illustrating  the  ten  avatars,  or  incarnations  of  the  deity 
Vishnu;  and  the  so-called  paper-tickets  of  the  Chinese  typifying  the  stars,  the  human 
virtues,  and,  indeed,  almost  anything  you  please.  The  learned  sir  William  Jones 
expresses  himself  convinced  that  the  Hindu  game  of  chaturaji — the  four  rajahs  or  kings 
— a species  of  highly,  complicated  chess,  was  the  first  germ  of  that  parti-colored  paste- 
board which  has  been  the  ruin  of  so  many  modern  fortunes.  In  the  wardrobe  accounts 
of  Edward  I. , there  is  an  item  of  money  paid  for  the  use  of  that  monarch  for  playing  at 
the  four  kings — “ ad  opus  regis  ad  ludendum  ad  quatuor  reges,  viii.s.  v.d.” — which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a game  at  C. ; but  how  and  when  painted  C.  took  the  place  of 
carved  figures,  is  still  but  matter  of  conjecture. 

A pack  of  Hindustani  C. , in  the  possession  of  the  royal  Asiatic  society,  and  presented 
to  capt.  Cromline  Smith  in  1815  by  a high-caste  Brahman,  was  declared  by  the  donor  to  be 
actually  1000  years  old.  “ Nor,”  quoth  the  Brahman  “can  any  of  us  now  play  at  them,  for 
they  are  not  like  our  modern  cards  at  all.”  Neither,  indeed,  do  they  bear  any  remarkable 
resemblance  to  our  own — the  pack  consisting  of  no  less  than  eight  suits  of  divers  colors, 
the  kings  being  mounted  upon  elephants,  and  the  viziers,  or  second  honors,  upon  horses, 
tigers,  and  bulls.  Moreover,  there  are  other  marks  by  which  the  respective  value  of  the 
common  C.  may  be  distinguished,  which  would  puzzle  our  club  quidnuncs  not  a little — 
such  as  “ a pine-apple  in  a shallow  cup,”  and  “a  something  like  a parasol  without  a 
handle,  and  with  two  broken  ribs  sticking  through  the  top.”  In  the  Chinese  dictionary, 
called  Ching-tsze-tung,  it  is  asserted  that  dotted  C.  were  invented  in  the  reign  of  Seun-ho 
(1120  A.D.),  and  devised  for  the  amusement  of  his  numerous  wives;  there  are  30  C.  in 
each  of  these  packs,  3 suits  of  9 C.  each,  and  3 single  C.  superior  to  all  the  others.  The 
name  of  one  of  the  suits  is  Kew-ko-wan — that  is  to  say,  the  nine  ten-thousands  of  kwau- 
strings  of  beads,  shells,  or  money;  and  the  titles  of  the  other  two  suits  are  equally  cou- 


Carduccl. 


456 


cise  and  significant.  The  Chinese  C.  have,  however,  a decided  advantage  over  those  of 
Hindustan  in  being  oblong  instead  of  circular. 

C.  do  not  appear  to  have  been  known  in  Europe  until  towards  the  end  of  the  14th 
century.  “ In  the  year  1379,”  writes  Carelluyzo,  “was  brought  into  Viterbo  the  game 
at  cards,  which  comes  from  the  country  of  the  Saracens,  and  is  with  them  called  naib." 
“ Whence  afterwards,”  says  Mr.  W.  Chatto  {Origin  and  History  of  Playing  Cards,  Lond., 
1848),  “perhaps  Jackanapes,  Jack  of  cards.”  This  entry  occurs  in  the  accounts  of  the 
treasurer  of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  in  1393:  “Given to  Jacquemin  Gringonneur,  painter, 
for  three  packs  of  cards,  gilt  and  colored,  and  variously  ornamented,  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  the  king,  56  sols  of  Paris.”  From  the  date  of  this  year  being  immediately 
subsequent  to  that  in  which  the  king  lost  his  reason,  the  story  goes  that  C.  were 
invented  to  divert  his  royal  melancholy;  but  they  were  certainly  of  earlier  use  in  France. 
The  French  clergy  took  greatly  to  C.  about  this  time;  we  are  afraid,  too,  it  was  to  the 
ungenteel  game  of  all-fours,  since  we  find  them  specially  forbidden  that  amusement  by 
the  synod  of  Langres,  in  1404. 

Card-making  became  a regular  trade  in  Germany  14  years  after  this,  and  it,  as  well 
as  card-painting,  seems  to  have  been  carried  on  for  some  time  exclusively  by  females; 
the  wood-engraving  of  C.,  however,  did  not  begin  until  some  time  afterwards.  The 
pips  were  then  very  prettily  imagined,  the  suits  consisting  of  hearts,  bells,  acorns,  and 
leaves.  The  place  of  her  majesty  the  queen  was  filled  by  a knight  in  those  days;  and  it 
is  to  Italy,  and  not  to  Germany  or  France,  that  the  glory  of  giving  place  aux  dames 
must  be  conceded.  There  was  also  no  ace  whatever!  By  1420,  gambling  by  means  of 
C.  had  grown  to  such  a pitch  as  to  provoke  St.  Bernardin  to  preach  against  it  at 
Bologna;  and  that  so  eloquently  as  to  cause  his  hearers  to  make  a fire  in  the  public 
place  and  throw  all  the  C.  in  their  possession  into  it — a proceeding  which  must  have 
been  hailed  with  joy  by  the  Messrs.  De  la  Rue  of  that  period.  The  signs  upon  Italian 
C.,  which  seem  to  have  been  the  first  imported  into  England,  were  cups,  swords, 
money,  and  clubs;  but  in  the  third  year  of  Edward  IV.,  their  further  importation  was 
forbidden,  and  the  home-trade  of  card-making  protected.  C.  were  played  by  that  time, 
we  read,  “ in  all  places  of  worship”  in  this  country,  by  which  it  was  meant,  not  in  the 
churches,  but  in  the  houses  of  all  the  gentry.  Henry  VII.  was  a card-player;  and  there 
are  not  a few  entries  in  that  mean  monarch’s  privy-purse  account  of  his  majesty’s  little 
losings.  His  daughter  Margaret,  at  the  age  of  14,  was  found  by  James  IV.  of  Scot- 
land— the  first  time  he  ever  saw  her — in  the  act  of  playing  cards;  and  it  was  most  prob- 
ably ecarte,  for  he  at  once  “ proposed”  to  her,  and  she  “ accepted”  him.  There  was  a 
sum  regularly  allotted  to  the  princess,  afterwards  queen,  Mary,  as  pocket-money  for  this 
especial  purpose;  the  sums  given  her  at  a time  for  immediate  disbursement  ranging  from 
20s.  to  40s.,  but  one  entry  being  so  disgracefully  low  (for  a princess)  as  “two  and 
tuppence.”  James  I.  likewise  played  a good  deal,  but  so  sleepily  that  he  required  some- 
body to  hold  his  C.  for  him. 

About  the  year  1660,  heraldic  C.  were  first  introduced  into  England,  the  king  of  clubs 
being  represented  by  the  arms  of  the  pope;  of  spades,  by  those  of  the  king  of  France; 
of  diamonds,  by  those  of  the  king  of  Spain;  and  of  hearts,  by  those  of  the  king  of  Eng- 
land. From  these  heraldic  C.,  we  suppose,  Mr.  Chatto  derives  the  word  coat-card, 
instead  of  court-card,  which  is  certainly  in  more  general  use.  In  1679,  a pack  was 
published  containing  the  history  of  all  the  popish  plots,  “excellently  engraved  on 
copper-plates,  with  very  large  descriptions  under  each  card.  Aspersers  of  this  pack,” 
it  is  added  by  their  disinterested  publisher,  “ plainly  show  themselves  to  be  popishly 
affected.” 

The  French,  from  whom  we  derive  our  ordinary  suits  of  diamond,  heart,  spade,  and 
club — carreau,  cceur,  pique,  and  trejle — were  continually  changing  their  court-cards,  and 
representing  on  them  all  sorts  of  historical  characters.  In  the  earlier  periods,  their  kings 
were  David,  Alexander,  Caesar,  and  Charlemagne,  or  Solomon,  Augustus,  Clovis,  and 
Constantine;  about  all  of  wiiom,  as  well  as  their  queens,  P^re  Daniel  has  the  most 
ingenious  theories.  Troops,  says  he,  however  brave  and  numerous,  require  to  have 
prudent  and  experienced  generals.  The  trejle  or  clover-plant,  which  abounds  in  the 
meadows  of  France,  denotes  that  a chief  ought  always  to  encamp  his  army  in  a place 
where  he  may  obtain  forage  for  his  cavalry;  piques  and  carreaux  signify  magazines  of 
arms,  which  ought  ever  to  be  well  stored — the  carreau  being  a sort  of  heavy  arrow  shot 
from  a cross-bow,  and  which  was  so  called  from  its  head  being  squared  {carre)-,  cceurs, 
hearts,  signified  courage  of  both  commanders  and  soldiers;  the  was  the  Latin  as,  and 
represented  money,  the  sinews  of  war;  and  so  on. 

At  the  time  of  the  French  revolution,  the  places  of  the  card-kings  were  filled  by  four 
philosophers — MoliSre,  Lafontaine,  Voltaire,  and  Rousseau;  and  those  of  the  queens  by 
four  virtues — prudence,  justice,  temperance,  and  fortitude. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  put  down  card-playing  by  the  strong  hand  of  the 
law;  but  the  history  of  the  four  kings  has,  nevertheless,  always  retained  its  students. 
Not  a few  enthusiastic  players  have  absolutely  died  in  harness,  with  cards  in  their 
hands,  such  as  the  great  Bath  player  Lookup,  who  expired  at  his  favorite  “double 
dumby,”  not  even  being  permitted  by  inexorable  death  to  play  out  the  game.  The  four 
kings,  like  their  flesh-aiul-blood  originals,  are  likely  to  lose  all  sway  over  the  new  world; 
for  Mr.  Chatto  informs  us,  that  the  court-cards,  if  they  can  be  called  so,  of  a republican 


457 


Carduccl. 


pack  manufactured  in  1848  at  New  York,  have  neither  kings  nor  queens;  the  president 
of  hearts  being  Washington;  of  diamonds,  John  Adams;  of  clubs,  Franklin;  and  of 
spades,  Lafayette.  One  of  the  queens  is  Venus,  modestly  concealing  her  charms;  and 
the  others  are  respectively  Fortune,  Ceres,  and  Minerva;  while  the  knaves  are  fitly  repre- 
sented by  Indian  chiefs. 

The  manufacture  of  playing-cards  comprises  many  interesting  processes.  The  card- 
board employed  for  this  purpose  is  formed  of  several  thicknesses  of  paper  pasted 
together;  there  are  usually  four  such  thicknesses;  and  the  paper  is  so  selected  as  to 
take  paste,  paint,  and  polish  equally  well.  The  sheets  of  paper  are  pasted  with  a brush, 
and  are  united  by  successive  processes  of  cold-drying,  hot-drying,  and  hydraulic  press- 
ure. Each  sheet  is  large  enough  for  40  cards.  The  outer  surfaces  of  the  outer  sheets 
are  prepared  with  a kind  of  flinty  coating,  which  gives  sharpness  to  the  outline  of  the 
various  colored  devices.  Most  packs  of  cards  are  now  made  with  colored  backs.  The 
ground-tint  is  laid  on  with  a brush,  and  consists  of  distemper  color,  or  pigments  mixed 
with  warm  melted  size.  The  device  impressed  on  this  ground-tint  is  often  very  beauti- 
ful. Messrs.  De  la  Rue,  the  leading  firm  in  the  manufacture,  employ  tasteful  artists, 
and  invest  a large  amount  of  capital,  in  the  introduction  of  new  patterns.  On  cards 
sold  at  moderate  prices,  the  colors  at  the  back  are  generally  two — one  for  the  ground, 
and  one  for  the  device;  but  some  of  the  choicer  specimens  display  several  colors;  and 
many  of  the  designs  are  due  to  the  pencil  of  Mr.  Owen  Jones.  The  printing  of  the  design 
is  done  on  the  sheets  of  paper,  before  the  pasting  to  form  cardboard.  The  pips  or  spots 
on  the  faces  of  playing-cards  are  now  spades,  clubs,  hearts,  and  diamonds;  but  at  differ- 
ent times,  and  in  different  countries,  there  have  been  leaves,  acorns,  bells,  cups,  swords, 
fruit,  heads,  parasols,  and  other  objects  similarly  represented.  In  English  cards,  the 
colors  are  red  and  black;  Messrs.  De  la  Rue  once  introduced  red,  black,  green,  and  blue 
for  the  four  suits ; but  the  novelty  was  not  encouraged  by  card-players.  The  same 
makers  have  also  endeavored  to  supersede  the  clumsy  devices  of  kings,  queens,  and 
knaves,  by  something  more  artistic;  but  this,  too,  failed  commercially;  for  the  old 
patterns,  like  the  old  willow-pattern  dinner-plates,  are  still  preferred — simply  because 
the  users  have  become  accustomed  to  them.  Until  within  the  last  few  years,  the  print- 
ing of  cards  was  generally  done  by  stenciling,  the  color  being  applied  through  perforated 
devices  in  a stencil-plate.  The  color  employed  for  this  purpose  is  mixed  up  with  a 
kind  of  paste.  When  there  is  a device  at  the  back,  the  outline  of  the  device  is  printed 
from  an  engraved  wood-block,  and  the  rest  filled  in  by  stenciling.  The  stenciling  of 
the  front  and  back  can  be  done  either  before  or  after  the  pasting  of  the  sheets  into  card- 
board. One  great  improvement  in  the  manufacture,  has  been  the  substitution  of  oil 
color  for  paste  or  size  color;  and  another,  the  substitution  of  printing  for  stenciling. 
Messrs.  De  la  Rue  have  expended  large  sums  of  money  on  these  novelties;  for  many 
experiments  had  to  be  made,  to  determine  how  best  to  employ  oil  color  so  that  the  spots 
or  pips  may  be  equal-tinted,  the  outline  clear  and  sharp,  the  pigment  well  adherent  to 
the  surface,  and  the  drying  such  as  to  admit  of  polishing  without  stickiness.  The  plates 
for  printing  are  engraved  on  copper  or  brass,  or  are  produced  by  electrotype,  or  are 
built  up  with  small  pieces  of  metal  or  interlaced  wire.  The  printing  is  done  in  the 
usual  way  of  color-printing,  with  as  many  plates  as  there  are  colors  (usually  five),  and 
one  for  the  outlines;  it  is  executed  on  the  sheets  of  paper,  before  being  pasted  into  card- 
board. When  the  printing,  drying,  and  pasting  are  all  completed,  a careful  polishing 
is  effected  by  means  of  brush-wheels,  pasteboard  wheels,  heated  plates,  and  heated 
rollers,  in  such  a way  that  the  polish  on  the  back  may  differ  from  that  on  the  face — since 
it  is  found  that  two  equally  polished  surfaces  do  not  slide  quite  so  readily  over  each 
other.  Every  pack  of  cards  made  in  England  for  home-use  pays  a duty  of  threepence, 
which  duty  is  levied  on  the  ace  of  spades.  The  makers  of  cards  pay  £1  per  annum  for 
a license,  and  formerly  the  venders  had  to  pay  2.?.  6(Z.  per  annum,  but  this  latter  tax 
was  repealed  on  the  5th  July,  1870.  The  carboard,  when  all  the  printing  is  finished,  is 
cut  up  into  cards;  every  card  is  minutely  examined,  and  placed  among  the  “moguls,” 
“harrys,”  or  “highlanders,”  as  they  are  technically  called,  according  to  the  degree  in 
which  they  may  be  faultless  or  slightly  specked;  and  the  cards  are  finally  made  up  into 
packs.  Persons  wishing  the  best  cards  should  ask  for  “moguls,”  the  usual  retail  price 
for  a pack  of  which  is  2/3  to  3/9. 

A few  years  ago,  it  was  estimated  that  about  half  a million  packs  of  cards  are 
made  annually  in  England,  by  about  seven  or  eight  firms.  Card-playing  is  not  now  so 
general  in  England  as  it  was  early  in  the  century,  and  the  number  made  has  conse- 
quently lessened,  although  the  quality  has  greatly  improved.  All  the  cards  used  in 
Russia,  with  a few  exceptions,  are  made  at  an  imperial  manufactory  in  St.  Petersburg, 
where  the  operations  are  conducted  on  a large  scale,  and  where  the  number  of  packs 
made  exceeds  manifold  the  whole  produce  of  England.  The  French  cards  are  some- 
what smaller  and  thinner  than  those  of  England. 

CARDUC'CI,  Bartolommeo,  1560-1610;  an  Italian  artist;  b.  in  Florence;  studied 
under  Zucchero,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Madrid,  where  he  painted  the  ceiling  of  the 
Escorial  library.  He  died  in  Spain,  where  most  of  his  works  are  to  be  found,  the  most 
celebrated  being  a “Descent  from  the  Cross,”  in  a church  in  Madrid.  His  brother, 
Vincenzo,  was  also  a painter  of  celebrity,  and  the  author  of  a dialogue  on  the  excellencies 
of  painting. 


Carduchi. 

Carey. 


458 


CARDU'CHI,  a warlike  people  once  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  ancestors  of  the  Kurds  of  the  present  day.  The  Greeks,  in  the 
famous  retreat  of  the  10,000,  had  to  pass  through  their  country,  and  were  greatly  har- 
assed by  them. 

CAKDUE'LIS.  See  Goldfinch. 

CARDUUS.  See  Thistle. 

CARDWELL,  a co.  in  central  Ontario,  Canada,  formed  recently  from  Peel  and 
Simcoe  cos.;  pop.  ’71,  16,500. 

CARDWELL,  Edward,  1787-1861 ; an  English  clergyman  and  ecclesiastical  historian, 
educated  at  Oxford.  In  1826,  he  was  chosen  Camden  professor  of  ancient  history,  and 
during  his  period  of  office  he  wrote  a translation  of  the  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  with  notes, 
and  The  Coinage  of  the  Ancient  Creeks  and  Bomans.  In  1831,  he  was  made  principal  of 
St.  Alban’s  hall,  and  held  the  place  through  life.  Among  his  publications  were  a 
student’s  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament;  Josephus’s  history  with  notes; 

Annals  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  England  from  1546  to  1716;  History  of  Conferences,  etc., 
connected  with  the  Revision  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer;  Synodalia,  a Collection  of  Religious 
Canons,  and  Proceedings  of  Convocation  from  1547  to  1717;  and  Reformatio  Legum 
Ecclesiasticarum. 

CARDWELL,  Edward,  Viscount,  b.  1813;  nephew  of  the  Rev.  Edward;  graduated 
at  Baliol  college,  and  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  preferred  political  life  and  entered  parlia- 
ment in  1842,  being  several  times  thereafter  re-chosen.  In  1845,  he  was  secretary  of  the 
treasury  and  president  of  the  board  of  trade.  He  was  subsequently  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies. 
In  Gladstone’s  cabinet,  1868,  he  became  secretary  for  war  and  a member  of  the  com- 
mittee of  the  council  on  education.  In  the  war  office  he  proposed  and  effected  a re- 
organization of  the  army.  With  earl  Stanhope  he  was  one  of  the  literary  executors  of 
sir  Robert  Peel,  and  one  of  the  editors  of  Peel’s  Memoirs. 

CARE  or  Carle  Sunday,  the  Sunday  before  Palm  Sunday,  said  to  be  so  called 
because  it  was  the  practice  in  many  parts  of  the  country  to  eat  gray  peas,  called  callings, 
fried  in  butter,  pepper,  and  salt,  on  this  day.  This  practice  apparently  had  its  more 
immediate  origin  in  the  custom  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  eating  hallowed  beans 
fried  at  this  time — these  beans  being  described  in  some  religious  books  as  symbolical  of 
confession,  and  their  steeping  before  use,  of  meditation.  It  appears,  however,  to  have 
been  adopted  by  this  church  from  a heathen  custom.  See  Brand’s  Popular  Antiquities. 

CAREENING  is  the  operation  of  heaving  down  a ship  on  one  side,  in  order  to  expose 
the  other  side  for  cleaning  by  the  process  of  breaming  (q.v.).  C.  is  seldom  now  per- 
formed upon  English  ships,  partly  because  the  use  of  copper-sheathing  lessens  the  foul- 
ing of  the  bottom,  and  partly  because  caissons  and  hydraulic  lifts  afford  means  for 
raising  ships  out  of  the  water.  The  Great  Eastern,  in  1860,  was  placed  upon  an  open 
scaffolding  or  frame,  called  a gridiron,  in  Milford  Haven,  and  floated  so  as  to  render 
cleansing  possible  without  the  dangerous  and  difficult  process  of  careening. 

In  sea-phrase,  a vessel  is  said  to  “ careen”  when  she  leans  over  very  much  through 
press  of  sail. 

CA'RET  (from  the  Latin  careo,  I am  wanting),  a character  of  this  form.  A,  denoting 
that  something  has  been  omitted,  and  is  interlined. 

CAREW,  George,  1557-1629;  Earl  of  Totness  and  Baron  of  Clopton;  educated  at 
Oxford  and  joined  the  army,  holding  an  important  command  in  the  Irish  wars  against 
the  earl  of  Desmond.  He  filled  several  offices,  among  them  that  of  one  of  the  lord 
judges  of  Ireland,  in  which  by  a vigorous  but  prudent  policy  he  speedily  reduced  the 
rebels  to  submission.  His  crowning  exploit  was  the  capture  of  Dunboy  castle,  an  event 
that  greatly  disappointed  the  Spanish  allies  of  the  Irish,  and  ended  the  war.  For  these 
services  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  and  made  governor  of  Guernsey.  His  last  office 
was  that  of  privy  councilor  to  James  I.  He  wrote  Hibernia  Pacata,  a history  of  the 
wars  in  Ireland. 

CAREW,  Sir  George,  d.  about  1613;  educated  at  Oxford,  and  knighted  by  queen 
Elizabeth.  He  was  secretary  to  sir  Christopher  Hatton,  and  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
the  king  of  Poland.  Under  James  I.  he  was  employed  in  negotiating  the  treaty  of 
union  between  England  and  Scotland,  and  afterwards  as  ambassador  to  France.  He 
was  the  author  of  a Relation  of  the  State  of  France. 

CAREW,  Richard,  1555-1620;  an  Oxford  student  who  at  the  age  of  14  was  chosen 
to  dispute  extemporaneously  with  sir  Philip  Sidney  in  the  presence  of  an  audience  of 
noblemen.  He  was  sheriff  of  Cornwall,  and  the  author  of  a Survey  of  that  county,  a 
work  that  enjoyed  a high  ^utation.  He  also  wrote,  or  translated  from  the  Italian, 
The  Examination  of  Men’s  Wits;  The  True  and  Ready  Way  to  Learn  the  Latin  Tongue; 
and  made  a translation  of  the  first  five  cantos  of  Tasso’s  Jerusalem  Delivered. 

CAREW,  Thomas,  a poet  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  descended  from  an  old  family  in 
Gloucestershire,  was  b.  1589.  Having  been  educated  at  Oxford,  he  traveled  abroad  for 
some  time,  and  on  his  return  was  received  at  court,  and  patronized  by  Charles  I.  C. 
deserves  mention  chiefly  as  the  precursor  and  representative  of  what  may  be  called  the 


459 


Carduchi. 

Carey. 


courtier  and  conventional  school  of  poetry,  whose  chief  characteristic  was  scholarly 
ease  and  elegance,  with  a spice  of  indelicacy,  and  even  indecency.  C.  ’s  poems,  mostly 
lyrical,  and  treating  of  trifling  subjects,  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind,  and  exhibit 
much  fancy  and  tenderness.  He  died  1639.  Several  editions  of  his  poems,  which  first 
appeared  in  1640,  have  been  published. 

CA'BEX,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  cyperacm,  of  which  the  species  are 
i^ery  numerous — more  than  450 — principally  abounding  in  the  temperate  and  colder 
parts  of  the  world.  More  that  60  are  natives  of  Britain.  The  English  name  Sedge  or 
Seg  is  sometimes  employed  as  synonymous  with  C.,  but  is  popularly  applied  only  to 
some  of  the  species.  This  genus  is  distinguished  by  unisexual  flowers,  the  male  flowers 
with  one  glume,  the  female  inclosed  in  a flask-shaped  involucre.  Some  of  the  species 
are  plants  of  the  very  humblest  growth,  others  are  2 or  3 ft.  in  height;  all  are  of  unpre- 
tending, grassy,  or  rush-like  appearance.  Some  grow  in  wet,  and  others  in  dry  situa- 
tions ; some  are  of  great  value  in  the  economy  of  nature,  as  forming  the  principal  part 
of  the  vegetation  of  swamps,  which  they  gradually  convert  into  fertile  ground.  The 
running  roots,  or  rather  rhizomes,  of  some  help  to  bind  the  sands  of  sea-shores,  particu- 
larly (7.  arenaria,  which  is  carefully  planted  for  this  purpose  on  the  dikes  of  Holland. 
None  are  valued  by  the  agriculturist,  as  they  are  very  deficient  in  nutritive  quality,  and 
in  general  they  abound  only  in  very  inferior  pastures,  and  good  tillage  and  drainage 
lead  to  their  speedy  disappearance.  The  rhizomes  of  (7.  arenaria,  C.  hirta,  and  G. 
disticha,  are  sometimes  used  under  the  name  of  O&rman  sarsaparilla,  as  a diaphoretic 
and  demulcent  medicine — a bad  substitute  for  sarsaparilla.  The  two  former  are  com- 
mon in  Britain.  The  dried  leaves  of  C.  sylmtica  are  used  by  the  Laplanders  to  cover 
their  legs  and  hands  as  a protection  from  frost-biting  and  cmlblains,  being  worn  in  the 
inside  of  their  shoes  and  gloves. 

CAREY,  Henry,  d.  1743;  an  English  musical  composer  and  poet,  an  illegitimate 
son  of  George  Saville,  marquis  of  Halifax.  Carey’s  ballads  and  songs,  though  of  no 
great  merit  as  compositions,  were  very  popular  at  the  time.  He  wrote  a number  of 
dramatic  pieces,  among  which  were  Chrononhotonthologos,  a burlesque  on  trage(^;  the 
Honest  Yoi'kshireman,  an  operetta;  Nancy  and  Thomas  and  Sally,  interludes;  The  Dragon 
of  Wantley,  Margery  or  the  Dragoness,  burlesque  operas.  One  of  his  songs,  Sally  in  our 
Alley,  is  still  remarkably  popular  in  England. 

CARET,  Henry  C.,  a political  economist  of  the  United  States,  b.  at  Philadelphia  in 
1793.  In  1836,  he  published  an  essay  on  the  Rate  of  Wages,  which  was  expanded  into 
the  Principles  of  Political  Economy  (1837-40).  The  value  of  this  work  may  be  estimated 
from  the  fact,  that  no  less  an  authority  than  Frederic  Bastiat  copied  its  leading  ideas. 
It  was  translated  into  Italian  and  Swedish,  and  favorably  noticed  in  all  the  important 
politico-economic  journals  of  Europe.'  In  1838,  C.  published  The  Credit  System  of 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States;  and  in  1848,  The  Past,  the  Present,  and  the 
Future,  a work  marked  by  great  vigor  and  originality.  In  1853,  appeared  the  Letters  on 
the  International  Copyright;  in  1858,  Principles  of  Social  Science;  in  1867,  Review  of  t?ie 
Decade  1857-67 ; and,  in  1873,  The  Unity  of  Law.  C.  was  originally  a free  trader,  but 
was  ere  long  recognized  as  the  head  of  a new  school  of  political  economy.  According 
to  this  system,  free-trade  may  be  the  ideal  towards  which  we  should  tend,  but  a period 
of  protection  is  an  indispensable  stage  in  the  progress  towards  it. 

CAREY,  Mathew,  b.  Ireland,  1760,  d.  Philadelphia,  1839;  an  author  and  publisher. 
In  consequence  of  publishing  an  address  to  the  Irish  Roman  Catholics  on  their  oppres- 
sion by  the  penal  code  (about  1778)  he  was  compelled  to  leave  Ireland,  but  returned 
within  a year  and  established,  in  1783,  the  Volunteer’s  Journal.  His  attacks  upon  parlia- 
ment and  the  ministry  caused  his  imprisonment  in  Newgate  until  the  dissolution  of 
parliament.  He  arrived  in  Philadelphia  by  the  aid  of  Lafayette,  who  sent  him  $400, 
and  immediately  started  The  Pennsylvania  Herald,  one  of  the  first  papers  in  the  country 
to  furnish  accurate  reports  of  legislative  debates.  In  Jan.,  1786,  he  fought  a duel  with 
col.  Oswald,  another  editor,  and  was  seriously  wounded.  He  was  sub^sequently  con- 
nected with  the  Columbian  Magazine  and  the  American  Museum.  In  1791,  he  began 
trade  as  a bookseller,  and  with  his  sons  built  up  a prosperous  business.  During  the 
epidemic  of  yellow  fever  in  1793  he  was  active  in  the  work  of  relief,  and  afterwards  wrote 
a history  of  the  disease.  In  1793,  he,  with  others,  founded  the  Hibernian  society,  and 
in  1796  he  assisted  bishop  White  in  establishing  the  first  Sunday-school  society.  Carey 
was  a constant  writer,  and  published  a great  number  of  essays  on  party  politics,  polit- 
ical economy,  and  social  questions.  Among  his  favorite  ideas  were  internal  improve- 
ments and  a protective  tariff.  His  son  Henry  C.  (see  ante)  was  one  of  the  foremost 
American  writers  on  political  economy. 

CAREY,  William,  d.d.,  a distinguished  minister  and  missionary  belonging  to  the 
Baptist  body,  was  b.  at  Paulersbury,  a village  in  Northamptonshire,  Aug,  761.  He 
served  his  time  as  a shoemaker,  but  began  to  preach  about  his  20th  year.  A pamphlet 
which  he  published  about  this  time,  attracted  the  attention  of  his  co-workers  in  the  minis- 
tr}^  to  the  subject  of  foreign  missions,  and  ultimately  a missionary  society,  chiefly 
through  C.’s  exertions,  was  formed,  C.  and  a Mr.  Thomas  were  chosen  its  first  mis- 
sionaries to  India  in  1793.  From  that  time  until  his  death  in  1836,  C.  was  indefatigable 


Cargill. 

Caries. 


460 


(under  many  difficulties,  especially  in  his  early  years)  in  his  efforts  to  spread  the  knowl- 
edge of  thc*^ Gospel  among  the  heathen.  Under  his  direction,  the  Serampore  mission,  of 
which  he  was  the  principal  founder,  had  up  to  1832  issued  above  200,000  Bibles,  or  por- 
tions thereof,  in  about  forty  oriental  languages  or  dialects,  besides  a great  number  of 
tracts  and  other  religious  works  in  various  languages.  A great  proportion  of  the  actual 
literary  labor  involved  in  these  undertakings  was  performed  by  C.  himself,  whose  San- 
skrit and  other  grammars  have  been  very  highly  spoken  of  by  the  late  Mr.  Wilson  Boden, 
professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Oxford.  C.  was  professor  of  oriental  languages  at  Fort-William 
college,  Calcutta,  from  1800  to  1830. 

CARGILL,  Donald,  1610-81 ; a leader  of  the  covenanters  appointed  to  a church  in 
Glasgow,  where  he  made  himself  so  obnoxious  to  the  government  that  he  was  forced  to 
leave.  He  was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Both  well,  and  fled  to  Holland ; but  returned 
almost  immediately  and  joined  Richard  Cameron  in  publishing  the  Sanquhar  declara- 
tion, and  boldly  excommunicated  the  king  and  his  officials.  He  was  soon  afterwards 
arrested  and  beheaded  at  Edinburgh,  July  27,  1681. 

CARGO  is  a general  name  for  all  the  merchandise  carried  on  board  a trading-ship. 
Sometimes  it  is  applied  also  to  the  invoice  of  the  cargo.  The  term  deck-cargo,  is  given 
to  the  commodities  on  deck,  which  are  not  usually  included  in  the  policy  of  insurance. 

For  the  security  of  the  customs’  revenue,  the  master  of  every  coasting- vessel  is  bound 
to  keep  a cargo-hook,  recording  the  name  of  the  vessel,  the  name  of  the  owner,  the  port 
of  departure,  the  port  of  destination,  the  goods  taken,  the  name  of  the  shippers  and 
consignees,  the  time  of  departure  and  other  particulars.  The  custom-house  officers  may 
demand  to  see  this  book  at  any  time.  The  C.  of  passenger  ships  is  placed,  in  some 
degree,  under  the  control  of  the  emigration  officers  by  an  act  passed  in  1852. 

CARHEIL,  Etienne  de,  a Jesuit  missionary  among  the  Indians  of  Canada  about 
1668.  He  was  among  the  earliest  to  master  the  native  languages.  The  time  of  his  death 
is  not  known,  but  he  was  at  missionary  work  as  late  as  1721. 

CA'RIA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  south- westernmost  country  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
n.  by  Lydia,  e.  by  Phrygia,  s.e.  by  Lycia,  and  w.  and  s.w.  by  the  Mediterranean.  A 
large  portion  of  what  was  C.  is  mountainous.  The  chief  ranges  were  called  the  Cad- 
mian  and  the  Latmian.  The  most  important  river  was  the  Mmander,  famous  for  its 
windings.  C.  was,  at  an  early  date,  governed  by  petty  princes  or  kings;  it  afterwards 
became  a part  of  the  Persian  empire,  the  former  princes  continuing  to  rule  as  satraps ; 
and  it  subsequently  came  into  the  hands  of  the  early  Macedonian  kings  of  Egypt;  and 
finally,  with  the  rest  of  Asia,  into  those  of  the  Romans.  Among  the  chief  towns  were 
Cnidus,  Halicarnassus,  and  Miletus. 

CARIA'CO,  a seaport  of  Venezuela,  at  the  mouth  of  a river,  and  at  the  head  of  a gulf 
of  the  same  name.  It  is  40  m.  to  the  e.  of  Cumana,  in  lat.  10°  30'  n.,  and  long.  63°  40' 
west.  Pop.  7,000.  The  gulf,  long  and  narrow,  with  good  anchorage,  and  well- wooded 
shores,  is  open  only  on  the  w.,  and  that  to  a portion  of  the  Caribbean  sea,  which  is  itself 
breasted  by  a chain  of  islands. 

CA'RIACOU,  Carjacou,  or  Virginian  Deer,  Germs  Virginianus,  a species  of  deer 
found  in  all  parts  of  North  America,  from  Mexico  to  about  n.  lat.  43°,  and  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Pacific  ocean.  It  is  the  species  commonly  called  deer  by  the  Anglo-Americans. 
It  is  smaller  and  more  elegant  than  the  common  stag;  of  very  variable  color — light  reddish 
brown  in  spring,  slaty  blue  in  autumn,  and  dull  brown  in  winter;  the  belly,  throat,  chin, 
and  inner  parts  of  the  limbs  white.  The  horns  of  the  adult  male  are  of  moderate  size, 
bent  strongly  backward,  and  then  suddenly  forward,  so  as  to  bring  their  tips  nearly 
above  the  nose;  they  have  several  snags.  The  fawn  is  profusely  decked  with  white 
spots,  arranged  in  lines,  and  sometimes  running  into  stripes.  The  name  C.  is  extended 
generically  to  several  nearly  allied  species,  found  in  Mexico,  California,  etc. 

^ARIA'MA,  Microdactylus  cristatus,  a bird  of  the  order  gralloe,  allied  to  the  cranes, 
but  exhibiting  also  points  of  strong  resemblance  to  gallinaceous  birds,  among  which  it 
has  therefore  been  proposed  to  rank  it,  next  to  the  guans.  It  is  a native  of  Guiana, 
Brazil,  and  Paraguay,  inhabiting  open  plains  and  tlie  outskirts  of  forests,  where  it 
feeds  chiefly  on  serpents,  lizards,  and  insects.  It  is  larger  than  the  common  heron;  the 
plumage  is  brown,  finely  waved  with  darker  brown,  whitish  on  the  lower  parts.  When 
pursued,  the  (^.  seeks  safety  by  running,  and  does  not  readily  attempt  to  use  its  wings. 
Its  voice  resembles  that  of  a young  turkey.  It  is  much  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  it  is 
sometimes  reared  in  a domesticated  state. 

CARIBBE'AN  SEA,  the  grandest  inlet  of  the  western  hemisphere— corresponding,  in 
several  respects,  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the  eastern — is  separated  from  the  gulf  of 
Mexico  by  Yucatan,  and  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  by  the  great  arch  of  the  Antilles, 
between  Cuba  and  Trinidad  inclusive,  stretching  in  n.  lat.  from  about  8°  to  about  22°, 
and  in  w.  long,  from  about  61°  to  about  89°.  The  C.  S.  forms  the  turning-point  in  the 
vast  cycle  of  waters  known  as  the  Gulf  stream  (q.v.),  that  wheels  round,  with  the  regu 
larity  of  time  itself,  from  southern  Africa  to  northern  Europe.  Its  pours  its  waters  into 
the  gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  w.,  which  shoots  forth,  on  the  e.,  the  Florida  stream  with  the 
computed  volume  of  3,000  Mississippis.  To  supply  this  enormous  efflux,  theC.  S.  draws 
on  the  Atlantic,  laying  under  contribution  nearly  all  the  trade-wind  regions  of  that  ocean, 


461 


Carg'llL 

Caries. 


tio  as  literally  to  become  the  receptacle  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Orinoco.  To  the  British 
isles,  it  is,  in  this  connection,  an  object  of  peculiar  interest.  Rendering  still  warmer 
the  warm  floods  which  it  concentrates,  it  imparts  to  the  Florida  stream  that  high  tem- 
perature which  tends,  with  the  aid  of  the  prevalent  winds,  to  mitigate  climate  from 
Guernsey  to  Shetland.  In  common  with  the  islands  of  its  eastern  boundary,  the  C.  S. 
takes  its  name  from  their  now  extinct  aborigines,  the  Caribs. 

CARIBBEE  BARE,  or  Piton  Bark,  is  the  bark  of  exostemma  CaribcBum,  a small  tree 
which  grows  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  Mexico,  and  belongs  to  the  natural  order  <nn- 
chonaceoR.  The  genus  exostemma  is  very  nearly  allied  to  cinchona,  from  which  it  differs 
in  having  the  stamens  exserted,  whereas  in  cinchona  they  are  included  within  the  corolla. 

Caribceumh^^  ovate  lanceolate  leaves,  and  is  known  in  the  West  Indies  as  sea-sids 
beech.  C.  B.  has  a very  bitter  taste,  and  a very  faint  smell.  It  contains  none  of  the 
characteristic  alkaloids  of  cinchona,  5’-et  very  much  resembles  it  in  some  of  its  properties, 
and  is  one  of  the  barks  sometimes  substituted  for  the  true  cinchona  barks. 

CARIBBEE  ISLANDS.  See  Antilles,  ante. 

CARIBOU'.  See  Reindeer,  ante. 

CA'RIBS,  Indians  of  the  West  India  islands,  who  were  in  the  time  of  Columbus 
numerous  and  powerful;  a warlike  and  aggressive  people,  who  pertinaciously  opposed 
the  advances  of  the  Europeans.  It  is  supposed,  though  not  proved,  that  they  were 
addicted  to  cannibalism.  They  have  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  the  islands;  and 
at  present  their  chief  settlement  is  in  Honduras,  where  they  form  an  industrious  and 
prosperous  portion  of  the  people,  though  still  retaining  their  language  and  many  of  their 
customs.  In  1796,  the  English,  weary  of  the  continual  disturbances  occasioned  by  the 
Caribs,  transported  them  in  a body  from  Dominica  and  St.  Vincent  to  the  island  of 
Ruatan.  There  are  two  great  tribes,  the  red,  and  the  black ; the  former  were  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  stock,  and  the  latter  mixed  with  negro  blood.  Some  of  the  Indians 
in  South  America  are  apparently  of  the  same  race. 

CARICA.  See  Pap  aw. 

CARICATURE  (Ital.  caricatura,  from  caricare,  to  load  or  overcharge).  The  etymology 
of  this  word  indicates  its  meaning  very  distinctly,  which  is  that  of  a representation  of  a 
face,  form,  or  character,  in  which  the  salient  features  are  exaggerated  or  overloaded,  to 
the  extent  of  producing  a ludicrous  effect,  without  entirely,  or  even  essentially  destroy- 
ing the  resemblance.  C.  may  be  regarded  as  the  opposite  of  idealization ; the  former 
consisting  in  a disproportionate  development  of  some,  very  frequently  of  one  only,  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  subject  treated,  the  latter  in  a proportionate  elevation  of  them  all. 
Nay,  further,  the  destruction  of  harmony  is  essential  to  C.,  and  where  harmony  is  the 
prevailing  quality  of  its  subject,  the  required  effect  may  frequently  be  produced  by 
this  means  alone;  whereas  harmony  belongs  of  necessity  to  idealization,  and  where 
its  absence  was  the  characteristic  defect  of  the  object  as  a real  existence,  an  ideal  of 
R humble  kind  may  frequently  be  produced  by  simply  restoring  it. 

When  used  with  reference  to  sensible  representation,  C.  stands,  to  the  genuine 
productions  of  the  plastic  and  pictorial  arts,  in  the  same  relation  in  which  farce 
stands  to  the  legitimate  drama.  Both  C.  and  farce  are  thus  degenerate  forms  of  art; 
and  though  requiring  much  cleverness  for  their  successful  execution,  and  often  afford- 
ing lively  satisfaction  to  the  spectator,  can  scarcely  be  said  in  general  to  have  an 
elevating  object,  or  any  other  tendency  than  to  amuse.  When  used  as  ancillary  to 
well-directed  and  merited  satire,  C.  assumes  a noble  character,  and  it  is  to  the  credit 
of  our  nation  that  it  is  so  frequently  thus  employed  in  our  ephemeral  literature? 
The  best  examples  of  C.  which  have  -ever  appeared  in  the  literature  of  any  people, 
are  to  be  found  in  the  pages  of  Punch. 

CA'RIES  {rottenness)  is  a disease  of  bone  analogous  to  the  ulceration  of  soft  tissues. 
It  is  characterized  by  a gradual  loss  of  substance,  from  the  particles  of  bone  being 
absorbed,  or  being  cast  off  and  washed  away  in  a purulent  discharge.  It  begins  as  an 
unhealthy  inflammation,  followed  by  exudation  of  new  materials,  and  softening  of  the 
part  affected.  On  examination,  the  bone-cells  are  found  filled  with  a reddish  glairy 
fluid,  and  in  scrofulous  patients,  deposits  of  tubercle.  After  C.  has  existed  for  some 
time,  an  abscess  forms,  and  bursts;  its  aperture  remains  open,  discharging  a thin  fluid, 
which  contains  particles  of  the  bone.  If  a probe  be  passed  through  this  opening,  it 
will  be  felt  to  sink  into  some  soft  gritty  substance;  this  is  the  carious  bone,  which,  if 
removed,  and  well  washed,  will  be  found  to  resemble  in  whiteness  and  fragility  loaf- 
sugar  softening  in  hot  water. 

C.  may  attack  any  bone,  but  it  usually  selects  the  vertebrae,  those  of  the  wrist  and 
foot,  and  the  soft  ends  of  long  bones  forming  joints.  To  this  terrible  disease  most 
deformities,  not  congenital,  are  owing.  The  carious  vertebrae  yield  under  the  weight 
of  the  trunk,  and  the  spine  curves  forwards,  or  to  one  side.  In  the  joint-ends  of  bones, 
the  part  enlarges,  the  cartilages  become  affected,  matter  forms,  and  amputation  of  the 
limb,  or  excision  of  the  joint,  is  frequently  necessary  to  save  the  patient’s  life.  Too 
often  the  disease  recurs  with  night-sweats,  hectic,  and  death. 

The  causes  of  C.  are  constitutional,  though  it  may  be  accidentally  determined  to  some 


Carigrnano. 

Cai’leton. 


462 


particular  part  of  the  body  by  any  irritation,  such  as  a blow,  or  exposure  to  atmospheric 
changes.  Scrofulous  persons,  and  those  who  have  had  syphilis  or  mercury  in  excess  at 
any  period  of  their  lives,  are  more  subject  to  it  than  others.  If  affecting  a small  bone, 
the  latter  may  be  entirely  removed ; and  if  the  disease  is  strictly  limited  to  the  ends  of 
bones  forming  a joint,  these  may  be  excised.  Within  the  last  30  years,  great  advances 
have  been  made  in  this  department  of  surgery,  and  C.  of  the  joints  is  but  seldom  counted 
a sufficient  reason  for  amputation;  the  knee,  hip,  shoulder,  elbow,  ankle,  and  wrist 
joints  have  all  been  repeatedly  excised  successfully  in  this  country.  In  situations  where 
the  part  cannot  be  reached  by  instruments,  lotions  of  dilute  acid  may  be  injected,  with 
the  view  of  stimulating  the  carious  surface  to  assume  a healing  action. 

The  treatment  of  C.  consists  in  supporting  the  patient’s  strength  by  judicious  change 
of  air,  and  tonics,  with  the  administration  of  medicines,  such  as  cod-liver  oil  in  scrof- 
ula, which  appear  to  combat  the  constitutional  predisposition  to  the  disease.  In  those 
parts  where  the  diseased  bone  can  be  reached,  it  should  be  gouged  or  scraped  away,  so  as 
to  leave  a healthy  surface  of  bone,  which  may  granulate  up,  and  heal. 

Caries  op  the  Teeth  depends,  it  is  supposed,  on  an  original  faulty  formation  of 
their  substance,  when,  after  any  depressing  cause,  especially  in  scrofulous  and  ill-nour- 
ished persons,  they  soften  and  crumble  away,  at  last  laying  open  the  cavity  which  con- 
tains the  nervous  pulp  of  the  tooth,  and  producing  toothache.  Treatment. — The  carious 
surface  should  be  removed,  and,  as  a substitute  for  the  lost  substance,  gold  or  some 
other  substance  should  be  stuffed  into  the  cavity.  If  the  pulp  be  exposed,  the  hole 
should  be  stuffed  with  some  softer  material,  till  the  parts  are  somewhat  hardened;  for 
this,  Mr.  Tomes  of  London  recommends  a plug  of  cotton-wool  dipped  in  a mixture  of 
mastich,  a dram,  and  rectified  spirit  or  eau-de-Cologne,  1|  oz. ; or  of  gutta  percha  dis- 
solved in  chloroform. 

CABIGNA'NO,  a t.  of  Piedmont,  in  the  province  of  Turin,  about  11  m.  s.  of  the  city 
of  that  name.  It  is  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Po,  in  the  midst  of  a most  beau- 
tiful country;  has  some  fine  churches,  manufactures  of  silk-twist,  and  a pop.  of  7,713. 
This  town  gives  name  to  a branch  of  the  house  of  Savoy. 

CARILLON.  See  Bell. 

CARIMA'TA,  a name  applied  to  the  passage  between  Borneo  and  Billiton;  also  tp 
a cluster  of  islets  in  the  same  passage;  and  lastly,  to  the  principal  member  of  tbe 
group,  whose  highest  point,  a peak  of  2,000  ft.,  is  in  lat  1°  36' s.,  and  long.  108°  54'  e. 

CARINA'RIA,  a remarkable  and  interesting  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of  the 
order  called  heteropoda  or  nucleohranchiata,  having  a thin  shell,  in  form  somewhat  like 
that  of  a limpet,  which,  however,  only  covers  the  visceral  sac  (heart,  gills,  etc.),  leaving 
the  greater  part  of  the  animal  exposed.  The  shells  of  some  of  the  species  have  been 
sometimes  denominated  Venus's  slipper  and  glass  nautilus.  The  body  is  gelatinous,  and 
so  transparent  that  much  of  its  interior  organization  can  be  seen.  Nearly  opposite  to 
the  part  of  the  back  occupied  by  the  shell  is  a sort  of  vertical  fin,  answering  to  the  foot 
of  the  other  gasteropods.  The  species  of  C.  are  all  marine,  are  found  only  in  the  seas 
of  the  warmer  latitudes,  and  generally  swim  with  the  back  downward.  Closely  allied 
to  C.  is  the  genus  in  which  there  is  no  shell  at  all. 

GARI'NI,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  and  12  m.  w.n.w.  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  It  has  an  old  castle;  and  a pop.  of  9,600,  chiefiy  engaged  in  fishing. 

CARINO'LA,  a t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  20  m.  s.e.  of  Gaeta.  It  has  a 
cathedral,  and  a Franciscan  convent.  The  district  produces  excellent  wine.  Pop.  6,630. 

CARIN'THIA  (Ger.  Edrnthen),  a crown-land  of  the  Austrian  empire,  forming  part 
of  the  old  kingdom  of  Illyria,  with  an  area  of  3,958  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  in  1869,  of 
337,694,  which  is  rather  less  than  what  it  was  in  1854.  The  principal  river  is  the  Drave, 
which  passes  through  the  country  from  w.  to  e.,  in  a course  of  almost  150  miles.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  country  is  mountainous,  with  long  deep  valleys,  that  of  the  Drave 
widening  at  Villach  and  Klagenfurt  into  a great  plain.  The  valley  of  the  Drave  divides 
the  Noric  from  the  Corinthian  Alps.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  to  a limited  extent,  owing 
to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country,  great  part  of  which  is  occupied  in  pasture, 
or  covered  with  brushwood.  Many  horses  and  cattle  are  reared  and  exported.  The 
principal  products  are  mineral.  One  of  the  principal  branches  of  industry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  hardware ; the  other  manufactures  include  woolens,  silk  stuffs,  and  cottons. 
The  capital  is  Klagenfurt. — The  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Garni,  who  derived  their 
name  from  the  Celtic  Vfor6.carn  or  corn,  Lat.  cornu,  Eng.  horn — an  allusion  to  the  craggy, 
horn-like  pinnacles  of  their  hills.  Before  the  time  of  Augustus,  it  belonged  to  Noricum, 
afterwards  to  the  Roman  empire.  By  and  by  the  Garni  were  swept  away  in  the  deluge 
of  immigation  from  the  e.,  and  Slaves  settled  in  the  country.  After  some  time  the  Slaves 
themselves  were  so  heavily  oppressed  by  the  Avari,  that  they  called  to  their  assistance  a 
Frank,  named  Samo,  who  founded  the  kingdom  of  Carantania,  which  included  much 
more  than  the  present  C. , but  fell  to  pieces  after  his  death.  Finally,  it  came  into  the 

Possession  of  Austria  (q.v.).  Only  about  two  sevenths  of  the  present  population  is 
lavic  (Slovenians),  the  remainder  being  Germans. 

CARI'NUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  son  of  Carus,  succeeded  his  father  as  emperor  of 
Rome  in  383  a.d.  He  was  a cruel  and  profiigate  ruler,  and  the  soldiers  naturally 


463 


Cari^naiLO* 

Carleton. 


rebelled,  proclaiming  Diocletian.  Carinas  marched  into  Moesia  to  quell  the  revolt,  and 
ivon  a decisive  victory,  but  at  the  moment  of  triumph  he  was  killed  by  one  of  his  sol- 
diers whose  wife  the  profligate  emperor  had  led  away. 

CAEI'PE,  a t.  of  Venezuela,  South  America,  situated  in  a fertile  valley  of  the  same 
name,  50  m.  s.e.  of  Cumana.  The  valley  is  noted  for  a cavern  frequented  by  the  remark- 
able bird  called  guacharo  (q.v.).  Pop.  of  town  and  valley,  5000. 

CAR'ISBROOKE,  a village  in  the  isle  of  Wight  almost  adjoining  Newport,  chiefly 
noted  for  its  castle,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  Saxons  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury. It  was  enlarged  in  the  11th  c.  by  the  flrst  lord  of  Wight;  was  captured  by  Ste- 
phen in  1136,  and  in  the  time  of  Richard  II.  successfully  resisted  attacks  by  the  French. 
During  Elizabeth’s  reign  it  was  further  enlarged  until  its  outer  walls  inclosed  20  acres. 
It  was  in  this  castle  that  Charles  I.  took  refuge  in  Nov.,  1647,  but  he  soon  found  his 
asylum  a prison.  After  his  execution  his  two  youngest  children  were  conflned  in  the 
castle,  and  the  princess  Elizabeth  died  there.  The  remains  of  the  castle  are  still  exten- 
sive. Opposite  the  castle-hill  are  the  remains  of  a Cistercian  priory  founded  in  the  11th 
€.,  and  the  parish  church  claims  even  a greater  antiquity.  Pop.  of  parish  ’71,  8198. 

CAEIS'SA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  ayocynacece,  C.  carandas  is  a thorny 
shrub,  much  used  for  fences  in  India ; and  the  fruit,  called  carandas — a berry  about  the 
size  of  a small  plum — for  tarts  and  preserves. 

CARIS'SIMI,  Giovanni  Giacomo,  b.  about  1604  near  Rome;  became  chapel-master, 
or  director  of  music,  at  the  age  of  20.  By  education  he  belonged  to  the  old  Roman 
school  of  music,  but  his  compositions  mark  the  turning-point  from  the  traditions  of  the 
renaissance  period  to  the  incipient  aspirations  of  modern  music.  His  numerous  compo- 
sitions include  masses,  cantatas,  motets,  and  oratorios. 

CAR'LEE,  or  Kakli,  a village  in  India,  40  m.  e.  of  Bombay,  remarkable  only  for 
a Buddhist  temple  hewn  into  a rocky  precipice  which  rises  800  ft.  above  the  plain,  the 
temple  being  about  two  thirds  of  the  way  up.  The  temple  is  130  by  40  ft.,  with  a high 
arched  roof.  An  arch  rises  over  the  entrance  to  the  artificial  cavern,  and  before  each  of 
the  side  entrances  are  screens  of  stone-work  ornamented  with  naked  male  and  female 
figures  in  alto-rilievo.  In  front  are  three  large  lions,  and  around  the  portico  are  figures 
of  elephants,  each  one  surmounted  by  a driver  and  a howdah  or  saddle  containing  fig- 
ures of  two  persons.  The  interior  is  finished  with  a double  row  of  sculptured  pillars 
forming  a semicircle.  This  curious  temple  is  well  preserved. 

CAELEN,  Emilie,  a well-known  Swedish  novel-writer,  was  b.  8th  Aug.,  1807,  at 
Stromstad,  near  the  frontier  of  Norway.  She  was  the  youngest  of  14  children  of  a 
merchant  named  Smith.  During  childhood  her  talent  in  imaginative  fiction  was 
remarked  by  her  friends;  but  it  was  not  till  1838  that  her  first  novel,  Waldemar  Klein^ 
was  given  to  the  world.  She  was  then  a widow,  having  been  married,  in  1827,  to  Dr. 
Flygare.  In  1841,  she  was  again  married  to  J.  G.  Carlen,  a lawyer,  and  known  as  a 
poet,  in  Stockholm.  Her  literary  productiveness  has  been  very  remarkable,  her  fictions 
being  chiefly  founded  on  the  characteristics  of  the  lower  orders  in  Sweden;  and,  although 
faulty  in  many  respects,  they  are  especially  rich  and  striking  in  incident ; and  her  char- 
acters, without  exhibiting  any  very  deep  insight  or  subtle  analytic  power,  are  yet  intel- 
ligent and  consistent.  Among  her  many  works,  which  have  been  translated  into  English, 
are  The  Bose  of  TMsfleland;  The  Birthright;  The  Hermit;  The  Events  of  a Year;  The 
Lover's  Stratagem;  Gustavus  Lindurm;  The  Maiden's  Tower;  Woman's  Life,  etc.  Her 
works  are  largely  circulated  both  in  Europe  and  in  America. 

CARLETON,  a co.  in  New  Brunswick,  Can.,  on  the  Maine  border,  drained  by  the 
St.  John  and  its  tributaries;  3,008  sq.m. ; pop.  ’71,  19,938.  The  surface  is  rough,  with 
forests  and  excellent  timber.  Chief  town,  Woodstock. 

CARLETON,  a co.  in  e.  Ontario,  Can.,  on  the  Ottawa  river;  647  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71, 
21,739.  The  co.  is  traversed  by  the  Ottawa  and  Prescott  railroad,  and  the  Rideau 
canal.  Lumbering  is  the  principal  business  of  the  people.  Chief  town,  Ottawa  City. 

CARLETON,  Sir  Guy,  Lord  Dorchester,  1724-1808;  a British  officer  distinguished 
at  Louisburg,  Quebec,  and  Belle  Isle,  and  wounded  in  the  siege  of  Havana  in  1762.  He 
was  a lieut.gen.  in  the  British  army,  and  the  successor  of  sir  Henry  Clinton  in  chief 
command  in  the  American  colonies  during  the  war  of  the  revolution  and  till  its  close. 

CAELETON,  William,  one  of  the  most  popular  writers  of  tales  describing  Irish 
life  and  manners,  was  b.  1798,  at  Prillisk,  in  the  cA  of  Tyrone,  Ireland.  Bred  and 
educated  among  the  peasantry,  he  passed  through  the  common  sufferings  and  privations 
of  Irish  poverty,  and,  after  receiving  some  scanty  instruction  in  a hedge-school,  he,  in  his 
17th  year,  went  to  an  academy  which  a relative  had  opened  at  Glasslough,  where  he 
remained  two  years.  Afterwards,  a vague  ambition  led  him  to  Dublin,  where  he  arrived 
with  only  some  three  shillings  in  his  pocket,  and  where,  in  1830,  he  published  his  Traits 
and  Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry.  Their  freshness  of  style  pleased  the  public,  and  won 
the  favor  of  critics.  A second  series,  issued  in  1832,  was  also  well  received;  and,  in 
1839,  he  published  a powerful  story,  entitled  Fardorougha  the  Miser,  in  several  passages 
of  which,  however,  his  humor  becomes  extravagant.  Subsequently,  C.  published  a 
series  of  tales  (3  vols.,  Dub.  1841),  mostly  of  pathetic  interest,  but  including  a very  genial 


Carli. 

Cai'los. 


464 


and  humorous  sketch  of  the  Misfortunes  of  Barney  Branagan,  which  proved  a great 
favorite.  The  story  of  Valentine  MG lutchy  is  half-political  and  half-religious  in  its  ten 
dency,  defending  the  Irish  Catholic  priesthood,  and  advocating  repeal  of  the  union,  it 
appeared  in  1845.  Other  narratives — Bady  the  Rover,  1846;  The  Black  Prophet,  1847;  and 
The  Tithe  Proctor,  1849 — contain  many  proofs  of  the  author’s  genius.  Willey  Reilly,  3 
vols.,  appeared  in  1855,  and  The  Evil  Eye  in  1860.  C.  is  the  true  historian  of  the  Irish 
people.  Sharing  in  their  qualities  of  mind  and  temperament,  he  has  a true  sympathy 
with  all  their  joys  and  sorrows,  and  a graphic  and  picturesque  pen  with  which  to  describe 
them.  In  consideration  of  his  literary  services,  he  enjoyed  a government  pension  of 
£200  a year,  and  on  his  death  in  Jan.,  1869,  the  queen  granted  a pension  of  £100  to  his 
widow. 

CARLI,  Giovanni  Rinaldo,  a distinguished  Italian  economist  and  archaeologist,  was 
b.  at  Capo  d’Istria,  April,  1720.  Educated  at  home  and  at  Flambro  in  the  Friuli,  he  was,, 
in  his  24th  year,  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  and  navigation  at  Padua.  In  1754, 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  great  work  On  the  History  of  the  Coins  and  Currency, 
and  on  the  Institution  of  the  Mints  of  Italy,  the  fourth  and  last  volume  of  which  appeared 
six  years  later.  The  book  treats  of  the  monetary  history  of  Italy  from  the  fall  of  the 
western  empire  until  the  17th  c.,  and  is  profusely  illustrated  with  representations  of 
coins,  national  and  foreign,  circulating  in  Ital}'-  during  the  various  ages;  and  their  value 
as  compared  with  the  price  of  provisions  at  different  periods  is  also  calculated.  His 
merits  as  a financier  were  not  overlooked.  He  was  made  president  of  the  council  of 
commerce  and  public  economy  at  Milan,  and  afterwards  president  of  the  new  council  of 
finances,  into  w^hich  branch  of  administration  he  introduced  many  admirable  reforms. 
The  inhabitants  were  also  indebted  to  his  influence  for  the  abolition  of  the  inquisitional 
tribunal.  He  also  wrote  some  valuable  works  on  Istrian  and  other  antiquities;  disser- 
tations on  classical  subjects;  against  sorcery;  against  Rousseau’s  theory  of  natural 
religion,  etc.  He  died  Feb.,  1795.  His  works,  exclusive  of  his  Italian  Antiquities,  were 
published  in  19  vols.  8vo  (Milan,  1784-94). 

CABLINE  THISTLE,  Carli'na,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  compositce, 
closely  allied  to  the  true  thistles,  from  which  they  are  distinguished  by  the  inner  scales 
of  the  involucre  spreading  like  rays,  and  being  colored  and  shining.  These  involucral 
scales  are  remarkably  hygrometric,  expanding  in  dry  and  closing  together  in  wet 
weather,  and  this  property  they  retain  for  a long  time;  the  heads  of  flowers  are  there- 
fore often  nailed  on  cottage-doors  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  to  indicate  the  weather. 
The  name  C.  T.  is  derived  from  a legend,  that  an  angel  showed  the  root  of  one  of  the 
species  to  Charlemagne,  as  a remedy  for  a plague.  This  species,  C.  acaulis,  grows  on 
hills  and  mountains,  especially  in  calcareous  soils  in  the  middle  latitudes  of  Europe 
It  has  a very  short  stem,  and  very  large  heads  of  flowers,  and  was  formerly  in  high 
repute  for  the  medicinal  virtues  of  its  root — which  is  in  large  doses  a drastic  purgative 
— but  its  use  is  now  almost  confined  to  veterinary  practice. — The  only  British  species  is 
the  common  C.  T.  ((7.  vulgaris),  not  unfrequent  in  England  and  some  parts  of  Scotland, 
and  sometimes  rather  a troublesome  weed,  but  always  indicative  of  a poor  soil.  It  has 
a stem  about  a foot  high ; and  many  purplish  heads  of  flowers  set  amidst  straw-colored 
rays. 

CAB'LINGS,  in  ship-building,  are  small  beams  laid  fore  and  aft,  and  resting  upon  the 
main  or  deck  beams.  These,  with  other  pieces  called  ledges,  laid  at  right  angles  to 
them,  form  a framework  by  which  the  deck  is  supported. 

CARLINVILLE,  a t.  and  seat  of  justice  in  Macoupin  co..  111.,  on  the  Chicago  and 
Alton  railroad,  39  m.  s.w.  of  Springfleld.  C.  is  the  seat  of  Blackburn  university,  and 
is  an  important  center  for  local  trade.  Pop.  township,  1870,  5,808. 

CARLISLE  {ante),  the  seat  of  justice  of  Cumberland  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  Cumberland 
Valley  railroad,  at  the  junction  of  the  Pine  Grove  branch,  18  m.  w.  b}^  s.  of  Harrisburg; 
pop.  about  7,000.  It  is  in  a highly  productive  agricultural  region;  is  well  built,  with 
wide  and  handsome  streets,  and  several  fine  public  buildings.  Dickinson  college  was 
founded  here  in  1783  by  the  Methodist  denomination.  Near  the  town  are  the  well- 
known  C.  barracks;  and  in  the  mountains  4 m.  n.  is  C.  Springs,  a famous  watering- 
place.  Washington  had  his  head-quarters  in  C.  during  the  whisky  rebellion  in  1794, 
and  in  July,  1863,  the  place  was  bombarded  by  the  confederates. 

CARLISLE,  a parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  episcopal  city,  and  ancient  town 
in  North  Cumberland,  the  capita?  of  the  co.,  12  m.  e.  of  the  Solway  firth,  300  m.  n.w. 
by  n.  of  London,  101  m.  s.  of  Edinburgh,  and  60  w\s.w.  of  Newcastle.  It  is  a chief 
station  on  the  w.  railway  route  from  London  to  Edinburgh,  and  is  the  terminus  of  seven 
different  lines  of  railway.  It  stands  on  an  eminence  in  a wide  plain  at  the  confluence 
of,  and  nearly  surrounded  by,  the  Eden,  Caldew,  and  Peteril.  Many  fine  new  streets 
and  buildings  have  been  lately  added  to  the  city.  The  chief  branches  of  industry  are 
cotton,  gingham,  and  check  manufactures;  print,  iron,  and  dye  wrorks;  and  salmon 
fisheries.  It  has  a small  cathedral  of  red  freestone,  of  which  Paley  was  archdeacon. 
The  castle  was  founded  in  1092,  and  is  now  a barracks;  the  remains  of  the  keep  form  a 
massive  lofty  tower,  with  a very  deep  well.  Mary  queen  of  Scots  was  confined  in  the 
castle  after  the  battle  of  Langside.  A canal  of  11  m.,  from  Bowness  on  the  Solway 


465 


Carli. 

Carlos* 


firth  to  C.,  formerly  admitted  vessels  of  100  tons;  but  the  bed  of  the  canal  has  now  been 
converted  into  a railway,  from  which  a line  also  branches  to  the  newly  formed  port  of 
Silloth,  where  an  extensive  dock  has  been  constructed  on  the  Solway,  at  a distance  of 
20  m.  from  Carlisle.  Pop.  inl763,  4,000;  1801,10,221;  1851,  26,310;  1861,  29,417;  1871, 
31,049.  C.  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  The  total  number  of  vessels  that 
entered  the  port  of  C.  in  1876  was  568,  of  109,905  tons;  cleared  695,  of  123,305  tons. 
Roman  remains  have  been  found  here — coins,  altars,  inscriptions,  brass  incense  vases, 
etc.  Being  near  the  w.  end  of  Hadrian’s  wall,  C.  was  probably  a Roman  station.  It 
was  the  seat  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Cumbria.  The  Piets  and  Scots  ravaged  it.  About 
900,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes,  after  which  it  remained  desolate  for  200  years. 
Thence  to  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  it  was  closely  connected  with  the  border 
wars,  and  underwent  many  sieges.  To  its  being  long  a fortified  border  town  it  owed 
much  of  its  importance  and  privileges,  but  it  declined  mMch  after  the  union.  The  C. 
corporation,  in  1745,  proclaimed  prince  Charles  king  of  Great  Britain.  The  duke  of 
Cumberland  afterwards  took  the  city,  and  punished  the  chief  actors  with  death,  and  the 
inhabitants  with  other  cruelties.  In  1133,  Henry  I.  made  C.  a bishopric. — The  C.  tables 
of  mortality,  based  on  the  deaths  which  occurred  in  C.  1779-87,  were  drawn  up  by  Dr. 
Heysham,  and  have  been  ever  since  much  used  by  life-insurance  offices,  as  being  near- 
est the  average. 

Carlisle  Cathedral  was  commenced  about  1092  by  Walter,  a Norman.  It  was 
founded  by  William  Rufus,  and  dedicated  in  1101  by  Henry  I. ; and  in  1133,  was  made 
the  cathedral  church  of  the  newly  formed  diocese.  A great  part  of  the  original  Norman 
building  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1292.  The  new  edifice  contains  specimens  of  all  the  styles 
of  early  English — simple  pointed,  geometric,  and  fiowing.  Two  thirds  of  the  fine  Nor- 
man nave,  originally  141  ft.  long,  were  destroyed  by  Cromwell;  the  portion  that  was 
left  has  long  been  used  as  a parish  church.  In  1853,  the  restoration  was  commenced. 
The  choir  is  one  of  the  finest  in  England,  138  ft.  long,  and  72  high,  and  consists  of  8 
pointed  arches.  The  e.  window,  consisting  of  9 lights,  is  considered  the  finest  deco- 
rated window  in  England.  The  tower  is  very  low,  rising  but  one  story  above  the  choir. 
It  formerly  supported  a timber  spire,  which  was  removed  in  1661.  This  cathedral  has 
four  canons. 

CARLISLE,  the  capital  of  Cumberland  co.,  Penn.,  U.  S.,  18  m.  s.  by  w.  of  Harris- 
burg, the  center  of  a rich  agricultural  country;  seat  of  Dickinson  college,  a fiourishing 
Methodist  institution;  with  13  churches,  2 banks.  2 newspapers,  machine  shops,  rail-car 
factory,  and  U.  S.  barracks;  was  shelled  by  the  Confederates,  July  1,  1863.  Pop.  ’70, 
6,650. 

CARLISLE,  Frederick  Howard,  Earl  of,  1748-1825;  an  English  statesman ; one  of 
the  commission  sent  to  the  American  colonies  by  lord  North  about  1778  to  endeavor  to 
effect  a reconciliation,  which  effort  was  a failure,  not  from  mismanagement  but  because 
of  the  unpopularity  of  North’s  administration.  In  1780,  C.  was  made  viceroy  of  Ireland, 
where,  in  a very  critical  period,  he  managed  to  maintain  peace  and  promote  prosperity. 
In  the  discussion  concerning  the  regency,  C.  favored  the  prince  of  Wales,  and  in  the 
period  of  the  French  revolution  he  was  a vigorous  supporter  of  the  war.  After  opposing 
the  corn  laws  in  1815,  he  took  no  further  part  in  public  affairs. 

CARLISLE,  George  William  Frederick  Howard,  Earl  of,  K.G.,  was  b.  April  18, 
1802.  Educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  he,  in  1821,  obtained  the  Chancellor  and  Newde- 
gate  prizes  for  his  Latin  and  English  poems.  He  entered  the  public  service  in  1826  as  an 
attache.  In  1830,  he  (then  lord  Morpeth),  along  with  Henry  (afterwards  lord)  Brougham, 
was  elected  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  important  constituency  of  Yorkshire,  and 
after  the  reform  bill  for  the  West  Riding,  a position  which  he  held  in  the  liberal 
interest  for  several  years.  Under  the  administration  of  lord  Melbourne,  he  held  the 
office  of  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  (1835-41),  and  his  impartial  distribution  of  patronage 
made  him  very  popular  in  Dublin.  Rejected  in  1841  by  the  West  Riding,  he  was  again 
elected  in  1846,  and  remained  one  of  its  representatives  until  the  death  of  his  father 
(1848)  called  him  to  the  house  of  lords.  Under  lord  John  Russell’s  ministry  (1846-52), 
he  was  chief  commissioner  of  woods  and  forests,  and  afterwards  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster.  When  lord  Palmerston  was  made  prime  minister  in  1855,  C.  was 
appointed  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a post  which  he  held  until  the  advent  of  the  earl  of 
Derby’s  government  in  1858;  and  he  succeeded  to  the  same  office  again  when  lord 
Palmerston  was  reinstated  in  1859.  C.  obtained  som^  reputation  as  a literary  man, 
chiefiy  by  his  lectures  on  his  travels  in  the  United  States,  on  the  life  and  writings  of 
Pope,  and  his  Diary  in  Turkish  and  Greek  Waters.  He  died  in  1864. 

CARLISTS.  See  Carlos  de  Bourbon  {ante)  and  Carlos,  Don. 

CARLOS,  DON,  Infante  of  Spain,  b.  July  3,  1545,  at  Valladolid,  was  a son  of  Philip 
II.  After  liis  recognition  as  heir  to  the  throne,  in  1560,  Don  C.  was  sent  to  study  at 
the  university  of  Alcala  de  Henares;  where,  however,  he  profited  so  little,  that  the  king, 
regarding  him  as  unqualified  to  reign,  invited  a nephew,  the  archduke  Rudolf,  to 
Spain,  intending  to  make  him  heir  to  the  throne.  Excluded  from  all  participation  in 
the  government,  Don  C.  conceived  a strong  aversion  toward  the  king’s  confidants,  and 
especially  was  unwilling  that  the  duke  of  Alva  should  have  the  government  of  Flanders. 
U.  K.  III.— 80 


Carlos. 

Carlovitz. 


466 


In  confession  to  a priest,  on  Christmas  eve,  1567,  ho  betrayed  his  purpose  to  assassinate 
a certain  person;  and  as  the  king  was  believed  to  be  the  intended  victim,  this  confession 
Avas  divulged.  The  papers  of  Don  C.  were  seized,  and  being  tried,  he  was  found  guilty 
of  conspiring  against  the  life  of  the  king,  and  of  traitorously  endeavoring  to  raise  an 
insurrection  in  Flanders.  The  sentence  was  left  for  the  king  to  pronounce.  Philip 
declared  that  he  could  make  no  exception  in  favor  of  such  an  unworthy  son;  but 
sentence  of  death  was  not  formally  recorded.  Shortly  afterwards,  he  died,  July  24, 
1568,  and  was  interred  in  the  Dominican  monastery,  El-Real,  at  Madrid.  The  suspicion 
that  he  was  poisoned  or  strangled,  has  no  valid  evidence  to  support  it.  Schiller,  in  his 
tragedy  Don  Carlos,  has  widely  departed  from  historical  testimonies. 

CARLOS,  Luis  Maria  Fernando,  Don,  1818-61 ; son  of  Don  Carlos  Maria  Isidor. 
In  1846,  he  lived  in  England  with  his  father,  under  the  name  of  Montemolin.  In  April, 
1849,  he  went  in  disguise  to  Spain,  was  discovered  and  kept  in  prison  for  a few  days, 
but  returned  to  England  before  the  end  of  the  month.  In  1860,  he  invaded  Spain  with 
3,000  men,  and  was  defeated  and  made  prisoner  at  Tortosa.  Being  again  set  free,  on  con- 
dition of  renouncing  his  claim  to  the  throne,  his  first  act  was  to  repudiate  that  renun- 
ciation. 

CARLOS,  Maria  de  los  Dolores  Juan  Isidor  Josef  Francesco  Quirino 
Antonio  Miguel  Gabriel  Rafael,  Don,  b.  Mar.  30,  1848;  nephew  of  Luis  Maria 
Fernando;  present  claimant  of  the  throne  of  Spain  as  the  legitimate  heir  of  Charles 
YIII.  As  Charles  YI.  died  without  issue,  his  rights  devolved  upon  his  brother  Don 
Juan,  who  had  married  the  archduchess  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  princess  of  Modena. 
Their  son,  the  present  Don  Carlos,  was  educated  principally  in  Austria,  and  married  Mar- 
garet de  Bourbon,  princess  of  Parma,  daughter  of  the  late  duke  Ferdinand,  Charles  III., 
and  sister  of  the  present  count  de  Chambord,  who  claims  to  be  Henry  Y.  of  France. 
In  Oct.,  1868,  Don  Juan  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  whose  standard  was  raised  by  some 
of  his  partisans  in  the  n.  of  Spain  in  April,  1872.  On  the  16th  of  July  following,  Don 
Carlos  published  a proclamation  calling  upon  the  people  of  Catalonia,  Aragon,  and 
Yalencia  to  take  arms  in  his  cause,  promising  to  restore  their  ancient  liberties;  and 
in  Dec.  his  brother,  Don  Alfonso,  assumed  command  of  the  Carlist  forces  in  Cata- 
lonia. Don  Carlos  himself  made  his  entry  to  Spain,  July  15,  1873,  announcing  that  he 
came  for  the  purpose  of  saving  the  country.  Thenceforward  there  was  incessant  war 
in  the  n.  part  of  the  kingdom  or  the  republic,  in  which  there  were  victories  on  both 
sides ; but  for  the  most  part  the  battles  were  unfavorable  to  the  Carlists,  until  Feb. , 
1876,  when  their  cause  was  completely  crushed  at  Tolosa,  the  defenders  of  that  last 
stronghold  flying  in  a panic  toward  France.  Don  Carlos  went  to  Paris,  where.  Mar. 
3,  187^6,  he  proclaimed:  “Being  desirous  of  putting  a stop  to  bloodshed,  I forbear  con- 
tinuing a glorious  but  at  present  fruitless  struggle.  In  the  face  of  a great  superiority  of 
numbers,  and  in  view  especially  of  the  sufferings  of  my  volunteers,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  return  the  sword  to  the  scabbard.  I will  never  sign  a convention  [abandonment  of 
all  claims].  My  flag  remains  furled  until  the  moment  which  God  shall  fix  as  the 
supreme  hour  of  redemption.  ” Don  Carlos  has  five  children,  four  daughters  and  a son. 

CAELOS,  San,  a t.  of  Yenezuela,  South  America,  in  a valley  on  the  Aguare,  a feeder 
of  the  Orinoco,  120  m.  s.w.  of  Caracas.  Before  the  wars  of  independence  it  was  a place 
of  considerable  importance,  having  been  one  of  the  richest  towns  in  the  province.  The 
town  is  handsome  and  well  laid  out.  The  pop.  was  formerly  10,000,  but  is  now  con- 
siderably less.  The  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  the 
cultivation  of  indigo,  cotton,  and  coffee,  of  which  there  are  still  considerable  plantations 
in  the  neighboring  savannahs. 

CARLOS  DE  BOURBON,  Don  Maria  Isidor,  b.  Mar.  29,  1788,  was  the  second  son 
of  Charles  lY.  of  Spain,  and  was  educated  chiefly  by  priests.  After  the  expulsion  of 
the  French  from  Spain,  his  brother,  Ferdinand  YII.,  reascended  the  throne;  but  having 
married  thrice  without  issue,  Don  C.  began  to  cherish  the  hope  of  succeeding  his 
brother.  An  insurrection  in  his  interest  broke  out  in  1825,  in  Catalonia;  but  was  put 
down,  Don  C.  himself  not  participating  in  it.  A fourth  time,  however,  the  indefatig- 
able Ferdinand  married,  and  the  result  was  a daughter,  the  infanta  Maria  Isabella  (late 
queen  of  Spain),  b.  Oct.  10,  1830.  Now,  as  the  Salic  law,  excluding  females  from 
succession  to  the  throne,  had  been  abrogated,  the  hopes  of  the  Carlists,  as  the  followers 
of  Don  C.  were  called,  were  destroyed.  During  the  illness  of  the  king,  in  Sept. 
1832,  the  Carlists  succeeded  so  far  as  to  win  from  him  a re-institution  of  the  Salic 
law ; but  he  revoked  it  again  as  soon  as  he  had  partially  recovered,  and  thus  Don  C. 
was  again  disappointed.  As  he  still  continued  his  agitation,  he  was  banished,  in  1833, 
to  Portugal,  and  soon  afterwards  was  commanded  to  reside  in  the  papal  states.  But 
before  C.  had  embarked  for  Italy,  king  Ferdinand  YII.  died.  Sept.  29,  1833.  Don  C. 
was  now  recognized  as  heir  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  not  only  by  the  Carlists  but  also  by 
Dom  Miguel  in  Portugal ; and  having  refused  to  obey  the  queen-regent’s  order  for  his 
deportation  to  Italy,  he  was  declared  a rebel,  Oct.  16,  1833.  By  the  quadruple  alliance 
of  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  and  France,  both  C.  and  Dom  Miguel  were  banished 
from  Portugal,  and  in  June,  1834,  the  former  embarked  for  England.  In  the  following 
month,  he  returned  to  the  continent,  passed  in  disguise  through  France  into  Spain, 
where  he  excited  an  insurrection  in  the  northern  provinces,  but  was  ultimately  com- 


467 


Carlos. 

Carlovits. 


pelled  to  escape  into  France.  In  1836,  his  claims  to  the  throne  were  unanimously 
rejected  by  the  constituent  cortes.  In  1844,  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son, 
and  died  at  Trieste,  Mar.  10,  1855. — Don  Carlos,  his  son,  b.  1818,  was  better  known 
as  the  count  de  Montemolin.  This  second  pretender  made  an  attempt,  in  1849,  to  pass 
under  a disguise  through  France  into  Spain,  but  failed.  In  1860,  a Carlist  insurrection 
was  once  more  attempted,  in  consequence  of  which  the  count  de  Montemolin  and  his 
brother  were  arrested,  but  liberated  after  the  former  had  signed  a renunciation  of  all 
his  claims  to  the  Spanish  throne.  He  d.  in  1861.  The  present  representative  of  his 
pretensions  is  his  nephew,  Don  Carlos,  son  of  his  brother  Juan,  b.  1848.  On  his 
behalf,  Carlist  risings — speedily  repressed — took  place  in  1869,  1870,  and  1872;  but  the 
insurrection  headed  by  Don  Carlos,  after  the  abdication  of  king  Amadeo,  in  1873, 
proved  much  more  formidable,  and  kept  the  northern  provinces  of  Spain  in  great  con- 
fusion till  the  beginning  of  1876,  when  it  was  crushed. 

CAELOVINGIANS,  the  second  dynasty  of  Frankish  kings.  The  origin  of  the  family 
is  traced  to  Arnulph,  bishop  of  Metz,  who  d.  in  631.  His  son,  Ansegise,  married  a 
daughter  of  Pepin,  of  Landen,  in  Austrasia.  His  sons,  Martin  and  Pepin  d’Heristall 
(q.v.),  as  the  greatest  territorial  lords  in  Austrasia,  were  called  to  the  oflSce  of  mayor  of 
the  palace.  Martin  was  assassinated;  Pepin,  by  force  of  arms,  compelled  the  weak 
Merovingian  king,  Theodoric  III.,  to  invest  him  with  the  office  of  mayor  of  the  palace 
in  all  the  three  Frankish  states,  Neustria,  Austrasia,  and  Burgundy.  Pepin  allowed 
the  Merovingian  kings  to  remain  upon  the  throne,  but  they  were  kings  only  in  name. 
He  d.  on  17th  Dec.,  714,  and  left  as  his  successor,  his  young  grandson,  Theodoald,  but 
Charles  Martel  (q.v.),  a natural  son  of  Pepin,  was  made  mayor  of  the  palace  by  the 
Austrasians,  and  in  this  capacity  subjected  the  three  states  to  his  power.  He  d.  in  741. 
His  two  sons,  Carloman  and  Pepin  ie  bref,  divided  the  kingdom,  although  for  a time 
the  nominal  Merovingian  dynasty  still  subsisted ; but  Pepin  at  last  formally  assumed 
the  royal  power,  and  was  crowned  king  of  the  Franks  on  3d  May,  752.  This  is  the 
formal  commencement  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  Pepin  began  the  conquest  of  Italy. 
His  sons,  Carloman  and  Charles  the  greater  Charlemagne  (q.v.),  succeeded  him,  of  whom 
the  latter  soon  reigned  alone,  and  prodigiously  extended  his  dominions.  In  800,  pope 
Leo.  HI.  set  upon  his  head  the  crown  of  the  western  Roman  empire.  He  divided  his 
dominions  amongst  his  sons,  of  whom,  however,  only  one,  Louis  le  debonnaire,  sur- 
vived him,  who,  in  the  list  of  the  kings  of  France,  appears  as  Louis  I.,  but  who  was 
properly  emperor  and  king  of  the  Franks.  With  Charlemagne,  however,  the  high 
abilities  of  his  family  suddenly  disappeared,  and  his  successors  showed  much 
weakness  of  character.  Family  feuds  broke  out  during  the  life  of  Louis  le  debon- 
naire, who  had  divided  his  dominions  in  part  amongst  his  sons,  and  he  terminated 
an  inglorious  reign  in  840.  By  a treaty  concluded  in  Aug.,  843,  Lotharius  I.,  the 
eldest  son  of  Louis,  obtained  the  imperial  crown  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  with  Lor- 
raine, Franche  Comte,  Provence,  and  the  Lyonnois;  Louis,  his  brother,  called  Louis 
the  German,  obtained  the  German  part  of  his  father’s  dominions ; and  Charles  the  bald, 
the  son  of  a second  marriage,  obtained  Neustria,  Aquitania,  and  the  Spanish  Mark,  and 
may  almost  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy.  The  emperer  Lotharius 
I.  died  in  855,  and  his  dominions  were  again  dividid — his  eldest  son,  Louis  II.,  being 
emperor  and  king  of  Italy,  and  his  two  other  sons  kings  of  Lorraine  and  of  Provence,  but 
their  kingdoms  reverted  to  the  emperor. — Charles  the  fat,  a son  of  Louis  the  German, 
having  become  emperor,  was  elected  by  the  French  nobles  to  be  their  king  in  882 ; and 
being  previously  in  possession  of  Italy  and  Germany,  united  under  his  sway  great  part 
of  Charlemagne’s  empire.  But  he  was  a weak  monarch,  and  was  deposed  in  887.  The 
imperial  dignity  passed  by  the  marriage  of  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  Arnulph  with 
Fritzlar,  count  of  Franconia,  to  another  family.  The  French  dynasty,  of  which 
Charles  the  bald  may  be  deemed  the  founder,  continued  in  a succession  of  weak 
monarchs  for  about  a century,  till  it  terminated  with  the  reign  of  Louis  V. , on  whose 
death,  Hugh  Capet,  the  most  powerful  nobleman  in  France,  seized  the  crown  in  987. 
The  Carlovingian  kings  had  for  some  time  previous  possessed  no  real  power.  A sub- 
sequent marriage,  however,  connected  their  family  with  that  of  the  Capets,  and  enabled 
the  kings  of  France  to  trace  their  descent  from  Charlemange. 

The  Carlovingian  dynasty  figures  in  the  early  history  of  France  as  the  ally  of  the 
church.  It  aided  the  popes  against  the  Lombards ; made  war  on  the  Aquitanians,  who 
pillaged  and  despoiled  the  churches;  established  the  temporal  power  of  the  successors 
of  St.  Peter;  subdued  and  converted  the  still  pagan  Saxons;  and  fought  the  Mohammed' 
ans  in  Spain.  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  do  we  find  the  church  ungrateful:  it  sanctioned, 
by  benediction  and  prayer,  the  conquests  of  this  powerful  family;  in  various  ways 
impressed  its  sacred  stamp  of  approbation  upon  it,  and  for  its  sake  resuscitated  the 
imposing  idea  of  an  empire  of  the  west.  But  this  alliance,  which  was  advantageous  to 
the  policy  of  kings  like  Pepin  le  Bref  and  his  son  Charlemagne,  because  they  had  genius, 
vigor,  and  design,  became  at  a later  period,  under  their  feeble  successors,  a chief  cause 
of  the  overthrow  of  the  dynasty,  for  the  clergy,  after  814,  grew  stronger  and  more 
exacting  every  day,  and  forced  the  monarchs  to  new  concessions. 

CABLOVITZ,  or  Karlovttz,  a t.  of  the  Austrian  empire,  in  the  “kingdom”  or 
province  of  Slavonia.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  about  8 m.  s.s.e. 


Carlow. 

Carlstadt. 


468 


of  Peterwardein,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  wine,  and  for  the  treaty  concluded  here 
in  1699.  The  wine — especially  the  red  variety — ranks  with  the  best  and  strongest 
obtained  in  Hungary,  and  in  some  years  the  product  has  amounted  to  about  If  million 
of  gallons.  Pop.  ’69,  4,419.  The  important  treaty  or  peace  of  C.  was  concluded,  in 
1699,  between  the  allies  Austria,  Russia,  Poland,  and  Venice  on  one  side,  and  the  porte 
on  the  other,  and  included  the  following  articles;  “That  Austria  should  repossess  the 
territories  captured  by  the  Turks  during  two  centuries  (which  included  Hungary  and 
Slavonia,  and  she  also  acquired  Transylvania);  that  Venice  should  hold  the  Morea  as 
far  as  the  isthmus;  that  Poland  should  take  back  Podolia  and  the  lands  in  the  Ukraine 
conquered  by  Mohammed  IV.,  but  should  cede  certain  places  in  Moldavia;  and  that 
Russia  should  have  the  territory  of  Azof.” 

CARLOW,  the  capital  t.  of  Carlow  co.,  Ireland,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Burren  and  the  Barrow,  56  m.  s.w.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  It  is  a well-built  town,  with  two 
principal  streets,  from  which  branch  many  smaller  ones,  and  a suburb,  Graigue,  in 
Queen’s  co. , on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a bridge. 
It  has  a Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  divinity  college.  C.  has  extensive  flour-mills, 
and  is  the  emporium  for  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  district,  largely  exported  from 
this  place.  Pop.  ’71,  7,842.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  There  are  here  the 
remains  of  a castle,  picturesquely  situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  Barrow,  founded  in 
1180  by  sir  Hugh  de  Lacy.  In  1361,  the  duke  of  Clarence  established  the  exchequer  of 
the  kingdom  in  this  place.  It  constituted  one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  Pale,  beyond 
which  the  king’s  writ  was  not  recognized  by  the  “ Irishry.”  Its  first  charter  was  granted 
in  the  13th  c.  by  William  Marshall,  earl  of  Pembroke.  The  town  grew  up  around  this 
castle,  which  was  several  times  besieged  by,  and  alternately  in  the  possession  of,  the 
English  and  Irish.  The  castle  (one  of  great  extent)  was  in  the  possession  of  the  insurgents 
in  1650,  when  it  was  closely  invested  by  gen.  Ireton  and  the  republican  army.  The 
garrison  surrendered  on  conditions  to  sir  Hardress  Waller,  whom  Ireton  had  left  to 
conduct  the  siege.  It  was  then  dismantled;  and  about  one  half  of  this  once  stately 
castle  now  remains  a picturesque  ruin.  In  the  Irish  insurrection  of  1798,  the  insurgents 
attacked  the  town,  but  were  repulsed  by  the  garrison  and  yeomanry,  and  600  of  them 
killed.  The  Barrow  is  here  navigable  for  small-craft  to  its  junction  with  the  Grand 
canal  at  Athy. 

CARLOW,  a small  inland  co.  of  Ireland,  in  Leinster  province,  with  an  area  of  about 
346  sq.m.,  of  which  fths  are  arable.  C.,  except  in  the  southern  extremity,  where  it  is 
hilly,  is  a triangular  fertile  level,  or  gently  undulating  plain,  between  the  Wicklow  and 
Wexford  range  of  hills  on  the  e.,  and  the  highlands  beyond  the  Barrow  on  the  west. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Barrow  and  Slaney.  C.  consists  chiefly  of  granite,  covered  in 
the  middle  plain,  or  richer  tracts,  by  limestone  gravel,  on  which  are  fine  loams  and 
pasture.  In  the  uplands,  the  soil  is  gravelly.  Lower,  carboniferous  limestone  crops 
out  in  the  valley  of  the  Barrow.  On  the  w.  side  of  the  co.  begins  the  great  coal  district 
of  Leinster.  In  1876,  79,345  acres  were  under  crop,  the  chief  crops  being  oats,  potatoes, 
barley,  and  wheat.  There  are  many  dairies  on  the  plains.  The  chief  exports  are  corn, 
flour,  meal,  butter,  etc.  Along  the  Barrow,  which  falls  above  a foot  per  mile,  are  a 
great  many  extensive  corn-mills.  Pop. ’41,  86,228;  ’51,  68,059;  ’71,  51,472.  It  returns 
three  members  to  parliament — two  for  the  co.  at  large,  and  one  for  the  borough  of 
Carlow.  The  chief  towns  are  Carlow,  Tullow,  and  Bagenalstown.  At  Old  Leighlin  a 
synod  was  held,  in  630,  to  settle  the  time  of  Easter.  Several  engagements  occurred  in 
the  CO.  during  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798.  The  chief  antiquities  of  C.  are  cromlechs, 
castles,  and  the  cathedral  church  of  Old  Leighlin.  A cromlech  near  Carlow  town  Jias  a 
covering  stone  23  ft.  long,  and  of  nearly  90  tons. 

CAR'LOWITZ,  or  Carlovitz,  a t.  in  Hungary,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
8 m.  s.e.  of  Peterwardein;  pop.  ’73,  4,419.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Greek  archbishop  for 
the  Austrian  dominions,  and  has  seminaries  for  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  a 
gymnasium,  a lyceum,  and  a hospital.  It  was  here  that  peace  between  Austria,  Turkey, 
Poland,  and  Venice  was  concluded  in  1699. 

CARLSBAD,  or  Kaiser-Karlsbad,  a t.  in  Bohemia,  much  celebrared  for  its  hot  min- 
< nil  springs,  and  frequented  in  summer  by  visitors  of  the  most  aristocratic  character 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  The  permanent  population  does  not  amount  to  more  than 
about  7,000,  who  are  very  industrious,  making  carpets,  knives,  scissors,  needles,  wood- 
work, and  articles  of  Bohemian  glass,  such  as  are  likely  to  induce  visitors  to  purchase. 
The  visitors  in  a season,  which  usually  lasts  from  15th  June  to  15th  Aug.,  amount  to 
15,000  or  18,000.  The  wells  have  been  frequented  from  a very  early  period,  but  have 
been  of  great  celebrity  since  the  14th  century.  The  scenery  is  extremely  beautiful. 
The  town  is  well  built,  the  accommodation  for  guests  good,  and  the  place  free  from 
some  of  the  abuses  too  common  at  other  German  spas.  No  gaming-houses  exist  here. 
The  temperature  of  the  hot  springs  varies  from  117°  to  165°  Fahrenheit.  The  princi- 
pal spring,  the  Sprudel,  has  a very  large  volume,  and  is  forced  up  to  a height  of  3 ft. 
Rom  the  ground.  Altogether,  the  daily  flow  of  the  springs  of  C.  is  estimated  at  2,000,- 
000  gallons.  The  principal  ingredient  in  the  water  is  sulphate  of  soda.  The  whole 
town  of  C.  appears  to  stand  on  a vast  caldron  of  boiling  water,  which  is  kept  from 
bursting  only  by  the  safety-valves  the  springs  provide.  On  one  occasion,  after  an 


469 


Carlow. 

Carlstadt. 


explosion,  poles  of  30  fathoms  in  length,  thrust  into  the  aperture,  did  not  reach  the 
bottom.  A congress  of  German  powers  was  held  here  in  Aug.,  1819,  in  which  various 
resolutions,  denunciatory  of  a free  press  and  liberal  opinions,  were  arrived  at,  and  meas- 
ures of  repression  determined  on. 

CABLS'BURG,  or  Karlsburg,  a t.  of  Transylvania,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Maros,  here  crossed  by  a bridge  some  200  yards  in  length,  48  m.  s.  of  Klausenburg.  It 
is  built  partly  on  a hill,  and  partly  in  a valley,  is  fortified,  and  has  a citadel  surrounded 
by  walls  with  bastions.  Gold  and  silver,  obtained  from  the  mines  of  Transylvania, 
are  purified  and  coined  here.  The  only  manufacture  of  importance  is  saltpeter.  Maros 
Porto,  the  chief  shipping-place  for  Transylvanian  rock-salt,  is  within  half  a mile  of  the 
town.  C.  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Apulum,  remains  of  which  are  still  found. 
Pop.  ’69,  7,955. 

CARLSCBO'NA,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name  in  Sweden,  is  situated  on 
the  rocky  island  of  Trotso,  and  its  adjoining  islets  in  the  Baltic,  which  are  connected 
^ bridges,  in  lat.  56°  9'  n.,  long.  15°  35'  east.  The  town  was  built  in  1680  by  Charles 
Al.,  who  gave  it  his  own  name,  and  conferred  upon  it  several  important  privileges, 
besides  making  it  the  great  naval  station  and  arsenal  of  Sweden,  instead  of  Stockholm. 
It  has  a magnificent  harbor,  with  a sufficient  depth  of  water  to  float  the  largest  vessels. 
The  only  practicable  entrance  for  large  ships  is  defended  by  two  strong  forts.  The 
dry-docks,  blasted  out  of  the  granite  rock  at  vast  expense,  are  an  attraction  to 
strangers.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  employed  in  connection  with  the  arsenal.  Pop. 
’75,  16,877. 

The  province  of  C.  or  Blekinge  is  situated  in  the  s.  of  Sweden,  in  lat  56°  to  56°  30'  n., 
long.  14°  30'  to  16°  east.  It  has  the  Baltic  on  its  s.  and  e.  margins.  It  has  an  area  of 
about  1120  sq.m,  with  a pop.  of  131,812.  It  is  hilly  without  being  mountainous,  and 
generally  fertile,  yielding  rye  and  potatoes  abundantly,  and  also  wheat,  oats,  and  peas. 
The  fisheries  employ  a considerable  number  of  the  inhabitants. 

CARLSHAMN,  a fortified  t.  on  the  s.  coast  of  Sweden,  about  30  m.  w.  of  Carlscrona, 
at  the  end  of  a beautiful  valley.  The  harbor  is  small  but  secure,  and  a considerable 
trade  in  iron,  timber,  pitch,  and  tar  is  carried  on.  There  are  manufactures  of  sail-cloth, 
tobacco,  hats,  soap,  and  leather;  there  are  also  dye-works  and  ship-building  yards.  Pop. 
5,731. 

CARLSRTJHE,  the  capital  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  is  situated  a few  miles  east- 
ward from  the  Rhine.  It  was  founded  by  the  Markgraf  Charles-William  of  Baden-Dur- 
lach,  in  1715,  and  built  on  a curious  and  regular  plan  in  connection  with  the  palace, 
which  constitutes  the  center  point  from  which  the  streets,  so  far  as  constructed,  diverge 
in  the  shape  of  an  extended  fan.  The  streets  are  .wide  and  well  paved.  There  are  a 
number  of  fine  buildings;  flourishing  educational  institutions;  the  court  library  con- 
tains 80,000  volumes;  a public  library,  90,000;  and  there  are  valuable  collections  of  antiq- 
uities, objects  of  natural  history,  etc.  An  aqueduct  from  the  Durlach  supplies  the  town 
with  water.  In  the  market-place,  which  is  the  finest  of  the  public  squares,  a stone 
pyramid  incloses  the  remains  of  the  founder  of  the  city.  The  manufactures  include 
machines  of  various  sorts,  engines,  locomotives,  railway  carriages  and  wagons,  jew- 
elry, carpets,  chemical  products,  and  cloth.  C.  is  generally  spelled  Karlsruhe.  Pop. 
’75,  42,768. 

CARLSTAD,  a t.  of  Sweden,  on  the  island  of  Tingvalla,  in  lake  Wenern,  about  160 
m.  w.  of  Stockholm.  It  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  two  bridges,  one  of  which 
is  a large  and  very  handsome  structure.  The  town  is  well  built,  has  a cathedral,  cabi- 
net of  natural  history,  etc.,  and  commands  extensive  views  of  the  most  beautiful 
scenery.  Its  trade  is  large,  consisting  in  exports  of  iron,  copper,  timber,  and  corn.  Pop. 
’76,  6,622. 

CARLSTADT,  a t.  of  Croatia,  in  Austria,  situated  in  a rich  plain  between  the  rivers 
Kulpa  and  Korona,  33  m.  s.w.  of  Agram.  It  is  fortified — the  original  fortress  having 
been  erected  in  the  16th  c.  to  resist  the  Turks — has  an  old  castle,  and  armory  of 
30,000  stand  of  arms.  It  has  a large  garrison,  the  Austrian  executive  looking  upon  it 
as  a place  of  considerable  importance,  on  account  of  its  position  on  a navigable  river, 
and  on  the  great  road  into  the  center  of  Croatia  from  the  coast.  It  has  few  manufactures, 
but  an  active  transit  trade.  Pop.  ’69,  5,175. 

CARLBTADT,  Karlstadt,  or  Karolostadt  (real  name,  Andreas  Rudolf 
Bodenstein),  1480-1541;  a German  reformer,  at  first  a friend  and  afterwards  an  oppo- 
nent of  Luther.  He  became  a professor  in  Wittenberg,  first  in  philosophy  and  then  in 
theology,  and  in  1511  was  rector  of  the  university,  about  which  time  he  became  a per- 
sonal friend  of  Luther.  Carlstadt  went  to  Rome  to  study  canon  law,  returning  to 
Wittenberg  in  1515,  where  he  took  up  the  defense  of  Reuchlin,  the  scholar  against 
whom  a violent  persecution  was  raging.  In  1517,  he  published  arguments  asserting 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  and  declaring  that  in  the  silence  of  Scripture, 
appeals  from  the  fathers  of  the  church  must  be  made  to  reason.  When  Luther  nailed 
his  thesis  to  the  door  of  the  church,  Carlstadt  supported  him.  In  the  bill  against  Luther, 
Carlstadt  was  especially  named  and  condemned;  and  he  was  the  first  to  appeal  from  the 
pope  to  a general  council.  In  1521,  by  invitation  of  the  king,  he  went  to  Denmark  to 


Carlton. 
Carmagnola. ' 


470 


teach  the  doctrines  of  the  reformation ; but  he  soon  returned.  About  this  time,  differ- 
ences sprang  up  between  Carlstadt  and  Luther,  owing  to  the  former’s  hot-headedness  r 
he  demanded  violent  measures,  where  Luther  desired  prudence  and  patience.  While 
Luther  was  imprisoned,  Carlstadt  greatly  impaired  the  cause  by  his  extreme  course,  and 
at  last  Luther  declared  against  him.  Being  compelled  to  leave  Wittenberg,  Carlstadt 
became  a pastor  in  Thuringia,  where  his  violence  created  a suspicion  that  he  was  asso- 
ciated with  Anabaptists,  and  that  he  might  be  implicated  in  the  schemes  of  the  peasant 
revolt.  The  elector  sent  Luther  to  find  out  the  true  state  of  affairs;  and  when  Luther 
preached  against  Carlstadt  at  Jena,  they  held  a discussion  on  the  “ real  presence,”  which 
Carlstadt  was  the  first  to  deny,  and  an  open  quarrel  broke  out  between  them.  Carl- 
stadt was  ordered  out  of  Saxony,  and  wandered  from  place  to  place  exciting  tumults, 
and  prompting  the  people  to  destroy  pictures  and  images  in  the  churches.  Again  sus- 
pected of  provoking  insurrection,  he  was  pursued  and  exposed  to  hardships,  and  even 
danger  to  his  life.  In  this  extremity  he  appealed  to  Luther,  through  whose  influence  he 
was  permitted  to  return  to  Saxony,  where  for  some  years  he  led  a quiet  life.  This  quiet 
was  unendurable  by  his  restless  spirit,  and  he  once  more  attacked  Luther;  the  contro- 
versy, in  which  Zwingli  agreed  with  Carlstadt  in  his  views  of  the  Lord’s  supper,  grew 
fiercer  than  ever,  and  Carlstadt,  who  was  no  longer  permitted  to  dwell  in  Saxony,  fled 
to  Friesland,  and  thence  to  Switzerland,  where  Zwingli’s  influence  made  him  a pastor, 
and  afterwards  an  archdeacon  at  Zurich.  In  1534,  he  settled  as  professor  of  theology 
in  Basel,  remaining  there  until  his  death.  He  was  the  first  priest  to  write  against  celib- 
acy, and  the  first  Protestant  clergyman  to  take  a wife. 

CARLTON,  a co.  in  n.e.  Minnesota,  on  the  Wisconsin  border,  intersected  by  the 
Northern  Pacific  and  Lake  Superior  railroads;  900  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80, 1230.  Surf  ace  uneven, 
and  for  the  most  part  covered  with  maple  and  pine  trees. 

CARLTON,  Thomas,  d.d.,  1809-74;  b.  N.  H. ; a Methodist  minister,  who  in 
1829  began  his  work  in  the  Western  New  York  conference  in  Rochester,  Buffalo,  and 
other  places.  He  was  for  20  years  the  principal  agent  of  the  Methodist  book  concern, 
in  New  York  city. 

CARLUDOVI'CA  PALMA'TA,  a South  American  shrub  or  tree  bearing  the  leaves 
from  which  Panama  hats  are  woven,  the  best  of  which  are  plaited  from  a single  leaf, 
the  work  requiring  many  weeks  of  labor. 

CAKLTTEE',  a municipal  burgh  in  the  middle  of  Lanarkshire,  near  the  right  bank 
of  the  Clyde,  6 m.  n.w.  of  Lanark.  Pop.  ’71,  3,423.  The  neighborhood  is  rich  in  coal, 
iron,  and  limestone,  and  mining  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  place.  The  orchards 
around  cover  130  acres.  Not  far  off  is  Lee,  the  seat  of  the  Lockharts,  where  is  preserved 
the  famous  Lee  penny,  noticed  by  sir  W.  Scott  in  the  Talisman.  Roman  coins  have 
been  found  here.  Gen.  Roy,  the  antiquary,  author  of  the  Military  Antiquities  of  the 
Romans  in  North  Britain,  was  a native  of  Carluke. 

CARLYLE,  Joseph  Dacre,  1759-1804;  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  a fellow  of 
Queens’  college.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Paley  as  chancellor  of  Carlisle,  and  in  1794  was 
appointed  professor  of  Arabic  at  Cambridge.  He  had  already  published  a translation  of 
an  Arabic  history  of  Egypt,  and  in  1796  he  issued  a volume  of  Specimens  of  Arabic 
Poetry.  Lord  Elgin  procured  Carlyle’s  appointment  in  the  Turkish  embassy,  which 
gave  him  an  opportunity  to  travel  in  the  east,  where  he  collected  Greek  and  Syriac 
manuscripts  for  a contemplated  revision  of  the  New  Testament,  but  he  did  not  live  to 
do  the  work. 

CARLYLE,  Thomas,  was  b.  4th  Dec.,  1795,  in  the  t.  of  Ecclefechan,  parish  of 
Hoddam,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland.  Educated  first  at  the  parish  school,  and  afterwards 
at  Annan,  he  passed  to  Edinburgh  university,  with  a view  to  entering  the  Scottish 
church,  in  his  15th  or  16th  year.  Here  he  studied  irregularly,  but  with  amazing 
avidity.  The  stories  which  are  related  of  his  immense  reading  are  almost  fabulous. 
About  the  middle  of  his  theological  curriculum,  C.  felt  wholly  disinclined  to  become  a 
clergyman,  and,  after  a short  period  spent  in  teaching  at  Dysart,  in  Fifeshire,  he 
embraced  literature  as  a profession.  His  first  efforts  were  contributions  to  Brewster’s 
Encyclopcedia.  In  1824,  he  published  a translation  of  Legendre’s  Geometry,  to  which  he 
prefixed  an  essay  on  proportion,  mathematics  having,  during  his  college  years,  been  a 
favorite  study  with  him.  In  1823-1824,  had  appeared  in  the  London  Magazine^  his  Life 
of  Schiller,  and,  during  the  same  year,  his  translation  of  Goethe’s  Wilhelm  Meister.  In 
1825,  the  Life  of  Schiller  was  recast,  and  published  in  a separate  form.  It  was  very 
highly  praised;  indeed,  one  can  discern  in  the  criticisms  of  the  book  certain  indications 
of  the  genius  of  Carlyle.  The  translation  of  Wilhelm  Meister  met  with  a somewhat  dif- 
ferent fate.  De  Quincey,  in  one  of  his  acrid  and  capricious  moods,  fell  foul  both  of 
Goethe  and  his  translator;  while  lord  Jeffrey,  in  the  Edinburgh  Review,  admitting  C.  to 
be  “a  person  of  talents,”  slashed  in  cavalier  fashion  at  the  book.  In  1827,  C.  married 
Miss  Welch,  a lineal  descendant  of  John  Knox,  and,  during  the  same  year,  appeared  his 
Specimens  of  German  Romance  (4  vols.,  Tait,  Edinburgh).  From  1827  to  1834,  he 
resided  chiefly  at  Craigenputtoch,  a small  property  in  Dumfriesshire,  belonging  to  his 
wife — the  “loneliest  nook  in  Britain,”  as  he  says  himself  in  a letter  to  Goethe,  “fifteen 


471 


Carlton. 

Carmagnola. 


m n.w.  of  Dumfries,  among  the  granite  hills  and  the  black  morasses  which  stretch 
westward  through  Galloway  almost  to  the  Irish  sea.”  Here  C.  revolved  in  his  mind  the 
great  questions  in  philosophy,  literature,  social  life,  and  politics,  to  the  elucidation  of 
which — after  his  own  singular  fashion — he  has  earnestly  dedicated  his  whole  life.  Here , 
also,  he  commenced  to  write  the  splendid  series  of  critical  and  biographical  essays 
which  first  familiarized  Englishmen  with  the  riches  of  modern  German  thought.  For 
this  work,  he  was  incomparably  better  fitted  than  any  man  then  living  in  Great 
Britain.  Possessing  a knowledge  of  the  German  tongue  such  as  no  foreigner  ever 
surpassed,  he  was  also  inspired  by  the  conviction,  that  the  literature  of  Germany,  in 
depth,  truthfulness,  sincerity,  and  earnestness  of  purpose,  was  neatly  superior  to  what 
was  admired  and  relished  at  home.  Gifted,  moreover,  in  a d^egree  altogether  unex- 
ampled, with  a talent  for  portraiture,  he  soon  painted  in  ineffaceable  colors  on  the 
British  memory,  the  images  of  Schiller,  Fichte,  Jean  Paul  Richter,  and  other  foreign 
magnates,  until  then  almost  unheard  of.  Gradually,  educated  circles  awoke  to  the  fact, 
that  a literary  Columbus  had  appeared  among  them,  who  had  discovered  a “new 
world  ” of  letters,  the  freshness  and  grandeur  of  which  were  sure  to  attract,  sooner  or 
later,  multitudes  of  adventurous  spirits.  One  of  his  most  beautiful,  eloquent,  and  solid 
essays  written  at  Craigenputtoch,  was  that  on  Burns  {Edinburgh  Renew,  1828).  It  has 

fiven  the  tone  to  all  subsequent  criticism  on  the  Scottish  poet.  The  article  on  German 
literature,  in  the  same  periodical,  is  a masterly  review  of  a subject,  the  importance  of 
which  C.  at  length  succeeded  in  compelling  his  countrymen  to  acknowledge.  But  his 
chef-d'ceuvre  written  on  the  moorland  farm,  was  Sartor  Resartus  (“the  tailor  done  over,” 
the  title  of  an  old  Scottish  song).  This  work,  like  all  his  after-productions,  an  inde- 
scribable mixture  of  the  sublime  and  the  grotesque,  was  offered  to  various  London 
firms,  and  rejected  on  the  advice  of  their  sapient  “ tasters,”  and  at  length  published  in 
successive  portions  in  Fraser's  Magazine  (1833-34).  It  professes  to  be  a history  or 
biography  of  a certain  Herr  Teufelsdrbckh  (“Devil’s  Dirt  ”),  professor  in  the  university 
of  Weissnichtwo  (“  Kennaquhair  ”),  and  contains  the  manifold  opinions,  speculations, 
inward  agonies,  and  trials  of  that  strange  personage — or  rather  of  C.  himself.  The 
whole  book  quivers  with  tragic  pathos,  solemn  aspiration,  or  riotous  humor.  C.  now 
removed  to  London,  where  he  still  resides.  In  1837,  appeared  the  first  work  which  bore 
the  author’s  name.  The  French  Revolution,  a History.  Nothing  can  be  more  gorgeous  than 
the  style  of  this  “ prose  epic.”  A fiery  enthusiasm  pervades  it,  now  softened  with 
tenderness,  and  again  darkened  with  grim  mockery,  making  it  throughout  the  most 
wonderful  image  of  that  wild  epoch.  C.  looks  on  the  explosion  of  national  wrath  as  a 
work  of  the  divine  Nemesis,  who  “ in  the  fullness  of  times  ” destroys,  with  sacred  fury, 
the  accumulated  falsehoods  of  centuries.  To  him,  therefore,  the  revolution  is  a “ truth 
clad  in  hell-fire.”  During  the  same  year,  he  delivered  in  London  a series  of  lectures  on 
German  Literature;  in  1838,  another  series  on  The  History  of  Literature,  or  the  Succes- 
sive Periods  of  European  Culture;  in  1839,  another  on  'ihe  Revolutions  of  Modern  Europe; 
and  a fourth  in  1840,  on  Heroes,  Hero-  Worship,  and  the  Heroic  in  History;  of  these  only 
the  last  has  been  published.  Meanwhile,  the  first  edition  of  his  Miscellanies  (contribu- 
tions to  the  reviews)  had  appeared  in  1838,  and  his  Chartism  in  1839.  In  1843,  followed 
Past  and  Present,  which,  like  its  predecessor,  showed  the  deep,  anxious,  sorrowful 
interest  C.  was  taking  in  the  actual  condition  of  his  countrymen.  In  1845,  he  published 
what  is  by  many  considered  his  masterpiece — Oliver  Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeches, 
with  Elucidations  and  a Connecting  Narrative.  The  research  displayed  in  this  book  is 
something  marvelous,  but  the  author  has  been  nobly  rewarded  for  his  toil,  inasmuch  as 
his  vindication  of  the  protector’s  character  is  most  triumphant.  To  C.  has  thus  fallen 
the  unspeakable  honor  of  replacing  in  the  pantheon  of  English  history  the  statue  of 
England’s  greatest  ruler.  In  1850,  the  Latter-Day  Pamphlets,  the  fiercest,  most  sardonic, 
most  furious  of  all  his  writings,  came  out.  The  violence  of  the  language  in  these 
pamphlets  offended  many.  Next  year  (1851)  appeared  the  Life  of  John  Sterling — a biog- 
raphy of  intense  fascination  for  the  younger  intellects  of  the  age.  In  1858-1860,  C. 
published  The  History  of  Frederick  the  Great;  and,  in  1875,  Early  Kings  of  Norway: 
Also  The  Portraits  of  John  Knox.  C.  was  elected  lord  rector  of  Edinburgh  university  in 
1865;  and,  in  1873,  received  the  Prussian  royal  order  “for  merit.”  In  1875,  he  was 
offered  but  refused  the  order  of  the  bath. 

That  C.’s  genius  will  never  want  ample  recognition,  is  most  certain;  but  his  writings 
derive  so  much  of  their  interest  and  power  from  what  is  peculiar  to,  or  at  least  charac- 
teristic of,  the  present  time,  that  future  ages  may  possibly  wonder  at  their  fiery  splendors, 
and  fail  to  sympathize  with  their  prophetic  enthusiasms. 

CAEMAGNO'LA,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the  Po,  about  16  m.  s. 
of  Turin.  It  has  a massive  old  tower,  the  rentains  of  a very  strong  castle,  which  formerly 
served  as  a defense  for  the  town.  The  condottiere,  Francesco  Bussone,  afterwards  Conte 
di  Carmagnola,  was  a native  of  this  place.  It  has  manufactures  of  jewelry,  and  a trade 
in  silk,  flax,  linen,  cattle,  and  agricultural  produce.  Pop.  12,512. 

CARMAGNO'LA,  Francesco  Bussone,  Count  of,  1390-1432;  a celebrated  brigand, 
at  first  in  the  service  of  the  duke  of  Milan,  who  made  him  count  and  governor  of  Genoa. 
Having  fallen  from  the  duke’s  favor,  Carmagnola  became  a gen.  in  the  Venetian  army, 
and  took  Brescia  from  his  former  master,  whom  he  defeated  in  1427.  In  1431,  he  incur- 


Carmagnole. 

Carnarvon. 


472 


red  the  suspicion  of  the  Venetian  senate  because  of  certain  military  failures,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  he  was  tortured  and  finally  beheaded. 

CABMAGNOLE,  the  name  of  a popular  song  and  dance,  which  was  notorious  as  the 
accompaniment  of  many  excesses  in  the  French  revolution.  It  first  became  popular  in 
the  s.  of  France,  where  it  was  named  after  Carmagnole,  in  Piedmont,  the  home  of  many 
Savoyard  boys  who  played  the  tune.  The  song  began  with: 

Madame  V6to  avait  promis, 
and  every  verse  ended  with  the  refrain: 

Dansons  la  Carmagnole— vive  le  son — du  canon  1 

Fashion  soon  adopted  the  word,  which  was  next  applied  to  a sort  of  jacket,  worn  as  a 
symbol  of  patriotism.  Afterwards  it  was  applied  to  the  bombastic  and  fanatical  reports 
of  the  successes  and  glory  of  the  French  arms.  With  the  reign  of  terror,  the  song  and 
the  jacket,  associated  with  so  many  dismal  recollections,  together  disappeared. 

CARMARTHEN.  See  Caermarthen,  ante. 

CARMEL  is  a mountain-ridge,  6 or  8 m.  long,  stretching  nearly  n.  and  s.  from  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  into  the  sea,  the  only  great  promontory  on  the  low  coast  of  Palestine. 
It  is  composed  of  a whitish  stone,  in  which  flints,  sometimes  curiously  shaped,  are 
imbedded.  The  height  has  been  variously  stated,  but  is  probably  about  1000  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  plain.  On  the  e.  is  the  river.  Kishon,  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon;  on  the 
w.,  a small  plain  descending  to  the  sea.  Oaks,  pines,  olives,  laurels,  and  other  trees, 
grow  abundantly  on  the  mountain ; and  various  wild-fruits  evince  its  ancient  fertility 
and  cultivation.  The  name  C.  means  the  garden  of  Ood,  or  “a  very  fruitful  region.’^ 
Mt.  C.  is  renowned  in  Jewish  history,  and  is  often  alluded  to  in  the  imagery  of  the 
prophets.  On  the  summit  of  Mt.  C.,  there  is  a monastery  called  Elias,  after  the  prophet 
Elijah,  the  monks  of  which  take  the  name  of  “ Carmelites.”  It  is  built  on  the  supposed 
site  of  the  grotto  where  Elijah  lived,  and  the  spot  where  he  slew  the  priests  of  Baal.  For 
an  invalid  in  search  of  retirement,  with  every  beauty  that  climate  and  natural  scenery 
can  offer,  there  can  be  no  place  superior  to  the  convent  on  Carmel. 

CARMEL,  Knights  of  the  Order  op  Our  Lady  op  Mount,  were  instituted  by 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  incorporated  with  the  order  of  the  knights  of  St.  Lazarus  of 
Jerusalem.  The  order  of  Mt.  C.  consisted  of  100  gentlemen,  all  French,  who  were  to 
attend  the  king  in  his  wars,  and  had  considerable  revenues  assigned  to  them.  The  order 
was  confirmed  by  bull  by  pope  Paul  V.,  in  1607.  The  great  master  was  created  by  the 
king  putting  about  his  neck  a tawny  ribbon,  suspending  a cross  of  gold,  with  the 
cloak  of  the  order,  and  granting  him  power  to  raise  100  knights.  None  were  admitted 
but  those  who  had  four  descents  of  nobility  both  by  father  and  mother. 

CARMELITES,  or  Order  op  Our  Lady  op  Mount  Carmel,  a monastic  order  prob- 
ably founded  as  an  association  of  hermits  on  Mt.  Carmel  by  Berthold,  count  of  Limoges, 
about  1156.  A legend,  however,  ascribes  the  foundation  of  the  order  to  the  prophet 
Elijah;  and  another  makes  the  Virgin  Mary  to  have  been  a Carmelite  nun.  Driven  out 
by  the  Saracens  in  the  13th  c.,  the  C.  wandered  over  Europe;  and  Simon  Stoch,  their 
general,  changed  them  into  a mendicant  order  in  1247.  From  that  time,  they  shared  in 
the  usual  vices  of  the  mendicant  orders.  They  subsequently  divided  into  several  branches, 
more  or  less  rigid  in  their  rules,  one  distinguished  by  walking  barefooted.  They  exist 
at  the  present  day  in  many  Roman  Catholic  countries. — The  order  of  Carmelite'sses,  or 
Carmelite  nuns,  was  instituted  in  1452,  and  is  very  numerous  in  Italy. 

CARMICHAEL,  Gershom,  1672-1729;  a Scotch  metaphysician,  educated  at  Edin- 
burgh university,  in  which  institution  he  became  a master,  an  office  which  was  converted 
to  the  professorship  of  moral  philosophy  in  1727.  He  was  a successful  teacher,  but  often 
in  difficulty  with  his  superiors  in  consequence  of  his  hasty  temper.  His  works  are  a 
treatise  on  logic  and  the  psychology  of  the  intellectual  powers,  in  which  he  affirms  that 
all  knowledge  piay  be  resolved  into  immediate  judgments  known  in  their  own  light;  a 
synopsis  of  natural  theology ; and  an  edition  of  Puffendorf ’s  De  Officio  Hominis  et  Givis. 

CARMINATIVES  (from  Lat.  carmen,  a charm),  medicines  to  relieve  flatulence  and  pain 
in  the  bowels,  such  as  cardamoms,  peppermint,  ginger,  and  other  stimulating  aromatics. 

CARMINE,  or  Carmin  (Arabic,  kermes),  is  a beautiful  red  pigment  obtained  from  coch- 
ineal, and  which  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finer  red  inks,  in  the  dyeing  of 
silk,  in  coloring  artificial  flowers,  and  in  miniature  and  water-color  painting.  It  was 
first  prepared  by  a Franciscan  monk  at  Pisa,  who  discovered  it  accidentally,  while  com- 
pounding some  medicine  containing  cochineal ; and  in  1656,  it  began  to  be  manufactured. 
It  is  the  finest  red  color  known,  and  wjs  more  largely  used  formerly  than  now  for 
imparting  a healthy  aspect  to  the  cheek  of  beauty.  One  process  for  its  preparation  is  to 
digest  1 lb.  of  cochineal  in  3 gallons  of  water,  for  15  minutes;  then  add  1 oz.  of  cream 
of  tartar;  heat  gently  for  10  minutes;  add  half  an  oz.  of  alum;  boil  for  2 or  3 minutes; 
and  after  allowing  any  impurities  to  settle,  the  clear  liquid  is  placed  in  clean  glass  pans, 
when  the  C.  is  slowly  deposited.  After  a time,  the  liquid  is  drained  off,  and  the  C. 
dried  in  the  shade.  In  the  preparation  of  C.,  much  depends  on  a clear  atmosphere,  and 
a bright  sunny  day,  as  the  pretty  color  of  the  C.  is  never  nearly  so  good  when  it  has 
been  prepared  in  dull  weather,  and  this  accounts  in  great  part  for  the  superiority  of 


478 


Carmagnole. 

Carnarvon. 


French  C.  over  that  prepared  in  England.  The  great  expense  of  pure  C.  has  led  to  the 
fabrication  and  vending  of  substitutes.  The  rouge  oi  the  theaters  is  made  from  red  san- 
dal-wood, Brazil  wood,  benzoin,  and  alum,  which  are  boiled  in  brandy  or  vinegar  till  a 
paint  of  an  intense  red  color  remains.  A more  harmless  material  is  obtained  by  evapo- 
rating the  mixture  till  the  liquid  is  driven  otf,  and  making  up  the  red  residue  with  balm 
of  Mecca,  spermaceti,  or  butter  of  cacao.  The  depth  of  the  red  tint  riiay  be  lessened  by 
the  addition  of  chalk.  The  little  color-saucers  called  rouge  dishes,  obtained  from  Por- 
tugal, contain  pure  C. ; but  imitations  are  made  in  London.  Spanish  wool  and  oriental 
wool,  which  are  impregnated  with  red  paint,  intended  for  use  on  the  cheek  for  improv- 
ing the  complexion,  are  seldom  genuine. 

CARMOE,  or  Karmoe,  an  island  of  Norway,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bukke  fiord,  in 
the  North  sea,  and  20  m.  n.w.  of  Stavanger,  in  lat.  59°  20'  n.,  long.  5°  15'  east.  A strait 
2 m.  in  width  separates  it  from  the  mainland.  With  a length  of  21  m.,  and  an  average 
breadth  of  5,  it  has  a population  of  6,400,  who  are  principally  engaged  in  the  fisheries, 
■and  in  cattle-rearing. 

CARMO  NA,  a t.  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  20  m.  n.e.  of  Seville.  It  is  situated  on  an  ele- 
vated ridge,  overlooking  a rich  and  olive-clad  plain,  and  its  old  massive  Moorish  walls 
and  castle  give  it  a very  picturesque  appearance.  It  has  a fine  old  Gothic  church,  and 
the  gate  of  Cordova  is  a most  interesting  piece  of  architecture.  It  has  manufactures  of 
woolen  cloth,  hats,  leather;  also  flour  and  oil  mills,  and  an  important  annual  cattle-fair. 
Pop.  18,000. 

CARNAC,  a village  in  the  department  of  Morbihan,  France,  17  m.  s.e.  of  Lorient.  It 
is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  great  Celtic  monument  situated  about  three  quarters  of 
a mile  from  the  village,  on  a wide  desolate  plain  near  the  sea-shore.  The  monument 
consists  of  10,000  to  12,000  rude  broken  obelisks  of  granite,  resting  with  their  smaller 
ends  in  the  ground,  rising,  many  of  them,  to  a height  of  18  ft.,  though  a large  propor- 
tion does  not  exceed  3 ft.,  and  arranged  in  11  parallel  rows,  forming  10  avenues  extend- 
ing from  e.  to  w.,  and  having  at  one  end  a curved  row  of  18  stones,  the  extremities  of 
which  touch  the  outer  horizontal  rows.  The  origin  and  object  of  the  monument  remain 
a mystery.  Similar  but  smaller  structures  are  found  to  the  w.  of  C.,  at  Erdevan  and  St. 
Barbe.  Pop.  ’76,  636. 

CARNAHTJBA  PALM,  or  Caranaiba  Palm,  Copernicia  cerifera,  a very  beautiful  spe- 
cies of  palm,  which  abounds  in  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil,  in  some  places  forming 
vast  forests.  It  attains  a height  of  only  20  to  40  ft.;  but  its  timber  is  valuable,  is  used  in 
Brazil  for  a great  variety  of  purposes,  and  is  imported  into  Britain  for  veneering.  The 
fruit  is  black,  and  about  the  size  of  ah  olive ; it  is  sweet,  and  is  eaten  both  raw  and  pre- 
pared in  various  ways.  Scales  of  wax  cover  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and  drop  off 
when  the  fallen  and  withered  leaves  are  shaken.  Being  collected  in  this  way,  the  wax  is 
melted  into  masses;  and  bees- wax  is  often  adulterated  with  it.  It  has  been  imported 
into  Britain,  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  caudles,  but  no  method  has  yet  been 
devised  to  free  it  of  its  yellowish  color. 

CARNA'RIA  (Lat.  caro,  carnis,  flesh),  the  Latinized  form  of  the  French  carnassiers, 
the  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  a great  order  of  mammalia,  which,  according  to  his  system, 
includes  all  the  not  marsupial  ferm  of  Linnseus,  and  along  with  them  the  bats,  from  the 
Linnaean  order  primates.  The  C.  have  the  toes  terminated  by  claws;  none  of  them  have 
an  opposable  thumb  on  any  of  the  extremities;  they  have  incisors  or  cutting  teeth, 
canine  teeth  or  tusks,  and  molar  teeth  or  grinders,  but  their  dentition  varies  according 
to  their  kind  of  food,  some  preying  on  insects,  others  on  the  higher  animals,  whilst 
many  of  them  are  by  no  means  exclusively  addicted  to  animal  food,  but  subsist  in  great 
part,  and  a few  bats  entirely,  on  vegetable  substances.  Cuvier  at  first  included  the 
marsupial  quadrupeds  in  this  order;  but  afterwards,  recognizing  more  fully  the  great 
importance  of  the  characteristic  from  which  they  derive  their  name,  constituted  them 
into  a distinct  order,  the  remaining  C.  being  divided  into  cheiroptera  (bats,  q.v.),  insect- 
ivora  {o^.Y.),  nod  carnivora  * 

CARNARVON,  Henry  Howard  Molyneux  Herbert,  fourth  earl  of,  b.  in  Grosvenor 
square,  1831.^  His  family  is  a branch  of  the  house  of  Herbert,  earls  of  Pembroke,  spring- 
ing from  maj.gen.  the  Hon.  W.  Herbert,  whose  son,  Henry,  was  created,  in  1780,  baron 
Porchester  of  Highclere,  Hampshire,  and  advanced  to  the  earldom  of  Carnarvon  in  1793. 
The  present  earl  was  educated  at  Christ  church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  first-class  in 
classics  in  1852.  His  father  dying  before  he  was  of  age  to  sit  in  the  house  of  commons, 
he  lost  the  advantage  of  the  training  in  public  speaking  and  statesmanship  which  the 
sons  of  peers  usually  enjoy  during  the  lifetime  of  their  parents,  in  the  lower  house. 
He  took  his  seat  on  the  conservative  benches,  and  soon  showed  himself  ambitious  of 
parliamentary  distinction.  His  earlier  speeches  in  the  house  of  lords  were  not  thought 
to  exhibit  much  vigor  and  grasp  of  intellect,  and  were  marred  by  a simpering  and 
affected  delivery.  He  was  appointed  governor  of  Carnarvon  castle  in  1854.  In  1858, 
he  became  under-secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  in  the  administration  of  the  earl  of 
Derby.  In  1859,  he  received  the  degree  of  d.c.l.,  and  was  elected  high  steward  of  the 
university  of  Oxford.  He  resigned  office  with  the  conservative  ministry  in  1859,  and 
a^vailed  himself  of  the  period  of  leisure  thus  obtained  to  visit  the  east.  The  feuds  of  the 


Carnarvon. 

Carnival. 


474 


tribes  in  the  Lebanon  had  broken  out  in  a massacre  of  the  Christians;  and  the  earl  of  C. 
gave  the  world  the  benefit  of  his  investigations,  in  an  interesting  work,  entitled  the 
Druses  (q.v.)  of  the  LebaTwn.  On  his  return,  he  delivered  lectures  in  the  country,  and 
speeches  in  the  house  of  lords,  on  prison  discipline,  education,  and  other  social  subjects. 
When  the  conservaties  again  returned  to  power  in  1866,  C.  accepted  from  lord  Derby 
the  office  of  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  with  a seat  in  the  cabinet.  In  this  he 
obtained  for  his  colonial  administration  a large  share  of  public  confidence.  He  censured 
in  calm  and  measured  language  the  misconduct  of  the  courts-martial  during  the  Jamaica 
insurrection,  and  especially  the  trial  and  execution  of  Mr.  Gordon ; and  the  pacification 
of  the  colony  satisfactorily  progressed  under  his  instructions.  During  the  recess,  he 
developed  and  framed  a plan  for  the  confederation  of  the  British  North  American 
colonies;  and  when  parliament  met  in  1867,  he  explained  the  provisions  of  the  measure 
in  an  elaborate  speech.  The  bill  met  with  general  approval  in  both  houses,  and  it 
passed;  but  before  it  obtained  the  royal  assent,  C.  had,  with  two  other  colleagues  in  the 
cabinet,  resigned  oflSice  upon  the  reform  bill  of  the  Derby  government,  which  he  regarded 
as  democratic  in  its  operation,  and  dangerous  in  its  results.  When  the  reform  bill  came 
before  the  house  of  lords,  C.,  in  an  animated  speech,  vindicated  his  consistency  at  the 
expense  of  his  colleagues;  and  in  the  discussions  in  committee,  he  addressed  the  house 
with  great  vigor  and  argumentative  ability.  He  edited  in  1869  a work  by  his  father, 
who  was  an  accomplished  scholar.  It  is  entitled  Reminiscences  of  Athens  arid  the  Morea; 
Extracts  from  a Journal  of  Travels  in  Greece  during  1839,  lyy  the  late  Earl  of  Carnarvon. 
He  has  also  published  one  or  two  of  his  lectures.  On  Mr.  Disraeli’s  return  to  power  in 
1874,  lord  C.  resumed  office  as  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies;  but  resigned  in  Jan., 
1878,  in  consequence  of  the  sending  of  the  British  fleet  to  the  Dardanelles.  Lord  C. 
married,  in  1861,  the  only  daughter  of  the  sixth  earl  of  Chesterfield. 

CARNAR  VON.  See  Caernarvon,  ante. 

CARNATIC,  a country  of  somewhat  indefinite  dimensions  on  the  e.  or  Coromandel 
coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan.  While  some  carry  it  as  far  inland  as  the  Western 
Ghauts,  others  limit  its  breadth  to  about  75  miles.  The  length  is  generally  taken  from 
cape  Comorin  to  about  16°  north.  The  C.  is  no  longer  a recognized  division  of  the 
country,  and  exists  only  in  history  as  the  grand  theater  of  the  struggle  of  last  century 
between  France  and  England  for  supremacy  in  India. 

CARNATION,  one  of  the  finest  of  florists’  flowers,  a double-flowering  variety  of  the 
clove  pink  {dianthus  caryophyllus,  see  Pink),  and  existing  only  in  a state  of  cultivation. 
It  has  long  been  a universal  favorite,  both  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  fragrance, 
although  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancients.  The  stem  is  about  3 ft. 
high,  and  generally  receives  support.  There  are  varieties,  called  tree  carnations,  with 
much  taller  stems,  but  they  are  not  amongst  the  varieties  esteemed  by  florists.  The  flowers 
are  often  three  inches  or  more  in  diameter.  Scarlet,  purple,  and  pink  are  the  prevailing 
colors;  but  whatever  are  the  colors  of  a C.,  it  is  of  no  value,  in  the  eyes  of  a florist, 
unless  they  are  perfectly  distinct.  Fullness  and  perfect  regularity  are  also  deemed 
essential.  The  varieties  are  extremely  numerous : those  which  have  only  two  colors, 
disposed  in  large  stripes  through  the  petals,  are  called  jlake  carnations;  those  which  have 
three  shades  of  color,  also  in  stripes,  bizarre  carnations;  and  those  which  have  the  flowers 
spotted  with  different  colors,  and  the  petals  serrated  or  fringed,  receive  the  name  of 
picotees.  Great  attention  is  at  present  paid  in  Britain  to  the  cultivation  of  the  C.,  and 
very  fine  specmens  are  often  to  be  seen  in  the  gardens  of  cottagers,  especially  about 
towns  and  villages.  The  soil  for  carnations  must  be  rich,  rather  open,  and  the  manure 
well  rotted  and  intimately  mixed.  The  finest  kinds  are  generally  grown  in  pots,  and 
reeive  protection  from  cold  winds  and  heavy  rains,  although  free  access  of  air  is  indis- 
pensable. Carnations  are  propagated  in  summer  either  by  layers  or  by  pipings,  which 
are  short  cuttings  of  shoots  that  have  not  yet  flowered,  each  having  two  joints.  The 
young  plants  are  transferred  in  spring  to  the  bed  in  which  they  are  to  flower. 

CARNATION  (from  Lat.  caro,  flesh).  Flesh-tints  in  painting  are  called  carnations. 
The  art  of  producing  the  true  color  of  flesh,  from  the  rarity  with  which  it  is  acquired 
by  artists,  would  seem  to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  coloring.  Whether 
from  their  painting  less  from  the  nude  than  the  old  masters,  or  from  some  other  cause, 
it  is  certain  that  the  moderns,  and  particularly  the  English,  have  been  very  unsuccessful 
in  this  respect.  It  is  said  that  the  pigments  must  be  laid  on  thick  and  pasty.  The 
ochres  are  preferable  to  vermilion  for  the  local  colors;  and  ultramarine  ashes,  or  Veronese 
green,  mixed  with  asphaltum,  may  be  used  for  the  shadows. 

CARNE'ADES,  a Greek  plilosopher,  b.  at  Gyrene,  in  Africa,  about  213  b.c.  He 
studied  logic  at  Athens  under  Diogenes,  but  became  a partisan  of  the  academy,  and 
an  enemy  of  the  stoics,  whose  stern  and  almost  dogmatic  ethics  did  not  suit  his  skep- 
tical predilections.  Conspicuous  for  his  eloquence  and  skill  in  “ tongue-fence,”  he  was 
destitute  of  any  convictions  moral  or  intellectual,  and  had  even  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  no  criterion  of  truth  existed  in  man.  In  155  b.c.,  along  with  Diogenes  and  Crito- 
laus,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome,  where  he  delivered  two  orations  on  justice, 
in  the  first  of  which  he  eulogized  the  virtue,  and  in  the  second  proved  that  it  did  not 
exist.  Honest  Cato,  who  had  no  relish  for  intellectual  jugglery,  and  thought  it  a 


475 


Carnarvon. 

Carnival. 


knavish  excellence  at  the  best,  moved  the  senate  to  send  the  philosopher  home  to  his 
jchool,  lest  the  Roman  youth  should  he  demoralized.  C.  died  at  Athens,  129  b.c.  He 
was  remarkable  for  his  industry,  negligent  habits,  and  impatient  temper. 

C ARNE' I A,  a festival  in  honor  of  Apollo  among  the  ancient  Spartans,  taking  its 
name  from  the  Greek  name  of  the  month  (August)  in  which  it  was  celebrated.  The 
celebration  lasted  nine  days. 

CABNE'LIAN,  or  Cornelian,  in  mineralogy,  the  name  given  to  some  of  the  finer  varie- 
ties of  chalcedony  (q.v.).  The  color  is  blood  red  or  flesh-color,  reddish  brown,  reddish 
white  or  yellow,  more  rarely  milk  white.  The  fracture  is  in  the  common  C.  perfectly 
conchoidal,  but  there  is  a variety  of  a somewhat  flbrous  structure  with  a splintery 
fracture.  C.  is  found  in  pieces  of  irregular  form  and  in  lamellar  concretions.  The 
finest  specimens  are  brought  from  the  east,  but  it  is  found  in  Scotland  and  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  America.  It  is  much  used  by  the  lapidary,  and  in  the  east  it  is 
prized  beyond  every  other  stone,  the  gems  excepted.  Bright  red  C.  of  unmixed  color  is 
most  highly  valued,  but  a mass  of  considerable  size  is  seldom  found  with  the  color 
equal  throughout. 

CARNIFEX  FERRY,  in  Nicholas  co.,  Va.,  near  w^hich.  Sept.  10,  1861,  there  was 
an  engagement  between  the  union  forces  under  gen.  Rosecrans,  and  the  confederates 
under  gen.  Floyd,  the  latter  being  defeated  with  the  loss  of  camp  equipage  and  war 
materiah  Floyd  escaped  by  retreating  over  Gauly  river,  and  destroying  the  bridge. 

CARNIO'LA  (Ger.  Krain),  a crown-land  of  the  Austrian  empire,  formerly  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Illyria,  has  an  area  of  3,850  sq.m.,  with  a pop.  (1869)  of  466,334,  being  a 
decrease  of  nearly  40,000  as  compared  with  the  census  return  of  1854.  A continuation 
of  the  Carinthian  Alps  passes  through  it  in  the  north,  and  the  Julian  Alps  in  the  south. 
The  scenery  of  the  country  abounds  in  interesting  and  singular  features,  amongst  which 
one  of  the  most  notable  is  the  rock-bridge  of  St.  Kanzian,  130  ft.  high,  and  160  ft, 
broad,  with  a perfect  arch  62  ft.  high,  and  154  ft.  long.  The  Save  is  the  principal  river; 
the  Kulpa  is  its  chief  tributary.  The  singular  lake  of  Zirknitz  (q.v.)  is  in  Carniola.  The 
climate  of  C.  is  in  general  mild,  except  in  the  high  mountainous  parts.  The  country  does 
not  produce  corn  or  cattle  enough  to  supply  the  wants  of  its  inhabitants.  Millet,  pulse, 
and  wild  fruits  are  principal  articles  of  food  with  many  of  the  lower  classes.  Maize  is 
cultivated  in  some  places,  and  some  districts  yield  excellent  wines  and  much  fine  fruit. 
Flax  is  largely  cultivated ; silk  is  produced  in  some  places,  and  much  honey  and  bees- 
wax. The  principal  products  of  the  mineral  kingdom  are  iron,  quicksilver,  and 
marble;  the  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria  are  the  most  important  in  Europe.  Linen- 
weaving, and  the  manufacture  of  a coarse  lace,  are  common  among  the  peasantry.  Lay- 
back  is  the  capital. 

C.  received  its  present  name  after  the  settlement  here  of  the  Slavonic  Wends. 
Charlemagne  conquered  it  and  gave  it  to  the  dukes  of  Friuli.  From  972  it  had  mark- 
graves  of  its  own,  sometimes  called  dukes,  who  possessed,  however,  only  a part  of  the 
country.  On  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  markgraves,  part  of  the  territory 
passed  to  the  dukes  of  Austria,  in  the  13th  c.,  and  the  remainder  was  acquired  by  them 
in  the  14th.  The  vast  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Slavs  of  the  Slovenian  branch. 

CARNIVAL  (from  the  Lat.  caro,  flesh,  and  mle,  farewell — “farewell  to  flesh!”),  a fes- 
tival in  Italy,  which  originally  began  on  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany,  and  continued  to 
Ash- Wednesday,  when  the  fast  of  Lent  made  an  end  of  the  preceding  feasting,  masquer- 
ading, and  buffoonery.  In  later  times,  the  C.  was  limited  to  the  time  of  from  three  to 
eight  days  before  Ash- Wednesday.  Without  doubt,  the  forms  and  customs  still  pre- 
served in  the  celebration  of  the  C.  originated  in  the  heathen  festivals  of  spring-time ; and 
they  still  remind  us,  partly  of  the  Lupercalia  and  Bacchanalia  of  southern  Europe,  and 
partly  of  the  Yule-feast  among  northern  peoples.  Banquets  of  rich  meats  and  drinking- 
bouts  were  the  chief  attractions  of  the  C.  during  the  middle  ages.  Shrovetide  (q.v.),  or 
Shrove-Tuesday,  called  also  Fasten-even  or  Pancake-Tuesday,  was  a relic  of  the  English 
C.,  and  formerly  a season  of  extraordinary  sport  and  feasting.  The  rich  commenced  the 
festive  time  at  the  feast  of  Epiphany,  or  on  “Three  Kings’  Day;”  but  the  middle  classes 
restricted  their  days  of  revelry  to  the  week  immediately  preceding  Lent ; while  the  poor 
indulged  in  only  a few  days  of  mad  mirth.  According  to  a papal  order,  the  clergy  were 
allowed  to  commence  their  bacchanalia  two  days  before  the  laity.  The  several  chief 
days  of  C.  had  distinct  names,  such  as  “fat”  or  “greasy  Sunday,”  “blue  Monday”  (or 
“fool’s  consecration”),  etc.  The  Tuesday  before  the  beginning  of  Lent  was  especially 
styled  C. — the  Fastnacht  of  the  German  people.  The  customs  of  making  presents  of 
green  nosegays  or  garlands,  and  planting  fir-trees  before  houses  during  C.,  remind  us  of 
^ the  thyrsus  of  the  ancient  Bacchanals,  and  equally  of  the  decorations  of  the  Yule-tide  or 
Christmas  season  among  northern  people.  The  ancient  custom,  also,  of  scourging 
women  accidentally  met  with  during  the  Lupercalia  (q.v.),  was  preserved  in  the  mediae- 
val observance  of  the  carnival.  In  most  countries,  especially  where  Protestantism  pre- 
vails, the  observance  of  the  C.  is  now  limited  to  dancing  and  masked  balls  on  certain 
days;  but  in  Italy,  as  Goethe  says  in  his  charming  sketch  of  the  Roman  C.,  it  is  still  a 
general  popular  festive  time.  In  former  times,  Venice  was  distinguished  ^ the  pomp 
and  splendor  of  the  C. ; but  afterwards,  Rome  became  most  prominent.  The  years  of 


Carnivora. 

Carolina. 


476 


tingiy  politics,  1848  and  1849,  had  a discouraging  effect  on  the  attempts  which  had  been 
made  to  restore  the  gayety  of  C.  in  the  Roman  Catholic  towns  of  Germany. 

CARNIV'ORA  (Lat.  flesh-devouring),  in  Cuvier’s  system  of  zoology,  a principal  division 
of  the  order  of  mammalia  called  carnassiers  or  carnaria  (q.v.),  and  including  the  most 
carnivorous  or  sanguinary  of  the  order — the  quadrupeds  which  chiefly  prey  on  the  verte- 
brate and  warm-blooded  animals.  The  C.  have  six  incisors  or  cutting  teeth  in  each  jaw ; 
their  tusks  or  canine  teeth  are  very  strong,  and  even  their  molar  teeth  or  grinders  are 
usually  furnished  with  cutting  edges.  But  even  the  C.  are  carnivorous  in  very  different 
degrees,  and  some  of  them  have  teeth  and  other  organs  adapted  to  a partial  use  of  some 
kinds  of  vegetable  food.  Cuvier  subdivided  the  C.  into  three  tribes,  plantigrada  (q.v.), 
digitigrada{q.Y.),  and  amphibia  (seals,  q.v.,  etc.).  The  digestive  apparatus  of  carnivo- 
rous animals  is  more  simple  than  that  of  the  herbivorous;  the  stomach  is  single,  and  in 
general  of  comparatively  small  size,  and  the  intestines  are  comparatively  short  and 
unvoluminous.  Their  muscular  energy  is  very  great,  their  respiration  and  circulation 
very  active,  and  their  demand  for  food  very  constant.  Some  of  them  are  adapted 
for  seizing  their  prey  by  leaping,  others  by  running,  a few  by  swimming  and  diving. 
Most  of  them  can  only  seize  it  with  their  mouths;  but  some  have  also,  for  this  purpose, 
sharp  retractile  claws. 

CAR'NOCHAN,  John  Murray,  b.  Georgia,  1817;  educated  in  Edinburgh;  studied 
medicine  and  surgery  with  Dr.  Mott  of  New  York,  beginning  practice  in  1847.  Dr. 
Carnochan  rapidly  rose  to  the  first  rank  among  practicing  physicians  and  surgeons,  and 
acquired  great  celebrity  for  the  boldness  and  success  of  his  operations,  such  as  the 
removal  of  the  lower  jaw;  the  cure  of  elephantiasis  by  ligature  of  the  femoral  artery ; 
excision  of  the  ulna  and  still  preserving  the  arm  with  most  of  its  functions;  amputating 
the  hip  joint;  and  particularly  for  removing,  in  a case  of  neuralgia,  the  entire  trunk  of 
the  second  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  He  has  been  professor  of  the  principles 
and  operations  of  surgery  in  the  New  York  medical  college,  and  health  officer  of  the 
port.  He  has  published  a number  of  important  papers  on  medicine  and  surgery. 

CAENOT,  Lazare  Nicolas  Marguerite,  b.  May  13,  1753,  at  Nolay,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Cote  d’Or,  Burgundy,  gained  distinction  at  an  early  period  by  his  talents  in 
mathematical  science  and  military  engineering.  In  1791,  he  became  a member  of  the 
legislative  assembly,  and,  in  the  convention,  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  After 
taking  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  north,  and  gaining  the  victory  of  Wattignies, 
he  was  elected  into  the  committee  of  public  safety,  in  which  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
chief  direction  of  military  affairs,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the  successes  of  the  French 
army.  Though  he  endeavored  to  restrict  the  power'  of  Robespierre,  he  was  accused, 
with  others,  after  the  reign  of  terror;  but  the  charge  was  dismissed.  In  1797,  having 
opposed  the  extreme  measures  of  Barras,  his  colleague  in  the  directory,  C..  as  a suspected 
royalist,  was  sentenced  to  deportation.  He  escaped  into  Germany,  where  he  wrote  his 
defense,  which  conduced  to  the  overthrow  of  his  colleagues  in  1799.  The  18th  Brumaire 
brought  him  back  to  Paris,  where  he  w^as  made  minister  of  war,  1800;  and  by  his  energy, 
skill,  and  fertility  of  administrative  resource,  helped  to  achieve  the  brilliant  results  of 
the  Italian  and  Rhenish  campaigns.  He  retired,  however,  from  his  office  when  he 
understood  the  ambitious  plans  of  the  emperor,  but  hastened,  when  he  witnessed  the 
reverses  of  the  empire,  to  offer  his  services  to  Napoleon,  who  gave  him  the  command  of 
Antwerp  in  1814,  which  he  heroically  defended.  During  the  hundred  days,  he  held 
office  as  minister  of  the  interior;  and  after  the  second  restoration,  retired  first  to  Warsaw, 
and  next  to  Magdeburg,  where  he  died,  Aug.  2,  1823.  Among  C.’s  numerous  writings 
on  mathematics  and  military  tactics,  etc.,  we  may  notice  Essai  sur  les  Machines  en 
General  (1786);  Reflexions  sur  la  Metaphysique  du  Calcul  Infinitesimal  (1797);  and  the 
OeomHrie  de  Position  (1813).— His  son,  Lazare  Hippolyte  Carnot,  b.  at  St.  Omer, 
April  6,  1801,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  French  democracy,  was  in  early  life  a disciple  of 
St.  Simon,  but,  like  others,  left  that  school  on  account  of  the  lax  morals  advocated  by 
Enfantin — protesting  against  “the  organization  of  adultery  ” — and  devoted  himself  to  the 
inculcation  of  a more  orthodox  and  virtuous  socialism  in  various  periodicals.  In  1847, 
he  declared  himself  a republican  in  his  brochure,  Les  Radicaux  et  la  Gliarte;  and,  after 
the  Feb.  revolution,  was  appointed  minister  of  public  instruction,  but  not  finding  him- 
self in  sufficient  rapport  with  his  colleagues,  he  resigned.  In  1863,  he  entered  the  corps 
legislatif,  and  the  national  assembly  in  1871.  He  has  written  an  Expose  of  St.  Simonianism 
and  Mimoires  of  Henri  Gregoire  and  of  Barrere. 

CARNUNTUM,  an  ancient  t.  in  upper  Pannonia,  on  the  Danube,  founded  by  the 
Celts,  but  at  an  early  period  a Roman  post.  Marcus  Aurelius  resided  here  for  three 
years  during  his  wars  with  the  Marcomanni.  In  the  4th  c.  C.  was  destroyed  by  German 
invaders;  it  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  finally  destroyed  in  the  Magyar  wars  of  the  middle 
ages. 

CA'EOB,  Al'garoba,  or  Locust-tree,  Ceratonia  siliqua,  a tree  of  the  natural  order 
leguminosce,  suborder  ccesalpiniece,  a native  of  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  in  size  and  manner  of  growth  much  resembling  the  apple-tree,  but  with  abruptly 
pinnate  dark  evergreen  leaves,  which  have  about  two  or  three  pair  of  large  oval  leaflets. 
The  flowers  are  destitute  of  corolla;  the  fruit  is  a brown  leathery  pod,  4 to  8 in.  long,  a 


477 


Carnivora* 

Carolina. 


little  curved,  and  containing  a fleshy  and  at  last  spongy  and  mealy  pulp,  of  an  agreeable 
sweet  taste,  in  which  lie  a number  of  shining  brown  seeds,  somewhat  resembling  small 
flattened  beans.  The  seeds  are  bitter  and  of  no  use,  but  the  sweet  pulp  renders  the  poda 
an  important  article  of  food  to  the  poorer  classes  of  the  countries  in  which  the  tree 
grows.  They  are  very  much  used  by  the  Moors  and  Arabs.  They  are  also  valuable  aa 
food  for  horses,  for  which  they  are  much  employed  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  have  of 
late  years  begun  to  be  extensively  imported  into  Britain,  under  the  name  of  locust  beans, 
which  name  and  that  of  St.  John's  bread  they  have  received  in  consequence  of  an  ancient 
opinion  or  tradition,  that  they  are  the  “ locusts  ” which  formed  the  food  of  John  the 
Baptist  in  the  wilderness.  It  seems  probable  that  they  are  the  “ husks  ” of 

the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  son. — The  Arabs  make  of  the  pulp  of  the  C.  a preserve  like 
tamarinds,  which  is  gently  aperient. — The  C.  tree  is  too  tender  for  the  climate  of  Britain. 
Dr.  Royle  thinks  its  introduction  into  the  n.  of  India  would  be  an  important  addition 
to  the  resources  of  that  country,  and  a valuable  safeguard  against  famine.  The  produce 
is  extremely  abundant,  some  trees  yielding  as  much  as  800  or  900  lbs.  of  pods.  The 
wood  is  hard,  and  much  valued,  and  the  bark  and  leaves  are  used  for  tanning. — The 
locust  tree  (q.v.)  of  America  is  quite  distinct  from  this. 

CAROL,  a Christmas  hymn  that  may  be  traced  to  the  primitive  church.  It  was 
customary  to  call  upon  such  as  could  sing  to  praise  God  in  a hymn,  either  out  of  the 
Scriptures  or  of  their  own  invention;  and  it  was  also  customary  for  bishops  on  Christmas 
day  to  make  sport  with  their  clergy,  and  to  sing;  which  custom  was  in  imitation  of  the 
Gloria  in  ExceMs  of  the  angels.  See  Christmas  Carol,  ante. 

CAR'OLAN,  or  O’CAROL  AN,  Turlogh,  1670-1738;  one  of  the  most  noted  of  native 
Irish  bards.  When  but  18  years  old  he  became  utterly  blind,  and  thenceforward  followed 
the  profession  of  wandering  minstrel,  in  which  character  he  won  great  fame.  The  num- 
ber of  his  compositions,  to  the  greater  part  of  which  he  fitted  words,  was  about  200. 

CAROLINA,  North,  an  Atlantic  state  of  the  American  union,  having  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  on  the  s.,  Tennessee  on  the  w.,  and  Virginia  on  the  n. ; in  lat.  33°  53'  to 
36°  33'  n.,  and  long.  75°  25'  to  84°  30'  w.,  being  about  450  m.  long,  and  about  180  broad, 
with  an  area  of  about  50,704  sq.  miles.  The  census  of  1870  gave  678,470  whites,  391,656 
negroes,  and  1241  civilized  Indians — 1,071,361  in  all.  North  Carolina  was  restored  to  a 
place  in  the  union  in  1868,  after  a new  constitution  had  been  adopted  by  the  state  gov- 
ernment, and  approved  by  congress.  It  sends  8 members  to  the  lower  house  of  congress, 
returning  also,  in  common  with  every  other  state,  2 senators  to  the  upper.  The  public 
debt  of  North  C.,  in  1874,  was  38,921,848  dollars,  and  its  valuation  of  property  waa 
143,723,813  dollars.  Annual  expenses  of  government,  1,400,000  dollars.  Of  railways, 
there  were,  in  the  year  1875,  in  actual  operation,  1346  miles.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Chowan,  Roanoke,  Tar,  Neuse,  and  Cape  Fear.  Of  these,  the  first  four  divide 
themselves  equally  between  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds — inlets  which,  besides  being 
shallow  and  difficult  in  themselves,  are  almost  entirely  cut  off  from  the  sea  by  a nearly 
continuous  series  of  low  islands — and  the  last  of  the  five,  though  it  does  fall  into  the  open 
ocean,  is  yet  not  materially  superior  to  the  others,  never  showing  more  than  14  ft.  of 
water  on  the  bar.  With  this  insular  breast-work,  the  mainland  is  geologically  connected 
to  a depth  of  about  60  m.,  being  everywhere  alluvial,  and  in  many  places  swampy.  To 
the  w.  of  this  , belt,  the  country,  after  undulating  into  hills,  is  traversed  by  the  ridges  of 
the  Alleghanies,  which,  culminating  in  Mt.  Mitchell  to  an  elevation  of  6470  ft.,  bear 
aloft  between  them  a table-land  of  fully  one  third  of  that  altitude.  Through  the  mari- 
time tract,  and  even  beyond  it,  the  rivers  are  generally  practicable  for  steam-boats. 
Among  the  productions,  the  most  characteristic  is  the  pitch-pine  of  the  lower  level;  so 
that,  in  the  matter  of  naval  stores,  this  state  surpasses  all  the  rest  of  the  union  taken, 
together.  In  mineral  resources,  also.  North  C.  takes  a lead,  more  especially  in  gold, 
copper,  iron,  and  coal.  The  value  of  the  manufactured  products  of  North  C.  in  1876 
was  19,021,327  dollars;  the  value  of  the  cotton  brought  to  its  shipping  ports  in  1876  was. 
£1,122,959.  The  chief  towns  are  Raleigh,  the  capital,  near  the  Neuse;  Wilmington  and 
Fayetteville  on  the  Cape  Fear  (the  former  within  reach  of  tide-water,  and  the  latter  at 
the  head  of  the  navigation);  New  Berne,  and  Charlotte.  North  C.  was  first  permanently 
colonized  from  Virginia  in  1653.  Down  to  1693,  it  continued  to  form  one  province  along 
with  South  Carolina,  the  two  being  frequently  still  called  the  Carolinas.  In  a local  dec- 
laration of  independence  of  May,  1775,  14  months  before  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  North  C. 
first  demanded  a separation  from  Great  Britain. 

CAROLINA,  South,  an  Atlantic  state  of  the  American  union,  of  a triangular  form, 
with  North  Carolina  and  Georgia  on  its  inland  sides.  It  extends  between  32°  and  35° 
10'  n.  lat.,  and  78°  25'  and  83°  20'  w.  long.,  having  an  area  of  34,000  sq.  miles.  In  1870, 
the  total  pop.  of  South  C.  was  705,606;  of  whom  289,667  were  whites,  415,814  negroes, 
and  124  civilized  Indians;  in  1875,  the  population  was  923,447.  The  total  population  in 
1800  was  345,591.  South  C.  formerly  differed  from  all  the  other  states  in  appointing  its 
presidential  electors,  and  its  executive,  not  by  the  popular  suffrage,  but  by  the  joint  vote 
of  the  two  branches  of  the  local  legislature,  being  thus  pre-eminent  in  the  aristocracy  of 
its  constitution.  In  1868,  however,  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  southern  states.  South 
C.  was  restored  to  a place  in  the  union,  with  a new  constitution  adopted  by  a majority^ 
of  voters,  and  approved  by  congress.  It  is  represented  in  congress  by  5 members  in  the 


Carolina. 

Carotid. 


478 


lower  house,  besides  the  2 senators  which  each  state  possesses  alike.  Physically  a contin- 
uation of  its  northern  neighbor,  South  C.,  behind  a breast- work  of  islets,  presents  a low 
belt,  generally  swampy,  of  about  100  m.  in  depth,  rising  backward  through  an  undulat- 
ing region  to  a height  of  4000  ft.  in  the  Alleghanies.  With  such  a range  of  soil  and  climate, 
the  productions  are  very  various — cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar,  silk,  maize,  and 
wheat.  In  the  first  two  articles.  South  C.  stands  pre-eminent,  yielding  nearly  as  much 
rice  as  all  the  other  states  together,  and  more  cotton,  in  proportion  to  area,  than  any  other 
state.  Its  mineral  treasures  are  chiefiy  granite,  sienite,  marble,  and  gneiss,  from  the 
primitive  formations  of  the  state,  for  building;  along  with  gold,  lead,  and  iron;  it  is 
probable  that  no  coal  will  be  found.  The  public  indebtedness  of  South  C.  in  1874  was 
17,017,651  dollars,  and  the  assessed  value  of  property  in  1873  was  176,956,502  dollars. 
Since  the  reconstruction  of  the  state,  public  institutions  have  made  great  progress.  With 
not  much  more  than  50  m.  of  canal.  South  C.  has  1400  of  railway.  The  chief  rivers, 
each  the  receptacle  of  considerable  affluents,  are  the  Great  Pedee,  Santee,  and  Edisto, 
and  also  the  Savannah,  as  common  to  Georgia  and  South  C.,  the  whole  being  said  to 
furnish  an  inland  navigation  of  2400  miles.  The  cotton  product  of  South  C.  in  1866 
amounted  to  112,273  bales;  in  1868,  to  240,225;  and  in  1873-74,  to  438,194  bales.  The 
value  of  the  cotton  brought  to  the  shipping  ports  of  South  C.  in  1876  was  £4,320,568. 
The  chief  towns  are  Charleston.  Columbia  (the  capital),  Georgetown,  and  Greenville. 

CAROLINA  PINK.  See  Spigelia. 

CAROLINA,  Maria,  1752-1814;  daughter  of  Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Aus- 
tria, and  queen  of  Naples  by  her  marriage  with  Ferdinand  IV.  in  1768.  She  had  great 
influence  with  the  king,  leading  him  in  1798  to  declare  war  against  France,  the  con- 
sequence of  which  was  the  marching  of  the  French  upon  Naples  and  the  flight  of  Fer- 
dinand and  Carolina  to  British  protection.  After  returning  to  Naples  she  conspired 
against  Napoleon,  and,  with  her  husband,  was  again  expelled.  She  died  in  Vienna 
before  any  further  restoration  to  the  throne. 

CAROLINE,  a co.  in  e.  Maryland,  on  the  Delaware  border,  intersected  by  the  Mary- 
land and  Delaware  and  the  Dorchester  and  Delaware  railroads;  300  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80, 
13,767 — 4166  colored.  It  has  a level  sandy  surface,  producing  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  etc. 
Co.  seat,  Denton. 

CAROLINE,  a co.  in  e.  Virginia,  on  the  Rappahanock  river,  and  the  Richmond, 
Frederick  and  Potomac  railroad;  480  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  17,243 — 9637  colored.  Produc- 
tions, wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  tobacco.  Co.  seat.  Bowling  Green. 

CAROLINE,  Amelia  Elizabeth,  wife  of  George  IV.  of  Great  Britain,  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Charles  William  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Brunswick  Wolfenbiittel,  and  of  the 
princess  Augusta  of  Britain.  She  was  born  on  the  17th  May,  1768,  and  spent  her  youth 
under  great  restraint  at  her  father’s  court.  In  1795,  she  was  married  to  the  prince 
of  Wales.  The  marriage  was  disagreeable  to  him,  and  although  she  bare  him  a daugh- 
ter, the  princess  Charlotte,  he  separated  from  her  immediately  on  her  recovery  from 
childbed ; and  she  lived  by  herself  in  a country  residence  at  Blackheath,  the  object  of 
much  sympathy,  the  people  regarding  her  as  the  victim  of  her  husband’s  love  of  vice. 
Reports  to  her  discredit  led  t&  king,  in  1808,  to  cause  investigation  to  be  made  into 
her  conduct,  which  was  found  to  be  imprudent,  but  not  criminal.  In  1814,  she  obtained 
leave  to  visit  Brunswick,  and  afterwards  to  make  a further  tour.  She  visited  the  coasts 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  lived  for  some  time  on  the  lake  of  Como,  an  Italian,  byname 
Bergami,  being  all  the  while  in  her  company.  When  her  husband  ascended  the  throne 
in  1820,  she  was  offered  an  annuity  of  £50, 000  sterling  to  renounce  the  title  of  queen, 
and  live  abroad;  but  she  refused,  and  made  a triumphal  entry  into  London,  whereupon 
the  government  instituted  proceedings  against  her  for  adultery.  Much  that  was  very 
offensive  was  proved  as  to  her  conduct;  but  the  manner  in  which  she  had  been  used 
by  her  husband,  and  the  splendid  defense  of  Brougham,  caused  such  a general  feeling  in 
her  favor,  that  the  ministry  were  obliged  to  give  up  the  divorce  bill,  after  it  had  passed 
the  house  of  lords.  She  now  fully  assumed  the  rank  of  royalty,  but  was  refused  coro- 
nation, and  turned  away  from  the  door  of  Westminster  abbey  on  the  day  of  the  corona- 
tion of  her  husband.  She  died  on  7th  Aug.,  1821. 

CAROLINE  BOOKS,  four  works  drawn  up  at  the  request  of  Charlemagne  against 
the  decrees  of  the  second  council  of  Nice  on  the  adoration  of  images,  and  contained 
in  the  Capiiulare  Prolixium  of  Charlemagne, 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS,  or  NEW  PHILIPPINES,  a widely  scattered  archipelago  in 
the  Pacific,  n.  of  New  Guinea  and  e.  of  the  Philippines,  between  3°  and  11°  n.,  and  135° 
and  137°  e.  The  westernmost  are  known  as  the  Pelew  (q.v.  ante)  or  Palau  islands,  and 
cover  346  sq.in.  of  land,  being  nearly  encircled  by  a coral  reef.  The  surface  is  well 
wooded,  and  the  soil  fertile,  producing  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nuts,  sugar-cane,  oranges, 
bananas,  etc.,  in  abundance.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  have  been  domesticated;  there  is 
a great  variety  of  birds,  and  the  lagoons  abound  with  fish.  The  inhabitants  are  dark- 
colored,  and  evidently  of  Papuan  and  Malay  blood.  The  islands,  and  most  of  the  vil- 
lages, form  independent  but  co-operative  republics.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  insti- 
tutions is  the  “ clSbbergall,”  a kind  of  union  for  mutual  aid  and  defense.  The  women, 
too,  have  clobbergalls  of  their  own,  and  exercise  much  political  influence.  Up  to  the 


479 


Carolihao 

Carotid. 


close  of  the  last  century  the  people  used  stone  instruments  and  weapons.  Their  cur- 
rency consists  of  pieces,  or  pieds,  of  ancient  glass  and  enamel,  to  which  they  ascribe  a 
divine  origin.  The  population,  supposed  to  be  about  10,000,  seems  to  be  decreasing. 
The  central  islands,  or  Carolines  proper,  consist  of  48  groups,  and  comprise  between 
400  and  500  islands,  of  about  360  sq.m,  in  all.  The  Matelotas  group  lies  n.e.  of  the 
Pelews,  and  consists  of  three  islands,  thinly  inhabited.  Yap,  or  Guap,  further  n.e.,  is 
10  m.  long,  and  has  a good  harbor.  The  natives  of  Yap  are  more  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion than  their  neighbors;  they  cultivate  the  betel-nut  with  great  care,  build  good  boats, 
lay  out  regular  villages,  pave  the  streets,  and  build  stone  piers  and  wharves.  A Span- 
ish mission  was  established  in  1856.  The  Ulea,  Swede,  and  Lutke  islands  are  unim- 
portant; but  the  Hugoleu  (or  Rug)  group,  discovered  in  1824,  consists  of  five  large  and 
about  40  small  islands,  with  35,000  inhabitants  of  two  races,  red  and  black,  who  are 
often  at  war  with  each  other.  The  Mortlack,  or  Young  William’s,  group  consists  of 
three  islands,  with  a population  of  about  3,400,  of  Samoan  origin,  who  are  the  only 
idol- worshipers  in  all  the  archipelago.  To  the  n.e.  lies  Ruveu  island,  inhabited  by 
immigrants  of  mixed  foreign  blood.  The  Seniavine  group,  comprising  three  islands, 
has  a small  colony  of  whites,  and  one  of  the  islands  has  been  the  seat  of  an  American 
mission  since  1851.  This  island,  called  Ascencion  by  the  French,  is  a rendezvous  for 
whaling  vessels.  In  the  center  is  a remarkable  pile  of  ruins  which  seem  to  have 
belpnged  to  a fortification.  Strong’s  island,  in  the  center  of  the  Carolines  proper,  is  a 
volcanic  upheaval,  discovered  by  Crozier  in  1804,  and  is  now  the  seat  of  an  American 
mission.  The  eastern  Carolines,  otherwise  the  Mulgrave  archipelago,  comprise  the 
Radak  or  Marshall  group,  and  have  a population  estimated  at  100,000.  See  Polynesia, 
ante. 

CAROLINE  MATILDA,  1751-75;  sister  of  George  III.  of  England;  queen  of 
Denmark,  having  married  Christian  VII.  in  1768,  by  whom  she  became  the  mother  of 
Frederick  VI.  Through  the  jealousy  of  the  queen  dowager  and  the  king’s  step-mother, 
she  was  accused  of  infidelity,  and  the  king,  who  had  become  weak-minded,  if  not  idiotic, 
caused  her  and  Struensee,  her  physician,  to  be  arrested.  The  interference  of  the  British 
minister  saved  the  queen  from  death,  but  she  was  sent  into  Hanover,  where  she  died  of 
grief  in  the  castle  of  Celle.  See  Struensee,  ante. 

CARON,  Rene  Edouard,  b.  Canada,  1800;  educated  in  the  Quebec  seminary;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1826.  He  was  mayor  of  Quebec  1827-37,  and  speaker  of  the  legisla- 
tive council  1843-47,  and  1848-53;  when  he  abandoned  political  life,  and  was  appointed 
judge  of  the  queen’s  bench.  In  1857  he  was  commissioner  for  codifying  the  laws  of 
Lower  Canada,  and  in  1873  was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Quebec. 

CABO'BA,  a t.  of  Venezuela,  South  America,  in  the  province  of  Caro,  210  m.  w.s.w 
of  Caracas,  and  60  m.  e.  of  lake  Maracaybo,  on  the  Tocuyo.  The  town  is  well  built,  bar 
a handsome  parish  church,  convent,  hermitage,  etc.  There  are  manufactures  of  leather, 
ropes,  and  fine  hammocks  from  the  fiber  of  the  agave  fatida.  A trade  is  carried  on  in 
agricultural  produce,  and  in  the  aromatic  balsams,  resins,  gums,  and  wild  cochineal  for 
which  the  district  is  famous.  The  pop.,  which  was  formerly  much  larger,  is  now  about 
6,000. 

CABOT 'ID  ABTEBY.  The  great  artery  which  on  each  side  distributes  blood  to  the 
different  parts  of  the  head,  appears  to  have  derived  its  name  either  from  Gr.  Icara,  the 
head,  or,  more  probably,  from  Gr.  karos,  sleep,  there  being  an  old  idea,  which  the 
researches  of  Dr.  Alexander  Fleming  have  shown  to  be  correct,  that  there  was  some 
connection  between  deep  sleep  and  compression  of  these  vessels. 

Each  C.  A.  consists  of  the  primitive  or  common  carotid,  which,  at  the  upper  margin 
of  the  larynx  or  organ  of  voice,  separates  into  two  great  divisions,  of  nearly  equal  size — 
the  external  and  the  internal  carotid.  The  external  carotid  supplies  the  larynx,  tongue, 
face,  and  scalp  with  blood ; its  principal  branches  being  the  superior  thyroid,  the  lingual, 
the  facial,  the  occipital,  the  posterior  aural,  the  internal  maxillary,  and  the  temporal. 
The  last-named  artery  is  occasionally  opened  by  the  surgeon  in  preference  to  a vein,  as, 
for  example,  in  certain  cases  of  cerebral  apoplexy.  The  internal  carotid  enters  the  cavity 
of  the  cranium  through  a somewhat  tortuous  canal  in  the  temporal  bone,  and  after  per- 
forating the  dura  mater,  or  fibrous  membrane  of  the  brain,  separates  into  the  anterior 
and  middle  cerebral  arteries,  which  are  the  principal  arteries  of  the  brain;  while  in  its 
course  through  the  dura  mater,  it  gives  off  the  ophthalmic  artery,  which  subdivides 
into  several  small  branches  that  supply  the  eye  and  surrounding  parts.  See  Circula- 
tion. 

Surgery. — Wounds  of  the  carotid  trunks  are  generally  from  stabs.  Suicides  have  a 
vague  desire  to  cut  them,  but  rarely  cut  suflQciently  deep  by  the  side  of  the  windpipe. 
Of  course,  should  either  vessel  be  wounded,  death  results  almost  immedi&,tely.  Punc- 
tured wounds,  however,  may  not  be  immediately  fatal;  they  may  heal,  or  a false  aneu- 
rism (q.v.)  may  result.  Such  an  occurrence  happened  about  twenty  years  ago  in  Scotland. 
A young  man  was  stabbed  close  to  the  root  of  the  neck;  a pulsating  tumor  formed, 
which  rapidly  increased,  and  would  undoubtedly  have  burst  before  long,  had  not  prof. 
Syme  of  Edinburgh  cut  into  it,  and,  by  an  operation  requiring  extraordinary  courage 
and  dexterity,  tied  the  common  C.  A.  above  and  below  the  part  stabbed;  thereby  savimr 


Carouge. 

Carpeuter. 


480 


not  only  the  life  of  the  patient,  but  that  of  the  man  who  had  inflicted  the  wound,  and 
who  was  then  in  prison  awaiting  his  trial. 

Sir  Astley  Cooper  was  the  first  to  tie  the  common  carotid  for  spontaneous  aneurism, 
in  Nov.,  1805;  and  since  then,  the  operation  has  been  successfully  performed  in  a num- 
ber of  cases.  Owing  to  the  numerous  interchange  of  branches  between  vessels  of  both 
sides  of  the'head,  cutting  oif  the  supply  of  blood  through  one  carotid  is  seldom  followed 
by  affections  of  the  brain.  Such  have,  however,  occurred  in  a few  instances;  but  Dr. 
Mussey  of  America  tied  both  carotids  within  twelve  days  of  each  other  without  any  such 
result. 

The  common  carotid  in  the  horse  is  the  termination  of  the  right  arteria  innominata. 

It  is  a large  vessel,  about  an  inch  long,  which  emerges  from  the  chest  below  the  wind- 
pipe, and  divides  into  the  right  and  left  carotids.  These  bend  upward,  having  the  wind- 
pipe between  them,  gradually  inclining  inwards  at  the  upper  part,  where  each  divides 
into  external  and  internal  carotid,  and  a large  anastomosing  branch  arising  from  between 
these  two. 

CAROUGE,  a t.  of  Switzerland,  canton  of  Geneva,  about  2 m.  from  the  city  of  that 
name,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a bridge  across  the  Arve.  It  has  cotton-spinning, 
leather,  and  pottery  manufactures;  and  in  1780  the  king  of  Sardinia,  as  ruler  of  Savoy, 
tried  to  set  it  up  as  the  industrial  rival  of  Geneva,  but  failed.  Pop.  ’70,  5,871. 

CAROUGE,  a t.  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  and  about  one  m.  s.  of  Geneva,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Arve.  It  is  beautifully  situated,  regularly  built,  and  surrounded  by 
villas,  orchards,  and  meadows.  It  has  a handsome  Roman  Catholic  and  a Protestant 
church.  There  are  manufactures  of  thread,  clay  pipes,  leather,  watches,  and  pottery. 
There  is  a bridge  across  the  Arve  connecting  the  town  with  Geneva.  Pop.  ’70,  5,871. 
[From  Suppt.] 

CARP,  Oyprinus  carpio,  a fish  of  the  family  Gyprinidm  (q.v.),  of  which,  indeed,  it 
may  be  regarded  as  the  type,  a native  of  the  central  countries  of  Europe,  and  corre- 
sponding latitudes  in  Asia,  but  on  account  of  its  value  as  an  article  of  food,  long  natu- 
ralized in  many  countries  in  which  it  is  not  indigenous.  No  fish,  indeed,  except  its  con- 
gener the  goldfish,  has  been  so  much  transported  by  man  from  one  place  to  another; 
and  this  has  beeu  the  more  easily  and  successfully  accomplished,  that  the  C.  can  subsist 
longer  than  most  fishes  out  of  the  water,  if  only  kept  moist.  The  C.  is  said  not  to  be 
originally  a native  of  England,  but  the  statements  sometimes  made  as  to  the  time  of  its 
introduction  are  untrustworthy ; it  certainly  existed  in  England  before  the  16th  century. 

It  is  mentioned  in  the  famous  Boke  of  St.  Albans,  in  1496,  by  Dame  Juliana  Barnes,  as 
a “ dayntous  fysshe,  but  scarce.”  The  C.  spawns  in  May,  and  is  out  of  condition  until 
July.  It  does  not  succeed  so  well  in  Scotland,  of  which  country  it  is  certainly  not  a , 
native,  as  in  the  s.  of  England;  and  in  northern  countries  generally,  it  neither  increases 
so  rapidly  in  size,  nor  exliibits  so  great  fecundity,  as  in  more  congenial  climates.  Its 
fecundity,  in  favorable  circumstances,  is  prodigious;  more  than  700,000  eggs  have  been 
found  in  the  ovaries  of  a single  C.  of  moderate  size.  The  C.  is  rather  an  inhabitant  of 
lakes  and  ponds  than  of  rivers,  in  which,  if  it  is  found,  it  shows  a preference  for  the 
stillest  parts.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  aquatic  plants,  and  may  be  fattened  on  lettuces  and 
similar  soft  vegetables,  for  which  its  teeth  are  remarkably  adapted,  being  few,  mostl}' 
large,  flat,  and  situated  on  the  pharynx  very  far  back  in  the  mouth;  woims,  mollusks, 
and  insects,  however,  form  part  of  its  food.  It  deposits  its  spawn  on  weeds.  It  is  said 
to  live  to  a great  age,  even  150  or  200  years  ; its  scales,  “ like  the  productions  of  the 
cuticle  in  some  other  animals,  becoming  gray  and  white  with  age.”  It  is  known  to 
attain  the  weight  of  3 lbs.  when  six  years  old.  A C.  of  18  or  19  lbs.  weight  is  deemed 
of  extraordinary  size  in  England,  but  one  of  70  lbs.  weight,  and  nearly  9 ft.  long, 
was  taken  near  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  and  30  or  40  lbs.  is  not  an  unusual  size  in 
some  of  the  German  lakes.  In  Austria  and  Prussia,  many  lakes  and  ponds  are  let  at  a 
high  rent  for  the  C.  which  they  contain. — Of  the  other  species  of  the  genus  cyprinus, 
as  now  restricted,  which  are  found  in  Britain,  none  belong  to  the  section  having  bar- 
bules  at  the  angles  of  the  mouth.  See  Crucian,  Gibel,  and  Goldfish. 

To  the  angler,  the  C.  is  not  a very  valuable  fish,  as  he  is  by  no  means  a free  biter. 
When  hooked,  however,  he  runs  strongly,  and  fights  with  considerable  determination 
and  cunning.  In  still  water,  the  best  means  of  fishing  for  C.  is  with  a very  light 
quill-float.  A small  piece  of  dead  rush  will  answer  the  purpose  equally  well,  or  better. 
The  float  should  be  fixed  on  the  line  so  that  the  bait  may  be  upon  the  bottom,  and  if 
that  be  clear  of  weeds  (the  angler  must  take  care  that  it  is  so),  the  C.  will  easily  see 
and  pick  up  the  bait.  It  is  advisable,  however,  in  fishing  for  C.  to  use  two  rods, 
and  the  float  to  one  of  these  should  be  so  placed  that  the  bait  may  be  just  off  the 
bottom.  The  former  tackle  should  be  baited  with  well-scoured  red  worms,  gentles, 
or  grubs  of  some  sort;  the  latter  with  a green  pea,  boiled  wheat,  or  paste.  The 
hooks  should  be  of  No.  8 size,  and  tolerably  stout  in  the  wire,  and  the  gut  perfectly 
round  and  good,  and  as  fine  as  is  consistent  with  the  size  of  the  fish  angled  for.  In 
using  green  peas  or  wheat,  boil  until  the  skin  cracks.  Very  small  potatoes  of  the 
size  of  a bean  have  been  known  to  attract  good  carp.  The  best  paste  is  bread  worked 
up  with  a little  brandy  or  gin.  Gentles,  wasp  grubs,  flies,  and  other  insects,  worms, 
or  caterpillars,  may  all,  at  times,  take  carp.  When  a C.  bites,  he  nibbles  at  the  bait  for 


481 


Carouge. 

Carpenter. 


Bome  seconds  before  he  takes  it,  and  often  takes  off  the  tail  of  the  worm,  or  strips 
the  hook  completely.  But  it  is  quite  useless  to  strike  until  the  float  disappears  entirely. 

CARP^'A,  a dance  in  ancient  Thessaly ; a pantomime  represented  by  two  men,  one 
a robber  and  the  other  a plowman,  in  which  there  was  a contest  for  the  possession  of 
the  plowman’s  oxen,  which  are  finally  captured  by  the  robber.  All  the  action  was 
rhythmical,  and  performed  much  like  a pantomime  of  the  present  day. 

CARPA'THIAN  MOUNTAINS,  the  mountains  which  inclose  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania on  the  n.,  e.,  and  s.  in  a great  semicircle  (whose  concavity  is  towards  the  s.w.), 
extending  over  a space  of  800  m.  from  Presburg  on  the  Danube  to  Orsova  on  the  same 
river,  between  lat.  44°  30'  to  49°  40'  n.,  long.  17°  to  26°  east.  The  C.  M.  form  part  of 
the  great  mountain  system  of  central  Europe,  separated  from  the  mountains  of  Silesia 
and  Moravia  by  the  valley  of  the  March,  and  from  the  Alps  and  Mt.  Haemus  by  the 
valley  of  the  Danube.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  C.  M.  lie  within  the  Austrian  dominions. 
They  form  two  great  masses,  one  in  Hungary  to  the  n.  w.,  and  one  in  Transylvania  to  the 
s.e.,  with  ranges  of  lower  and  wooded  mountains  between.  The  highest  group  of  the 
Hungarian  Carpathians  is  thatof  7 atra  or  the  Carpat,  in  the  very  n.  of  Hungary,  a majestic 
mass  of  granite  mountains,  exhibiting  much  grandeur  in  its  naked  precipices,  and  in 
some  of  its  peaks  rising  to  the  height  of  more  than  8,000  ft.,  the  Lomnitz  peak  being 
8,133  ft.  high.  On  the  northern  declivity  of  the  Eisthal  peak  exists  the  only  glacier  in 
the  Carpathians.  The  Tatra  group  is  penetrated  by  no  valleys,  but  only  by  wild  ravines, 
and  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  tlie  range  by  deep  depressions.  There  is  a great  differ- 
ence of  climate  between  its  southern  and  northern  sides.  These  higher  mountains  yield 
few  minerals,  but  the  lower  Carpathians  of  Hungary,  which  stretch  around  them  in 
groups  and  ranges,  abound  in  minerals  of  various  kinds.  The  mines  of  Schemnitz 
(q.v.)  are  of  great  celebrity.  Many  of  the  Hungarian  mountains  are  of  limestone.  The 
mountains  of  Transylvania  are  mostly  of  primitive  rocks.  On  the  eastern  and  southern 
borders,  they  reach  the  height  of  9,000  ft.  and  upwards.  Mt.  Butschetje,  the  culminat- 
ing peak,  has  an  elevation  of  9,528  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  C.  M.  are  generally 
clothed  with  wood  to  a height  of  more  than  4,000  ft. — in  some  parts,  forests  ar« 
found  at  5,500  ft. — and  with  steep  precipices,  narrow  ravines,  extinct  craters,  and 
cones  of  volcanic  origin,  they  exhibit  scenes  of  grandeur  rarely  exceeded.  The  lower 
parts  of  the  mountains  are  beautifully  clothed  with  vineyards,  walnut  groves,  etc., 
above  which  ascend  forests  of  cherry,  beech,  and  pine.  The  ranges  which  connect 
the  high  mountains  of  Hungary  with  those  of  Transylvania  are  in  great  part  composed 
of  sandstone,  have  an  unfruitful  soil,  and  comparatively  little  population  or  cul- 
tivation. 

CAR'PATHOS.  See  Scarpanto,  ante. 

CARPEAUX,  Jean  Baptiste,  b.  1827;  a French  sculptor,  whose  more  conspicuous 
works  are  “ The  Fisher  Boy,”  “Ugolino  and  his  Children,”  “ Neapolitan  Fisherman,’* 
“Girl  with  a Shell,”  “France  enlightening  the  World,  and  protecting  Agriculture  and 
Science,”  and  the  noted  group,  “La  Danse,”  on  the  fa9ade  of  the  Paris  opera-house. 

CARPEL  (Gr.  Tcarpos,  fruit),  in  botany,  a modified  leaf  forming  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  pistil  of  a flower.  The  number  of  ovaries  and  stigmas  in  the  pistil  depends  on 
the  number  of  carpels  of  which  it  is  composed,  but  sometimes  several  are  so  intimately 
united  that  they  appear  as  one.  It  is  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  which  forms  the 
inner  surface  of  the  carpel.  At  its  margins,  the  ovules  are  developed,  like  the  buds 
formed  on  true  leaves  of  some  kinds  of  plants.  The  fruit,  as  well  as  the  pistil,  may 
therefore  be  said  to  be  composed  of  one  or  more  carpels. 

CARPENTA'RIA,  Gulf  of,  a broad  and  deep  indentation  of  the  n.  coast  of  Austra- 
lia, stretching  from  11°  to  17°  30' s.  lat.,  and  from  136°  to  142°  e.  longitude.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  named  from  Carpenter,  a Dutchman,  who  discovered  and  partly  explored  it 
in  1627.  The  gulf  of  C.  contains  many  islands.  The  shores  of  the  mainland  are 
generally  low ; and,  in  the  rainy  season,  the  floods  are  such  as  materially  to  freshen  the 
sea. 

CARPENTER,  Francis  B.,  b.  1830;  a painter  whose  portrait  of  Lincoln,  and 
“Emancipation  Proclamation,”  have  gained  some  celebrity.  He  published  Six  Months 
in  the  W kite  House. 

CARPENTER,  Lant,  ll.d.,  1780-1840;  an  English  Unitarian  minister,  successor 
of  Dr.  Kenrick  at  Exeter ; afterwards  in  charge  of  a church  in  Bristol.  He  was  much 
interested  in  the  religious  instruction  of  children,  and  established  several  Sunday- 
schools.  Among  his  works  are  An  Introduction  to  the  Geography  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment; JJnitarianism  the  Doctrine  of  the  Gospel;  Examination  of  the  Charges  against  TJni- 
tarianism;  and  Harmony  of  the  Gospels. 

CARPENTER,  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lant  Carpenter,  of  Bristol,  and  sister 
of  Dr.  William  Carpenter  (b.  1807,  d.  1877).  She  took  an  active  part  in  the  movement 
for  the  reformation  of  neglected  children,  and  besides  advocating  their  cause  in  her 
writings,  she  founded  several  reformatories  for  girls,  one  of  which,  the  Redhedge  reform- 
atory, she  superintended.  In  the  prosecution  of  her  philanthropic  labors  she  visited 
India  three  times,  and,  in  1871,  instituted  the  national  Indian  association,  whose  journal 
U.  K.  III.— 31 


C^arpeater. 

Carpentry. 


482 


she  edited.  Besides  her  reformatory  writings,  she  published  Our  Conticts  (1864),  a book 
which  drew  public  attention  to  the  treatment  of  young  criminals;  The  Last  Days  of  th$ 
Rajah  Rammohun  Roy;  and  Six  Months  in  India. 

CAKPENTER,  Matthew  H.,  b.  Yt.,  1824;  studied  law  with  Rufus  Choate;  and 
in  1848  settled  in  Wisconsin,  from  which  state  he  was  returned  as  U.  8.  senator  in 
1868,  and  was  re-elected  in  1879.  He  is  an  able  lawyer  and  a brilliant  debater. 

CARPENTEE,  Willie  Benjamin,  m.d.,  ll.d.,  f.r.s.,  f.l.s.,  f.g.b.,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  physiologists  and  writers  on  physiology  of  the  present  day.  Soon 
after  his  graduation  in  Edinburgh  in  1839,  he  published  his  Principles  of  General  and 
Comparative  Physiology,  which  was  one  of  the  earliest  works  giving  a general  view  of 
the  science  of  life.  As  the  treatise  grew  in  size  in  successive  editions,  it  was  divided 
into  two — The  Principles  of  Comparative  Physiology,  and  The  Principles  of  General  P7iysi~ 
ology.  These  works,  together  with  The  Principles  of  Human  Physiology,  which  origi- 
nally appeared  in  1846,  and  reached  a fourth  edition  in  1853,  and  Ihe  Principles  of  Mental 
Physiology  (Lond.  1874),  form  a perfect  cyclopaedia  of  biological  science.  C.  has  like- 
wise published  A Manual  of  Physiology;  Vie  Microscope,  its  Revelations  and  its  Uses;  a 
prize  essay  upon  The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Alcoholic  Liquors;  and  numerous  memoirs  on 
various  departments  of  physiology,  microscopical  anatomy,  and  natural  history,  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  etc.  His  most  important  original  researches  are  On  the 
Structure  of  Shells;  On  the  Development  of  Purpura  LapUlus;  and  On  the  Structure, 
Functions,  and  General  History  of  the  Foraminifera.  For  several  years  he  edited  2he 
British  and  Foreign  Medico- ChirurgicoX  Review,  and  he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  The 
Natural  History  Review.  In  1848,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence 
at  university  college,  and  soon  afterwards  examiner  in  physiology  and  comparative 
anatomy  in  the  university  of  London;  but  he  resigned  these  offices  on  his  appointment, 
in  1856,  as  registrar  to  that  university.  In  1861,  the  royal  medal  was  awarded  to  him 
by  the  royal  society;  and  in  1873,  he  was  elected  a corresponding  member  of  the  insti- 
tute of  France.  He  took  a chief  part  in  the  government  expeditions  sent  out  in  1868- 
69-70  for  deep-sea  exploration  in  the  n.  Atlantic;  and  since  then  he  has  contributed 
largely  to  the  discussion  of  the  vexed  question  of  ocean  circulation  in  the  journal  of  the 
royal  geographical  society  and  other  periodicals.  In  the  art,  Atlantic  in  the  Ency. 
Brit.,  9th  ed.,  his  views  will  be  found  summarized.  He  advocates  the  doctrine  of  a 
vertical  circulation  sustained  by  opposition  of  temperature  only,  independent  of  and  dis- 
tinct from  the  horizontal  currents  produced  by  winds;  see  Gulf  Stream.  This  doctrine 
was  first  advanced  by  prof.  Lenz  of  St.  Petersburg  in  1845;  but  Dr.  C.  was  ignorant  of 
this,  when  the  deep-sea  observations  begun  in  1868  led  him  to  an  identical  theory.  Dr. 
C.  has  written  largely  on  another  controverted  subject — that  of  spiritualism,  which  he 
maintains  to  be  a delusion.  He  entered  this  field  as  early  as  1853,  in  an  article  on  ani- 
mal magnetism  in  the  (Quarterly  Review;  a late  contribution  to  the  controversy  is  Mes- 
merism, Spintualism,  etc,,  historically  and  scientifically  considered  (Longmans  & Co.,  1877). 

CAEPENTER  BEE,  a name  given  to  those  bees  that  excavate  their  nests  in  wood. 
One  of  these,  xylocopa  violacea,  has  been  already  noticed,  and  its  nest  briefly  described, 
in  the  article  Bee  (q.v.). 

CARPENTER,  SHIP’S,  a naval  officer  whose  duty  is  to  keep  a ship  of  war  in  repair, 
specially  during  action  in  case  of  damage  that  may  endanger  sinking. 

CARPENTRAS,  a t,  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  is  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Auzon,  about  15  m.  n.e.  of  Avignon.  This  town  was  known  to  the  Romans 
as  Carpentoracte,  and  among  other  remains,  a triumphal  arch  attests  their  former  presence 
here.  C.  has  manufactures  of  cottons,  woolens,  and  leather;  brandy  distilleries,  dye- 
works,  etc.  It  is  the  entrepot  for  the  products  of  the  district.  Pop.  ’72,  7,857. 

CARPENTRY  is  the  art  of  framing  timber  for  architectural  and  other  purposes. 
Technically,  the  term  is  restricted  to  the  framing  of  heavy  work,  such  as  the  roofs, 
floorings,  partitions,  and  all  the  wood-work  concerned  in  maintaining  the  stability  of  an 
edifice,  while  the  minor  and  ornamental  fittings  are  called  joinery ; but  popularly  the 
workman  who  does  either  kind  of  work  is  called  a carpenter.  _ 

The  present  article  will  be  confined  to  a populaV  description  of  the  most  useful 
methods  of  framing  timber  and  smaller  wood-work. 

The  preliminary  preparation  of  timber  is  the  work  of  the  sawyer,  who,  by  the  ^w- 
mill  or  pit-saw,  divides  the  trunks  of  trees  into  planks,  etc. ; these  are  further  divided 
by  the  carpenter,  who  uses  hand-saws  of  various  kinds,  according  to  the  work.  For 
dividing  wood  into  separate  pieces  in  the  direction  of  the  fiber,  the  ripping-saw  is  used; 
for  cross  cutting,  or  sawing  thin  pieces  in  the  direction  of  their  length,  the  common 
hand-saw  or  the  finer  toothed  panel-saw;  for  making  an  incision  of  a given  depth,  and 
for  cutting  small  pieces  across  the  fiber,  the  tenon-saw,  the  sash-saw,  or  dovetail-saw  is 
used.  These  are  thin  saws,  stiffened  by  a strong  piece  of  metal  at  the  back  to  prevent 
crippling.  When  a curved  cut  is  to  be  made,  a very  naiTow  saw  without  a back,  called 
a compass-saw  or  a heyhole-saw,  is  used.  The  general  name  for  these  is  tuming-sa/ws; 
they  have  their  plates  thin  and  narrow  towards  the  bottom,  and  each  succeeding  tooth 
finer,  and  the  teeth  are  not  bent  on  contrary  sides  of  the  plate  for  clearing,  as  in  broad 
saws. 


483 


Carpenter. 

Carpentry, 


The  surface  of  wood  is  smoothed  by  planing.  According  to  the  work,  different  kinds 
of  planes  are  used:  i\\Q  jack-plane,  wliicli  is  large  and  rough,  for  taking  away  the  rough 
of  the  saw;  the  trying-plane,  for  bringing  the  surface  perfectly  level  and  true,  or  the 
long-plane  for  the  same  purpose,  where  the  work  is  of  great  length,  as  for  the  joining 
edges  of  long  boards  to  be  glued  together.  The  smoothing-plane,  which  is  much  smaller 
than  these,  gives  the  smooth  finished  surface.  The  spoke-shave,  a sort  of  plane  with  a 
double  handle,  is  used  for  paring  and  smoothing  rounded  work. 

Ornamental  moldings  are  cut  by  means  of  molding-planes,  which  have  their  cutting 
edges  curved  to  the  required  pattern.  A good  stock  of  these  is  one  of  the  most  expen- 
sive items  of  the  tool-chest. 

The  paring  of  wood,  and  the  cutting  of  rectangular  or  prismatic  cavities,  notches, 
etc.,  are  done  by  means  of  chisels.  Those  for  cutting  across  the  fiber  are  called 
or  paring-chisels;  those  for  cutting  deep  and  narrow  cavities,  'mortise-chisels,  which  are 
made  very  thick  and  narrow,  and  fitted  in  the  handles  with  a strong  flange,  to  bear  heavy 
blows  with  the  mallet.  Chisels  for  paring  concave  surfaces  are  called  gouges.  For 
boring  holes,  brad-awls,  gimlets,  centerbits,  and  gouges  are  used — the  two  latter  are  fixed 
in  a stock  or  revolving  handle,  and  are  used  for  large  holes.  When  it  is  required  to 
ascertain  if  an  angle  be  square,  or  of  any  given  inclination,  the  square,  or  the  bevel  set  to 
the  required  angle,  is  applied  to  test  the  work  as  it  proceeds.  When  parallel  edges  are 
required,  the  marking  gauge  is  used  to  draw  the  line  to  be  worked  to.  When  a simple 
straight  line  is  required  for  working  to,  a piece  of  string  is  chalked,  then  stretched 
tightly  over  the  wood  and  lifted  in  the  middle,  when,  by  its  recoil,  it  strikes  the  wood 
and  leaves  a straight  chalked  line.  The  straight-edge,  a strip  of  wood  with  one  of  its 
edges  perfectly  straight,  is  applied  to  detect  superficial  irregularities.  The  operation  of 
planing  the  edge  of  a board  straight  is  called  shooting,  and  such  edges  are  said  to  be  shot. 
When  the  joiner  requires  to  ascertain  whether  the  surface  of  a piece  of  wood  is  all  in 
one  plane,  he  takes  two  slips  of  wood  with  edges  perfectly  straight  and  parallel,  and  of 
equal  width;  these  slips,  called  ‘winding-sticks,  are  placed  edge  upwards,  one  at  each  end, 
across  the  board,  and  the  workman  looks  in  the  longitudinal  direction  of  the  board  over 
the  upper  edges,  and  if  the  two  edges  be  not  in  the  same  plane,  the  board  is  planed 
down  at  the  elevated  parts  until  it  is  out  of  wind.  For  setting  work  level,  a spirit-level, 
set  in  a wooden  frame,  or  a plumb-level  is  used.  For  f\irther  description  of  the  tools 
alluded  to  above,  and  in  the  rest  of  this  article,  see  the  special  articles. 

When  two  pieces  of  timber  have  to  be  united  at  their  ends,  as  in  lengthening  the 
beams  for  roofing,  partitions,  the  masts  and  keels  of  ships,  etc.,  the  operation  is  called 
scarfing,  and  the  joint  a scarf.  The  methods  of  scarfing  are  very  numerous;  those  fig- 
ured below  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  principal. 

The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  scarfing  as  stated  by  Tredgold. 

The  length  of  the  scarf  should  be,  if  bolts  are  not  used — in  oak,  ash,  or  elm,  six 
times  the  depth  of  the  beam;  in  fir,  12  times  the  depth  of  the  beam.  If  bolts  and  indents 
are  combined,  the  length  of  the  scarf  should  be — in  oak,  ash,  or  elm,  twice  the  depth  of 
the  beam ; in  fir,  four  times  the  depth.  In  scarfing  beams  to  resist  transverse  strains, 
straps  driven  on  tight  are  better  than  bolts.  The  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  bolts  should 
not  be  less  than  one  fifth  the  area  of  the  beam,  when  a longitudinal  strain  is  to  be  borne. 
No  joint  should  be  used  in  which  shrinking  or  expansion  can  tend  to  tear  the  timbers. 
No  joint  can  be  made  so  strong  as  the  timber  itself.  When  two  pieces  of  timber  are 
connected  so  that  the  joint  runs  parallel  with  the  fibers  of  both,  it  is  called  a longitudinal 
joint;  but  when  the  place  of  the  joint  is  at  right  angles  to  the  fibers  of  both,  an  abutting 
joint.  A very  short  tenon  is  called  a stub  tenon.  When  a second  minor  tenon  is  made 
projecting  from  the  principal  tenon,  it  is  called  a tusk  tenon. 

For  lighter  joiner’s  work,  other  methods  of  framing  are  used,  and  adapted  to  the 
work — to  boards  generally  instead  of  beams;  thus,  for  example,  the  mortise  and  tenon 
joint,  made  oblong  instead  of  square,  is  used  in  framing  doors,  shutters,  drawing-boards, 
or  any  other  kind  of  extended  superficial  work  liable  to  warping.  An  outside  frame  or 
skeleton  is  made  with  a panel  or  panels  in  the  middle,  and  each  piece  of  the  frame  has 
the  grain  at  right  angles  to  the  piece  into  which  it  is  mortised,  in  order  that  they  shall 
eventually  correct  the  warping. 

Dovetailing  is  extensively  used  for  connecting  boards  at  right  or  other  angles,  as  in 
making  boxes,  drawers,  etc.  Common  dovetailing  is  usually  glued.  Nails  or  pins  and 
glue  are  used  with  the  miter  and  other  notched  joints. 

^ Boards  may  be  united  at  their  edges  to  form  an  extended  surface,  as  a flat  plank  par- 
tition, etc.,  either  by  simple  gluing  of  the  shot  edges,  by  a rebate,  or  by  a plowed  groove 
and  a corresponding  projection.  The  rebate  is  cut  by  means  of  a rebating  plane;  that 
in  the  figure  is  combined  with  a bead,  the  usual  joint  for  wooden  partitions.  The 
groove,  a sort  of  extended  mortise,  is  cut  by  a plane  with  a projecting  iron  called  the 
plow. 

In  all  cases  where  glue  is  used  in  joints,  it  should  be  applied  to  both  surfaces,  which 
should  be  rubbed  and  pressed  together  until  nearly  all  the  glue  is  forced  out,  then  kept 
pressed  by  a cramp  or  weights.  White  lead  is  used  for  outside  joints. 

Special  departments  of  this  subject,  such  as  roofs,  staircases,  etc.,  will  be  treated 
under  their  respective  heads. 


Carpet. 

Carpzov. 


484 


CARPET-BAGGER,  a term  of  contempt  applied  by  the  people  of  the  southern 
United  States  to  a man  who  came  from  any  other  part  of  the  union  to  live  in  the  south,  or 
to  transact  business  there  after  the  close  of  the  rebellion.  The  term  has  been  extended  so 
as  to  designate  any  person  in  any  part  of  the  country  who  has  no  fixed  residence.  One 
offense  of  the  carpet-bagger  in  the  south  was  in  teaching  negroes  to  read  and  write,  and 
helping  them  to  assert  their  new  political  rights,  which  the  greater  majority  of  native 
whites  were  in  no  hurry  to  see  exercised.  In  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  southern 
states  after  the  rebellion,  they  furnished  an  inviting  field  for  adventurers  and  dema- 
gogues, who  gave  some  ground  for  the  stigma  which  has  largely  attached  to  the  name 
of  carpet-bagger. 

CABFETS.  Woven  C.,  such  as  are  now  so  common  in  this  country,  were  first  used 
in  the  east,  where  the  custom  of  sitting  cross-legged  on  the  fioor  still  renders  them 
especially  useful.  Our  rude  forefathers  covered  the  fioors  of  their  houses  with  rushes, 
hair,  or  straw;  and  in  Norwegian  farm-houses,  where  so  many  of  our  ancient  customs 
still  exist,  the  floor  of  the  best  room  is  commonly  strewed  with  juniper-twigs.  The 
first  step  towards  a woven  carpet  was  made  by  plaiting  rushes  to  form  a matting. 

The  principal  varieties  of  C.  now  in  use  are  the  Turkey,  the  Axminster,  the  Brus- 
sels, the  Wilton,  the  Venetian,  the  Dutch,  the  Kidderminster  or  Scotch,  Whytock’s 
tapestry  and  velvet  pile,  and  the  printed  felt  carpet. 

The  real  Turkey  carpet  is  made  in  one  piece ; those  manufactured  for  the  orientals 
are  usually  too  small  for  use  in  this  country.  The  patterns  consist  merely  of  curved 
«nd  angular  strips,  of  variegated  but  dark  and  unobtrusive  colors.  The  warp  is  of 
strong  linen  or  cotton,  to  which  bunches  or  tufts  of  colored  worsted  are  tied  according 
to  the  pattern,  a drawing  of  which  is  placed  before  the  weaver  to  copy.  The  surface  is 
afterwards  shorn  level.  Rugs  are  made  in  a similar  manner;  the  colored  worsteds  are 
tied  very  rapidly  by  young  girls.  ^ 

The  Axminster  carpet  is  merely  the  English-made  Turkey  carpet,  formerly  manufac- 
tured as  above  at  Axminster,  in  Devonshire.  They  are  usually  made  to  order,  and  of 
the  size  required  for  the  room;  from  the  tedious  nature  of  the  process  of  manufacture, 
they  are  very  expensive. 

Templeton's  patent  Axminster  carpet  is  a very  beautiful  fabric,  very  much  resembling 
that  from  which  it  derives  its  name,  but  it  is  wrought  on  the  chenille  principle. 

The  Brussels  carpet  is  a mixture  of  linen  and  worsted,  but,  like  the  Turkey  carpet, 
the  worsted  only  is  shown  on  the  upper  surface.  The  basis  or  cloth  is  a coarse  linen 
fabric,  and  between  the  upper  and  under  threads  of  the  weft,  several  (usually  five) 
worsted  threads  of  different  colors  are  firmly  bound  in.  The  pattern  is  produced  by 
drawing  to  the  surface,  between  each  reticulation  of  the  cloth  basis,  a portion  of  the 
worsted  thread  of  the  color  required  at  that  spot  to  produce  the  pattern;  these  updrawn 
portions  are  formed  into  loops,  by  being  turned  over  wires,  which  are  afterwards  with- 
drawn, and  the  loops  thus  left  standing  above  the  basis  form  the  figured  surface  of  the 
carpet.  The  machinery  and  processes  by  which  this  arrangement  is  produced  are  rather 
complex,  and  require  to  be  seen  to  be  fully  understood. 

The  Wilton  carpet  is  made  like  the  Brussels,  but  the  wire  has  a groove  in  its  upper 
surface,  and  instead  of  being  drawh  out,  it  is  liberated  by  passing  a sharp  knife  through 
the  worsted  loop  into  this  groove,  and  thus  making  a velvet  pile  surface  instead  of  the 
looped  thread. 

The  Venetian  carpet  is  produced  in  a common  loom,  and  the  pattern  is  all  in  the 
warp,  which  alone  is  visible,  as  it  incloses  the  weft  between  its  upper  and  under  sur- 
faces. The  patterns  are  generally  checks  or  stripes;  the  latter  are  chiefly  used  for  stair 
carpets. 

The  Dutch  carpet  is  a coarser  and  cheaper  variety  of  plain  Venetian,  sometimes 
made  wholly  of  hemp,  or  of  a mixture  of  coarse  wool  and  cow-hair. 

The  Kidderminster  or  Scotch  carpet  has  usually  a worsted  warp  and  woolen  weft,  and 
the  pattern  is  made  by  the  combination  of  the  colors  of  each.  Three-ply  C.  of  this 
kind  are  made  especially  in  Kilmarnock.  This  is  the  most  durable  of  the  moderate- 
priced  C. ; the  patterns  are  not  so  brilliant  as  those  oj^the  Brussels  or  the  tapestry,  but. 
being  ingrained  and  woolen  throughout,  they  retain  their  character  until  worn  through. 
This,  and  the  three  immediately  preceding  descriptions  of  carpet,  exhibit  their  patterns 
nearly  similar  on  both  sides,  and  are  therefore  reversible. 

^hytock's  tapestry  and  xelvet  pile  carpet,  as  it  is  now  frequently  called,  is^  becoming 
very  extensively  used  as  a cheap  substitute  for  Brussels  and  Wilton,  which  it  is  made 
to  resemble  very  closely  in  the  brilliancy  and  variety  of  pattern.  The  manufacture  of 
this  carpet  is  very  curious  and  ingenious.  Instead  of  five  colored  yarns,  only  one^  of 
which  is  drawn  to  the  surface  at  any  one  place,  while  the  other  four  remain  buried 
between  the  upper  and  under  threads  of  the  cloth  basis,  a single  colored  yarn  is  used, 
aud  the  variety  of  color  produced  by  dyeing  it  of  various  colors  at  intervals  of  its 
length.  The  yarn  is  coiled  upon  a drum,  and  printed  by  means  of  rollers  in  such  a 
manner  that  when  the  threads  that  encompass  the  roller  shall  be  uncoiled  and  laid  in 
line  side  by  side,  they  shall  present  an  elongated  printing  of  the  pattern,  so  that  a rose, 
for  example,  the  outline  of  which  should  be  nearly  circular,  will  be  an  oval,  with  len^h 
equal  to  four  times  its  breadth.  When,  however  the  thread  is  looped  over  the  wire, 


485 


Carpet. 

CarpzoT« 


4 in.  of  yarn  being  used  for  an  inch  of  the  carpet  pattern,  this  elongation  is  exactly 
compensated,  and  the  rose  appears  in  its  proper  proportions.  The  machinery  required 
for  this  is,  of  course,  much  simpler  than  that  for  the  Brussels,  only  one  yarn  having  to 
he  looped,  and  that  always  in  the  same  manner. 

The  printed  felt  carpets  are,  as  the  name  implies,  simply  made  by  printing  colors  on 
felt.  These  are  chiefly  used  for  bedroom  carpets. 

A very  beautiful  fabric  has  also  been  introduced,  called  the  patent  wool  mosaic, 
formed  by  cementing  a velvet  pile  upon  plain  cloth.  It  is  used  for  rugs,  etc.  The  pile 
is  formed  by  stretching  lengths  of  woolen  yarn  between  plates  of  flnely  perforated  zinc, 
placed  several  yards  apart,  the  colors  of  the  threads  being  arranged  so  that  their  ends 
shall  show  the  pattern.  The  mass  of  yarn  is  then  inclosed  in  a case,  open  at  both  ends, 
and  compressed  without  .deranging  the  fibers;  and  by  means  of  a piston  or  ram  at  one 
•end,  a portion  of  this  mass  of  yarn  is  forced  forwards,  the  ends  thus  projecting  are  glued 
to  the  plain  cloth,  and  when  dried,  are  cut  off  to  the  length  required  for  the  pile.  In 
this  manner,  several  hundred  slices  are  made  from  one  setting  of  the  yarn  mosaic,  and 
as  many  rugs  produced. 

CABFI,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  10  m.  n.  of  the  city  of  Modena.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls,  defended  by  a citadel,  has  a cathedral,  and  manufactures  of  silk  and  straw  hats. 
Pop.  5,000. — Carpi  is  also  the  name  of  a t.  of  Venetia,  in  the  province  of  Verona,  28 
m.  s.e  of  Verona,  celebrated  for  the  victory  obtained  here  by  prince  Eugene  over  the 
Prench  in  1701.  Pop.  1200. 

CARPI,  Girolamo  da,  1501-56;  an  Italian  painter  who  became  infatuated  with  the 
works  of  Correggio,  and  so  closely  imitated  them  as  to  pass  off  his  own  as  originals. 
Very  probably  some  of  these  imitations  are  now  figuring  as  true  Correggios.  Da  Carpi’s 
best  works  are  the  “Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit,”  “Adoration  of  the  Magi,”  and  the 
saints  Catherine,  George,  and  Jerome,  in  churches  at  Rovigi,  Bologne,  and  Ferrara. 

CABFINI,  Johannes  de  Plano,  a celebrated  Franciscan  monk,  b.  in  Capitanat!;a, 
Naples,  about  1210 ; was  one  of  the  six  friars  selected  by  pope  Innocent  IV.  to  proceed 
to  the  court  of  the  emperor  of  the  Mongols,  whose  warlike  advances  in  1246  threw 
Christendom  into  consternation,  in  order  to  pacify  the  terrible  nomadic  warriors,  and, 
if  possible,  convert  them  to  Christianity.  The  mission,  accomplished  under  dreadful 
hardships,  though  without  results  so  far  as  its  main  objects  were  concerned,  was  never- 
theless far  from  unfruitful.  Prior  to  this,  the  most  monstrous  fables  had  prevailed 
regarding  the  Tartars;  and  C.’s  narrative,  which  gave  a truthful  and  striking  picture  of 
their  numbers,  character,  and  civilization,  was  the  first  to  bring  these  myths  into  discredit. 
In  this  book  he  also  argued,  with  great  good  sense,  for  a union  amongst  Christian  princes, 
as  the  only  means  of  resisting  those  fierce  hordes  in  their  progress  westward.  As  a book 
of  travels,  its  accuracy  has  been  attested  by  modern  travelers.  Hakluyt  copied  most  of 
this  work,  at  second-hand,  into  his  first  volume  of  Navigations  and  Disco%eries.  The  date 
of  C.’s  death  is  not  certainly  known. 

CARFI'NO,  a t.  of  southern  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  22  m.  n.e.  of  San  Severe, 
with  a pop.  of  about  6,000. 

CABFOG'EATES,  or  Carpocras,  flourished  under  Hadrian  (130  a.  d.)  at  Alexandria, 
where  he  founded  the  Gnostic  sect  of  Carpocratians.  According  to  him,  the  essence  of 
true  religion  consisted  in  the  union  of  the  soul  with  the  Monas  or  highest  God,  by  means 
•of  contemplation,  which  elevated  it  above  the  superstitions  of  the  popular  faith,  and 
liberated  it  from  the  necessity  of  submitting  to  the  common  laws  of  society.  He  only  is 
to  be  reckoned  wise  who  attains  to  this.  Among  those  who  have  done  so,  are  Jesus, 
Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  Aristotle.  The  cosmogony  of  C.  was  of  the  usual  Gnostic 
-character,  the  central  peculiarity  of  which  was  the  belief  that  the  worlds  were  created 
by  angels.  C.  also  held  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls.  His  followers 
existed  down  to  the  6th  century.  Whether  or  not  they  were  guilty  of  the  abomina- 
tions ascribed  to  them,  is  more  than  we  can  positively  affirm;  our  only  information 
-concerning  them  being  derived  from  orthodox  writers,  who  were  in  the  habit  of  slan- 
dering heretics. 

CAB'FOLITES,  a generic  term  applied  to  fossil  fruits,  which,  in  the  present  state  of 
cur  knowledge,  it  is  impossible  to  refer  more  precisely  to  their  place  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Of  100  species  described,  70  belong  to  the  carboniferous  system. 

CAB'FTJS,  Carpal  Bones.  See  Hand,  Foot,  Skeleton. 

CARPZOV,  a Saxon  family  descended  from  Simon  Carpzov,  burgomaster  of  Bran- 
denburg about  the  middle  of  tlie  16th  century.  He  left  two  sons — Benedict  and  Simon. 
Benedict,  1565-1624,  was  a jurist  and  professor  of  law  at  Wittenberg ; and  in  1602,  chan- 
cellor to  Sophia,  electress  of  Saxony.  He  died  at  Wittenberg,  leaving  five  sons.  Joachim, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  burgomaster,  reached  a high  position  in  the  Danish  army.  Benedict, 
the  second  of  the  five,  1595-1666,  was  a professor  at  Leipsic,  ordinary  of  the  faculty  of 
jurists  at  the  same  university,  and  in  1653,  privy  councilor  at  Dresden.  He  published 
several  works  which  had  much  influence  in  the  administration  of  justice.  His  later 
years  were  spent  in  religious  study.  August,  1612-83,  his  brother  and  the  fourth  son  of 
the  first  Benedict,  was  distinguished  as  a diplomatist,  was  chancellor  of  the  consistory 
«t  Coburg,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  a privy  councilor  at  Gotha.  He  was  a man  of 


Carquines. 

Carrical. 


486 


piety,  and  the  author  of  several  devotional  works.  Johann  Benedict,  1607-57,  fifth 
son  of  the  first  Benedict,  was  professor  of  theology  at  Leipsic,  and  the  author  of  a 
system  of  theology  and  other  works  of  that  nature.  He  also  left  five  sons,  all  of  whom 
obtained  conspicuous  reputation.  One  of  the  five  was  Johann  Gotlob,  1679-1767,  who 
became  an  eminent  theologian  and  professor  of  oriental  languages  at  Leipsic.  He  wrote 
an  introduetion  to  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  a Critica  Sacra  Veteris 
Testimenti.  Johann  Benedict,  grandson  of  the  first  Johann  Benedict,  1720-1803,  was 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Leipsic,  and  professor  of  poetry  and  Greek  at  Helmstadt, 
and  professor  of  theology.  He  wrote  many  philological  works,  and  ended  his  life  as  an 
abbot. 

CARQUI NEZ,  or  Karquenas,  a strait  in  California,  between  Suisun  and  San  Pablo 
bays,  7 m.  long,  navigable  for  steam-boats,  and  for  large  vessels  as  far  as  Benecia. 

CARR.  Dabney,  1744-73;  a brother-in-law  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  an  eloquent 
member  of  the  Virginia  colonial  legislature. 

CARR,  Sir  Robert,  d.  Rhode  Island,  1667;  one  of  the  English  commissioners  to 
New  England,  appointed  by  Charles  II.,  the  others  being  Nichols,  Maverick,  and 
Cartwright.  After  the  capture  of  New  Amsterdam  (New  York)  from  the  Dutch  in 
1664  by  Nichols,  C,  compelled  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  on  the  Delaware  to  submit  to  a 
capitulation.  He  then  went  with  the  other  commissioners  to  Boston,  where  they 
administered  the  government. 

CABBA'CA,  La,  a t.  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  one  of  the  chief  naval  arsenals  of  the  king- 
dom, is  situated  4 m.  e.s.e.  of  Cadiz.  It  has  been  completely  isolated  from  the  main- 
land by  artificial  means;  and  so  low  is  its  situation,  that  it  was  necessary  to  erect 
the  buildings  on  piles.  It  is  defended  by  four  forts,  and  is  altogether  very  complete  as 
an  arsenal. 

CARR  AC' Cl.  See  Bolognese  School. 

CAB'BAGEEN,  often  incorrectly  called  C.  moss,  or  Irish  Moss,  a sea-weed  (nat- 
ural order,  algcc;  sub-order,  ceramiacm),  or  rather  several  species  of  sea-weed,  now 
used  to  a considerable  extent  both  medicinally  and  as  an  article  of  food.  The  name 
C.  is  originally  Irish;  and  the  use  of  these  sea-weeds  appears  to  have  been  entirely 
confined  to  the  peasantry  of  the  coasts  of  Ireland,  until,  about  30  years  since,  they 
were  recommended  to  general  notice,  and  their  medicinal  virtues  proclaimed  by  Mr. 
Todhunter,  of  Dublin.  They  are,  however,  found  on  the  rocky  sea-shores  of  most 
parts  of  Europe,  and  of  the  eastern  shores  of  North  America.  The  species  which 
principally  constitutes  the  C.  of  commerce  is  chondrus  crispus,  of  which  the  varie- 
ties are  remarkably  numerous.  It  is  2 to  12  in.  long,  branched  by  repeated  forking, 
cartilaginous,  flexible,  reddish-brown.  (7.  mamilloms  also  frequently  occurs.  C., 
after  being  collected,  is  washed,  bleached  by  exposure  to  the  .sun,  dried,  and  packed 
up  for  the  market.  Its  composition  is  as  follows : 


Vegetable  jelly  (carrageenin) 79.1 

Mucus 9.5 

Two  resins 0.7 

Ash 2.0 

Fiber  and  water 8.7 


100.0 

When  treated  for  ten  minutes  with  cold  water,  in  the  proportion  of  half  an  ounce  of  C. 
to  three  pints  of  water,  and  then  boiled  and  strained,  it  yields,  with  or  without  spices, 
a very  pleasant  drink.  With  a larger  proportion  of  C.,  a thickish  liquid  or  mucilage  is 
obtained ; and  on  boiling  down  this  decoction,  and  cooling,  a stiff  jelly  is  procured. 
Milk  may  be  employed,  instead  of  water,  in  the  preparation  of  the  various  decoctions; 
and  with  the  stronger  one,  along  with  sugar  and  spices,  when  thrown  into  a mold,  a 
kind  of  hlanc  mange  is  obtained.  C.  is  valued  on  account  of  its  emollient  and  demul- 
cent properties,  and  is  likely  to  be  found  useful  in  most  of  those  cases  in  which  iodine 
might  be  exhibited;  but  its  value  seems  to  depend  not  a little  on  its  being  at  once  nutri- 
tious, a pleasant  article  of  food,  and  easy  of  digestion.  See  Gelatine.  It  has  been 
much  recommended  in  pulmonary  consumption.  In  some  parts  of  Ireland,  C.  boiled 
with  water  (mucilage)  is  used  instead  of  size  for  mixing  with  the  more  common  colors 
ill  house-painting. 

CARRAN'ZA,  Bartoleme  de.  1503-76;  a Spanish  theologian  of  the  Dominican 
order,  a man  of  great  learning  and  eloquence.  Charles  V.  sent  him  as  envoy  to  the 
council  of  Trent,  where  he  maintained  that  it  was  the  duty  of  priests  to  reside  in  their 
benefices.  He  accompanied  the  prince,  afterwards  Philip  II.,  to  England,  where  he 
went  to  settle  the  marriage  with  Mary.  In  England.  Carranza  became  queen  Mary’s 
confessor,  and  worked  hard  for  the  re-establishment  of  Roman  Catholicism.  Philip  made 
him  archbishop  of  Toledo,  an  appointment  that  aroused  such  jealousy  that  Carranza 
was  denounced  as  a heretic.  He  was  kept  in  prison  ei^ht  years,  thence  taken  to  Rome 
and  kept  in  prison,  being  at  last  compelled  to  abjure  opinions  which  he  had  never  held. 
He  was  then  degraded  from  his  office  and  sent  to  a convent,  where  he  died  seven  days 
afterwards.  He  was  afterwards  honored  as  a saint  by  the  Spanish  people. 


487 


Carqulnes. 

Carrical. 


CARRAPA'TO,  a species  of  tick  (q.v.)  of  the  genus  ixodes,  which  infests  dry  bushy 
places  in  the  interior  of  Brazil,  hanging  in  clusters  of  many  hundreds  on  very  slender 
twigs,  and  ready  to  attach  itself  to  any  quadruped  or  man  that  passes,  instantly  burying 
its  beak  in  the  skin,  from  which  it  cannot  be  detached  without  considerable  force. 
Horses  and  oxen  suffer  very  much  from  the  attacks  of  the  C.,  of  which  in  dry  season* 
the  numbers  are  so  great  that  whole  herds  of  cattle  are  destroyed  by  the  exhaustion 
which  they  produce, 

CARRA'RA,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  60  m.  s.w.  of  Moddna.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Avenza,  near  its  mouth  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  marble  hills 
which  have  made  its  celebrity.  Many  of  the  principal  buildings  are  wholly  or  partially 
constructed  of  the  inferior  kinds  of  white  marble.  There  are  upwards  of  30  marble 
quarries  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town,  but  not  more  than  6 or  7 furnish  the  marble  used 
for  statuary.  Extensive  works,  fitted  up  with  English  machinery  for  sawing  the  marble, 
have  been  established  near  the  town,  in  which  are  several  shops  for  the  sale  of  marble 
ornaments.  Many  foreign  artists  have  set  up  their  studios  here,  in  order  to  save  the 
expense  which  the  export  of  the  marble  in  its  rough  slate  entails.  C.  has  a fine  collegi- 
ate church  of  the  13th  and  15th  centuries,  with  some  good  sculptures,  an  academy  of 
fine  arts,  and  a pop.,  in  1872,  of  23,827.  The  quarries  have  been  worked  for  more  than 
2,000  years,  and  yield  £75,000  worth  of  marble  yearly. 

The  famous  Cariiara  Marble  is  a white  saccharine  limestone,  which  derives  its 
value  to  the  sculptor  from  its  texture  and  purity.  It  was  formerly  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  primitive  rocks,  but  is  now  known  to  be  a limestone  of  theoolitic  period,  highly 
altered  by  plutonic  action. 

CARREL,  Armand,  a celebrated  French  publicist  and  republican  leader,  was  b.  at 
Houen  in  1800,  and  was  educated  in  the  military  school  of  St.  Cyr.  After  serving  for 
some  years  in  the  army,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  devoted  his  attention  to  political  and  his- 
torical studies.  In  1830,  in  connection  with  "I'hiers  and  Mignet,  he  became  editor  of  the 
National,  the  most  spirited  and  able  of  the  journals  opposed  to  the  government  of  Charles 
X.  C.’s  colleagues  being  employed  by  the  new  government,  he  was  left  to  conduct  the 
National  himself,  which  he  did  with  a spirit  and  a freedom  such  as  had  not  been  witnessed 
in  France  for  a long  time — which  on  more  than  one  occasion  checked  the  arbitrary 
power  government  attempted  to  exercise,  and  gained  for  him  the  high  admiration  and 
esteem  of  the  popular  party.  Government  prosecutions  of  course  followed  his  out- 
spokenness, and  heavy  fines  were  decreed  against  him;  but  these  were  paid  by  public 
subscription,  and  each  conviction  only  made  his  journal  more  famous.  C.,  however, 
dreaded  revolution  as  much  as  he  hated  despotism,  and  had  no  sympathy  with  many 
of  those  who  looked  up  to  him  as  a leader.  Provoked  into  a duel  with  Emile  de 
Girardin,  by  an  attack  on  his  personal  character,  C.  was  mortally  wounded,  and  died 
July  24,  1836.  His  funeral  was  attended  by  many  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in 
France. 

CARRE'RA,  Rafael,  1814-65;  a Guatemalan  of  Indian  and  negro  blood,  who  in 
1837  led  a band  of  insurgents  and  the  next  year  captured  the  city  of  Guatemala.  In 
1839,  he  again  held  the  city  by  force.  In  1847,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  republic, 
and  in  1851,  re-elected  for  life.  In  1863,  he  made  war  on  San  Salvador,  captured  the 
capital,  and  expelled  the  president.  Though  almost  a savage,  and  without  education, 
his  government  on  the  whole  was  mild  and  reasonable. 

CARRIACOU',  one  of  the  West  India  islands,  20  m.  n.e.  of  Grenada;  7 m.  long  by 
3 wide.  Cotton  is  the  chief  production. 

CARRIAGE.  See  Coach,  Cart,  Wagon. 

CARRIAGE  DEPARTMENT,  Royal,  at  Woolwich,  is  one  of  the  great  national 
manufacturing  establishments  maintained  for  warlike  armaments — its  duty  being  the 
construction  of  gun-carriages,  for  army  and  navy,  military  wagons,  and  vehicles  of  all 
kinds,  and  the  joinery  of  the  army  generally.  The  department  was  organized  as  a dis- 
tinct establishment  in  1803,  and  has  been  undergoing  gradual  enlargement  ever  since. 
Since  the  recent  introduction  of  iron  carriages  for  heavy  guns,  the  department  has  had 
a new  section  added  for  ironwork.  Until  1855,  the  board  of  ordinance  had  the  direc- 
tion of  this  department,  but  in  that  year  it  passed  under  the  direct  control  of  the  secre- 
tary for  war,  who,  since  1869,  administers  it  through  the  surveyor-general  of  the  ord- 
nance. The  works,  store-rooms,  and  yards  are  of  vast  size,  often  employing  from  2,000 
to  3,000  hands.  There  are  many  steam- engines  in  various  parts  of  the  establishment; 
and  the  iron  and  wood  cutting  and  shaping  machines  are  of  the  highest  order  of  excel- 
lence. The  internal  communications  are  carried  on  by  locomotives  on  a tramway  of  18 
in.  gauge.  See  Gun-Carriage. 

CARRICAL,  or  Karikal,  a French  port  within  the  limits  of  Tanjore,  a district  of  the 
presidency  of  Madras.  It  stands  in  lat.  10°  55'  n.,  and  long.  79°  53'  e.,  on  the  estuary 
of  a small  branch  of  the  Cauvery,  a tributary  of  the  bay  of  Bengal.  C.  is  accessible 
from  the  sea  only  after  the  periodical  rains,  and  then  only  for  coasting  craft.  The  town 
and  territory  contain  63  sq.m.,  and  about  50,000  inhabitants.  The  settlement,  origi- 
nally ceded  to  France  by  a native  grant  in  1759,  and  subsequently  subdued  by  the  British, 
■was  restored  in  1814,  on  condition  of  being  neither  fortified  nor  garrisoned 


Carrickfergns. 

Carriers. 


488 


CABBICKFEB'GTJS,  a seaport  t.  of  Ireland,  is  situated  on  the  lough  of  Belfast,  about 
10  m.  distant  from  the  town  of  that  name.  Though  locally  within  the  co.  of  Antrim, 
it  forms  a co.  of  itself.  0.  extends  nearly  a mile  along  the  north-western  shore  of 
the  lough.  Its  chief  feature  is  its  castle,  a fine  picturesque  object,  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  by  De  Courcy  in  the  12th  century.  It  is  situated  on  a rock  about  30  ft, 
high,  projecting  boldly  into  the  sea,  by  which  it  is  surrounded  on  three  sides.  The  bal- 
lium  or  keep  is  90  ft.  in  height.  From  the  top  of  the  keep  a splendid  view  is  obtained, 
extending,  in  a clear  atmosphere,  to  the  Mourne  mountains  and  the  Scotch  coast.  The 
castle  contains  a barrack,’ bomb-proof  magazine,  and  ordnance  store-rooms;'  and  for 
many  years,  22  pieces  of  ordnance,  12-pounders,  were  mounted  on  the  works.  A total 
change  has,  however,  been  made  in  the  defense  of  the  castle,  and  cannon  of  a very  large 
caliber  are  now  mounted,  hn  order  to  command  the  entrance  of  the  lough.  In  1575,  a wall 
16  ft.  high  and  7 thick,  with  7 bastions,  to  surround  the  town,  was  commenced,  and  com- 
pleted in  the  year  1608;  a considerable  portion  of  the  wall  is  still  standing,  and  one  of 
the  4 entrance-gates.  On  the  14th  June,  1690,  king  William  III.  landed  here  with  his 
army,  12  days  before  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  The  rock  on  which  the  king  stepped  on 
landing  is  at  the  end  of  the  quay,  projecting  from  it,  and  still  forming  the  landing- 
place.  In  1760,  commodore  Thurot  captured  the  castle,  but  on  the  approach  of  troops 
from  Belfast,  was  forced  to  abandon  it.  The  parish  church,  said  to  have  been  founded 
in  the  year  1164,  on  the  site  of  a pagan  temple,  is  a fine  old  building,  dedicated  to  St. 
Nicholas.  There  are  several  other  churches  and  chapels  in  the  town.,  and  several  good 
day  and  Sunday  schools  in  connection  with  the  religious  bodies,  and  a fine  model  school 
has  been  erected  by  the  national  board.  There  is  a literary  and  scientific  society,  with 
reading-room,  library,  and  museum.  The  fishery  of  the  bay,  which  is  famous  for 
oysters  of  an  unusual  size,  employs  a good  number  of  the  inhabitants.  There  are  four 
spinning-mills,  one  for  weaving  linen,  one  bleaching  establishment,  a starch  manufac- 
tory, and  a tan-yard.  A market  is  held  every  Monday  and  Saturday,  and  a fair  twice  a 
year.  Pop.  ’71,  9,397.  The  town  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  There  are 
several  barrows  or  tumuli  in  the  vicinity.  C.  is  connected  by  railway  with  Bel- 
fast, Portrush,  and  Larne.  A few  years  since,  a shaft  was  opened  by  the  marquis 
of  ilownshire,  in  the  hope  of  finding  coal — without  success;  but  salt  of  a superior 
quality,  and  in  great  abundance,  was  found.  A company  has  been  formed,  and  are 
working  the  mine.  The  length  and  breadth  of  the  co.  are  nearly  equal — about  5 statute 
miles. 

CABBICE-ON-STJIB,  a t.  of  Tipperary,  situated,  as  its  name  implies,  on  the  Suir,. 
which  is  navigable  at  this  point,  12  m.  e.  of  of  Clonmel,  in  the  midst  of  very  fine  scen- 
ery. Pop.  ’71,  7,792.  C.  was  formerly  celebrated  for  its  woolen  manufacture,  which 
has  recently  been  considerably  revived,  and  there  are  also  linen  and  flax  factories.  It 
exports  much  agricultural  produce.  The  town  has  recently  much  improved.  C.  became 
a place  of  note  soon  after  the  Norman  conquest.  There  are  the  remains  of  a castle  built 
in  1309,  on  the  site  of  an  old  priory  of  the  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

GARRICK’S  FORD,  on  Cheat  river  in  West  Virginia,  where,  July  13,  1861,  a con- 
federate force  under  gen.  R.  B.  Garnett  was  routed  by  a federal  force  under  gen.  T A. 
Morris,  and  of  the  confederates  several  were  killed. 

CABBIEB,  Jean  Baptiste,  one  of  the  most  infamous  and  blood-thirsty  members  of 
the  French  national  convention,  was  b.  at  the  village  of  Yolai,  near  Aurillac,  in  Haut- 
Auvergne,  in  1756.  Entering  the  national  convention  in  1792,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  formation  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  demanded 
the  arrest  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  assisted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondists.  At 
Nantes,  whither  he  was  sent  on  a mission  against  the  moderates,  in  Oct.,  1793,  he  found 
ample  means  for  indulging  his  insatiable  thirst  for  human  blood.  The  utter  defeat  of 
the  Vendeans  had  filled  the  prisons  with  captives,  and  C.  proposed  and  carried  a reso- 
lution for  murdering  the  unhappy  prisoners  en  masse.  Accordingly,  on  Nov.  15,  he 
compelled  94  priests  to  embark  in  a vessel,  under  pretense  of  deportation,  and  during 
the  night  drowned  the  whole  of  them,  by  having  the  ship  scuttled.  Another  of  these 
noyades,  as  they  were  called,  in  which  138  persons  were  sacrificed,  took  place  soon  after, 
and  they  were  repeated  to  the  number  of  25,  their  perpetrators  facetiously  terming  them 
“vertical  deportations,”  Other  cruelties  C.  committed  here.  Men  and  women  were 
tied  together  feet  and  hands,  and  thrown  into  the  Loire;  and  this  was  called  matnage 
repuhlicain  (republican  marriage).  With  such  recklessness  were  these  murders  com- 
mitted, that,  in  one  instance,  a number  of  foreign  war-prisoners  were  drowned  by  mis 
take.  The  water  of  the  Loire  was  so  poisoned  by  corpses,  that  its  use  for  drinking  and 
cooking  was  prohibited.  Five  hundred  political  prisoners  were  shot,  as  in  a battue,  on 
the  bridge  near  Nantes.  Even  Robespierre  v^as  offended  by  these  enormities,  and 
recalled  C.,  who  boldly  justified  his  own  conduct  before  the  convention.  The  fall  of 
Robespierre  was,  however,  soon  followed  by  outcries  against  Carrier;  judgment  w^ 
decreed  against  him,  and  he  perished  under  the  guillotine,  Dec.  16,  1794 — dying  with 
the  protestation  that,  in  all  his  cruelties,  he  had  acted  according  to  orders,  and  as  a true 
republican  patriot. 

CARRIERE',  Moritz,  b.  1817;  a German  scholar,  professor  of  philosophy  at  Giessen 
and  Munich,  and  author  of  many  works  on  philosophy,  religion,  aesthetics,  poetry,  etc. 


489 


Carrickferg^Qt, 

Carriers. 


He  is  a pronounced  liberal,  going  so  far  as  to  advocate  the  conversion  of  the  cathedral 
at  Cologne  into  a free  church.  He  is  also  an  art  critic  of  high  rank. 

CARRI^iRES,  Louis  de,  1663-1717 ; a Roman  Catholic  theologian  of  France,  who 
published  a literal  commentary  on  the  Scriptures,  in  which  most  of  the  comments  were 
in  the  words  of  the  Bible  itself. 

GABBIER  PIGEON,  a variety  of  the  domestic  pigeon  (q.v.),  remarkable  for  the  degree 
in  which  it  possesses  the  instinct  and  power  of  returning  from  a distance  to  its  accus- 
tomed home;  and  which  has  been,  therefore,  much  employed  to  convey  letters  from  one 
place  to  another.  In  eastern  countries,  where  such  messengers  are  most  frequently  em- 
ployed, it  is  the  practice  to  bathe  the  pigeon’s  feet  in  vinegar  to  keep  them  cool,  and  to 
prevent  it  from  alighting  in  quest  of  water,  by  which  the  letter  might  sustain  injury. 
Pigeons  intended  for  this  use,  must  be  brought  from  the  place  to  which  they  are  to  return, 
within  a short  period,  not  exceeding  a fortnight  of  their  being  let  loose,  and  at  a time 
when  they  have  young  in  their  nest;  the  remarkable  fecundity  of  the  C.  P.  affording 
particular  facilities  for  its  employment  in  this  way.  The  bird  is  also  kept  in  the  dark 
and  without  food,  for  at  least  eight  hours  before  being  let  loose.  The  instinct  by  which 
it  is  guided,  like  most  other  instincts,  has  received  no  sufficient  explanation.  That  it 
recognizes  objects  by  sight,  and  so  directs  its  course,  is  nothing  more  than  a conjecture, 
and  as  such,  is  only  very  partially  supported  by  the  fact  of  the  great  power  of  vision 
which  these  birds,  in  common  with  so  many  others,  are  known  to  possess,  and  by  that 
of  the  C.  P.,  on  being  let  loose,  immediately  rising  spirally  to  a great  height  in  the  air, 
as  if  to  obtain  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  this  power.  The  C.  P.  has  probably  been 
more  used  in  the  Turkish  dominions  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world;  and  during 
the  siege  of  Paris  in  1871,  it  safely  conveyed  many  important  messages.  Its  rate  of 
flight  is  not  less  than  30  m.  an  hour,  and  it  has  been  known  to  pass  over  great  distances 
still  more  rapidly.  The  variety  generally  described  as  the  C.  P.  {columba  tabellaria  of 
Linnaeus,  (J.  Turcica  of  some  authors,  but  not  generally  regarded  by  naturalists  as  a 
distinct  species),  is  of  remarkably  large  size,  about  15  in.  in  length  from  the  point  of 
the  bill  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  and  has  the  cere  very  large  and  carunculated,  the 
eyes  surrounded  with  a broad  circle  of  naked  red  skin,  and  the  wings  reaching  nearly 
to  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  There  is,  however,  a smaller  variety,  which  is  said  to  be 
superior  to  it,  and  which  has  not  the  carunculated  cere,  nor  the  broad  circle  around  the 
eye.  Carrier  pigeons  are  trained  by  being  conveyed,  when  young,  to  short  distances  of 
a few  milds  from  home  and  then  let  loose,  the  distanca  being  gradually  increased;  and 
this  training  is  said  to  render  them  much  more  secure  as  messengers. 

GABRIEBS,  a class  of  persons  who,  in  various  forms,  by  land  and  sea,  undertake  the 
carrying  of  goods,  particularly  articles  of  commerce.  In  all  countries  aspiring  to  commer- 
cial intercourse,  the  Carrying  Trade,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  less  or  more  developed. 
The  method  of  carrying  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  some  other  countries  in  the  east  has,  till 
the  present  time,  been  chiefly  by  means  of  the  camel,  an  animal  of  great  value,  on 
account  of  its  strength,  patience,  and  power  of  endurance.  See  Camel.  In  England 
and  Scotland,  previous  to  general  use  of  the  wheel-carriages,  goods  were  carried  on 
pack-horses,  as  is  still  practiced  in  some  parts  of  Spain  with  mules.  See  Pack-horse, 
also  Mule.  After  the  pack-horse  came  the  one-horse  cart  and  the  four-wheeled  wagon,  as 
engines  of  land-conveyance.  Carrying  with  one-horse  carts  settled  down  as  a universal 
practice  in  Scotland,  where  it  is  still  conducted  in  all  districts  not  traversed  by  railways. 
The  Scotch  C.,  winding  their  way  by  roads  over  hill  and  dale,  at  the  rate  of  about  20  m. 
a day,  have  ever  been  a respectable  and  useful  body  of  men,  exceedingly  trustworthy, 
and  moderate  in  their  charges.  In  connection  with  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  other 
centers  of  traffic,  they  travel  to  and  from  provincial  towns  for  the  most  part  once  a week 
on  certain  days,  so  that  their  arrival  at  any  particular  place  may  be  reckoned  on  with 
great  exactness.  In  England,  the  employing  of  wagons  for  carrying  goods  in  connection 
with  the  metropolis  and  provincial  towns  is  now  of  old  date.  These  carriers’  wagons, 
greatly  limited  in  tlieir  range  by  the  introduction  of  canals  and  railways,  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  some  of  the  rural  districts.  A wagon  of  this  kind  is  provided  with  four  broad 
huge  wheels;  and  being  a heavy  and  clumsy  engine  of  conveyance,  is  drawn  by  four 
horses,  though,  when  roads  were  bad  in  old  times,  six  horses  were  not  unusual. 
The  driver  ordinarily  rode  on  a pony  alongside  the  vehicle;  now  he  more  frequently 
walks,  carrying  a long  whip.  The  wagon  has  a hooped  top  with  movable  covering ; 
and  the  hinder  part  has  always  been  left  vacant  for  the  use  of  passengers,  who  are  neces- 
sarily huddled  together  on  straw.  Traveling  in  the  “tail  of  the  wagon”  is  now  entirely 
gone,  or  nearly  so ; but  with  all  its  rude  inconveniences,  it  was  common  till  past  the 
naiddle  of  the  18th  c.,  and  has  afforded  scope  for  some  of  the  most  grotesque  descrip- 
tions of  Fielding  and  Smollett.  The  tedious  process  of  carriage  by  these  wagons  largely 
increased  the  prices  of  goods,  and  retarded  the  growth  of  commerce.  The  first  modifi 
cation  in  the  carrying  trade  took  place  by  means  of  inland  navigation,  to  which  refer- 
ence  has  already  been  made.  See  Canal.  The  conveyance  of  cotton  goods  from  Lan 
cashire,  of  earthenware  from  Staffordshire,  of  metal  goods  from  Birmingham,  of  salt 
from  Cheshire,  etc.,  became  much  more  easy  than  before,  owing  to  the  large  quantity 
which  could  be  packed  in  each  barge,  and  to  the  great  amount  of  work  done  by  each 
horse.  The  chief  owners  of  the  old  wagons  became,  in  time,  the  chief  owners  of  the 


Cfarriers. 


490 


canal-boats;  they  paid  rates  or  tolls  to  the  canal  companies.  The  celebrated  English 
firm  of  Pickford  & Co.  has  been  for  many  generations,  and  still  is,  at  the  head  of  the 
goods  carrying  trade. 

When  railways  were  established,  a great  struggle  ensued;  the  owners  of  the  road- 
wagons  and  canal  barges  had  a formidable  competition.  They  wisely  accommodated 
themselves  to  a state  of  things  which  they  could  not  prevent,  and  added  the  trade  of 
railway  goods  C.  to  their  former  business.  Three  systems  were  tried:  1.  The  company 
purchased  road-wagons  or  vans,  collected  goods  at  the  various  towns,  conveyed  them  by 
railway,  and  then  distributed  them  at  their  several  destinations.  2.  The  company  con- 
fined their  attention  to  the  mere  conveyance  on  their  railway,  leaving  the  collection 
and  delivery  to  the  ordinary  carriers.  3.  The  company  combined  both  systems,  con- 
veying on  the  railway  everything  that  offered,  and  competing  with  the  C.  for  the  road- 
traffic.  During  the  greater  portion  of  the  period  in  which  the  railway  system  has  been 
in  operation,  the  second  of  the  above  three  plans  has  been  adopted  more  extensively 
than  either  of  the  others.  Taking  as  examples  the  greatest  railway  company  and  the 
greatest  carrying  firm,  Messrs.  Pickford  had  warehouses  or  deptos  at  all  the  principal 
towns  where  the  London  and  North-western  railway  had  stations.  The  merchants  and 
manufacturers  were  customers,  not  to  the  company,  but  to  the  firm,  for  the  conveyance 
of  merchandise.  Messrs.  Pickford  employed  their  own  wagons  and  horses,  clerks  and 
porters,  in  collecting  and  delivering  goods,  and  paid  to  the  company  so  much  per  ton 
for  the  conveyance  along  the  railway,  the  toll  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
goods  and  the  distance  run.  There  was  seldom  any  quarrels  or  disputes  under  this  sys- 
tem. The  carrier  was  responsible  to  the  customer  from  first  to  last  for  the  safety  of  the 
merchandise;  and  he  had  a claim  against  the  company  for  any  injury  while  the  mer- 
chandise was  on  the  railway.  Under  the  third  system,  disputes  were  much  more  fre- 
quent. The  companies  were  bound  by  law  to  carry  goods  for  all  persons  at  certain  tolls; 
but  when  they  became  road  C.  as  well,  they  competed  with  the  ordinary  C.  in  a way 
which  the  latter  could  barely  contend  against.  The  Great  Western  rail  way  has  been: 
unfavorably  distinguished  for  jealousies  and  law-suits  between  the  company  and  the 
carriers. 

At  the  present  time,  the  tendency  is  for  the  companies  to  take  the  responsibility  of 
the  whole  conveyance,  the  C.  acting  as  their  agents,  if  willing  so  to  do,  or  else  endeav- 
oring to  maintain  a fair  competition.  One  of  the  greatest  of  the  companies,  the  Mid- 
land, have  in  this  way  become  C.  on  their  own  account,  in  order  to  obtain  a share  of 
the  profit  which  accrues  from  road-traffic.  The  goods-vans  traversing  the  streets  of  the 
metropolis,  and  other  great  towns,  are  now  more  frequently  inscribed  with  the  names 
of  railway  companies  than  with  those  of  private  carriers. 

The  goods-depots  of  the  several  railways  are  scenes  of  great  activity  during  the  night; 
for  it  is  then  that  the  arrival-trains  are  mostly  unpacked,  and  the  departure-trains  mostly 
made  up.  During  the  day,  vans  are  collecting  goods  from  manufactories  and  ware- 
houses; these  goods  are  sorted  at  the  deptos,  and  are,  when  evening  comes  on,  distri- 
buted among  different  trains,  according  to  the  part  of  the  country  to  which  they  are  to 
be  conveyed.  On  the  other  hand,  goods-trains  arriving  during  the  evening  and  night 
are  unpacked,  the  goods  classified  according  to  districts,  and  sent  out  for  delivery  by 
road-vans  on  the  following  day. 

The  four-horse  broad-wheel  wagons,  as  already  said,  have  almost  disappeared  from 
English  roads;  vans  of  lighter  construction  sufficing  to  convey  merchandise  from  and 
to  the  various  railway  stations.  Canals  still  command  a trade,  but  it  is  chiefly  in  coal, 
stone,  lime,  ores,  slate,  bricks,  and  other  articles  very  bulky  in  proportion  to  their 
value.  The  conveyance  of  manufactured  goods  has,  for  the  most  part,  passed  over  ta 
the  railways. 

In  towns,  there  are  C.  whose  business  is  confined  wholly  to  short  distances.  Taking 
the  metropolis  as  an  example,  there  are  C.  residing  in  all  the  villages  and  hamlets  round 
about,  each  possessing  one  or  more  single-horse  covered  carts.  Every  morning  the  cart, 
containing  miscellaneous  articles  collected  in  the  village  or  hamlet,  goes  to  London,  and 
delivers  each  article  at  the  particular  house  or  establishment  to  wdiich  it  is  addressed. 
When  thus  emptied,  it  receives  a supply  of  packages  or  other  articles  going  from  London 
to  the  suburbs,  and  makes  its  return-journey  in  the  evening.  The  plan  is  cheap  and 
convenient,  and  does  not  seem  likely  to  be  supplanted  by  any  other;  for  no  amount  of 
railway  extension  would  wholly  accommodate  short  traffic.  For  the  metropolis  more 
strictly,  however,  an  excellent  system  has  been  established  by  the  “London  parcels 
delivery  company.”  Two  or  three  times  a day,  parcels  are  conveyed  from  receiving- 
houses  all  over  the  metropolis  to  a central  depot  near  Fetter  lane,  there  sorted,  and  sent 
out  again  for  delivery.  The  metropolis,  out  to  a wide  distance,  is  separated  into  dis- 
tricts, and  one  or  more  carts,  filled  with  parcels,  are  sent  to  each  district  at  certain  hours 
of  the  day.  The  speed  is  rapid,  the  times  are  punctual,  and  the  service  in  general  well 
conducted.  The  suburban  C.  have  arranged  among  themselves  a sort  of  central  depot 
or  “house  of  call  ” in  the  Old  Bailey,  for  the  exchange  of  traffic;  but  their  system  is  not 
so  well  organized  as  that  of  the  company  just  named. 

The  progress  of  improvement  in  the  English  Carrying  Trade  is  a type  of  the  advances 
similarly  made  in  the  United  States,  where  canals,  railways,  and  coasting  steam-vessels 
have  generally  superseded  the  old  tedious  methods  of  conveyance ; and  it  is  chiefly  on 


491 


Carrlera. 


the  long  and  almost  trackless  routes  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  that  are  now  seen  the 
old  processes  of  carriage  by  pack-mules  and  horses  and  bullock-wagons,  the  cost  of 
transit  by  these  means  being  very  great. 

The  term  Carrying  Trade  has  latterly  been  applied  more  specially  to  all  kinds  of 
conveyance  of  merchandise  by  sea,  whether  across  the  ocean  or  along  the  coast.  In 
this  broad  view,  it,  in  reality,  involves  the  whole  question  of  mercantile  marine,  British 
and  foreign. 

Carriers,  Law  respecting.  A carrier,  in  law,  is  one  who  offers  to  the  public  to 
convey  passengers,  or  goods,  from  one  place  to  another,  for  hire.  The  offer  must  be 
general ; for  a private  person  who  contracts  with  another  for  carriage,  is  not  a carrier 
in  the  legal  sense,  and  does  not  incur  the  peculiar  responsibilities  which,  in  almost  every 
country,  it  has  been  found  expedient  to  attach  to  the  occupation  of  a public  or  common 
carrier.  Carriage,  in  law,  is  tlius  a peculiar  modification  of  the  contract  of  hiring.  In 
Rome,  the  responsibilities  of  carriers  by  water  were  regulated  by  a praetorian  edict, 
which  was  applicable  also  to  inn-keepers  and  stablers  (Nautae,  Caupones,  Stabularii, 
Dig.;  lib.  iv.  t.  9);  and  from  that  edict  the  law  of  carriage  in  modern  Europe  has  been 
mainly  borrowed,  sometimes  directly,  as  in  Scotland,  sometimes  indirectly,  as  in  Eng- 
land. ‘ The  ground  on  which  the  edict  increased  the  responsibilities  attaching  to  an 
ordinary  contract  of  hiring  was,  that  the  persons  whom  it  enumerated  were  under 
peculiar  temptations  to  consort,  either  personally  or  through  their  servants,  with  thieves 
and  robbers,  without  the  conne’ction  being  such  as  to  admit  of  proof;  and  that  the  public 
safety  consequently  required  that  they  should  be  held  responsible  for  whatever  had 
been  intrusted  to  them,  till  its  safe  delivery  at  the  place  to  which  they  had  undertaken 
to  convey  it.  This  responsibility  in  our  own  law  extends  not  only  to  the  acts  of  the 
carrier’s  servants,  but  also  to  those  of  the  other  guests  in  an  inn,  or  the  other  passengers 
in  a conveyance.  The  only  exception  to  this  liability  at  common  law  is  in  the  case  of 
loss  arising  from  the  act  of  God  (q.v.)  or  the  queen’s  enemies — i.e.,  the  fury  of  the  ele- 
ments, or  war.  But  there  are  several  statutory  limitations.  The  liability  for  gold  and 
silver,  and  articles  of  unusual  value,  is  restricted  to  £10,  unless  the  extra  value  has  been 
previously  stated  and  paid  for  as  insurance  against  the  greater  risk  (11  Geo.  IV.  and 
1 Will.  IV.  c.  68,  and  17  and  18  Viet.  c.  31);  and  the  proof  of  value  is  laid  on  the 
person  claiming  compensation.  But  the  last-mentioned  act,  commonly  called  the  rail- 
way and  traffic  act  of  1856,  provides,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  company  shall  be 
liable  for  neglect  or  default  in  the  carriage  of  goods,  animals,  etc. ; notwithstanding 
any  notice  or  condition  or  declaration  made  by  the  company,  for  the  purpose  of  limit- 
ing their  liability.  The  decisions  of  the  courts  have  also  somewhat  limited  the  uni- 
versal responsibility  of  the  carrier.  For  example,  it  has  been  decided  that  he  is  not 
liable,  qua  C.  (and  the  same  applies  to  an  inn-keeper),  for  money  taken  from  the  pockets 
of  the  traveler;  but  that,  if  the  money  has  been  taken  from  the  pockets  of  clothes  which 
have  been  stolen,  or  from  trunks  which  have  been  broken  into,  his  responsibility  comes 
into  operation. 

Under  C.  are  included  carters  and  porters,  who  offer  themselves  for  hire,  to  carry 
goods  from  one  part  of  a city  to  another.  Whether  the  same  be  the  case  with  hackney- 
coachmen,  is  more  doubtful ; though,  from  the  extent  to  which  they  are  now  employed 
in  the  transport  of  luggage,  there  seems  no  sound  reason  for  an  exemption  in  their  case. 
Wharfingers  and  warehousemen  are  liable  only  under  the  special  contracts  into  which 
they  may  have  entered,  or  in  accordance  with  mercantile  usage.  In  England,  it  has 
been  decided  that  lodging-house  keepers  are  in  a different  position  from  carriers  and  inn- 
keepers, on  the  ground  that  they  do  not  profess  to  entertain  all-comers,  or  to  receive 
their  goods.  C.  are  liable  to  make  good  to  the  owners  of  goods  intrusted  to  them  all 
losses  arising  from  accidental  fire.  This  rule  was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  the 
mercantile  law  amendment  act  of  1856.  Carriers  have  a lien  upon  the  goods  they  have 
carried  for  payment  of  the  carriage  only.  The  lien  is,  however,  restricted  to  the  par- 
ticular goods  to  which  the  carriage  refers,  and  ceases  on  possession  of  them  having  been 
given  up.  It  does  not  cover  any  account  or  balance  aue  either  by  the  sender  or  consignee 
to  the  carrier. 

CARRIERS  {ante).  In  the  United  States,  common  carriers  are  such  as  transport  for 
hire  for  all  persons  indifferently.  They  operate  both  on  land  and  water,  and  embrace 
stage-coach  proprietors,  railway  and  steamboat  companies,  truckmen,  teamsters,  express 
companies,  etc.,  including  owners  and  masters  of  every  kind  of  vessel  or  water-craft 
who  come  before  the  public  as  the  carriers  of  freight  of  any  kind  for  whomsoever  may 
choose  to  employ  them,  for  either  a long  or  a short  voyage.  Common  C.  are  responsible 
for  loss  or  damage  during  transportation  from  whatever  cause,  “except  the  acts  of  God, 
or  of  the  public  enemy.”  The  act  of  God  means  only  such  inevitable  accidents  as  occur 
without  man’s  agency.  The  carrier  is  not  responsible  for  losses  occurring  from  natural 
causes,  such  as  "fermentation,  evaporation,  freezing,  the  ordinary  decay  of  perishable 
articles,  or  the  natural  wear  in  the  course  of  transportation,  provided  he  exercises 
reasonable  care  to  have  such  dangers  as  little  as  practicable.  C.  who  undertake 
general  business  are  bound  to  carry  all  matter  that  offers,  under  liability  of  legal  action 
if  they  refuse  without  just  excuse;  but  any  carrier  may  restrict  his  business  to  certain 
goods,  in  which  case  he  is  not  bound  to  accept  things  out  of  his  line.  A carrier  may 


Carrion. 

Carroll. 


492 


require  payment  of  freight  in  advance ; and  he  is  entitled  to  a lien  upon  the  goods  for 
his  freight  and  for  what  he  advances  to  other  carriers.  But  all  common-law  responsi- 
bility may  be  qualified  by  special  contracts.  The  bill  of  lading,  or  receipt  for  the  goods, 
is  an  acknowledgment  of  the  carrier’s  responsibility,  and  is  presumed  to  name  excep- 
tions from  responsibility  if  any  there  be.  Railway  companies,  steamboat  owners,  and 
other  C.  who  allow  express  companies  to  carry  parcels  and  packages  on  their  cars, 
boats,  or  other  vehicles,  are  liable  as  common  C.  to  the  owners  of  the  goods  for  loss- 
or  damage  without  regard  to  the  contract  between  them  and  such  express  carriers. 
Railways,  steamers,  etc.,  carrying  passengers,  although  not  liable  for  injury  to  passengers 
without  the  C.’s  fault,  are  responsible  for  the  baggage  of  such  passengers  intrusted 
to  them  as  common  C.,  and  the  responsibility  continues  until  the  delivery  of  the  bag- 
gage to  the  owner,  or  to  his  order.  The  baggage-check  is  the  same  as  a bill  of  lading 
for  goods,  and  is  evidence  of  the  responsibility  assumed.  Jewelry  and  a watch  in  a 
trunk  are  considered  baggage,  but  money,  beyond  a reasonable  amount  for  expenses,  is 
not  so  considered.  The  responsibility  of  C.  begins  upon  the  delivery  of  the  goods  for 
immediate  transportation.  A delivery  at  the  usual  place  of  receiving  freight,  or  to  those 
employed  by  the  company  in  the  usual  course  of  business,  is  sufficient.  But  where  C. 
have  a house  at  which  they  receive  goods  that  are  not  to  be  forwarded  until  further 
order  or  a later  time,  such  C,  are  in  the  mean  time  responsible  only  as  depositaries; 
and  where  goods  are  received  as  by  wharfingers,  or  warehousers,  or  forwarders,  and  not 
as  C,,  liabilities  are  incurred  only  for  ordinary  negligence.  The  responsibility  of  the 
carrier  terminates  when,  after  the  arrival  of  the  goods  at  their  destination,  a sufficient 
time  has  elapsed  for  the  owner  to  receive  them  in  business  hours.  After  that  the  carrier 
may  store  them,  and  is  responsible  only  for  ordinary  care.  The  agents  of  corporations 
which  are  common  C.,  such  as  railway  and  steamboat  companies,  bind  their  prin- 
cipals to  the  full  extent  of  the  business  intrusted  to  their  control,  whether  they  follow 
their  instructions  or  not;  nor  will  it  excuse  the  company  to  show  that  the  agents  acted 
willfully  in  disregard  of  instructions.  The  carrier  has  an  insurable  interest  in  the  goods 
both  in  regard  to  fire  and  marine  disaster,  except  such  as  result  from  inevitable  acci- 
dent, such  as  fire  by  lightning-stroke.  If  a particular  time  is  set  for  the  delivery  of 
goods,  damages  may  be  recovered  for  exceeding  that  time.  The  carrier  is  liable  upon 
general  principles  where  the  goods  are  delivered  through  his  default,  to  the  extent  of 
their  value  at  the  place  of  destination ; and  this  includes  the  profits  of  the  adventure. 
If  the  goods  are  only  damaged,  or  not  delivered  in  time,  the  owner  is  bound  to  receive 
them.  He  will  be  entitled  to  damages,  but  he  cannot  repu  iiate  the  goods  and  recover 
for  the  total  loss. 

Carriers  of  Passengers.  (See  Carriers,  ante.')  Persons  who  carry  passengers^ 
are  not  held  responsible  as  insurers  of  the  safety  of  their  freight  as  carriers  of  goods 
are  held.  But  they  are  held  to  the  highest  degree  of  watchfulness  and  care  in  all  the 
conduct  of  their  business.  So  far  as  human  foresight  and  prudence  can  secure  the  pas- 
senger from  harm,  there  is  a right  to  demand  it  of  all  who  assume  the  transportation  of 
persons.  It  is  a practice  to  print  on  passes  or  free  tickets  a notice  that  such  a passenger 
assumes  the  risk  of  personal  injury,  but  the  courts  have  again  and  again  decided  that 
this  in  no  degree  lessens  the  carrier’s  liability,  holding  even  that  the  transporting  party 
was  as  much  responsible  for  a non-paying  as  for  a paying  passenger.  Passenger-carriers 
are  responsible  for  the  baggage  of  their  passengers,  and  for  the  safety  of  parcels 
intrusted  to  them  or  their  agents.  Many  decisions  of  American  courts  touch  various 
points  in  the  case  of  passengers,  but  all  sustain  the  principle  that  if  anything  more  could 
have  been  done  by  the  carrier  to  insure  the  safety  of  his  passengers,  and  injury  occur 
in  consequence  of  the  omission,  he  is  liable.  Passenger-carriers  are  not  responsible 
where  the  injury  occurs  through  the  negligence  of  the  passenger;  but  when  there  is 
intentional  wrong  on  the  part  of  the  carrier,  the  injured  party  may  recover  notwith- 
standing his  negligence.  And  so  also,  where  the  carrier’s  negligence  contributed  only 
remotely  to  the  injury  and  the  passenger’s  culpable  want  of  care  was  its  immediate 
cause,  a recovery  may  still  be  had.  Passengers  leaping  from  a conveyance  in  conse- 
quence of  any  just  sense  of  peril  may  recover  for  injury.  Carriers  are  bound  to  carry 
for  the  whole  route  for  which  they  stipulate,  and  according  to  their  public  notices  and 
the  general  customs  of  their  business;  but  they  are  not  bound  to  carry  persons  disorderly^ 
in  conduct,  or  those  having  contagious  diseases,  or  who  are  in  any  way  dangerous  or 
offensive  to  other  passengers.  The  carrier  is  liable  for  damages  if  he  fail  to  deliver  the 
passenger  in  a reasonable  time,  or  according  to  the  published  schedule.  The  sale  of 
through  tickets  for  a route  operated  by  several  successive  companies  of  carriers  having 
no  partnership  connection,  renders  each  company  liable  for  injuries  to  passengers 
occurring  only  in  the  part  of  the  route  which  pertains  to  it  severally.  One  decision  in 
case  of  the  death  of  a passenger  was  that  the  jury  are  to  estimate  damages  for  the 
death  as  they  would  for  an  injury  to  health,  by  the  probable  financial  accumulations  of 
the  deceased  had  he  survived,  or  not  been  injured  through  the  culpable  negligence  of  the 
carrier;  therefore  he  or  his  estate  is  entitled  to  recover  not  only  the  damages  sustained 
up  to  the  time  of  trial,  but  all  prospective  damages  likely  to  accrue  from  the  injury. 
Passengers  must  conform  to  the  rules  of  the  road  or  company  with  re^rd  to  purchas- 
ing, showing,  and  giving  up  tickets,  and  in  respect  to  trains  and  cars.  But  it  has  been 
held  that  when  one  purchased  a ticket  indorsed  “good  for  this  trip  only,”  and  was 


493 


Carrion. 

Carroll. 


unexpectedly  detained,  he  could  lawfully  demand  transportation  by  another  train,  even 
on  the  next  day.  Railway  companies  may  exclude  merchandise  and  articles  known  as 
“express”  matter  from  the  passenger  cars.  When  an  accident  occurs  to  a train,  or  a 
stage-coach  is  overturned,  the  fact  is  considered  primd  facie  evidence  of  fault  on  the 
part  of  the  company  or  its  agents.  With  regard  to  steam  and  other  vessels,  very  strict 
rules  are  enacted  by  governments  for  the  safety  of  passengers  and  property,  regulating 
the  number  of  passengers,  the  amount  of  provisions,  the  navigating  of  the  ship,  pilot- 
age, etc. 

CABRION  CROW.  (See  Cnow.)  C.  C.,  also  called  Uack  milture,  is  not  in  America, 
as  in  Britain,  the  name  of  a species  of  crow,  but  of  one  of  the  vulture  family.  See 
Vulture. 

CARRION  FLOWERS,  a name  which,  on  account  of  their  smell  resembling  that  of 
putrid  meat,  has  been  given  to  the  flowers  of  many  species  of  stapelia.  The  genus 
stapelia  belongs  to  the  natural  order  asclepiadecje,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  excessive 
development  of  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  stem  and  reduction  of  that  of  the  leaves,  result- 
ing in  a general  aspect  like  that  of  the  cactus  family.  The  species  are  natives  of  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  flowers  are  often  large,  and  not  devoid  of  beauty,  but  the 
carrion  stench  is  very  strong.  It  is  not  yet  known  to  what  chemical  substance  it  is 
owing. 

CARRO',  Jean  de,  1770-1857;  b.  Geneva;  a German  physician  in  Vienna  and  Carls- 
bad, noted  for  his  advocacy  of  Jenner’s  system  of  vaccination  as  a guard  against  small- 
pox. Through  his  efforts,  kine-pox  inoculation  was  introduced  into  India,  where  the 
people,  hearing  that  the  vaccine  matter  came  from  a cow,  ascribed  its  origin  to  their 
sacred  cow,  and  called  it  by  a name  meaning  “immortality.”  Carro  wrote  several 
works  on  medical  subjects. 

, CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.w.  Arkansas,  on  the  Missouri  border,  and  King  and  White 
rivers;  700  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 13,337 — 64  colored.  Surface  varied,  and  soil  generally  fertile. 
There  are  quarries  of  excellent  yellow  marble.  Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  w.  Georgia,  on  the  Alabama  bprder,  and  the  Chattahoochee  and 
Tallapoosa  rivers;  572  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  16,903 — 2310  colored.  The  surface  is  mostly 
mountainous;  but  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  producing  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  etc.  One 
or  two  gold-mines  have  been  profitably  worked.  Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.w.  Illinois,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  crossed  by  the  Western 
Union  railroad;  416  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  16,985.  The  surface  is  uneven,  occupied  by 
prairie  and  forest,  and  the  main  products  are  cereals,  butter,  and  wool.  Co.  seat. 
Savannah. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.w.  Indiana,  on  the  Wabash  and  Tippecanoe  rivers,  traversed 
by  the  Toledo,  Wabash  and  Western  railroad,  and  the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal;  378 
sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  18,347.  It  has  a diversified  and  well-timbered  surface,  and  productive 
soil,  agriculture  being  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat,  Delphi. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  central  Iowa,  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad,  drained 
by  the  North  and  Middle  Raccoon  rivers;  600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,12,351.  The  climate  is 
good  and  the  soil  fertile.  Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio  and  Kentucky  rivers,  and  Louis- 
ville, Cincinnati  and  Lexington  railroad;  200  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  8953 — 771  colored.  It 
has  a calcareous  soil,  with  abundance  of  limestone.  Productions  chiefly  agricultural. 
Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a parish  in  n.e.  Louisiana,  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  bayou  Boeuf ; 
1050  sq.m. ; pop.  ’70,  10,110 — 7,718  colored.  It  has  a level  surface,  producing  corn  and 
cotton.  Seat  of  justice.  Providence. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.  Maryland,  on  the  Pennsylvania  border  and  the  Patapsco  and 
Monocacy  rivers,  reached  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and  crossed  by  the  Western  Mary- 
land railroad;  500  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  30,992 — 2284  colored.  It  has  a hilly  surface,  and 
rather  thin  but  well- cultivated  soil;  its  productions  are  wheat,  corn,  butter,  tobacco,  etc. 
Co.  seat,  Westminster. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  w.  Mississippi,  on  the  Yalabusha,  Yazoo,  and  Big  Black  rivers, 
and  crossed  by  the  Mississippi  Central  railroad;  900  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  17,800  — 9969 
colored.  The  surface  is  level,  and  the  soil  is  remarkably  fertile ; chief  productions,  corn 
and  cotton.  Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.w.  Missouri,  between  the  Missouri  and  Grand  rivers,  traversed 
by  a branch  of  the  North  Missouri  railroad;  700  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  23,262 — 1473  colored. 
It  has  an  uneven  surface,  in  many  parts  covered 'with  black  walnut  and  oak  forests; 
its  soil  is  generally  productive.  Chief  business,  agriculture.  Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.e.  New  Hampshire,  on  the  Maine  border  and  Winipiseogee 
Jake,  reached  by  the  Portland  and  Ogdensburg,  and  the  Portsmouth,  Great  Falls  and 
Conway  raUroads.  The  surface  is  mostly  mountainous;  productions  chiefly  agricul- 
tmal.  Co.  seat,  Ossipee.  Pop.  ’80,  18,222—16  colored. 


Carroll. 

Carse. 


494 


CARROLL,  a co.  in  e.  Ohio,  traversed  by  the  Tuscarawas  branch  of  the  Cleveland 
and  Pittsburg,  and  the  Carrollton  and  Oneida  railroads;  360  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  16,416. 
It  is  hilly,  but  well-watered  and  fertile.  Iron  and  coal  are  found.  The  chief  produc- 
tions are  grain,  hay,  butter,  and  wool.  Co.  seat,  Carrollton. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  n.  Tennessee,  on  the  Big  Sandy  and  Obion  rivers,  and  the 
Louisville  and  Memphis,  and  the  Nashville  and  Northwestern  railroads;  625  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  22,104 — 5576  colored.  It  is  level  and  fertile,  with  forests  of  black  walnut’ 
hickory,  maple,  and  oak.  Chief  productions,  corn,  wheat,  cotton,  and  butter.  Co. 
seat,  Huntingdon. 

CARROLL,  a co.  in  s.w.  Virginia,  on  the  North  Carolina  border,  drained  by  the 
Kanawha  river;  440  sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 13,323 — 346  colored.  The  surface  is  rough,  but  well 
adapted  to  grazing.  Copper,  iron,  and  lead  are  found.  The  Grayson  sulphur  springs 
are  much  visited.  Productions  chiefly  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Hillsville. 

CARROLL,  Charles,  op  Carrollton,  b.  Md.,  Sept.  20,  1737;  d.  Nov.  14,  1832, 
aged  95  years;  the  last  survivor  of  the  fifty  signers  of  the  declaration  of  American 
independence.  He  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  colleges  of  St.  Omer  and  Rheims;  studied 
law  at  Bourges,  Paris,  and  London,  returning  to  America  in  1764.  He  inherited  the 
last  and  the  largest  of  the  old  manorial  estates  of  Maryland,  a property  estimated  in  1775 
at  $2,000,000,  and  he  was  then  considered  the  wealthiest  private  citizen  in  the  colonies. 
In  1775,  he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  “ committee  of  observation  ” at  Annapolis,  and  in 
the  same  year  sent  to  the  provincial  convention.  In  1776,  he  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
sent  to  persuade  the  Canadians  to  join  in  the  revolt  against  England.  Returning  to 
Maryland,  he  was  prominent  in  bringing  the  colonial  delegates  to  agree  upon  union  for 
independence;  and  July  4,  1776,  he  was  sent  to  congress,  where,  Aug.  2,  he  signed  the 
declaration.  At  the  time  of  signing,  a delegate,  alluding  to  Carroll’s  great  wealth, 
remarked,  “ There  goes  a few  millions;  but  there  are  many  Charles  Carrolls,  and  the 
British  will  not  know  which  one  it  is;”  whereupon  Carroll  immediately  added  after  his 
name  of  Carrollton,  an  addition  that  was  ever  afterward  respected.  In  congress,  he  was 
one  of  the  board  of  war.  About  the  close  of  1776,  he  was  one  of  the  committee 
that  drafted  the  Maryland  constitution,  and  w^as  chosen  to  the  senate  of  that  state.  In 
1777,  he  was  again  sent  to  congress,  and  in  subsequent  years  was  repeatedly  elected  to 
the  state  legislature.  In  1789,  he  was  United  States  senator;  in  1799,  one  of  the  Mary- 
land and  Virginia  boundary  commission.  July  4,  1821,  but  four  of  the  signers  of  the 
declaration  were  living:  Carroll,  William  Floyd  of  New  York,  and  ex-presidents  Adams 
and  Jefferson.  Floyd  died  in  the  next  month,  and  Adams  and  Jefferson  both  died  July 
4,  1826,  leaving  Carroll  the  sole  survivor.  His  last  public  act  was  the  laying  of  the 
corner-stone  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  July  4,  1828,  when  in  his  90th  year. 
Carroll’s  grand-daughter.  Miss  Caton  (d.  1853),  was  the  Marchioness  of  Wellesley 

CARROLL,  John,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  1735-1815;  cousin  of  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton; 
an  American  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  educated  in  Europe,  and  for  a time  professor  at 
Bruges.  Returning  to  America,  he  was  selected,  with  his  cousin  and  Dr.  Franklin,  to 
go  to  Canada  to  urge  the  people  to  join  the  colonies  in  their  effort  for  freedom.  After 
the  revolution,  C.  was  appointed  vicar-general,  and  in  1789,  was  promoted  to  bishop, 
being  the  first  bishop  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  the  United  States.  A short  time 
before  his  death  he  was  made  archbishop. 

CARROLLTON,  a city  in  Green  co..  111.,  34  m.  n.w.  of  Alton,  on  the  Jacksonville 
and  Alton  railroad;  pop.  2,700.  Its  trade  is  in  lumber,  agricultural  products,  and  coal. 

CARROLTON,  a city  in  Louisiana,  on  the  Mississippi,  7 m.  above  New  Orleans,  in 
Jefferson  parish;  pop.  6,495.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  sugar  and  molasses.  Horse  railroads 
connect  with  New  Orleans. 

CAR'RON,  a village  in  Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Carron  Water, 
3 m.  e.n.e.  of  Falkirk.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  ironworks,  which  are  among  the  largest 
of  the  kind  in  Britain.  The  works  were  established  in  1760;  and  are  carried  on  by  a 
company,  who  employ  a great  number  of  men.  Pop.  ’71,  108^ 

CARRONADES'  are  short  iron  guns,  invented  by  Mr.  Gascoigne,  and  named  after  the 
OaiTon  iron  works  in  Scotland,  where  they  were  first  made.  They  are  lighter  than 
ordinary  guns,  and  have  a chamber  for  powder,  like  mortars.  They  were  made  stand- 
ard navy  guns  in  1779,  to  be  carried  on  the  poop,  forecastle,  and  upper  works.  Being 
manageable  by  a smaller  number  of  hands  than  guns,  and  being  very  useful  in  close 
engagements,  they  were  held  in  much  favor  during  the  great  war;  the  seamen  called 
them  “ smashers.”  A 68-pounder  carronade  weighed  not  much  more  than  half  as  much 
as  the  42-pounder  gun  in  use  in  1779.  They  range  from  68-pounders  down  to  6-pounders. 
The  denominations,  weights,  lengths,  caliber,  etc.,  of  the  chief  varieties  of  carronade  arc 
noticed  under  Cannon. 

Some  C.  are  made  shorter  with  a given  bore.  C.  are  but  little  used,  except  by  the 
English  and  French.  Though  valuable  at  close  quarters,  they  are  no  match  for  long 
guns  at  a distance;  and  therefore  a ship  armed  only  with  C.  would  fare  badly  in  a gen- 
eral action.  In  recent  years,  C.  have  to  a considerable  extent  been  replaced  in  the  Eng- 
lish navy  by  howitzers,  long  guns,  and  shell  guns. 

CARRON  OIL.  See  BuRNa 


495 


Carroll 

Carse. 


CARROT,  Daucus,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  umhelUferm.  They  ar? 
mostly  natives  of  the  countries  surrounding  the  Mediterranean  sea.  The  common  C. 
(D.  ca/rota)  is  a biennial  plant,  common  in  Britain  and  most  parts  of  Europe,  also  in  the 
Caucasus;  and  is  universally  cultivated  not  only  in  Europe  and  the  European  colonies, 
but  in  China,  Cochin  China,  etc.,  for  the  sake  of  its  root.  The  root  of  the  wild  plant  is 
slender,  woody,  and  of  a very  strong  flavor;  that  of  the  cultivated  variety  is  much 
thicker  and  more  fleshy,  much  milder  in  its  flavor  and  qualities,  generally  red,  but  some- 
times orange  or  yellowish  white.  The  sub- varieties  in  cultivation  are  also  distinguished 
by  their  form — some  being  longer  and  more  tapering  than  others — by  their  size,  and  by 
the  duration  of  their  growth;  the  early  kinds  being  also  comparatively  small,  and  almost 
exclusively  cultivated  in  gardens  for  culinary  use,  whilst  the  larger  and  late  kinds  are 
often  also  grown  in  fields,  for  feeding  cattle.  The  field  cultivation  of  the  C.  is  carried 
on  to  a much  greater  extent  in  some  parts  of  France,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  than  in 
Britain;  but  it  is  increasing  in  Britain.  The  C.  appears  to  have  been  cultivated  at  an 
early  period  in  Flanders  and  Germany,  and  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  gardens  of 
England  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  ladies  wore 
C.  leaves  as  an  ornament  instead  of  feathers ; and  the  beauty  of  the  leaves  is  still  occa- 
sionally acknowledged  by  placing  a root,  or  the  upper  portion  of  one,  in  water,  that  it 
may  throw  out  young  leaves  to  adorn  apartments  in  winter.  The  C.  prefers  a light  and 
rather  sandy  soil,  and  often  succeeds  very  well  on  a peat  soil.  It  is  very  liable  to  the 
attacks  of  the  larva  of  the  crane  fly  (q.v.),  by  which  the  greater  part  of  a crop  is  some- 
times destroyed  when  the  young  roots  are  about  the  thickness  of  a quill;  on  which 
account,  in  gardens  where  there  is  particular  reason  to  apprehend  danger  from  this 
enemy,  it  is  the  practice  to  make  a number  of  successive  sowings,  some  of  which 
may  probably  escape.  As  an  article  of  food,  C.  contains  a large  amount  of  what 
are  called  heat-producing  compounds,  with  a small  proportion  of  flesh- forming  mat- 
ter. It  consists  essentially  of  starch,  sugar,  and  albumen,  along  with  a volatile  oil, 
which  communicates  a flavor  to  many  dyspeptics  very  unpleasant.  The  following  is 


the  composition  of  dried  carrot: 

Starch  and  sugar 93.71 

Albumen 4.35 

Red  neutral  substance  (carotin) 0.34 

Fixed  and  volatile  oils 1.00 

Ash 0.60 


100.00 

C.  is  easy  of  digestion,  and  gently  laxative.  Boiled  C.  is  used  as  a poultice  for  foul  ulcers 
and  other  sores,  and  as  a vermifuge.  Grated  C.  forms  an  agreeable  cooling  but  also 
stimulant  application.  A sirup  is  prepared  from  carrots;  and  when  cut  into  small 
pieces  and  roasted,  they  are  occasionally  used  in  Germany  as  a substitute  for  coffee.  A 
strong  ardent  spirit  is  distilled  from  them  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  10  lbs.  of  carrots 
yielding  about  half  a pint.  C.  seeds  are  employed  as  a diuretic,  also  as  a carminative 
and  stimulant;  those  of  the  wild  C.  being  preferred. — Besides  the  crane  fly,  already 
noticed,  carrots  have  numerous  other  insect  enemies.  One  of  the  most  troublesome 
is  the  carrot  fly  {psila  rosoe),  a small  dipterous  fly,  the  larvae  of  which,  by  eating  away 
the  surface  of  the  root,  cause  what  is  commonly  known  as  rust  in  carrots,  and  prepare 
them  for  the  further  operations  of  millepedes  and  other  destroyers.  The  larvae  of 
several  species  of  moth  (depressaria)  are  very  injurious  to  them  when  in  flower  and  seed. 
An  aphis  {A.  dauci)  often  kills  the  young  plants. 

CARROXT'SEL  (Fr.),  a species  of  knightly  exercise,  which,  down  even  to  the  bedn- 
ning  of  the  18th  c.,  was  very  common  in  all  the  courts  of  Europe.  C.  was  a kind  of 
imitation  of  the  tournament,  and  for  a time  after  the  discontinuance  of  the  latter,  seems 
to  have  supplied  its  place.  The  dresses,  for  the  most  part,  were  those  of  the  knights  of 
former  times,  and  the  combatants,  or  rather  competitors,  were  divided  into  two  parties, 
usually  according  to  their  different  nationalities.  One  of  the  favorite  exercises  in  France 
consisted  in  running  at  the  pasteboard  head  of  a Moor  or  Turk  with  a lance,  cutting  it 
down  with  a sword,  or  firing  at  it  with  a pistol.  Another  of  these  tests  of  skill  and 
horsemanship,  if  not  of  courage,  consisted  in  carrying  off  a whole  line  of  rings,  which 
were  suspended  for  the  purpose.  The  C.  in  France  was  not  known  earlier  than  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV. ; but  it  had  existed  for  some  little  time  previously  in  Italy.  There 
were  brilliant  carrousels  under  Lous  XIII.,  and  two  celebrated  ones  were  given  in 
honor  of  Mademoiselle  de  la  Valliere — the  one  at  Paris  in  1662,  the  other  at  Versailles  in 
1664.  The  place  where  the  first  of  these  f^tes  was  held,  has  ever  since  been  called  the 
place  du  carrousel.  A revival  of  the  C.  was  attempted  at  Berlin  in  1750;  and  in  1828 
the  cavalry  school  at  Saumur  held  one  in  honor  of  Madame  la  Duchesse  de  Berry.  The 
so-called  feglinton  tournament — an  entertainment  given  some  years  ago  by  the  chival- 
rous earl  of  Eglinton — was  in  reality  a carrousel. 

CAR3E  is  a term  applied  in  Scotland  to  low  lands  adjoining  rivers.  The  word  is  of 
uncertain  origin.  In  Stirlingshire,  it  is  restricted  in  its  sense  to  the  level  alluvial  soils 
which  are  only  a few  feet  above  the  river  Forth.  In  Perthshire,  it  also  applies  to  the 
whole  of  the  slightly  undulating  lands  to  the  n.  of  the  Tay,  which  form  the  C.  of  Gow- 


Carson. 

Cartagena. 


496 


rle.  C.  soils  usually  consist  of  argillaceous  deposits,  which  produce  crops  of  great 
luxuriance,  although  there  are  some  which  consist  of  hungry  and  barren  clays.  The 
richest  of  them  are  of  a hazel  color,  and  become  friable  when  exposed  to  tlie  action  of 
frost;  the  poorest,  on  the  other  hand,  are  of  a yellow  color,  containing  little  vegetable 
matter  to  render  them  amenable  to  cultivation.  The  be.st  kinds  of  C.  soils  are  generally 
farmed  on  the  six-course  shift — 1.  Grass;  2.  Oats;  3.  Beans;  4.  Wheat;  5.  Potatoes;  6, 
Turnips  or  fallow.  Large  crops  of  grass  are  grown  when  the  clover-plant  catches.  It 
is  mostly  made  into  hay,  and  the  after-math  is  used  for  soiling  horses  and  cattle  in  the 
straw-yards.  The  land  is  seldom  pastured,  as  the  feet  of  animals  trample  and  destroy 
the  grasses,  when  the  weather  is  wet.  The  oat-crop  is  more  uncertain  on  the  carses, 
but  in  favorable  years,  the  yield  is  large,  and  the  quality  of  the  grain  is  excellent.  Beans 
are  very  successfully  grown,  indeed  the  best  of  the  C.  soils  are  the  best  bean-soils  in 
Scotland.  Where  the  land  is  rich,  and  not  too  stiff,  the  potato  is  sometimes  largely 
grown.  On  the  poorest  description  of  the  C.  soils,  the  potato  does  not  thrive.  Wheat 
can  be  grown  in  closer  succession  on  the  C.  lands,  than  on  any  other  description  of  land 
with  the  same  expenditure  of  manure.  A large  stud  of  horses  are  required  on  C.  lands, 
to  enable  the  farmers  to  prepare  the  land  for  the  various  crops,  at  the  moment  when  the 
season  suits.  A small  portion  of  the  land  is  still  usually  summer-fallowed,  as  it  is  found 
that  it  cannot  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  by  green  crops  in  rainy  seasons. 

CARSON,  Alexander,  ll.d.,  1776-1844;  an  Independent  or  Congregational  preacher 
of  the  n.  of  Ireland,  officiating  at  Tubbermore  for  30  years,  within  which  time  he  became 
a Baptist  and  an  earnest  advocate  of  their  views. 

CARSON,  Christopher,  or  “Kit  Carson,”  b.  Ky.,  1809,  d.  Col.,  1868;  one  of  the 
most  famous  pioneers  and  scouts  of  the  west.  When  about  24  years  old  he  was  appointed 
hunter  to  Bent’s  fort,  where  he  remained  eight  years;  he  was  then  engaged  as  a pioneer 
in  Fremont’s  explorations  among  the  Rocky  mountains.  In  1847,  he  was  made  lieut. 
in  a riffe  corps  of  the  regular  army.  In  1853,  he  drove  6,500  sheep  over  the  plains 
and  mountains  to  California.  He  was  afterward  Indian  agent  in  New  Mexico,  and 
was  instrumental  in  making  a number  of  treaties  of  importance.  In  the  civil  war 
he  did  good  service  on  the  borders,  and  was  brevetted  brig.gen.  The  remarkable  adven- 
tures of  “ Kit  Carson”  often  surpass  the  most  extravagant  romance,  though  the  most 
daring  of  them  are  literally  true.  Personally  he  was  as  modest  as  he  was  brave. 

CARSON  CITY,  the  capital  of  Nevada,  in  Eagle  valley,  Ormsby  co.,  4 m.  from 
Carson  river,  178  m.  n.e.  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  Virginia  and  Truckee  railroad.  It 
is  in  a picturesque  region  near  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  only  about  10  m. 
from  lake  Tahoe.  There  is  a branch  mint  in  Carson  City  which  receives  immense 
deposits  of  silver  and  gold  ore.  There  are  a state-house,  several  churches  and  schools, 
and  many  mining  and  manufacturing  establishments.  Pop.  ’70,  3,042.  The  state  prison 
is  2 m.  n.e.  of  the  city. 

CARSON  RIVER,  a stream  in  Nevada,  rising  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  passing  n.  near 
Carson  City  and  Lyon,  and  emptying  into  Carson  lake,  a body  of  water  about  15  miles 
long,  that  appears  to  have  no  outlet. 

CAESTAIRS,  William,  a distinguished  political  and  ecclesiastical  character  of  the 
17th  c.,  who  took  a very  active  part  in  bringing  about  the  revolution  of  1688,  was  b.  at 
Cathcart,  near  Glasgow,  Feb.  11,  1649.  He  was  educated  at  the  village  school  of  Ormis- 
ton,  in  East  Lothian,  and  subsequently  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  dis- 
played a remarkable  aptitude  for  learning.  In  his  24th  year,  Scotland  being  then  in  a 
most  unsatisfactory  state,  alike  from  a political  and  religious  point  of  view,  C.  went  to 
study  theology  at  Utrecht.  His  scholarship,  polite  address,  knowledge  of  men,  and 
great  political  information,  especially  regarding  his  own  country,  recommended  him  to 
the  notice  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  chose  him  as  his  confidential  adviser  in  all 
matters  relating  to  Britain.  In  1682,  being  in  England  on  a mission  of  observation  from 
Holland,  he  was  employed  to  negotiate  between  the  English  and  Scotch  conspirators  in 
the  Rye  House  plot.  With  others  implicated,  he  was  arrested  and  put  to  the  torture  of 
the  thumbscrew,  but  refused  to  confess  anything  that  had  not  been  previously  revealed, 
.and  that  only  on  condition  that  what  he  said  should  not  be  used  in  evidence,  either 
directl}’-  or  indirectly,  against  any  other  person.  At  this  time,  he  had  secrets  from  Hol- 
land of  the  greatest  importance  in  his  possession,  which  he  carefully  concealed,  although 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  revelation  would  not  only  have  saved  him  from  torture, 
but  have  obtained  for  him  great  reward  and  honor.  Britain,  therefore,  owes  very  much 
indeed  to  the  firmness  of  C.  at  this  juncture.  He  returned  to  Holland  about  the  begin- 
ning of  1685;  and,  acting  mainly  on  his  advice,  the  prince  of  Orange  planned  and 
carried  out  the  invasion  of  1688.  He  accompanied  the  prince  as  chaplain,  and  after  the 
settlement  of  the  crown,  when  the  prince  had  been  firmly  established  as  William  III., 
C.  Avas  instrumental  in  effecting  a reconciliation  between  him  and  the  Scottish  church, 
when  the  ill  advice  of  other  councilors  had  nearly  led  to  an  open  rupture.  From  1693 
to  the  death  of  the  king  in  1702,  he  could  not  have  had  more  infiuence  in  Scottish  affairs 
if  he  had  been  •prime-minister  of  the  country;  and  his  authority  in  church  matters  was 
such,  that  he  was  popularly  called  “cardinal  Carstairs. ” He  was  elected  principal  of 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  in  1704,  and  in  this  capacity  used  all  his  influence  with 


497 


Carson. 

Cartagena. 


•government  to  obtain  an  increase  of  patronage  for  the  Scottish  colleges.  In  the  same 
year,  he  was  presented  to  the  church  of  Greyfriars,  and  was  appointed  moderator  of 
the  general  assembly  next  succeeding,  an  office  to  which  he  was  four  times  elected  in 
the  course  of  eleven  years.  He  died  Aug.,  1715,  deeply  regretted  by  the  whole  nation, 
4ind  leaving  a reputation  for  scholarship  and  sincere  piety,  as  well  as  for  unbounded 
charity  and  political  sagacity  rarely  equaled.  See  Life  of  0.,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Story  (1874). 

CAESTENS,  Asmus  Jacob,  an  eminent  German  artist,  was  b.  near  Schleswig,  May  10, 
1754.  In  1763,  he  went  to  Copenhagen,  where,  when  first  introduced  to  the  royal  gallery 
of  paintings  and  casts  from  the  antique,  he  was  so  excited  that  he  shed  tears  of  joy. 
After  staying  seven  years  in  the  Danish  capital,  where  he  produced  his  “Baldur’s 
Death,”  and  “ Eolus  and  Ulysses,”  supporting  himself  chiefly  by  portrait-painting,  he 
•commenced  a journey  on  foot  to  Rome,  but  was  obliged  to  return  for  want  of  means 
after  reaching  Mantua.  He  resided  in  Lubeck  for  some  time,  but  through  the  kindness 
of  a wealthy  amateur  artist  named  Rodde,  he  contrived  to  reach  Berlin,  where  his  great 
composition,  the  “Fall  of  the  Angels”  (with  300  figures),  gained  for  him  an  appointment 
as  professor  in  the  academy,  while  his  decoration  of  a saloon  in  the  Dorville  palace 
obtained  for  him  an  introduction  to  the  king  and  a pension.  He  was  now  enabled  to 
visit  Rome,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael.  His  first  work  in  Rome,  a “Visit  of  the  Argonauts  to  the  Centaur  Chiron,” 
w^as  distinguished  by  purity  of  style,  beauty  of  forms,  and  fine  distribution  of  light. 
His  numerous  subsequent  drawings  mostly  represented  scenes  from  the  ancient  classic 
poets,  with  subjects  from  Ossian,  Dante,  and  Shakespeare.  C.  died  May  26,  1798. 

CART,  a species  of  carriage  with  two  wheels,  in  which  respect  it  differs  from  the 
ordinary  wagon  that  has  four  wheels.  There  are  different  kinds  of  carts,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  goods  or  articles  to  be  carried,  and  they  also  differ  considerably 
in  different  countries.  The  C.  is  little  seen  in  England,  where  the  heavy  and  more 
capacious  wagon  takes  its  place.  It  is,  however,  used  for  agricultural  and  other  pur- 
poses in  Cumberland  and  adjoining  northern  counties.  There,  it  differs  only  in  a 
slight  degree  from  the  C.  universally  used  in  Scotland.  The  Scotch  C.  is  an  exceed- 
ingly convenient  form  of  carriage  for  general  merchandise,  or  for  agricultural  pro- 
duce, and  well  adapted  for  being  drawn  on  roads  in  a hilly  country.  A material 
advantage  consists  in  its  weight,  being  about  only  half  a ton,  while  its  usual  load  is 
from  a ton  to  33  cwt. ; from  which  circumstance  it  is  a particularly  handy  vehicle  for 
comparatively  light  loads,  and  so  far  is  superior  to  the  English  wagon,  which  is  best 
adapted  to  carry  huge  loads  of  from  two  to  three  tons.  In  carrying  hay,  straw,  or  grain 
from  the  harvest-field,  Scotch  farmers  employ  a peculiar  kind  of  C.  without  sides  to 
admit  of  a bulky  load ; but  they  also,  as  occasion  serves,  use  for  a similar  purpose  an 
ordinary  C.,  on  which  they  place  a movable  frame.  All  grain  for  market  is  carried  in 
the  one-horse  C.,  and  a driver  takes  charge  of  two  carts.  The  following  advantages  of 
one-horse  carts  are  w^ell  enumerated  by  lord  R.  Seymour:  “A  horse,  when  he  acts 
singly,  will  do  half  as  much  more  work  as  when  he  acts  in  conjunction  with  another, 
that  is  to  say,  that  two  horses  will,  separately,  do  as  much  work  as  three  conjunctively. 
This  arises,  in  the  first  place,  from  the  single  horse  being  so  near  the  load  he  draws ; and 
in  the  next  place,  from  the  point  or  line  of  draught  being  so  much  below  his  breast,  it 
being  usual  to  make  the  wheels  of  single-horse  carts  low.  A horse  harnessed  singly  has 
nothing  but  his  load  to  contend  with ; whereas,  when  he  draws  in  conjunction  with 
another,,  he  is  generally  embarrassed  by  some  difference  of  rate,  the  horse  behind  or 
before  him  moving  quicker  or  slower  than  himself;  he  is  likewise  frequently  incon- 
venienced by  the  greater  or  less  height  of  his  neighbor:  these  considerations  give  a 
decided  advantage  to  the  single-horse  cart.  The  very  great  ease  with  which  a low  C.  is 
filled  may  be  added ; as  a man  may  load  it,  with  the  help  of  a long-handled  shovel  or 
fork,  by  means  of  his  hands  only;  whereas,  in  order  to  fill  a higher  C.,  not  only  the 
man’s  back,  but  his  arms  and  whole  person  must  be  exerted.”  To  these  just  observa- 
tions it  need  only  be  added  that  in  many  parts  of  England  there  is  a wasted  expendi- 
ture in  horse-power,  a pair  of  horses  being  often  set  to  draw  a clumsy  wagon  to  market, 
containing  a load  which  could  with  the  greatest  ease  be  drawn  by  one  horse  in  a less 
ponderous  machine. 

The  one-horse  C.  is  employed  by  carriers  all  over  Scotland,  the  load  being  usually 
piled  high  in  a square  form,  and  covered  in  with  a woolen  wrapper,  in  which  state  the 
C.  is  drawn  18  to  20  miles  a day.  See  Carriers.  In  France  and  Germany,  the  carrier’s 
C.  is  a more  gigantic  machine.  Long  in  the  body,  very  strong  in  construction,  and 
poised  on  two  high  wheels  with  broad  rims,  this  continental  C.  carries  enormous  loads, 
almost  equal  to  what  are  seen  in  the  large  wagons  of  England.  The  ingenious  manner 
in  which  the  load  is  adjusted  to  rest  exclusively  on  the  wheels,  and  so  relieve  the  single 
horse  in  the  shafts,  is  matter  of  surprise  to  all  strangers.  All  carts,  whatsoever,  in  Great 
Britain,  must  bear  the  name  and  address  of  the  owner,  painted  conspicuously  on  them, 
according  to  statute  1 and  2 Will.  IV.  c.  32.  See  Wagon. 

CABTACxE'NA,  a fortified  seaport  of  Spain,  on  a bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  lat  37° 
36'  n.,  long.  0°  57'  w.  It  is  built  partly  on  the  declivity  of  a hill,  and  partly  on  a plain 
extending  down  to  the  sea,  and  is  inclosed  by  hills  which  screen  it  from  all  winds.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  Mediterranean,  capacious  enough  to  hold  the  largest 
U.  K.  III.-83 


Cartago. 

iparthage. 


498 


fleets.  The  entrance  is  narrow,  and  completely  commanded  by  the  fortifications  on  an 
island  called  La  Isoletta,  on  the  south.  It  was  formally  the  largest  naval  arsenal  not 
only  in  Spain  but  in  Europe.  The  city,  which  is  surrounded  by  walls,  has  a Moorish 
aspect;  its  streets,  cathedral,  and  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle  being  of  that  architecture. 
C.  has  manufactures  of  sail-cloth  and  glass,  besides  extensive  blast-furnaces  and  smelt- 
ing-works, and  a trade  in  barilla,  agricultural  produce,  and  esparto  grass.  The  tunny 
fishery  is  important,  and  its  ancient  silver  and  lead  mines,  recently  re-opened,  are  again 
productive — the  export  of  lead  to  Great  Britain  and  France  in  1873  being  32,000  tons. 
The  zinc  and  iron  ores  amounted  to  496,000  tons.  In  1873,  C.  was  seized  by  a commu- 
nal junta,  but  was  retaken  by  the  national  forces  in  1874.  Pop.  of  town  and  suburbs 
about  54,000.  C.,  which  was  a colony  of  the  Carthaginians,  was  built  by  Hasdrubal  242 
B.C.,  under  the  name  of  New  Cartage.  It  formed  the  head-quarters  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians in  Spain,  and  soon  became  a city  of  much  wealth  and  influence.  It  was  captured 
by  P.  Scipio  in  210  b.c.,  and  became  of  importance  under  the  Romans,  who  are  said  to 
have  employed  40,000  men  daily  in  the  mines  in  the  neighborhood.  It  was  sacked  by 
the  Goths,  and  did  not  again  attain  any  note  until  the  time  of  Philip  II. 

CARTA'GO,  a city  in  the  state  of  Cauca,  United  States  of  Colombia,  130  m.  n.w.  of 
Bogota.  It  is  in  a salubrious  and  well  cultivated  region,  and  has  a considerable  trade 
in  cotton,  fruits,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  8,000. 

CABTE,  Thomas,  an  English  historian,  distinguished  for  his  industry  and  research, 
was  b.  at  Clifton,  in  Warwickshire,  where  his  father  was  parish  minister,  in  1686.  Edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  he  afterwards  took  the  degree  of  m.a.  at  Cambridge,  and  entering  holy 
orders,  was  appointed  reader  at  the  Abbey  church,  Bath;  but  being  attached  to  the 
Stuarts,  he  resigned  his  office  rather  than  take  the  oaths  to  the  new  government.  In 
1722,  he  was  suspected  of  having  been  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  of  bishop  Atterbury, 
whose  secretary  he  was,  and  £1000  was  offered  for  his  apprehension ; but  he  escaped  to 
Prance,  where  he  remained  for  some  years.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  published  a 
life  of  the  duke  of  Ormond,  remarkable  for  the  fullness  of  its  information.  In  1747-55, 
he  published  a History  of  England,  bringing  it  down  to  the  year  1654.  This  work 
is  very  valuable  for  its  facts,  but  the  author  had  not  the  capacity  to  grapple  with  these 
philosophically.  Hume  and  other  historians,  however,  have  been  much  indebted  to  him 
for  the  materials  of  history.  Among  his  other  works  was  an  edition  of  Thuanus;  and 
at  his  death,  in  1754,  he  left  behind  him  20  folio  and  15  quarto  volumes  of  MSS.,  in  fur- 
ther illustration  of  the  history  of  England  to  1688,  which  have  proved  of  great  utility  to 
subsequent  writers.  These  are  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  library,  Oxford. 

CARTEL,  during  a time  of  war,  is  an  agreement  between  the  belligerents  for  an 
exchange  of  prisoners.  Sometimes  the  name  is  given  to  a ship,  called  by  the  French 
a bdtiment  parlementaire,  commissioned  to  convey  the  exchanged  prisoners,  or  to  carry 
messages  to  the  enemy.  A ship,  when  thus  employed,  must  carry  no  cargo,  ammuni- 
tion, or  implement  of  war,  except  one  gun  for  signals. 

CARTER,  a co.  in  n.e.  Kentucky,  on  Little  Sandy  river;  500  sq.m. ; pop. ’80, 12,845 — 
371  colored.  It  has  a rough  surface,  but  near  the  streams  the  soil  is  good.  The  main 
business  is  agriculture.  Co.  seat,  Grayson. 

CARTER,  a co.  in  s.e.  Missouri,  on  Current  river;  500  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  2168.  The 
surface  is  hilly  and  well  wooded;  productions,  grain  and  tobacco.  Copper  and  iron  are 
found.  Co.  seat.  Van  Buren. 

CARTER,  a co.  in  n.e.  Tennessee,  on  the  North  Carolina  border,  in  the  highest  part 
of  the  state,  watered  by  the  Wautauga,  Doe,  and  affluents  of  Holston  rivers;  350  sq  m. ; 
pop.  '80,  10,019 — 634  colored.  A branch  of  the  East  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia 
railroad  traverses  the  county.  There  are  rich  iron  mines,  but  agriculture  is  the  chief 
business.  Co.  seat,  Elizabethtown. 

CARTER,  Elizabeth,  an  English  lady,  remarkable  for  her  classical  attainments,  and 
also  for  her  knowledge  of  modern  languages,  was  b.  Dec.,  1717,  at  Deal,  Kent.  Slow 
at  first  to  learn,  she  afterwards  displayed  remarkable  aptitude.  In  her  21st  year  she  pub- 
lished a small  volume  of  poems,  an^  in  the  succeeding  year  she  translated  from  the 
Italian  of  Algarotti  An  Explanation  of  Newton’s  Philosophy  for  the  Use  of  Ladies.  These 
publications  brought  her  into  note,  and  obtained  for  her  the  friendship  of  .such  men  as 
bishop  Butler,  archbishop  Seeker,  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Burke,  and  Dr.  Johnson,  the 
latter  of  whom  especially  held  her  in  great  esteem,  and  had  the  highest  opinion  of  her 
proficiency  as  a Greek  scholar.  A translation  of  Epictetus  which  she  made,  was  most 
favoral)ly  received  by  the  literary  press  of  her  time,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  She  died 
unmarried.  Feb.,  1806,  at  the  age  of  89. 

CARTERET,  a co.  in  e.  North  Carolina,  on  Pamlico  sound  and  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
traversed  by  the  Atlantic  and  North  Carolina  railroad;  450  sq.m. ; pop.  '80,  9785 — 2678 
colored.  Much  of  the  surface  is  occupied  by  swamps  and  pine  forests.  Productions 
mainly  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Beaufort. 

CARTERET,  John,  Earl  Granville,  a distinguished  orator  and  statesman  of  the  18th 
c.,  was  b.  April,  1690,  his  father  being  baron  Carteret  of  Hawnes,  Bedfordshire.  His  edu- 
eation,  commenced  at  Westminster  school,  was  completed  at  Oxford.  From  the  latter 


499 


Cartagro. 

Carthag^e. 


place,  according  to  dean  Swift’s  humorous  assertion,  he  carried  away  more  Greek,  Latin, 
and  philosophy  than  was  at  all  becoming  a person  of  such  high  rank.  Introduced  into 
the  house  of  peers  in  1711,  he  spoke  in  favor  of  the  Protestant  succession,  and  in  con- 
sequence received  the  early  notice  of  George  L,  and  obtained  some  lucrative  appoint- 
ments. In  1718-19,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  extraordinary  to  Sweden,  and  in 
the  following  year  succeeded  in  concluding  a peace  between  Sweden,  Prussia,  and  Han- 
over. In  1721,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state,  and  in  this  capacity  defended  with 
great  zeal  the  proceedings  of  government  in  the  Atterbury  conspiracy.  In  1724,  he  was 
made  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  During  his  vice-regency,  he  was  in  constant  intercourse, 
and  held  frequent  discussion,  with  dean  Swift  about  public  affairs.  His  lord  lieuten- 
ancy, which  lasted  from  1724  to  1726,  and  again  from  1729  to  1730,  was  popular,  par- 
ticularly the  latter  period.  From  1730  to  1742,  he  was  one  of  the  most  able  and  deter- 
mined of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  in  the  house  of  lords  against  sir  Robert  Walpole, 
and  on  his  displacement,  was  made  a secretary  of  state.  On  the  death  of  his  mother,  in 
1744,  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of  earl  Granville,  and  in  the  same  year  had  to  resign  his 
seals  of  office,  the  Broad-bottom  administration  (q.v.)  expressly  excluding  him;  but  he 
•continued  to  receive  marks  of  the  royal  favor.  C.  was  a most  liberal  patron  of  men  of 
letters.  He  died  Jan.,  1763. 

CARTERET,  Philip,  an  English  naval  officer  who  commanded  the  JSwallow  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery  in  the  South  seas  in  1766-69.  He  was  gone  2i  years,  and  made 
some  discoveries,  among  them  an  island  to  which  he  gave  his  name. 

CARTE  SIAN  PHILOSOPHY.  See  Descartes,  ante. 

CARTHAGE,  a city  in  s.w.  Missouri,  in  the  lead  regions,  on  the  line  of  the  Mem- 
phis, Carthage  and  Northwest  railroad,  220  m.  s.w.  of  Jefferson  City;  pop.  about  300. 
On  Jul}"  5,  1861,  a force  of  confederates  under  gen.  Jackson  and  gen.  Price,  consisting 
of  about  3,500  men,  while  retreating  from  the  main  army  of  gen.  Lyon,  were,  at  a point 
about  7 m.  e.  of  Carthage,  confronted  by  gen.  Sigel  with  about  1500  union  troops.  Gen. 
Sigel,  being  superior  in  artillery,  gave  battle,  which  continued  several  hours  with  much 
loss  to  the  confederates,  when,  to  prevent  the  confederate  cavalry  from  outflanking  him 
and  to  protect  his  baggage  train,  gen.  Sigel  fell  back  in  good  order,  and  continued  his 
retreat  to  Carthage  and  Sarcoxie,  15  miles  to  the  east.  The  union  loss  was  50  in  killed 
and  wounded,  that  of  the  confederates  was  reported  to  be  50  killed  and  about  150 
wounded. 

CASTHAGE,  called  Carthoigohy  the  Romans,  CarcTiedon  by  the  Greeks,  both  of  which 
are  but  forms  of  the  native  nome  Karth-hadtha,  i.e.,  “ New  Town”  (found  on  ancient 
coins),  was  the  greatest  city  of  antiquity  on  the  n.  coast  of  Africa,  and  was  situated  in 
what  now  constitutes  the  state  of  Tunis,  on  a peninsula  extending  into  a small  bay  of 
the  Mediterranean  sea.  It  was  founded,  according  to  legend,  by  Dido  (q.v.),  a Phenician 
queen,  who  had  fled  from  Tyre  after  the  murder  of  her  husband,  almost  nine  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era,  but  more  probably  (like  the  Anglo-Indian  Calcutta)  it  origi- 
nated in  an  emporium  or  factory  established  by  the  colonial  merchants  of  Utica,  and  the 
capitalists  of  the  mother-city  Tyre,  on  account  of  the  convenience  of  its  situation. 
Unfortunately,  we  know  very  little  of  its  growth.  Our  information  only  begins  after 
C.  had  become  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  cities  of  the  world,  and  we  have  but  very 
scanty  and  one-sided  accounts  of  it  even  then.  The  number  of  the  inhabitants  before 
its  destruction  amounted  to  about  700,000.  The  population  was  partly  of  Phenician, 
partly  of  Libyan  descent.  The  territory  which  the  Carthaginians  acquired  by  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  Libyan  tribes,  and  by  the  ultimate  annexation  of  other  older  Phenician 
colonies,  with  which  they  had  at  first  been  simply  in  alliance,  such  as  Utica,  Hadru- 
raetum,  Tunis,  Hippo,  the  two  Leptes,  etc.,  extended  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  c.  b.c.  south- 
ward to  lake  Triton,  eastward  to  the  Great  Syrtis,  and  westward  to  Hipporegius  (now 
Bona).  The  maritime  power  of  the  Carthaginians  enabled  them  also  to  extend  their 
settlements  and  conquests  to  the  other  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  6th  c.  b.c., 
they  were  masters  of  Sardinia,  and  had  begun  to  contend  for  the  possession  of  Sicily. 
Hanno  (q.v.)  founded  colonies  on  the  w.  coast  of  Africa  beyond  the  straits  of  Gibraltar, 
and  Himilco  visited  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Gaul.  The  relations  of  C.  to  foreign  states 
in  earlier  times  are  not  very  clear.  The  first  treaty  with  the  Romans  was  concluded  in 
509  b.c.  ; the  second,  in  348  b.c.  ; the  third,  in  306  b.c.  The  connected  history  of  C. 
begins  with  the  5th  c.  b.c.,  a period  of  wars  between  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Greeks 
in  Sicily.  The  Carthaginian  army  under  Hamilcar  was  destroyed  by  Gelon  at  Himera 
in  480  B.c.  It  was  not  till  410  b.c.  that  the  war  began  which  ended  in  the  conquest  by 
the  Carthaginians  of  some  parts  of  the  island.  Dionysius  the  elder,  or  rather  the  pesti- 
lence working  for  him,  put  a stop  to  their  conquests,  but  did  not  succeed  in  expelling 
them.  War  raged  almost  constantly  between  Dionysius  and  the  Carthaginians.  The 
more  feeble  reign  of  Dionysius  the  younger  afforded  them  an  opportunity  of  extending 
their  conquests,  yet  they  were  frequently  repelled  and  defeated  by  the  Sicilitin  Greeks; 
and  during  311-301  b.c.,  Agathocles  carried  the  war  into  Africa,  and  attacked  C.  itself. 
After  his  death,  the  Carthaginians  again  increased  their  dominions  in  Sicily,  and 
although  Pyrrhus  contended  successfully  against  them  at  first,  he  left  that  island  entirely 
in  275  B.c.  The  subjugation  of  the  s.  of  Italy  by  the  Romans,  brought  the  two  great 
and  conquering  nations  into  collision,  and  the  first  Punic  war  arose,  264  b.c.,  and  after 


Carthagre. 

Cartier. 


500 


a great  naval  victory  of  the  Romans,  terminated  in  241,  the  Carthaginians  giving  up 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  and  paying  to  the  Romans  a large  sum  of  money.  Soon 
after  this,  a mutiny  of  the  hired  troops  of  C.,  combined  with  an  insurrection  of  the 
Libyan  tribes,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  who  were  kept  down  by  the  arbi- 
trary rule  of  the  Carthaginian  colonists,  threatened  the  entire  ruin  of  the  city.  Hamilcar 
brought  that  bloody  war,  however,  to  a successful  termination,  and  led  an  army  to 
Spain,  where  he,  and  after  him  Hasdrubal,  obtained  great  successes.  Here  was  founded 
New  C.,  now  Cartagena  (q.v.).  After  Hasdrubal’s  death,  221  b.c.,  Hannibal  (q.v.), 
burning  to  revenge  the  defeat  which  his  native  city  had  sustained  from  the  Romans, 
broke  the  treaty  with  them,  and  took  Saguntum,  219  b.c.  Thus  began  the  second  Punic 
war,  in  which  Hannibal  pursued  his  career  of  conquest  from  Spain,  through  Gaul,  and 
across  the  Alps  into  Italy  itself,  defeated  the  Romans  with  terrible  slaughter  in  various 
battles,  and,  by  that  of  Cannae  in  particular,  brought  Rome  to  the  very  brink  of  ruin. 
Yet  the  war  terminated  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Carthaginians  by  Publius  Cornelius 
Scipio,  who  overthrew  their  power  in  Spain,  and  was  victorious  over  Hannibal  in  the 
final  and  decisive  battle  of  Zama,  in  Africa,  in  Oct.,  202.  A peace  was  then  concluded, 
in  which  the  Carthaginians  were  limited  to  their  African  territories;  but  most  of  their 
ships  of  war  and  war-elephants  were  taken  from  them,  besides  an  immense  sum  of 
money,  and  they  were  taken  bound  not  to  make  war  without  permission  of  the  Romans. 
Massinissa,  king  of  Numidia,  skillfully  availed  himself  of  dissensions  which  arose 
within  C.  between  the  nobles  and  the  people,  to  advance  his  own  interests  at  the  expense 
of  the  Carthaginians;  and  as  they  (151  b.c.)  opposed  him,  and  drove  his  adherents  out 
of  the  city,  the  Romans  seized  the  opportunity  for  a new  declaration  of  war,  149  b.c., 
on  the  ground  that  the  treaty  was  broken;  and  after  a siege  of  two  years,  C.  was  taken 
by  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  .^milianus,  146  b.c.  For  six  days  the  combat  was  main- 
tained in  the  streets  of  the  city,  and  for  seventeen  days  the  work  of  its  destruction  by 
fire  was  carried  on  by  the  conquerors.  The  country  became  a Roman  province.  C. 
Gracchus  sent  out  6,000  colonists  to  found  a new  city  on  the  site  of  Carthage.  It  was 
called  Junonia,  but  it  did  not  prosper.  Augustus,  carrying  out  the  intention  of  his  great 
uncle,  restored  the  city,  and  the  new  C.  had  become,  in  the  second  and  third  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  439  a.d.,  Genseric 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  Vandal  kingdom;  Belisarius  conquered  it  in  533,  and  named 
it  Justiniana;  the  Arabs  under  Hassan  utterly  destroyed  it  in  647  a.d.  ; and  now  only 
two  or  three  small  hamlets  and  a few  ruins  mark  its  site. 

We  have  not  very  satisfactory  accounts  of  the  constitution  of  the  Carthaginian  state. 
It  is  certain  that  it  was  oligarchical,  and  that  the  chief  power  was  in  the  hands  of  tho 

freat  families  (gentes),  from  whose  members  the  senate,  amounting  to  300,  was  chosen. 

his  senate  appointed,  as  it  were,  a more  select  council  of  30,  and  sometimes  a still 
smaller  one  of  only  10,  at  the  head  of  whom  were  two  suffetes  (probably  the  same  as  the 
Hebrew  shofetem,  “judges”),  but  it  is  not  certain  what  relation  these  bore  to  one  another, 
or  how  their  power  was  apportioned  between  them.  We  can  gather  dimly,  from  various 
scattered  statements,  that  the  Carthaginian  oligarchy,  while  despising  the  multitude, 
was  itself  split  up  into  factions,  and  torn  by  family  jealousies.  Corruption  largely 
prevailed ; and  it  would  perhaps  have  been  better  for  the  country  if  the  power  had  been 
in  the  hands  of  a popular  despot  than  of  a band  of  insolent  and  tyrannical  nobles. 

The  Carthaginian  army  was  raised  from  the  conscription  of  the  subjugated  Libyans, 
from  the  hired  Numidians,  and  from  slaves.  In  the  time  of  Agathocles,  the  city  sent 
forth  40,000  heavy  armed  infantry,  1,000  cavalry,  and  2,000  war-chariots,  but  the  state 
could  easily  raise  100,000  troops.  The  fleet  in  the  first  Punic  war  consisted  of  350  ships, 
carrying  150,000  men.  How  C.  contrived  to  raise  revenues  suflicient  to  cover  the  enor- 
mous expense  her  military  and  naval  organization  involved,  is  not  very  clear.  It  was, 
in  all  likelihood,  derived  from  tribute  imposed  on  subject  Libyan  or  Numidian  races,  in 
great  part  from  mines  in  Spain,  and  from  import  duties  derived  from  her  maritime  and 
inland  trade,  which  was  prodigiously  great.  Her  merchantmen  visited  every  coast  and 
island  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  ventured  as  far  as  the  Azores,  Britain,  the  Baltic, 
etc. ; while  her  caravans  penetrated  through  Sahara  to  the  gold-producing  districts  of 
the  Niger,  and  through  the  Libyan  desert  to  the  lands  along  the  Nile. 

The  religion  of  the  Carthaginians  appears  to  have  been  substantially  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Phenicians — a worship  of  the  stars  and  of  fire.  Moloch  was  the  chief 
deity,  and  to  him  children  and  captives  were  sacrificed.  The  highest  natural  mani- 
festation of  this  deity  was  the  sun.  Besides  Moloch,  the  Carthaginians  worshiped  the 
Tyrian  Hercules;  Astarte,  the  goddess  of  the  elements;  Esmun,  the  god  of  the  celestial 
vault;  and  a variety  of  heros,  heroines,  and  genii  or  spirits,  such  as  the  Genius  of 
Death,  Hamilcar  (who  fell  at  the  battle  of  Himera),  Dido,  the  brothers  Philaeni,  etc.,  ^ 
well  as  a few  of  the  lesser  Greek  divinities,  of  whom  a knowledge  had  been  obtained  in 
Sicily.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  was  a distinct  sacerdotal  order  in  Cai  thage. 
Probably  religious  ceremonies  were  performed  by  the  dignitaries  of  the  state,  but  our 
knowledge  on  this  interesting  point  is  too  meager  to  permit  of  our  arriving  at  any  very 
definite  conclusion. 

CARTHAGE,  a headland  of  n.  Africa,  jutting  out  into  the  Mediterranean,  in  lat.  36“ 
52'  n.,  Ion.  10°  22'  east.  Traces  of  the  ancient  city  of  Carthage  (q.v.)  are  found  on  it  to 
the  n.  of  the  Tunis  lagoon. 


501 


Carthagre. 

Cartier. 


CABTHAGE'NA,  capital  of  the  state  of  Bolivar,  one  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 
It  stands  on  the  Caribbean  sea,  a little  to  the  s.w.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena,  in 
lat.  10°  26'  n,,  long.  77°  54'  w.,  having  the  best  harbor  on  the  coast,  with  a naval  arsenal 
and  strong  fortifications.  Its  population  is  estimated  at.  10,000,  not  more  than  one-tenth 
being  white.  The  temperature  ranges  from  80°  to  86°  F. — the  air,  however,  being  dry 
and  healthy.  In  the  history  of  Spanish  America,  and  more  especially  in  that  of  the  war 
of  independence,  the  city  occupies  a prominent  place. 

CARTHAGE'NA  {ante),  a fortified  seaport  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  founded 
by  the  Spaniards,  1508.  The  city  is  noted  for  its  fortifications,  convent  buildings,  and 
fine  harbor.  The  walls  and  defenses  were  completed  in  1717,  at  a cost  of  $59,000,000. 
In  1585,  C.  was  sacked  by  the  English  under  sir  Francis  Drake,  and  in  1741,  besieged  by 
the  fleet  of  admiral  Vernon.  In  1860,  gen.  Mosquera  abolished  the  convent  system^ 
allowing  priests  and  nuns  but  48  hours  to  leave  the  city.  The  climate  is  dry  and  hot,, 
but  salubrious,  although  C.  has  been  ravaged  at  intervals  by  yellow  fever.  There  is  a 
small  export  of  caoutchouc,  tobacco,  hides,  and  other  interior  products.  The  popula- 
tion, which  in  1800  was  about  25,000,  is  now  reduced  to  3,000. 

CARTHAGENA  BARK.  See  Cinchona. 

CARTHA  GO,  a term  of  various  application  in  Central  America. — 1.  An  almost  land- 
locked bay  or  lagoon  of  the  Caribbean  sea,  near  the  n.w.  extremity  of  the  Mosquito 
shore. — 2.  A river  entering  the  same  from  the  s. s.w.,  about  lat.  15°  n.,  and  long.  84°  west. 
— 3.  A river  of  Costa  Rica,  flowing  into  the  gulf  of  Nicoya,  an  inlet  of  the  Pacific,  near 
lat.  9°  36'  n.,  and  long.  84°  30'  w. — 4.  A city,  or  rather  the  ruins  of  one,  on  the  same,  about 
60  m.  from  its  mouth.  Down  to  1841,  it  was  the  capital  of  Costa  Rica;  but  being  in 
that  year  all  but  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  it  was  supplanted  by  San  Jose,  previously 
its  superior  in  wealth  and  importance,  about  15  m.  to  the  w. n.w.  of  itself.  The  volcano 
of  its  own  name,  doubtless  connected  with  its  overthrow,  is  valuable  as  a landmark  to- 
mariners. 

CARTHA'GO  NOVA.  See  Cartagena,  ante. 

CARTHAMINE,  or  Carthameine.  The  dye  so  called  is  obtained  by  a chemical  proc- 
ess from  safflower  (q.v.),  {carthamus  tinctorius)  in  crystals  which  are  insoluble  in  water, 
but  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  When  newly  precipitated,  C.  immediately  and 
permanently  attaches  itself  to  cotton  or  silk,  but  not  to  wool,  requiring  no  mordant, 
dyeing  the  fabric  a fine  red,  which  is  changed  to  yellow  on  the  addition  of  alkalies,  and 
may  be  returned  to  red  again  on  being  treated  with  acids. 

CARTHUS  IANS,  a monastic  order  which  owes  its  origin  to  St.  Bruno,  who  retired  in 
1086  with  six  companions  to  the  solitude  of  La  Chartreuse  (whence  the  name),  near 
Grenoble,  where  th^  built  hermitages,  wore  rude  garments,  and  lived  upon  vegetables 
and  coarse  bread.  In  1134,  the  fifth  prior,  Guigo,  composed  a body  of  rules,  called  the 
Statuta  Ouigonis  or  Gonsuetudines  Gartusice,  but  they  have  been  often  changed.  After 
1170,  when  the  order  received  papal  approbation,  it  extended  rapidly.  It  dates  from 
1180  in  England,  where  the  name  of  Chartreuse-houses  was  corrupted  into  charter- 
houses.  The  C.  were  divided  into  two  classes,  fathers  {patres)  and  brothers  {conwrsi). 
Each  occupied  a separate  cell,  with  a bed  of  straw,  a pillow,  a woolen  coverlet,  and  the 
means  of  manual  labor  or  of  writing.  They  left  their  cell,  even  for  meals,  only  on  festi- 
vals and  on  days  of  the  funeral  of  a brother  of  the  order.  Thrice  a week,  they  fasted 
on  bread,  water,  and  salt,  and  there  were  several  lengthened  fasts  in  the  year.  Flesh 
was  forbidden  at  all  times,  and  wine,  unless  mixed  with  water.  Unbroken  silence,  except 
on  rare  occasions,  was  enforced,  as  well  as  frequent  prayer  and  night- watching.  These 
austerities  were  continued,  with  little  modification,  by  the  modern  Carthusians.  The  order 
at  one  time  counted  16  provinces,  and  can  still  boast  some  of  the  most  magnificent  con- 
vents in  the  world — as  La  Grande  Ghartreuse,  near  Grenoble,  and  Gertosa,  near  Pavia. 
They  were  given  to  hospitality  and  works  of  charity,  and  were  on  the  whole  better  edu- 
cated than  the  mendicant  orders.  Their  principal  seats  were  in  Italy,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land; but  they  have  shared  the  fate  of  the  other  monastic  establishments,  and  their  con- 
vents are  now  for  the  most  part  solitudes  indeed.  The  Carthusian  nuns  arose  at  Salette, 
on  the  Rhone,  in  France,  about  1229.  They  followed  the  rules  of  the  Carthusian 
monks,  but  with  some  mitigations,  of  which  the  most  notable  is  that  they  have  a com- 
mon refectory. 

CARTIER,  Sir  George  ^^tienne,  1814-73;  a laywer  of  Canada,  educated  at  St. 
Sulpice,  Montreal.  He  was  one  of  the  Papineau  “rebels  ” in  the  abortive  revolution  of 
1837-38,  but  was  forgiven;  and  became  a member  of  the  provincial  legislature,  secretary, 
and  attorney-general.  In  1858,  he  became  premier.  He  was  instrumental  in  abolishing 
feudal  tenure  in  Lower  Canada,  in  making  the  legislative  council  elective,  in  codify- 
ing the  laws,  in  decentralizing  the  judiciary,  and  in  bringing  about  the  confederation  of 
the  colonies. 

CARTIER,  Jacques,  b.  1494,  in  Brittany.  In  1534,  he  sailed  from  St.  Malo  in  com- 
mand of  two  ships  to  explore  the  n.e.  coast  of  America.  He  touched  at  cape  Buenavista, 
Newfoundland,  passed  up  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle  and  discovered  the  mainland  of  Canada, 
which  he  claimed  for  France.  The  next  year,  with  another  expedition,  he  sailed  up  the 
St.  Lawrence  as  far  as  Hochelaga,  a large  fortified  native  village  at  the  foot  of  a. 


Cavtilagre* 

Cartoach. 


502 


bill,  which  he  named  Mont  Royal  (now  Montreal).  Disgusted  with  the  severe  climate, 
and  his  men  being  sick  with  scurvy,  he  went  back  to  France  in  1536,  and  nothing  was 
done  towards  colonization  until  1540,  when  Jean  Francis  de  la  Roche,  sieur  de  Roberval, 
obtained  leave  to  form  a setilement.  In  1541,  Cartier  was  sent  out  in  command  of  five 
ships,  and  near  the  present  Quebec  he  built  a fort  and  named  it  Charlesbourg ; but  the 
Indians,  whose  chief  he  had  carried  off  in  his  previous  voyage,  gave  him  so  much  trouble 
that  he  returned  to  France.  Cartier  appears  no  more  in  public  life  except  as  seigneur 
of  his  native  village  of  Limoilin,  where  he  was  living  as  late  as  1552. 

CABTILAGE  is  a firm  elastic  substance,  of  a pearly  whiteness,  presenting  to  an 
unaided  eye  a uniform  and  homogeneous  appearance.  Cartilages  maybe  divided  into  the 
iemyorary,  the  permanent,  and  the  accidental.  The  temporary  cartilages  are  substitutes 
for  bone  in  the  earlier  periods  of  life,  and  after  a certain  time  become  ossified.  See 
Osteology.  At  birth  the  extremities  and  larger  eminences  of  the  long  bones,  and  the 
margins  of  the  flat  bones  are  still  cartilaginous,  and  this  C.  does  not  altogether  disappear 
till  the  period  of  puberty.  The  permanent  cartilages  are  either  articular  or  non-articulm. 
Articular  cartilages  are  attached  to  the  extremities  of  bones,  and  enter  into  the  forma- 
tions of  joints.  Non-articular  cartilages  are  usually  more  flexible  than  the  articular. 
They  are  sometimes  attached  to  bones,  to  lengthen  them  out,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
nose,  the  auditory  canal,  and  the  Eustachian  tube.  See  Hearing,  Organs  of.  In  other 
cases  they  form  the  basis  of  distinct  organs,  as  the  larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  eyelids. 
Accidental  cartilages  are  cartilaginous  concretions,  which  are  occasionally  found  in  situ- 
ations where  they  do  not  normally  occur,  and  are  of  no  general  interest.  The  physical 
properties  of  cartilages,  especially  their  elasticity,  resisting  power,  and  incapability  of 
extension,  are  such  as  to  fit  them  admirably  for  the  functions  which  they  have  to  per- 
form in  the  animal  economy.  A brief  notice  of  the  microscopical  characters  of  C.  will  be 
found  in  the  article  Cells,  and  a reference  to  its  chemical  composition  will  be  found 
in  the  articles  Gelatinous  Tissues  and  Gluten. 

CABTILAGINOTJS  FISHES  are  those  fishes  which  have  a skeleton  destitute  of  bony 
fibers.  In  some  of  these  fishes,  the  skeleton  is  merely  rudimentary,  so  that  they  seem 
to  form  an  intermediate  link  between  vertebrate  and  invertebrate  animals.  In  the  lance- 
lets  (q.v.),  (amphioxus),  it  consists  of  nothing  more  than  a slender,  transparent,  flexible 
dorsal  column ; in  myxine  also  it  is  a soft  flexible  tube,  without  appearance  of  vertebrae 
or  of  ribs;  in  the  lampreys,  the  dorsal  column  is  still  a mere  cylinder  of  cartilage,  with- 
out any  notable  division  into  segments;  whilst  even  in  the  sturgeon,  the  center  of  the 
backbone  is  a continuous  gelatinous  cord,  and  in  the  sharks  the  vertebrae  are  formed  of 
hollow  cones,  meeting  at  their  apexes  in  the  middle,  and  having  their  cups  filled  with 
the  remains  of  the  gelatinous  cord,  an  arrangement  from  which  result  great  elasticity 
and  flexibility.  In  many  instances,  even  in  the  higher  C.  F.,  several  vertebrae  are  united 
in  a single  piece;  in  all  of  them  the  skull  is  formed  of  a single  piece  without  sutures, 
although  the  general  form  agrees  with  that  of  the  skull  of  other  fishes,  and  the  same 
parts  or  regions  may  be  recognized.  The  calcareous  matter  present  in  the  skeleton  is 
always  deposited  in  a granular  manner,  giving  a characteristic  dotted  appearance;  but 
even  in  the  skull  of  the  basking  shark,  one  of  the  most  highly  organized,  the  earthy 
matter  has  been  found  to  form  little  more  than  3 per  cent  of  the  whole  substance;  in  the 
skeleton  of  the  lamprey,  it  is  only  per  cent.  In  other  parts  of  their  organization,  C. 
F.  differ  from  each  other  very  widely;  some  of  them  possessing  the  organs  of  the  senses 
in  as  great  perfection  as  any  fishes  whatever,  whilst  in  others  these  organs  are  very 
imperfectly  developed.  Linnseus  placed  the  C.  F.  along  with  batrachian  reptiles  in  his 
class  amphibia.  By  the  general  consent  of  naturalists,  however,  they  are  placed  in  the 
class  of  fishes.  Cuvier,  referring  to  the  very  different  degrees  of  organization  which 
they  exhibit,  says  “they  form  a series  ranging  parallel  to  the  bony  fishes  just  as  the 
marsupial  mammalia  range  parallel  with  the  other  ordinary  mammalia.”  Owen  and 
others,  admitting  the  justice  of  this  view,  have,  however,  pointed  out  in  the  C.  F.  gen- 
^•rally,  characters  corresponding  with  those  of  the  osseous  fishes  in  their  embryotic  state, 
and  with  the  permanent  or  mature  conditions  which  prevailed  among  the  fishes  of  some 
of  the  older  geological  periods.  One  remarkable  characteristic  even  of  the  higher  groups 
of  C.  F. — sturgeons,  sharks,  rays,  etc. — is  the  heteroco'cal  tail,  the  vertebral  column  being 
prolonged  into  the  upper  portion  of  the  caudal  fin,  and  the  lower  one  given  off  on  its 
under  side,  as  in  the  fossil  fishes  generally  of  the  old  red  sandstone  and  other  oldest  fish- 
producing  rocks.  Cuvier  divided  C.  F.,  or  chondropterygii  (Gr.  cartilage-finned)  into  3 
orders:  (sturgeon,  chimera,  etc.),  having  the  gills  free,  and  gill-openings  with 

a lid,  like  the  osseous  fishes:  selachii  (sharks  and  rays),  having  the  gills  fixed,  and  con- 
sisting of  folds  of  membrane  on  a plane  surface,  with  numerous  gill-openings,  the  jaws 
movable  as  in  other  fishes  generally;  and  (lampreys,  etc.),  also  having  fixed 

gills  and  numerous  gill-openings,  the  mouth  adapted  for  sucking.  Muller  and  Owen, 
however,  separate  cyclostomi  of  Cuvier  from  the  other  C.  F.,  on  account  of  important 
anatomical  differences,  particularly  in  the  structure  of  the  heart,  which  in  the  cyclostomi 
wants  the  bulhus  arteriosus,  or  thick  muscular  swelling  of  the  commencement  of  the 
arterial  system  close  to  the  ventricle;  whilst  this,  which  may,  in  fact,  be  considered  as  a 
third  chamber  of  the  heart,  is  present  in  the  sturiones  and  selachii,  and  within  it,  are  3 
or  more  longitudinal  rows  of  valves;  characters  derived  from  the  vascular  system  being 


503 


Cartilapre. 

Cartouche 


deemed  by  these  great  naturalists  of  the  highest  value  in  determining  the  arrangement 
of  the  class  of  fishes.  The  lancelets  occupy  a place  by  themselves,  from  their  absolutely 
wanting  a heart,  and  having  the  circulation  carried  on  by  the  muscularity  of  the  entire 
vascular  system. 

CAETOON  (Ital.  cartone,  pasteboard ; from  Lat.  charta,  paper).  In  the  fine  arts,  C.  is 
a design  on  strong  paper,  of  the  full  size  of  a work  to  be  afterwards  executed  either  in 
fresco,  oil  color,  or  tapestry.  The  object  of  the  artist  in  preparing  a C.  is,  that  he 
may  adjust  the  drawing  and  composition  of  his  subject  in  circumstances  in  which  altera- 
tions can  be  effected  with  facility,  before  proceeding  to  the  execution  of  the  work  itself. 
Cartoons  are  generally  composed  of  a number  of  sheets  of  stout  paper  or  pasteboard, 
pasted  together  at  the  edges,  and  stretched  on  a frame.  The  surface  is  sometimes  primed, 
or  washed  with  a ground-color;  but  more  frequently  this  process  is  dispensed  with.  The 
drawing  is  made  either  in  chalks  or  in  distemper  (q.  v. ),  in  which  latter  case  the  C.  itself  has 
very  much  the  appearance  of  a fresco.  Frequently  only  two  colors  are  used,  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  light  and  shade,  in  which  case  the  C.  is  said  to  be  in  chiaro-oscuro. 
The  C.,  when  finished,  is  transferred  to  the  canvas  or  plaster  on  which  the  work  is  to 
be  executed,  either  by  tracing  with  a hard  point,  or  by  pricking  with  pins,  charcoal  in 
both  cases  being  used.  Sometimes  lines  are  simply  drawn  across  it,  or,  if  it  is  wished  tO' 
preserve  it  from  injury,  threads  are  stretched  across  it  from  pins  placed  at  the  required 
distances  along  the  edges.  In  fresco  painting  (q.v. ),  the  plaster  on  which  the  work  is 
executed  must  be  kept  wet,  in  order  that  it  may  absorb  the  color,  and  consequently  only 
a small  portion  can  be  executed  at  a time.  For  this  reason,  the  C.  must  be  traced  in 
small  compartments  of  the  size  that  the  artist  can  finish  without  stopping.  It  is  here, 
consequently,  above  all,  that  the  necessity  for  the  previous  execution  of  a C.  is  greatest, 
as  it  would  be  impossible  to  sketch  the  whole  design  on  the  plaster  in  the  first  instance. 
But  the  great  masters  used  such  studies  in  chiaro-oscuro  as  guides  to  them  in  almost  all 
their  more  extensive  works,  and  many  of  these  monuments  of  their  care,  as  well  as  of 
their  genius,  have  been  preserved.  We  have  cartoons  of  Andrea  Mantegna,  Domeni- 
chino,  the  Caracci,  etc. ; but  the  finest  specimens  of  cartoons  in  existence  are  those  of 
Raphael  at  Hampton  court.  These  marvelous  conceptions  were  sent  to  Flanders  in  the 
reign  of  Leo  X. , in  order  that  they  might  be  copied  in  tapestry  in  two  sets,  one  of  which 
was  designed  for  the  pope,  the  other  for  a present  by  the  pope  to  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
land. The  tapestries,  which  are  very  inferior  to  the  designs,  are  still  in  existence.  One 
set  is  in  Rome,  the  other  was  in  England  till  the  death  of  Charles  I.,  when  it  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Spanish  ambassador  and  carried  to  Spain.  At  a recent  period  it  was 
brought  to  London  and  offered  for  sale,  but  as  no  English  purchaser  was  found,  it  was 
again  carried  to  the  continent.  For  many  years  the  cartoons,  originally  twenty-five  in 
number,  lay  neglected  at  Brussels,  and  many  of  them  were  destroyed.  The  seven  now 
at  Hampton  court  were  at  length  purchased  by  Rubens  for  King  Charles  I.  It  is  an 
instance  of  Cromwell’s  good  sense,  in  a direction  in  which  it  was  not  often  exhibited, 
that  at  the  dispersion  of  the  royal  collections,  these  cartoons  were  purchased  for  the 
nation  by  his  special  command.  So  low  was  the  artistical  taste  of  the  lime,  however, 
that  whilst  the  “Triumph  of  Julius  Caesar,”  by  Andrea  Mantegna,  still  at  Hampton 
court,  was  valued  at  £2,000,  the  cartoons  of  Raphael  were  set  down  at  £300!  In  Charles 

II.  ’s  time,  these  remarkable  works  were  again  consigned  to  oblivion.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  have  them  copied  in  tapestry,  by  which  they  were  seriously  injured.  William 

III. ,  strangely  enough,  followed  in  Cromwell’s  footsteps  in  appreciating  what  Charles 
II.  had  neglected.  He  had  the  cartoons  restored,  and  built  a gallery  for  them  at  Hamp- 
ton court,  where,  with  the  exception  of  a visit  to  Windsor  in  George  III.’s  time,  they 
have  since  sojourned.  The  following  are  the  subjects  represented:  1.  Paul  Preaching 
at  Athens:  2 The  Death  of  Ananias;  3.  Ely  mas,  the  Sorcerer,  struck  with  Blindness; 
4.  Christ  Delivering  the  Keys  to  Peter;  5.  The  Sacrifice  at  Lystra;  6.  The  Apostles 
Healing  the  Sick  at  the  “Beautiful  Gate”  of  the  Temple;  7.  The  Miraculous  Draught 
of  Fishes.  Our  space  and  our  design  equally  preclude  us  from  attempting  any  state- 
ment of  the  merits  of  these  exquisite  compositions.  Several  of  the  lost  cartoons  are  par- 
tially transmitted  to  us  by  engravings,  some  of  which  were  executed  from  the  tapestries; 
others,  it  is  believed,  from  the  originals.  The  subjects  of  these  are — 1.  The  Adoration 
of  the  Kings;  2.  Christ  appearing  to  Mary  Magdalene;  3.  The  Disciples  at  Eramaus;  4. 
The  Murder  of  the  Innocents;  5.  The  Ascension.  These  were  engraved,  along  with  the 
others,  by  Somereau,  a French  engraver,  in  4to.  Other  cartoons  of  Raphael  exist — one 
the  property  of  the  duke  of  Buccleuch,  and  two  in  the  possession  of  the  king  of  Italy, 
which  are  said  to  have  belonged  to  the  set  sent  to  Flanders.  There  is  also  a portion  of 
one  in  the  national  gallery  in  London,  but  it  is  now  painted  over  with  oil  color.  The 
best  engravings  of  the  cartoons  at  Hampton  court  are  by  Dorigny,  Audran,  and  Hollo- 
way; but  in  future  it  is  probable  that  they  will  be  more  known  to  the  public  by  means 
of  photographs,  of  which  Messrs.  Colnaghi  and  others  have  already  produced  very  beau- 
tiful specimens. 

CAETOTTCH  is  a word  much  used  in  the  French  military  service,  but  less  frequently 
in  the  English.  The  name  was  once  given  to  a wooden  case  containing  200  to  300 
musket-bullets,  and  8 or  10  1-lb.  balls,  fired  from  a mortar  or  howitzer  in  defense  of  a 


Cartouche. 

Oarvahal. 


504 


ditch  or  intrenchment ; but  such  missiles  have  been  superseded  by  others.  The  cartridge- 
box  carried  by  the  soldiers  used  to  be  called  a C.  in  England,  and  still  is  in  France. 

CABTOTJCHE,  the  name  by  which  the  French,  and  we  after  them,  designate  the  ovals 
on  which  the  hieroglyphic  characters  for  the  names  of  Egyptian  kings  are  sculptured. 
See  Cavo-rilievo.  C.  is  also  used  to  signify  a tablet,  either  for  ornament  or  to  receive 
an  inscription,  so  formed  as  to  resemble  a sheet  of  paper  or  parchment,  with  the  edges 
and  ends  rolled  up.  Cartouches  are  often  seen  on  tombs.  The  same  term  is  sometimes 
applied  to  modillions,  or  brackets  supporting  a cornice. 

CARTOUCHE,  Louis  Dominique,  1693-1721;  the  leader  of  a band  of  robbers  and 
assassins  in  France,  whose  crimes  created  great  terror  in  Paris.  For  many  years  he 
eluded  the  police,  but  at  last  was  arrested  by  chance  in  a low  drinking-house.  He  had 
a long  trial,  which  created  a great  deal  of  interest,  and  was  finally  sentenced  to  death, 
and  broken  on  the  wheel  before  an  immense  assembly  of  approving  spectators. 

CABTBIDGE  is  a cylindrical  case  made  to  contain  either  the  whole  or  a part  of  the 
materials  for  discharging  from  a fire-arm.  Those  for  ordnance  or  large  guns  are  chiefly 
made  of  serge  and  flannel,  sewn  up  into  the  form  of  a bag,  which,  supplied  with  a gi  /en 
weight  of  powder,  is  tied  round  the  neck,  and  strengthened  by  iron  hoops.  The  weight 
of  powder  varies  from  about  300  lbs.  for  an  81-ton  gun,  to  a few  ounces  for  a mountain 
gun- 

Cartridges  for  small-arms  which  load  at  the  muzzle  are  usually  paper  tubes,  contain- 
ing a leaden  ball  and  a few  drachms  of  powder.  The  tubes  are  made  in  such  a way  that 
the  powder  has  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  paper  around  it,  while  at  the  mouth  of  the 
tube  and  over  the  bullet  there  is  only  one.  The  paper  over  the  bullet  is  lubricated 
generally  with  a composition  of  beeswax  and  tallow.  In  loading,  the  paper  at  the 
mouth  of  the  tube  has  to  be  twisted  or  bitten  off;  the  powder  is  then  poured  into  the 
barrel,  the  tube  reversed,  and  the  bullet  inserted  into  the  muzzle,  and  the  tube  broken 
away.  Cartridges  for  breech-loading  small-arms  are  generally  formed  of  a thin  sheet  of 
brass  coiled  into  a cylinder,  and  having  an  iron  case,  in  the  center  of  which  is  the  per- 
cussion arrangement.  Those  used  for  the  Snider  and  the  Martini-Henry  rifles  are 
described  in  the  article  on  Breech-Loading  Arms,  Besides  the  C.  case  of  coiled  brass, 
there  are  others  made  of  solid  brass  or  copper  (an  American  invention),  and  these  seem 
to  be  gaining  favor  abroad,  the  Prussians  having  adopted  such  a case  for  the  new 
Mauser  rifle. 

For  muzzle-loading  shot  guns,  the  chief  cartridges  used  contain  a charge  of  shot 
packed  in  a paper  cylinder  of  a size  suitable  for  the  bore  of  the  gun.  Some  of  these,  in 
addition  to  the  paper  covering,  are  surrounded  with  a wire  net-work,  for  the  purpose  of 
increasing  the  range  and  penetration. 

The  C.  for  breech-loading  shot  guns  is  usually  a stout  cylinder  of  paper  with  a metal 
case.  They  are  made  of  various  sizes  to  suit  the  different  calibers  of  guns,  and  with  pin 
or  central  fire  ignition.  In  the  pin-fire  C.,  a small  brass  pin  passes  through  the  side  of 
the  case  into  the  percussion  cap,  and  protrudes  through  a small  hole  in  the  top  of  the 
barrels.  The  pin  is  struck  by  the  hammer  of  the  gun,  and  forced -into  the  percussion 
cap,  which  explodes,  and  ignites  the  powder.  In  the  central-fire  C. , the  cap  is  in  the 
center  of  the  case,  and  is  exploded  by  the  hammer  of  the  gun  acting  on  a piston  con 
tained  in  the  false  breech. 

In  America,  a solid  brass  C.  case  is  often  used  for  shot  guns. 

For  sporting  rifles,  the  cartridges  are  quite  as  numerous  and  as  varied  as  for  shot 
guns.  With  large-bore  rifles  the  same  C.  case  is  generally  used  as  for  shot  guns,  but 
loaded  with  powder  and  ball  (spherical,  solid  conical,  hollow  conical,  or  shell).  For 
small-bore,  or  what  are  known  as  express  rifles,  either  a coiled  brass  C.  case,  similar  in 
construction  to  that  for  the  Snider  or  Martini-Henry  rifle,  but  made  to  contain  a larger 
charge,  or  a solid  brass  case  is  used.  The  coiled  case  can  be  reloaded  twice  or  thrice, 
while  the  solid  case  can  be  reloaded  as  often  as  twenty  times,  and  on  this  account  the 
latter  is  rapidly  gaining  favor  with  sportsmen  in  India  and  Africa.  The  express  C. 
contains  a very  heavy  charge  of  powder,  with  a light  hollow  conical  bullet  giving  very 
great  velocity,  low  trajectory,  and  immense  killing  power.  In  the  Henry  express  C., 
the  charge  of  powder  is  4 drachms,  while  the  bullet  weighs  only  270  grains. 

Cartridges  for  breech-loading  pistols  and  revolvers  are  generally  small  metal  cylin- 
ders containing  a charge  of  powder  and  a bullet,  and  with  rim,  pin,  or  central  fire 
ignition,  the  diameter  varying  from  .230  of  an  inch  upwards. 

CABTBIDGE-PAPEB,  a light-colored  strong  paper,  originally  manufactured  for 
soldiers’  cartridges  (q.v.),  is  extensively  used  in  art,  its  rough  surface  being  useful  for 
certain  kinds  of  drawing. 

CABTWBIGHT,  Edmund,  celebrated  on  account  of  his  invention  of  the  power-loom, 
was  b.  April  24,  1743,  at  Marnham,  Nottinghamshire.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  obtained 
a living  in  the  English  church,  and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  hia  ministerial  duties 
and  to  literature,  until  a casual  conversation,  in  1784,  directed  his  attention  to  machinery, 
and  in  1785  he  exhibited  his  first  power-loom  (q.  v.)  in  action,  an  ingenious  though  very 
rude  machine ; upon  which,  however,  he  subsequently  effected  improvements  rendering 
it  almost  perfect.  Its  introduction  was  vehemently  opposed,  and  a mill  fitted  up  with 


505 


Cartouche. 

CarrahaL 


500  of  his  looms  was  ignorantly  and  maliciously  burned  down.  'C.,  in  1790,  took  out  a 
patent  for  combing  wool,  and  secured  patents  for  various  other  improvements  in  connec- 
tion with  manufactures.  But  his  patents  yielded  him  little  return,  and,  in  1809,  govern- 
ment, in  consideration  of  his  inventions,  granted  him  £10,000.  C.  was  the  author  of  a 
legendary  poem,  entitled  Arminia  and  Elvira,  and  other  poetical  pieces.  He  died  Oct., 
1823. 

CARTWRIGHT,  John,  1740-1824;  usually  called  maj.  C. ; in  the  English  navy  in 
his  youth.  He  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Cherbourg,  and  subsequently  on  the  New- 
foundland station,  when  he  was  appointed  chief  magistrate  of  the  settlement,  discharging 
the  duties  of  the  office  with  great  ability  for  five  years.  When  the  dispute  with  the 
American  colonies  began,  he  espoused  their  cause,  declining  to  fight  against  them,  and 
thereby  rejecting  an  almost  certain  high  military  or  naval  promotion.  In  1774,  he  pub- 
lished American  Independence  the  Glory  and  Interest  of  Great  Britain.  The  next  year  he 
was  appointed  maj.  in  the  Nottingham  militia,  which  position  he  served  for  17  years, 
being  finally  superseded  because  of  his  political  opinions.  In  1776,  he  appeared  in  print 
as  the  advocate  of  parliamentary  reform,  and  thenceforth  devoted  his  life  to  the  attain- 
ment of  universal  suffrage  and  annual  parliaments.  In  1778,  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  Nottinghamshire,  and  the  same  year  founded  the  “ society  for  constitu- 
tional information,”  a body  which  embraced  many  of  the  distinguished  men  of  the  day, 
and  from  which  organization  rose  the  famous  “corresponding  society.”  His  work  in 
the  furtherance  of  reform  was  incessant.  In  1819,  he  was  indicted  for  conspiracy,  found 
guilty  the  following  year,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a fine  of  £100.  He  spent  his  last  years 
in  London.  He  was  married,  but  left  no  children.  In  1831,  a monument  to  him  was 
erected  on  Burton  Crescent. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Peter,  d.d.,  1785-1872;  a native  of  Virginia;  settled  in  early  life 
in  Kentucky,  where,  in  1806,  he  was  ordained  a deacon  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church.  He  was  subsequently  regular  preacher  and  presiding  elder,  and  a member  of 
every  quadrennial  conference  from  1816  to  1860,  and  once  more  in  1868.  He  was  a 
zealous  worker,  in  the  course  of  33  years  preaching  about  15,000  sermons,  and  baptizing 
12,000  converts.  C.  was  widely  known  for  his  homely  but  powerful  preaching;  and 
interesting  stories  are  told  of  his  daring  and  romantic  adventures  among  the  rough  back- 
woodsmen. Many  of  these  can  be  found  in  his  Fifty  Tears  a Presiding  Elder,  and  in  the 
Autobiography  of  Peter  Cartwright,  the  Backwoods  Preacher. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Samuel  A.,  b.  Va.,  1793;  d.  about  1863.  He  studied  medicine 
under  Dr.  Rush  and  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  college.  During  Jackson’s  campaigns 
against  the  Indians  and  the  British  he  w^as  surgeon- in- chief,  and,  after  1815,  settled  in 
Alabama  and  afterward  in  Natchez,  Miss.,  where  he  labored  for  a quarter  of  a century. 
Dr.  C.  wrote  many  valuable  papers  upon  fevers,  cholera,  and  other  diseases. 

CARTWEIGHT,  Thomas,  a distinguished  Puritan  divine  of  the  16th  c.,  was  b.  in 
Hertfordshire,  about  1535.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  where,  in  1570,  he  was  chosen 
Margaret  divinity  professor.  His  lectures  here  were  too  honestly  critical  of  the  polity 
of  the  church  to  be  acceptable  to  the  chief  authorities,  who  deprived  him  of  his  profes- 
sorship, and  subsequently  of  his  fellowship.  C.  traveled  on  the  continent,  and  made 
the  friendship  of  such  men  as  Beza,  who,  in  a letter  concerning  him,  says,  “I  think  the 
sun  doth  not  see  a more  learned  man.”  On  his  return  to  England,  he  again  became 
embroiled  with  the  church  and  the  government,  and  for  his  non-conformity  suffered 
imprisonment  several  times.  He  died  Dec.,  1603.  He  wrote  A Confutation  of  the  Bhem- 
ish  Translation,  Glosses,  and  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament. 

CA'BIJS,  Karl  Gust.,  a German  scholar,  physiologist,  physician,  and  artist,  was  b.  at 
Leipsic,  3d  Jan.,  1789.  He  first  attracted  notice  by  a series  of  lectures  on  comparative 
anatomy,  delivered  in  his  native  city  about  the  year  1812.  After  having  superintended, 
during  the  war  of  1813,  the  French  hospital  at  Pfaffendorf,  he  went  to  Dresden,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  midwifery  in  the  newly  organized  medico-chirurgical 
academy,  but  resigned  his  office  when  elected  court  physician  and  councilor  of  state. 
His  house  was  the  rendezvous  of  all  the  most  distinguished  savants  and  artists  in  Dres- 
den. C.  wrote  a vast  variety  of  works,  some  of  which  are  marked  by  original  and  strik- 
ing views,  as,  for  instance,  Ueber  den  Kreislauf  des  Blutes  der  Insecten,  in  which  he  dem- 
onstrates the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  insects.  He  died  in  July,  1869. 

CA'RUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  222-83;  Emperor  of  Rome;  supposed  to  have  been  the 
son  of  a noble  Roman  lady  and  an  African  father.  On  the  assassination  of  Probus 
in  282,  C.  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  legions.  He  was  victorious  over  the  Sarma- 
tians,  and  in  a winter  campaign  in  Asia,  he  carried  his  arms  beyond  the  Tigris.  He 
died  very  suddenly  in  camp,  and  it  was  given  out  that  he  had  been  struck  with  lightning. 

CARVAHAL',  or  CARBAJAL,  Tomas  JoseGonsalez,  1753-1834;  poet  and  statesman 
of  Spain ; educated  at  Seville.  He  held  a number  of  offices  of  importance,  and  in  1 812,  became 
director  of  the  university  of  San  Isidore,  where,  by  establishing  a chair  of  international 
law  he  offended  the  government,  and  was  imprisoned  for  5 years.  He  was  reinstated 
by  the  revolution  of  1820,  but  forced  into  exile  by  the  counter-revolution  3 years  later. 
He  died  a member  of  the  supreme  council  of  war.  C.  obtained  celebrity  as  the  authoi 


Carvalho. 

CaryophyllaceaD. 


506 


of  metrical  translations  of  the  i-octical  books  of  the  Bible,  and  for  other  works  in  prose 
and  verse. 

CARVAL'HO  E MELLO.  See  Pombal,  ante. 

CABVEL-BUILT.  The  difference  between  the  carvel  and  the  clincher  methods  of 
arranging  the  outer  planks  in  ship  and  boat  building  is  explained  under  Cllnchee- 

BUIJLT. 

CARVER,  a CO.  in  s.e.  Minnesota,  on  the  Minnesota  and  Crow  rivers;  375  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  14,140.  Surface  undulating,  and  soil  fertile;  productions  chiefly  agricultural. 
One  or  two  railroads  are  in  operation  or  in  progress.  Co.  seat,  Chaska. 

CARVER,  John,  b.  England,  d.  Massachusetts,  1621.  He  left  England  on  account 
of  religious  intolerance,  and  settled  in  Leyden,  whence  he  was  sent  to  effect  certain 
arrangements  with  the  Virginia  company.  In  1619,  he  got  a patent,  and  sailed  in  the 
MayJUmer  with  101  colonists.  On  the  landing  at  Plymouth,  Carver  was  chosen  as  gov- 
ernor, and  managed  affairs  prudently  for  the  four  months  between  his  election  and"  his 
death. 

CARVER,  Jonathan,  1732-80;  a native  of  Connecticut;  began  the  study  of  medi- 
cine, but  became  a soldier,  and  served  in  the  colonial  wars  previous  to  the  revolution. 
After  the  peace  of  1763,  and  the  cession  of  the  Canadas  to  Great  Britain,  Carver  traveled 
extensively  in  the  northwestern  wilderness,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  new  openings  for 
trade,  going  to  England  to  announce  his  discoveries.  In  1778,  he  published  Travels 
through  the  Interior  Parts  of  North  America,  and  the  next  year  a treatise  on  the  culture  of 
tobacco.  He  died  in  extreme  destitution. 

CARVIN-EPINOY,  a t.  of  France,  dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  11  m.  s.s.e.  of  Lille,  and  about 
the  same  distance  by  railway.  There  are  manufactures  of  beet-root  sugar,  starch,  earth- 
enware, and  leather.  Pop.  ’76,  6,167. 

CARVING,  a subordinate  branch  of  sculpture,  is  usually  performed  on  ivory  or  wood. 
Ivory  was  the  favorite  material  for  this  purpose  in  the  e.  from  an  early  period.  Among 
the  Babylonians,  who  likewise  practiced  gem-engraving  to  a great  extent,  carved  heads 
for  staves  were  executed  in  vast  quantities,  as  every  Babylonian  carried  a staff  and  a 
signet  ring.  During  the  palmy  days  of  Grecian  art,  ivory  was  largely  employed ; the  nude 
portion  of  the  colossal  statues  of  the  gods  being  composed  of  some  solid  material  over- 
laid with  plates  of  ivory,  while  the  remaining  portions  were  of  plate  gold.  At  a later 
period,  ivory  was  chiefly  employed  in  small  works,  usually  of  a decorative  character. 
During  the  earliest  period,  statues  of  the  gods  were  generally  of  wood,  painted,  gilt,  or 
draped  with  colored  robes,  different  kinds  of  wood  being  appropriated  to  different 
divinities.  Carvings  in  ivory  form  an  important  branch  of  early  Christian  sculpture. 
Among  the  most  curious  of  these  are  the  ivory  tablets  adorned  on  the  outside  with  low- 
reliefs,  and  in  the  inside  coated  with  wax  for  the  purpose  of  writing  upon.  The  chair 
inlaid  with  ivory  that  belonged  to  archbishop  Maximilian  in  the  cathedral  at  Ravenna, 
is  of  this  period  (546-55).  In  the  year  803,  Charlemagne  received  two  richly  carved 
doors  as  a present  from  Constantinople,  but  works  of  the  same  kind  were  executed  at  a 
much  earlier  period.  Towards  the  end  of  the  middle  ages,  the  art  of  C.  in  wood 
was  brought  to  a high  degree  of  perfection  in  Germany.  Altars  were  adorned  with 
carvings  of  this  material,  often  of  large  size,  and  with  numerous  figures;  in  general,  the 
nude  portions  were  carefully  and  tastefully  colored  after  nature,  and  the  draperies  gilt. 
Specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  churches  at  Altenberg,  Erfurt,  Prague,  and  in  some 
churches  in  Pomerania.  The  finest  and  most  perfect  specimens  are  a series  of  reliefs 
relating  to  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in  the  church  at  Tribsees.  Many  of  the 
Belgian  churches  also  possess  very  beautiful  examples  of  wood-carving.  Michael  Wohl- 
gemuth of  Nuremberg,  and  after  him  Veit  Stoss,  were  eminent  carvers  in  wood.  The 
wood-carving  on  the  great  altar  of  the  cathedral  at  Schleswig  by  Hans  Bruggemann 
belongs  to  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century.  Many  graceful  specimens  of  wood-carv- 
ing, on  a smaller  scale,  belonging  to  this  period,  are  to  be  seen  in  museums.  Nurem- 
berg was  celebrated  for  its  wood-carvings;  but  only  a few  of  the  many  works  ascribed 
to  him  can  be  assigned  with  certainty  to  Albert  Diirer.  Portrait  medallions,  usually  cut 
in  box,  were  much  in  vogue  during  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century.  The  first  artist 
in  this  line  was  Hans  Schwartz  of  Augsburg.  During  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  we 
find  ivory  again  extensively  employed  in  crucifixes,  crosses,  and  goblets,  with  relief  rep- 
resentations. The  most  eminent  artist  is  Franz  de  Quesnoy. 

CARY,  Alice,  b.  near  Cincinnati,  O.,  1820,  d.  N.  Y.,  1871.  At  the  age  of  18,  she 
began  to  write  for  the  press,  and  at  the  age  of  30,  with  the  assistance  of  her  sister 
Phoebe,  she  published  a volume  of  verses  which  were  exceptionally  popular.  In  1851, 
the  sisters  removed  to  New  York  city,  where,  under  the  friendship  and  patronage  of 
Horace  Greeley,  they  led  successful  literary  and  social  lives  for  20  years.  Among  the 
works  of  Alice,  besides  many  poems,  are  Glovemook;  Hagar,  a Story  of  To-Day;  Mar- 
ried, not  Mated;  Pictures  of  Country  Life;  Snow  Berries;  The  Bishop's  Son;  The  Lover's 
Diary,  etc. 

CARY,  Archibald,  1730-86;  a Virginian,  conspicuous  on  the  patriot  side  of  ihe 
revolution,  his  services  being  mainly  in  the  Virginia  convention  and  house  of  burgesses. 


507 


Carvalho. 

Caryophyllaceea. 


When  the  state  government  was  organized  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  senate.  The 
story  is  told  of  him  that,  on  hearing  a report  that  Patrick  Henry  was  spoken  of  for  dic- 
tator, he  said  to  Henry’s  half-brother,  “I  am  told  that  your  brother  wishes  to  be  dicta- 
tor. Tell  him  from  me  that  the  day  of  his  appointment  shall  be  the  day  of  his  death, 
for  he  shall  find  my  dagger  in  his  heart  before  the  sunset  of  that  day.”  Patrick  Henry 
was  the  last  man  in  the  world  to  aspire  to  a dictatorship. 

OAUY,  Rev.  Henry  Francis,  known  for  his  admirable  translation  of  Dante,  was  b. 
at  Birm.ugham  in  1772.  At  Oxford,  where  he  entered  Christ  church  as  a commoner  in 
1790,  he  was  early  distinguished  as  a classical  scholar,  and  also  for  his  knowledge  of 
Italian,  French,  and  English  literature.  In  1805,  he  translated  Dante’s  Inferno,  and  in 
1814,  tlie  whole  of  the  Dimna  Conimedia,  a translation  remarkable  not  only  for  its  accu- 
racy but  for  its  expressiveness  and  force.  He  afterwards  translated  Pindar’s  Odes  and 
Aristophanes’s  Bii'ds,  and  wrote  a series  of  memoirs,  in  continuation  of  Dr.  Johnson’s 
Lives  of  the  Poets.  For  some  years  he  held  the  appointment  of  assistant-librarian  in  the 
British  museum,  and  died  in  1844.  A memoir  by  his  son  was  published  in  1847. 

CARY,  Lott,  b.  a slave  in  Virginia  in  1780,  d.  in  Monrovia,  Africa,  1828.  Early 
in  life  he  became  a zealous  Baptist;  redeemed  himself  and  two  children  from  slavery, 
and  in  1821  went  to  Liberia,  where  he  was  concerned  in  removing  the  colonists  from  the 
unhealthy  locality  first  chosen  for  their  settlement.  He  did  much  to  advance  the  wel- 
fare of  the  new  republic,  and  was  left  in  full  power  when,  in  1826,  Mr.  Ashmun  sailed 
for  the  United  States. 

CARY,.  Ph(Ebe,  1824-71 ; sister  of  Alice,  also  a poetical  and  prose  writer.  Most  of 
her  works  were  issued  with  those  of  Alice.  She  d.  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  three  months 
after  the  death  of  her  sister,  with  whom  she  was  a life-long  companion.  Neither  of 
them  were  ever  married. 

CARY,  Sir  Robert,  son  of  Henry  Cary,  lord  Hunsdon,  was  b.  in  1559  or  1560,  and 
rose  to  eminence  in  the  civil  service  of  queen  Elizabeth.  For  a number  of  years, 
he  acted  as  English  warden  on  the  marches.  As  a courtier,  he  was  present  at  the  death 
of  Elizabeth,  1603,  and  expeditiously  rode  on  horseback  to  Edinburgh  to  communicate 
the  intelligence  to  her  successor,  James  VI.  At  the  coronation  of  Charles  I.,  he  was 
elevated  to  the  peerage  as  earl  of  Monmouth.  At  his  death  without  male  issue  the  earl- 
dom became  extinct.  Sir  Robert  Cary  wrote  his  Memoirs  (Edin.  1808),  a work  interest- 
ing chiefiy  from  notices  connected  with  border  history. 

CARYA.  See  Hickory. 

CARYATIDES  (pi.  of  Garyatis,  literally,  a woman  of  Caryse),  a name  given  to  female 
figures,  in  Greek  architecture,  when  applied  instead  of  columns  to  support  a roof.  The 
traditional  account  of  the  origin  of  the  name  is,  that  the  inhabitants  of  Caryae,  a city  in 
Arcadia,  having  joined  the  Persians  after  the  batiie  of  Thermopylae,  the  Greeks,  after 
their  victory  over  the  Persians,  destroyed  the  town,  slew  the  men,  and  carried  the  women 
into  captivity.  As  male  figures  representing  Persians  were  used  for  this  purpose,  it 
occurred  to  Praxiteles,  and  other  Athenian  artists,  that  female  Caryatae,  in  their  national 
costume,  might  be  thus  employed  to  commemorate  the  disgrace  of  their  country.  Les- 
sing, and  various  other  writers,  have  treated  this  account  as  fabulous;  but  it  seems  to  be 
confirmed  by  a bass-relief  preserved  at  Naples,  in  which  two  female  figures  are  repre- 
sented in  the  attitude  of  C.,  and  which  has  a (Ireek  inscription  mentioning  the  conquest 
of  Caryae,  Male  figures  used  for  the  same  purpose  are  called  Atlantes  (q.v.), 

CAR'YL,  Joseph,  1602-73;  a non-conformist  clergyman,  a native  of  London,  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  By  order  of  Cromwell,  he  attended  Charles  I.  in  Holmby  house,  and 
in  1650,  he  was  sent  with  Owen  to  accompany  Cromwell  to  Scotland.  He  is  remem- 
bered for  a ponderous  commentary  on  the  book  of  Job,  in  which,  after  the  fashion  of 
his  time,  he  enlarges  on  every  verse,  and  almost  on  every  word. 

CARYO'CAR,  a genus  of  large  trees  of  the  natural  order  rhizoholacem,  and  almost  con- 
stituting the  whole  order.  They  are  all  natives  of  Guiana  and  Brazil,  and  are  sometimes 
called  pekea  trees.  They  yield  good  timber  for  ship-building,  and  produce  the  delicious 
nuts,  now  not  uncommon  in  the  London  market,  called  butter  nuts  or  souari  nuts.  The 
fruit  is  a sort  of  drupe,  containing  several  combined  nuts.  The  fieshy  part  of  the  drupe 
consists  of  a butter-like  substance,  which  melts  between  the  fingers,  and  is  used  in  cook- 
ery instead  of  butter,  on  which  account  these  trees  are  sometimes  called  butter-trees.  It 
forms  merely  a thin  covering  for  the  nuts,  the  bristles  on  the  outer  surface  of  which,  in 
some  of  the  species,  sting  like  the  hairs  of  the  nettle,  and  are  very  troublesome  to  those 
who  open  them.  The  kernels  are  remarkably  soft.  An  oil  is  extracted  from  them 
which  is  scarcely  inferior  to  olive  oil.  G.  nuciferum  is  now  cultivated  in  the  island  of 
St.  Vincent;  but  G.  butyrosum,  G.  glah'um,  G.  tomentosum,  and  other  species  appear 
equally  worthy  of  attention. 

CARYOPHYLLA'CEJE,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  upwards  of 
1000  known  species,  mostly  herbaceous  plants,  a few  half  shrubby.  The  stems  are  tumid 
at  the  articulations;  the  leaves  always  opposite  and  entire,  often  uniting  around  the 
stem  The  fiowersare  regular;  the  calyx  persistent,  of  4 to  5 sepals,  either  free  or  united 
into  a tube;  the  corolla  of  4 to  5 petals,  which  are  frequently  bifid,  and  generally  terminate 


Caryophyllus* 

Casbin. 


608 


in  a claw  at  the  base,  sometimes  wanting;  the  stamens  as  many,  or  twice  as  many,  as  the 
petals;  the  ovary  of  2 to  5 carpels;  the  stigmas  sessile;  the  fruit  is  a one-celled  capsule, 
with  central  placenta,  to  which  the  seeds  are  attached. — The  plants  of  this  order  are 
mostly  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  countries;  some  of  them  are  only  found  on  tropical 
mountains,  near  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  Most  of  them  are  inconspicuous  weeds; 
some  produce  beautiful  flowers;  almost  all  are  insipid  and  inert;  a few  contain  saponiney 
aed  afford  a substitute  for  soap.  See  Soapwort.  To  this  order  belong  the  pink,  car- 
nation, sweet  william,  lychnis,  chickweed,  etc. 

CAEYOPHYLLXTS.  See  Cloves,  Myrtace^. 

CAEYOP'SIS,  in  botany,  a fruit  in  which  the  seed  and  pericarp  are  so  incorporated  as 
to  be  inseparable,  and  even  undistin^uishable.  The  grain  or  fruit  of  grasses,  as  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  maize,  etc. , is  a caryopsis. 

CAEYO'TA,  a genus  of  palms,  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  one  of  which,  C.  urens, 
remarkable  for  the  acridity  of  its  fruit,  which  produces  a burning  sensation  when  its  pulp 
is  applied  to  the  skin,  is  also  highly  valuable  for  the  great  quantity  of  ]mc,Q  {toddy)  which 
flows  from  its  wounded  spathes,  sometimes,  in  the  hot  season,  to  the  amount  of  100  pints 
in  24  hours  from  a single  tree.  Sugar  {jaggery)  is  made  from  this  juice  by  boiling  it  down, 
and  on  this  account  tms  palm  is  sometimes  called  the  jaggery  palm.  The  pith  of  old 
trees,  or  farinaceous  part  of  the  trunk,  is  also  much  used  for  food,  and  is  said  to  be 
equal  to  the  best  sago.  The  outer  part  of  the  stem  is  very  hard,  and  applicable  to  many 
purposes.  The  fibers  of  the  leaf-stalks  are  made  into  ropes,  which  are  very  strong  and 
durable;  the  leaf -stalks,  merely  stripped  of  the  leaflets,  are  used  as  fishing-rods,  being 
light,  tapering,  and  elastic ; and  the  woolly  substance  found  at  their  base  is  sometimes 
used  for  calking  ships.  This  palm  is  found  both  in  India  and  Ceylon,  and  abounds 
chiefly  in  mountainous  districts.  It  rises  to  a height  of  60  ft. , with  a trunk  of  a foot  in 
diameter,  and  a magnificent  spreading  head  of  great  double  pinnate  leaves,  and  triangular 
leaflets,  the  apex  of  the  triangle  being  their  point  of  attachment. 

CARYSFORT  REEF,  off  the  s.e.  coast  of  Florida,  in  25°  13'  n.,  and  80"  13'  west. 
There  is  a light  106  ft.  above  tide.  Navigation  is  dangerous  on  account  of  the  proximity 
of  the  gulf  stream. 

CASA,  the  prefix  to  many  names  in  Italian  and  Spanish,  signifying  “house”  or 
“home.” 

CASABIAN'CA,  Louis,  1755-98;  b.  at  Bastia;  an  officer  in  the  French  navy,  and  at 
a later  period  a member  of  the  national  convention;  later  still  one  of  the  council  of  500; 
and  finally  capt.  of  U Orient,  flag-ship  of  the  fleet  that  transported  Bonaparte  and  his 
army  to  Egypt.  In  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  when  the  fleet  was  attacked  by  the  English, 
Casabianca  fought  to  the  last;  and,  with  his  son  10  years  old,  was  killed  in  the  blowing 
up  of  the  vessel. 

GASACALEN'DA,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Campobasso,  17  m.  n.e.  of  Campo- 
basso,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Calela.  Fruits  and  wine  of  good  quality  are  produced 
in  the  district,  where  silk-worms  are  also  reared.  Pop.  5,900. 

CASA'LE,  a city  of  n.  Italy,  province  of  Alessandria,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Po,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  iron  bridge,  38  m.  e.n.e.  of  Turin.  It  is  a place  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  and  occupies  the  site  of  a more  ancient  town.  Many  Roman  remains 
are  found,  and  coins  of  the  early  ages  of  the  republic.  It  has  a cathedral,  dating  from 
the  8th  c.,  with  valuable  archives.  The  old  citadel,  founded  in  1590,  was  one  of  the 
strongest  in  Italy,  and  within  recent  years  the  fortifications  have  been  greatly  strength- 
ened and  extended.  During  the  Italian  campaign  of  1859,  C.  was  occupied  by  divisions 
of  the  Sardinian  army,  and  for  a short  time  formed  the  head-quarters  of  the  French 
emperor.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk-twist,  and  a trade  in  the  produce  of  the  district, 
which  is  very  fertile.  Pop.  ’71,  20,436.  C.  formerly  gave  its  name  to  a province  which 
had  an  area  of  about  350  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  of  about  143,000. 

CASAL'-MAGGIO'EE,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  province  of  Cremona,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Po,  22  m.  e.s.e.  of  Cremona.  Being  subject  to  frequent  inundations  from  the  river, 
strong  embankments  have  been  constructed  for  its  protection.  It  has  manufactures  of 
earthenware,  leather,  glass,  etc.  Pop.  5,000. 

CASAL'-FTJSTEELEK'GO,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  province  of  Milan,  12  m.  s.e.  of  Lodi,  on  the 
road  to  Cremona.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk  fabrics,  linen,  and  earthenware,  and  an 
extensive  trade  in  Parmesan  cheese,  which  is  here  manufactured  of  the  best  quality. 
Pop.  5,600. 

CASAMAS'SIMA,  a t of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Bari,  14  m.  s.e.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  has  a convent  and  two  abbeys,  and  the  vicinity  produces  wine  and  almonds. 
Pop.  6,600. 

CASANO'VA,  Francis,  a celebrated  painter  of  battles  and  landscapes,  was  b.  in  Lon- 
don, of  Venetian  parents,  1732.  Educated  in  Italy,  he  afterwards  went  to  Paris,  from 
whicli  he  was  driven  by  the  severe  criticism  of  Diderot.  C.  then  took  up  his  abode  in 
Dresden,  where  he  painted  chiefly  battle-pieces,  and  by  one  of  his  greatest  works  gained 
a place  in  the  academy.  He  afterwards  went  to  Vienna,  and  painted  for  the  empress 


509 


Caryophyllat. 

Casbin. 


•Catharine  her  victory  over  the  Turks.  He  died  at  Briel,  near  Vienna,  1805.  The  exe- 
cution, and  especially  the  coloring  of  his  works,  are  excellent. 

CASANO  VA  DE  SEINOALT,  Giovanni  Jacopo,  a notable  adventurer  of  the  Cagliostro 
species,  was  b.,  1725,  in  Venice,  and  studied  in  Padua,  afterwards  in  Venice,  intending 
to  enter  the  church.  Having  been  expelled  for  sufficient  reasons  from  a seminary  of 
priests,  he  traveled  to  Naples,  visited  Rome,  and  after  many  adventures  arrived  in  Con- 
stantinople. On  his  return  to  Venice  in  1745,  he  supported  himself  for  a time  by  his 
skill  as  a violinist,  until  he  gained  some  celebrity  by  curing  a senator  who  had  been 
attacked  by  apoplexy.  His  irregularities  again  drove  him  from  Venice.  He  now  wan- 
dered about  for  some  time  among  the  chief  cities  in  the  n.  of  Italy,  Milan,  Mantua, 
Verona,  Ferrara,  Bologna,  Parma,  etc.,  but  in  1750  he  proceeded  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
patronized  by  the  nobility,  and  became  acquainted  with  several  eminent  authors.  It  is 
needless  to  mention  in  detail  his  endless,  inexplicable  peregrinations.  He  visited  almost 
every  European  capital,  was  somehow  introduced  to  the  best  company,  invariably  excited 
the  disgust  or  ill-will  of  those  who  knew  him,  and  had  always  to  “ vanish”  after  a brief 
period  of  enjoyment.  In  1761,  we  find  him  distinctly  professing  the  miraculous  after 
the  Cagliostro  fashion:  he  having  undertaken  to  regenerate  old  Madame  D’Urfe  into  a 
young  man — for  a consideration ! He  died  in  Bohemia  in  1803.  His  celebrated  memoirs, 
Memoires  ecriU  par  Lui-merm  (12  vols.,  Leip.  1826-38),  contain  many  interesting  notices 
of  the  manners  of  his  times,  intermixed  with  details  of  his  personal  adventures. 

CASABEEF,  or  Cassimpe,  a sauce  or  condiment  made  from  the  juice  of  the  bitter 
cassava  or  manioc  root.  It  is  in  the  highest  esteem  in  Guiana,  where  it  is  employed  to 
flavor  almost  every  dish;  and  it  is  the  basis  of  the  favorite  West  Indian  dish  called 
pepper-pot.  It  is  a powerful  antiseptic,  and  meat  can  by  means  of  it  be  kept  for  a long 
time  quite  fresh,  even  in  a tropical  climate.  It  is  made  by  evaporating  and  concentrat- 
ing the  juice,  which  is  also  mixed  with  various  aromatics.  The  poisonous  principle  of 
the  juice  is  dissipated  in  the  evaporation,  so  that  although  the  juice  in  a fresh  state  is 
readily  fatal  to  life,  the  C.  is  perfectly  safe  and  wholesome.  C.  is  imported  into  Hol- 
land and  Britain,  and  remains  unimpaired  in  quality  for  several  years. 

CA'SAS  GRAN'DES  (the  “great  houses”),  a t.  in  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  150  m.  n.w. 
of  the  city  of  Chihuahua,  celebrated  for  the  ruins  of  early  Mexican  buildings  still  to  be 
«een.  These  ruined  houses  are  built  of  sun-dried  bricks  of  mud  and  gravel,  each  brick 
about  22  in.  thick  and  3 ft.  in  length.  The  walls,  which  are  in  some  places  5 ft.  thick, 
seem  to  have  been  plastered  both  ou  tside  and  inside.  The  main  edifice,  about  800  by 
200  ft.  in  extent,  is  rectangular,  and  appears  to  have  consisted  of  three  separate  piles 
united  by  galleries  or  lines  of  lower  buildings,  and  the  ruins  indicate  a height  for  the 
main  staircase  of  six  or  seven  stories.  In  the  same  vicinity  are  artificial  mounds  from 
which  have  been  excavated  stone  axes,  corn-grinders,  and  various  other  utensils.  Simi- 
lar ruins  are  found  near  the  Gila,  the  Salimas,  and  the  Colorado  rivers. 

CASATTBON,  Isaac  de,  a great  scholar  and  critic,  was  b.  Feb.  8,  1559,  at  Geneva, 
where,  in  1582,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Greek  language.  Subsequently  he 
held  professorships  at  Montpellier,  1596,  and  at  Paris,  1598,  but  the  death  of  Henry  IV. 
rendered  his  position  (C.  being  a Protestant)  very  insecure,  and  he  therefore  gladly 
accepted  the  offer  of  sir  Henry  Wotton  to  visit  England.  King  James  received  him 
with  distinction,  and  appointed  him  some  time  after  prebendary  of  Canterbury  and  West- 
minster. He  died  in  London,  July  1,  1614.  His  acute  investigation  and  criticism  were 
applied  to  several  branches  of  archaeology  and  theology.  Among  his  chief  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  able  dissertation,  De  Satirica  OroBcorum  Poesi  et  Pomanorum  Satira 
%ve2itise  De  Libertate  Ecclesiastica  (1607);  and  the  Exercitationes  contra  Baro- 
nium  (1614),  a confutation  of  cardinal  Baronius.  His  critical  and  exegetical  works 
include  editions  of  Diogenes  Laertius,  Aristotle,  Theophrastus,  Suetonius,  Persius,  Polyb- 
ius, Theocritus,  Strabo,  etc. — See  Daae  Casauhon,  by  Mark  Pattison  (1875). 

His  son.  Meric  Casatjbon,  was  b.  at  Geneva,  14th  Aug.,  1599;  educated  first  at 
Sedan,  he  accompanied  his  father  to  England,  and  entered  Christ  Church  college,  Oxford, 
where  he  took  his  degree  of  m.a.  in  1621.  He  was  appointed  rector  of  Ick^ham,  near 
Canterbury,  1628,  and  afterwards  professor  of  theology  at  Oxford.  He  died  at  Oxford, 
July  14,  1671.  His  attachment  to  Charles  I.  deprived  him  of  all  his  preferments  during 
the  commonwealth,  but  at  the  restoration  he  received  them  again.  Meric  was,  like  his 
father,  distinguished  for  his  erudition;  edited  the  works  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus, 
Terence,  Epictetus,  etc. ; and  wrote  a treatise,  De  Enthusiasmo  (Lond.  1655). 

CASEIN,  or  Kazvin,  a t.  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi,  90  m.  w.n.w.  of 
Teheran.  It  is  situated  on  an  extensive  plain  of  the  same  name,  and  is  inclosed  by  walls. 
Before  the  time  of  Shah  Abbas  the  great,  C.  was  for  a brief  period  the  capital  of  Persia. 
The  plain  affords  good  pasturage,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  are  extensive  vineyards 
and  orchards.  The  town  is  very  extensive,  but  a great  part  of  it  is  now  in  ruins,  owing 
to  its  frequent  subjection  to  earthquakes;  and  the  population,  which  at  one  time  was 
estimated  at  200,000,  in  now  probably  not  so  much  as  a fifth  of  that  number.  Some 
velvets,  brocades,  and  coarse  cotton  cloth  are  manufactured;  and  C.  has  also  a consid- 
erable trade  in  raw  silk,  rice,  etc. 


Casca. 

Caserne. 


510 


CASCA,  Publius  Ssrvilius,  the  one  among  the  assassins  of  Julius  Caesar  who,  accord- 
ing to  Plutarch,  struck  the  first  blow.  This  was  done  across  the  back  of  Caesar’s  neck 
with  a short  sword,  but  the  wound  was  not  deadly,  and  the  finishing  of  the  work  was 
left  to  Brutus  and  the  others. 

CASCADE  RANGE,  in  Oregon  and  Washington  territory;  a mountain  chain  form- 
ing a continuation  of  the  California  coast  range.  The  mountains  are  about  100  m.  e. 
from  the  Pacific,  and  the  more  conspicuous  peaks  are  Mts.  Baker,  Jefferson,  Wood, 
Pitt,  and  Rauier,  the  latter  the  highest  point — 14,444  ft.  above  tide. 

CASCARIL'LA  (i.e.,  little  bark,  from  Span,  mscam,  bark),  the  name  given  in  South 
America  to  many  different  kinds  of  bitter  medicinal  barks  which  form  articles  of  com- 
merce. Peruvian  bark  itself  bears  no  other  name  in  the  districts  which  produce  it;  and 
the  name  C.  has  recently  been  introduced  in  botany  for  a subdivision  of  the  genus  aV 
chona  (q.v.).  By  European  physicians  and  apothecaries,  the  name  C.  bark.  {corUx  casco- 
rillce)  is  given  to  the  bark  of  the  croton  eleutheria  (see  Croton),  a small  tree,  a native  of 
the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  known  as  the  sweet-wood  the  sea-side  balsam.  It  is 
imported  in  considerable  quantities  into  Europe  from  the  Bahama  islands,  and  appears 
in  commerce  in  small  thin  fragments  and  in  quills.  It  is  sometimes  employed  as  a sub- 
stitute for  cinchona,  although  inferior  in  tonic  and  febrifuge  qualities.  It  is  a favorite 
medicine  in  Germany. — The  barks  of  a number  of  other  species  of  croton  appear  to  pos- 
sess properties  similar  to  those  of  C.  bark. 

CASCO  BAY,  an  indentation  of  the  s.w.  coast  of  Maine,  about  20  m.  wide  n.e.  of 
cape  Elizabeth,  near  Portland.  The  bay  contains  hundreds  of  small  islands  which  are 
much  resorted  to  in  the  summer  by  pleasure-seekers. 

CASE,  in  grammar.  See  Declension. 

CASE,  in  legal  phraseology,  though  often  used  as  synonymous  with  cause,  has,  both 
in  the  law  of  England  and  Scotland,  separate  though  not  always  very  definite  meanings. 
A formal  written  argument,  prepared  with  a view  to  obtaining  the  opinion  of  a court 
of  law,  is  called  a case.  By  15  and  16  Viet.  c.  86,  s.  61,  the  practice  theretofore  pre- 
vailing in  the  court  of  chancery  of  directing  cases  for  a court  of  common  law,  is  abol- 
ished. In  Scotland,  cases  were  formerly  resorted  to  in  almost  every  suit  of  intricacy 
and  difficulty;  but  the  abuse  which  arose  from  this  practice  has  been  remedied  by  13 
and  14  Viet.  c.  36,  s.  14.  The  statements  which  are  laid  before  the  house  of  lords  in 
appeals  from  Scotland,  are  cases  in  the  sense  now  indicated. — In  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
as  in  England,  questions  in  dispute  can  now  be  stated  for  the  opinion  of  courts  without 
the  usual  formality  of  pleadings,  and  decided  more  quickly. 

CASE,  in  letter-press  printing,  a receptacle  for  types,  generally  made  34  in.  long,  1& 
in.  broad,  and  1|^  in.  deep,  and  divided  into  compartments  or  “boxes,”  each  of  which 
contains  types  of  one  class  or  letter.  A pair  of  cases  consists  of  an  upper  and  a lower 
case:  the  upper  one  has  98  “ boxes,”  and  contains  the  capitals,  small  capitals,  and  some 
other  letters  that  are  only  occasionally  required  in  composition ; the  lower  one  has  53 
“ boxes,”  and  holds  the  letters  of  the  small  character,  figures,  spaces,  and  most  of  the 
points.  The  places  assigned  to  the  several  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  boxes  of  the  case 
are  not  precisely  the  same  in  all  printing-offices,  but  the  differences  are  few.  When 
in  use,  the  cases  lie  on  a frame  4 ft.  high,  and  the  compositor  stands  in  front  of  them. 
The  different  sizes  of  the  boxes  in  the  lower  case  depend  upon  the  comparative  frequency 
in  which  the  several  letters  occur  in  composition,  and  the  position  in  the  case  allotted  to 
each  letter  is  such  as  to  afford  the  greatest  facility  in  composing.  The  letter  e,  which  is 
most  run  upon  in  the  English  language,  has  a box  much  larger  than  any  of  the  other  com- 
partments, and  is  placed  directly  in  front  of  the  compositor.  In  the  upper  case,  the  boxes 
are  of  uniform  size,  and  the  letters  are  placed  in  alphabetical  order,  the  comparatively 
rare  occurrence  of  capitals  rendering  it  immaterial  which  letter  is  nearest  the  composi- 
tor’s hand.  A case  will  hold  a quantity  of  “ letter”  sufficient  to  “ set  up”  three  pages 
of  this  work,  which  is  equal  to  18,000  types. 

CASE,  Augustus  Ludlow,  b.  1812;  midshipman  in  the  U.S.  navy,  in  1828,  rising  to 
be  captain  in  1863,  and  rear-admiral  in  1872.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war  and 
in  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  in  the  latter  participating  in  the  capture  of  fort  Hatteras 
and  Clarke.  In  1867,  he  was  light-house  inspector,  and  in  1869  chief  of  the  bureau  of 
ordnance.  In  June,  1873,  he  was  named  for  the  command  of  the  European  squadron. 

CASE,  William,  1784-1855;  b.  Mass. ; a Methodist  minister  in  the  New  York  con- 
ference, and  for  18  years  presiding  elder  in  the  western  and  central  part  of  the  state  of 
New  York  and  in  Canada.  He  was  superintendent  of  Indian  missions  and  schools  in 
Canada  until  his  death,  and  had  also  the  chief  direction  of  the  Methodist  ministry  in 
that  country. 

CASEY,  a CO.  in  central  Kentucky,  on  Green  and  Salt  rivers;  350  sq.m.;  pop.  '80,. 
10,983 — 608  colored.  It  has  a rough  surface  and  produces  grain,  tobacco,  butter,  and 
wool.  Co.  seat.  Liberty. 

CxASEY,  Silas,  b.  R.  I.,  1807;  a West  Point  graduate  in  1826;  in  the  Florida  war  in 
1837-41,  and  made  capt. ; served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  was  wounded  at  Chapultepec; 


511 


Casoa. 

Caserne. 


served  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion  at  Fair  Oaks  and  in  other  engagements,  and  was  retired 
w'ith  the  rank  of  brevet  brig.  gen.  He  is  the  author  of  a System  of  Infantry  Tactics,  and 
Infantry  Tactics  for  Colored  Troops. 

CASE-HABDENING  is  the  process  of  converting  the  surface  of  certain  kinds  of  mal- 
leable-iron goods  into  steel,  thereby  making  them  harder,  less  liable  to  rust,  and  capable 
of  taking  on  a better  polish.  Fire-irons,  portions  of  fine  grate-fronts,  gun-locks,  and 
other  articles  of  limited  size,  are  very  commonly  so  treated,  but  the  process  is  sometimes 
applied  to  large  objects,  such  as  iron  railway-bars.  The  articles  are  first  formed  of  bar- 
iron,  and  being  heated  to  redness,  are  sprinkled  with  a little  powdered  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash,  and  heated  again.  The  result  is,  that  the  heat  decomposes  the  prussiate  of 
potash,  and  the  liberated  carbon  combines  with  the  iron,  forming  a coating  of  steel  on 
the  surface  of  the  articles.  Another  mode  of  case-hardening  is  to  heat  the  articles  along 
with  some  animal  matter,  such  as  the  parings  of  horns  and  a little  common  salt,  from 
one  half  to  several  hours;  the  articles  are  then  cooled  in  cold  water,  or  in  oil,  wh^  they 
are  of  a delicte  nature.  Charcoal  alone  is  also  employed.  The  coating  of  steel  is  very 
thin,  seldom  exceeding  -^th  of  an  inch.  Where  it  is  wanted  to  be  thicker,  the  articles 
are  treated  several  times.  A Swedish  iron-master  has  found  that  a very  excellent  case- 
hardening  is  obtained  by  treating  iron  objects  with  a mixture  of  animal  matter  and 
arsenious  acid  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  heating  as  usual. 

CA'SEINE,  or  Caseum,  is  an  organic  compound  allied  to  albumen  (q.v.),  found  in 
the  milk  of  the  mammalia,  and  in  pease,  beans,  and  other  leguminous  seeds,  when  it 
receives  the  name  of  Legumin.  The  proportion  of  C.  in  milk  (q.v.)  varies,  but  averages 
about  3 per  cent,  and  it  may  be  coagulated  and  separated  therefrom  by  the  addition  of 
a little  rennet  (q.v.),  as  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese  (q.v.),  or  by  the  employment  of 
a few  drops  of  a mineral  acid,  such  as  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  In  either  case,  the  C.  sepa- 
rates as  curd,  which  still  retains  attached  to  it  some  oil  and  earthy  salts,  though  the 
greater  portion  of  these  substances,  along  with  the  sugar,  remains  in  the  watery  liquid 
or  whey.  The  elementary  bodies  which  enter  into  the  composition  of  C.,  and  the  pro- 
portion in  which  these  are  present  in  100  parts,  are — carbon,  53.83;  hydrogen,  7.15; 
nitrogen,  15.65;  oxygen,  22.52;  and  sulphur,  0.85.  The  properties  of  C.  are,  that  it  is 
not  coagulated  by  heat,  as  is  well  evidenced  in  the  heating  of  milk,  but  is  coagulated  on 
the  addition  of  rennet;  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  or  nitric  acids;  alcohol,  creosote,  or 
infusion  of  galls,  but  not  by  acetic  acid.  It  also  forms  insoluble  precipitates  with  solu- 
tions of  the  poisonous  salts,  acetate  of  lead,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  bichloride  of  mercury 
(corrosive  sublimate),  and  hence  the  efficacy  of  taking  large  doses  of  milk  in  cases  of 
poisoning  by  those  deadly  salts,  as  the  C.  in  the  milk,  forming  an  insoluble  compound 
with  the  poison,  keeps  it  from  exerting  its  deadly  powers. 

The  form  of  C.  obtained  from  plants,  and  termed  legumin,  is  generally  procured 
from  leguminous  seeds,  like  pease  or  beans,  though  it  can  also  be  extracted  from  the 
majority  of  vegetable  substances,  especially  from  sweet  and  bitter  almonds,  and  even 
from  tea  and  coffee.  Dried  pease  contain  a fourth  of  their  weight  of  legumin,  and  this 
can  be  extracted  by  bruising  the  pease  to  powder,  and  digesting  in  warm  water  for  two 
or  three  hours.  The  liquid  is  then  strained  through  cloth,  which  retains  the  insoluble 
matters,  and  allows  the  water  with  the  legumin  dissolved  therein,  and  with  starch 
mechanically  suspended,  to  pass  through.  On  settling,  the  starch  falls  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel,  and  the  clear  liquid  holding  the  legumin  in  solution,  on  the  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  acetic  acid,  yields  a precipitate  of  legumin  or  vegetable  Caseine.  So 
perfectly  does  the  vegetable  C.  resemble  the  C.  from  milk,  that  the  one  can  hardly  be 
distinguished  from  the  other  by  chemical  tests  or  by  taste;  and  at  the  present  time  there 
is  regularly  prepared  in  various  parts  of  China,  especially  near  Canton,  a form  of  cheese 
from  pease,  which  is  sold  to  the  populace  in  the  streets  of  Canton  under  the  name  of 
iaofoo.  C.  is  a most  important  article  of  food.  See  Nutrition. 

CASEMATE,  originally  a loopholed  gallery  excavated  in  a bastion,  from  which  the. 
garrison  could  do  execution  upon  an  enemy  who  had  obtained  possession  of  the  ditch 
without  risk  of  loss  to  themselves.  Hence  the  designation,  from  Span,  casa,  house,  and 
matar,  to  kill.  As  defense  from  shells  became  more  important,  the  term  was  subse' 
quently  applied  to  a bomb-proof  vault  in  a fortress,  for  the  security  of  the  defenders, 
without  direct  reference  to  the  annoyance  of  the  enemy.  A casemated  battery  consists 
of  such  a vault  or  vaults,  with  openings  for  the  guns.  A C.  may  also  serve  for  bar- 
racks, or  for  an  hospital,  or  for  a store-house.  The  great  want  of  ventilation  in  case- 
mates renders  them  bad  places  for  barracks;  and  the  artillerymen  are  nearly  stifled  with 
smoke  when  firing  from  such  confined  places. 

CASEMENT  (It.  casamento,  a large  house),  a frame  with  hinges  to  open  and  shut, 
closing  part  of  the  glazing  of  a window.  Windows  of  this  description  are  rare  in 
this  country,  but  are  almost  universal  on  the  continent.  Also  a namr  for  a deep, 
hollow,  circular  molding,  similar  to  the  scotia  of  classical  and  the  cavetto  of  Italian 
architecture.  The  C.  is  very  prevalent  in  the  perpendicular  style  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture, and  is  sometimes  enriched  with  running  foliage. 

CAS'ERNE  is  a barrack  or  building  for  the  accommodation  of  the  soldiers  forming 
t.he  garrison  of  a fortified  town  or  post. 


Caserta. 

Cashmere. 


512 


CASER'TA,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  a plain  about 
17  m.  n.e.  of  Naples.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable  on  account  of  its  magnificent  palace,  one 
of  the  finest  in  Europe,  and  formerly  the  frequent  residence  of  the  Neapolitan  court. 
During  1860,  C.  acquired  celebrity  as  the  head-quarters  of  Garibaldi  and  his  army.  A 
royal  silk  manufactory  has  been  established  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.,  with  adjoin- 
ing hamlets  (1872),  29,142. 

CASE-SHOT,  or  Canister-Shot,  is  an  assemblage  of  bullets  or  small  balls,  inclosed 
in  a cylindrical  case  or  canister.  The  diameter  of  this  canister  is  a little  less  than  the 
bore  of  the  gun  from  which  it  is  to  be  discharged.  According  to  the  size  of  the  can- 
ister, the  balls  vary  from  1 lb.  to  i oz.  each,  from  30  to  280  in  number,  and  from  3i  lbs. 
to  85  lbs.  in  total  weight.  ^ The  canister  bursts  immediately  on  leaving  the  gun,  and  the 
balls  spread  out  into  an  irregular  sort  of  cone.  Within  a range  of  500  yards  they 
work  great  execution  among  troops;  they  are  generally  used  at  200  or  300  yards. 

In  a»piore  modern  and  effective  kind,  called  spherical  case,  the  bullets  are  inclosed, 
along  with  a charge  of  powder,  in  an  iron  shell,  instead  of  a tin  canister.  It  is  often 
called  shrapnel  shell,  from  the  name  of  its  inventor.  A spherical  case-shot  for  a 68-lb. 
carronade,  or  for  an  8-inch  howitzer,  contains  337  balls;  for  a 24-pounder  gun,  128;  and 
for  an  18-pounder,  90.  It  is  exploded  by  a fuse,  the  length  of  which  depends  on  the 
distance  of  the  point  where  the  destructive  effect  is  to  be  wrought.  Its  effect  is  some- 
thing like  that  of  a prolonged  musket-fire.  The  shrapnel  shell  is  not  of  much  use  against 
the  hull  of  a ship ; but  is  very  destructive  against  masses  of  men  on  shore,  or  on  the 
decks  of  a ship,  with  a greater  range  than  that  of  ordinary  canister.  Artillerymen  pre- 
fer just  such  an  amount  of  charge  as  will  burst  the  sphere,  without  scattering  the  balls 
very  widely. 

CASH  (Fr.  caisse,^  a chest  for  containing  money)  is  sometimes  used  as  synonpnous  with 
money,  as  distinguished  from  produce,  in  which  sense  it  includes  all  immediately  nego- 
tiable paper — bills,  drafts,  and  bonds,  as  well  as  coin  and  bank-notes.  At  other  times, 
it  is  used,  in  a limited  sense,  to  denote  coin  and  bank-notes,  as  distinguished  from  nego- 
tiable instruments  which  pass  by  indorsation. 

CASH  ACCOUNT,  or  Cash  Credit,  a form  of  account  with  a bank,  by  which  a person 
is  entitled  to  draw  out  sums  as  required  by  way  of  loan  to  a stipulated  amount.  The 
practice  began  about  1729  in  Scotland,  with  the  banks  of  which  country  it  is  still  pecu- 
liarly identified;  but  it  is  not  unknown  elsewhere,  though  on  a somewhat  different  plan. 
In  connection  with  the  Scotch  banks,  the  C.  A.  system  is  placed  on  a distinct  and 
secure  basis,  which  we  shall  briefly  describe.  The  persons  procuring  a credit  of  this 
kind  are  for  the  most  part  retail-dealers,  tradesmen,  and  farmers,  who  possess  a lim- 
ited capital,  and  need  occasional  loans.  Instead  of  borrowing  money  by  bills  or  mort- 
gages, they  apply  to  a bank  for  a C.  A.  to  the  extent,  it  may  be,  of  £500.  In  the 
origin  of  the  system,  the  bank  may  be  said  to  have  been  influenced  by  three  considera- 
tions— first,  the  necessity  for  making  advantageous  use  of  its  capital;  second,  the  desire 
to  extend  its  issues  of  small  notes;  and  third,  the  nature  of  the  security  offered.  Since 
sir  Robert  Peel’s  act  restricting  circulation  of  notes,  the  second  of  these  reasons  no 
longer  operates;  for  the  banks  are  now  much  above  their  authorized  issue,  and  must 
hold  an  equal  amount  of  coin  against  the  surplus.  What  the  bank  particularly  wants, 
is  a customer  who  will  be  constantly  depositing  sums  in  notes  of  other  banks,  and 
drawing  out  sums  in  its  own  notes.  The  C.  A.  system  aids  this  process.  It  secures 
a customer  who  will  be  frequently  operating  on  his  account,  according  to  the  exigen- 
cies of  his  business,  and  whose  overdrafts,  as  well  as  deposits,  tend  to  benefit  the 
concern.  Obviously,  for  the  debtor,  the  system  works  more  advantageously  than  when 
a fixed  sum  is  borrowed,  for  in  that  case  interest  would  run  on  for  the  whole  amount, 
whereas  by  a C.  A.  the  trader  merely  draws  what  he  requires;  and  by  paying  in  his 
surplus  money  in  small  sums,  he  is  charged  with  interest  only  on  the  sum  actually  at 
his  debit  from  day  to  day.  In  negotiating  a C.  A. , a bond  is  prepared  by  the  bank 
stating  the  amount  and  the  nature  of  the  security,  the  cost  of  which  is  borne  by  the 
borrower.  Banks  often,  in  security,  accept  heritable  property  and  policies  of  life  insur- 
ance, but  more  commonly  two  persons  in  good  credit  become  cautioners,  or  co-obli- 
gants  along  with  the  principal.  Unless  the  liability  of  the  cautioners  respectively  be 
expressly  limited  in  the  bond,  each  is  liable  for  the  whole  amount.  If  the  bank  lib- 
erates one  cautioner  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  it  loses  its  recourse.  This  recourse 
is  not  lost  by  accepting  a dividend  from  the  sequestrated  (bankrupt)  estate  of  a princi- 
pal or  cautioner;  but  it  will  be  lost  by  accepting  a composition  from  either  of  these 
persons  without  consent  of  the  other.  The  bank  can  at  a*y  time  stop  the  credit,  and 
call  for  payment  of  the  balance  due.  A cautioner  can  at  any  time  withdraw  his  name 
from  the  credit,  on  paying  up  the  balance,  and  the  bank  is  bound  to  assign  the  debt  to 
him.  While  cash  accounts  may  be  of  great  service  to  traders  who  act  upon  them  dis- 
creetly, it  is  found  that,  in  too  many  instances,  these  accounts  are  used  as  a dead-loan 
to  the  entire  amount  stipulated  for;  and  for  this,  as  well  as  a reason  above  assigned, 
banks  care  now  very  much  less  for  this  kind  of  business  than  formerly.  Properlj% 
traders  are  to  look  on  the  money  procured  on  cash  credits  not  as  an  addition  to  capi- 
tal, but  merely  a temporary  substitute  for  current  business  purposes  while  the  capital 
is  out  with  customers,  and  to  be  replaced  accordingly  until  again  required.  It  may  be 


513 


Caserta. 

Cashmere* 


added,  that  the  progress  of  commercial  wealth  in  Scotland,  now  greatly  lessens  the 
necessity  for  haying  recourse  to  the  C.  A.  system.  See  Marginal  Credit. 

CASHEL,  a t,  of  Ireland  in  Tipperary  co.,  and  105  m.  s.w.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  It  is 
irregularly  built  on  the  s.  and  e.  slopes  of-an  isolated  height,  rising  abruptly  from  a rich 
and  extensive  plain.  Pop.  71,  4,562.  C.  is  a bishop’s  see,  and  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  The  ancient  kings  of  Munster  resided  here.  The  top  of  the  height,  or 
“ Rock  of  Cashel,”  is  occupied  by  an  assemblage  of  the  most  interesting  ruins  in  Ire- 
land, which  have  a grand  effect  from  the  country  around.  The  ruins  consist  of  a cath- 
edral, the  largest  and  most  remarkable  in  the  country,  founded  1169,  burned  1495,  and 
afterwards  repaired;  a stone-roofed  chapel,  built  1127  by  Cormac  McCarthy,  king  of 
Munster,  and  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  the  kind  in  the  country;  Hore  abbey, 
founded  1260;  the  palace  of  the  Munster  kings;  and  a round  tower,  90  ft.  high  and  56  in 
circumference.  The  round  tower  is  built  of  freestone,  but  the  other  ruins  of  limestone. 
At  C.,  in  1172,  the  great  synod  was  held  in  which  the  Irish  prelates  first  acknowledged 
the  authority  of  the  English  king  and  church. 

CASHEW’  NUT,  anacardium  occidentale,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  anacardiacecs,  a 
native  probably  of  the  tropical  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  although  it  has  been  commonly 
regarded  as  of  American  origin.  It  is  a spreading  tree  of  no  great  height.  It  abounds  in  a 
clammy,  milky  juice,  which  turns  black  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  is  used  in  India  for 
varnishing,  but  is  so  acrid  as  to  produce  painful  inflammation  when  it  comes  in  contact 
with  the  skin  of  some  persons,  or  when  they  are  exposed  to  its  fumes.  Others  are  appa- 
Tently  unsusceptible  of  its  influence.  The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  a kidney-shaped  nut  about 
an  inch  long,  seated  on  the  thicker  end  of  a pear-shaped  fleshy  stalk,  from  which  the 
botanical  character  of  the  genus  is  derived.  The  shell  is  double,  the  outer  shell  being 
ash-colored,  and  very  smooth;  and  between  it  and  the  inner  is  a layer  of  very  caustic 
black  juice.  The  kernel  is  oily,  and  very  pleasant  and  wholesome,  and  is  in  common 
use  as  an  article  of  food  in  tropical  countries,  being  made  into  puddings,  roasted,  and  in 
various  ways  prepared  for  the  table.  In  the  West  Indies,  it  is  put  into  wine,  particu- 
larly old  Madeira  wine,  to  which  it  is  thought  to  communicate  a peculiarly  agreeable 
flavor,  and  for  this  use  it  is  sometimes  imported  into  Britain.  It  is  also  for  the  same 
reason  sometimes  an  ingredient  in  chocolate.  Yet  the  vapor  which  arises  from  it  in 
roasting,  but  which  is  derived  from  the  coating  of  the  kernel,  and  not  from  the  kernel 
itself,  is  so  acrid  as  to  cause  erysipelas  and  other  painful  affections  of  the  face  in  those 
who  conduct  the  process,  unless  great  caution  is  used. — The  fleshy  stalk,  sometimes 
called  VcLQ  cashew  apple,  varies  in  size,  being  sometimes  not  much  larger  than  a cherry,  and 
sometimes  as  large  as  an  orange,  and  is  white,  yellow,  or  red.  It  is  perfectly  free  of  the 
acridity  characteristic  of  the  natural  order,  is  acid  and  eatable,  very  pleasant  and  refresh- 
ing, and  much  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries  in  which  the  tree  grows.  A 
very  pleasant  vinous  liquor  is  obtained  from  it  by  fermentation;  and  this  by  distillation 
yields  a spirituous  liquor,  highly  esteemed  for  its  flavor.  A gum  which  exudes  from  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  quite  distinct  from  the  milky  juice  already  mentioned,  is  bland,  and 
irery  similar  to  gum-arabic. 

CASHGAB,  or  Kashgar,  the  political  capital  of  eastern  Turkestan,  of  which  khanate 
— independent  of  China  from  1865  till  1878 — Yarkand  is  the  commercial  capital.  C. 
stands  140  m.  n.w.  of  Yarkand,  in  lat.  39°  25' n.,  long.  73°  57'  e.  It  is  surrounded  by 
an  earthen  rampart,  pierced  with  four  gates,  and  is  strongly  garrisoned.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  gold  and  silver  cloths,  carpets,  etc. ; and  an  extensive  trade  with 
Central  Asia.  Pop.  estimated  at  80,000.  C.  is  said  to  have  been  an  important  com- 
mercial town  before  the  Christian  era,  and  was  possessed  for  about  a century  by  the 
Chinese.  See  Yarkand. — Eastern  Turkestan  is  now  frequently  called  after  its  capital. 
See  Turkestan. 

CASHIERING  is  a punishment  for  officers  in  the  army  and  navy.  It  is  a severe  form 
of  dismissal  from  the  sovereign’s  service,  and  implies  that  the  olficer,  by  some  disgraceful 
conduct,  has  deserved  not  only  dismissal,  but  disqualification  forever  again  entering  the 
service.  Sometimes  there  are  words  added  implying  still  deeper  ignominy  and  degra' 
dation.  On  some  rare  occasions,  when  a court-martial  has  awarded  C.,  the  commander' 
in-chief  has  mitigated  the  punishment  to  simple  dismissal.  “ Scandalous  and  infamous 
conduct,”  and  “conduct  unbecoming  the  character  of  an  officer  and  a gentleman,” 
mark  two  degrees  of  offense  which  may  lead,  the  one  to  C.,  the  other  to  dismissal. 

CASHMERE',  a valley  of  the  Himalaya,  between  India  proper  and  middle  Tibet, 
stretching  between  lat.  33°  15'  and  34°  35'  n.,  and  long.  74°  10'  and  75"  40'  e.  Its  bottom, 
a comparative  level  of  about  2,000  sq.m.,  is  5,500  ft.  above  the  sea;  while  the  enclosure,  as 
a whole,  from  ridge  to  ridge,  besides  fully  doubling  the  area,  attains,  at  some  points,  nearly 
thrice  the  altitude.  The  mountain-wall  of  this  secluded  region  presents  but  few  passes, 
and  most  of  these  too  lofty  to  be  practicable  in  winter.  In  fact,  the  Baramula  itself 
does  not  admit  a wheeled  vehicle.  Through  this  single  opening,  situated  at  the  s.w., 
the  Jhelum  carries  down  towards  the  Punjab  the  gathered  streams  and  lakes  of  the 
entire  basin,  and  is  navigable  for  the  last  70  m.  of  its  course.  This  net- work  of  waters, 
without  swelling  into  inundations,  affords  everywhere  a perennial  supply  for  the  pur- 
pose of  irrigation.  Besides  the  copious  rains  of  spring,  the  snows  of  winter  covering 
U.  K.  III.-33 


Cashmere. 

Caspian. 


514 


even  the  plains  to  a depth  of  two  feet  for  four  months,  accumulate,  in  every  gorge  and 
on  every  declivity,  reservoir  above  reservoir,  against  the  demands  of  summer.  C.  ia 
traditionally  believed  to  have  been  a vast  upland  lake,  and  alluvial  deposits  beyond 
the  reach  of  existing  influences  would  seem  to  confirm  the  idea. 

In  regard  to  climate,  moderate  but  steady  frost  prevails  from  Nov.  to  Mar. ; and  again, 
the  heat,  ranging  from  75°  F.  in  June,  to  85°  in  August,  is  often  disproportionately 
oppressive,  through  the  stagnation  of  the  landlocked  atmosphere.  Tlie  staple  produc- 
tion is  rice,  which,  from  the  singular  facilities  of  irrigation,  is  an  all  but  sure  crop,, 
yielding,  even  in  a tolerable  season,  30  or  40  returns;  and  in  the  abundance  and  excel- 
lence of  its  fruits,  C.  is  said  to  surpass  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  valley  is,  in  gen- 
eral, considered  to  be  remarkably  healthy.  The  inhabitants,  almost  universally  held  ta 
be  models  of  strength  and  beauty,  amounted,  before  1828,  to  800,000,  or  to  400  in  a sq. 
mile.  But  by  casual  famine  and  pestilence  they  have  since  been  reduced  to  200,000. 
The  people  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  divided  between  the  Sunnite  and  Shite  sects. 
The  manufactures — all  superior  of  their  kind — are  shawls,  leather,  fire-arms,  and  attar  of 
roses.  The  principal  towns  are  Serinagur,  Islamabad,  Shupayon,  Pampur,  and  Baramula. 
The  history  goes  back,  through  colossal  monuments  chie%  of  marble,  beyond  the  dawn 
of  authentic  annals.  In  1315,  C.  first  received  Mohammedanism;  in  1586,  it  was  annexed, 
to  the  Mogul  empire;  in  1752,  it  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Afghans;  and  in  1819,  it 
was  subjugated  by  the  Sikhs.  Lastly  being  ceded,  at  the  close  of  the  first  war  of  the 
Punjab,  to  the  British,  it  was  by  them  transferred  to  Gholab  Sing,  as  the  nucleus  of  a 
state  of  its  own  name,  which  comprised  also  Jamu,  Bulti,  Ladakh,  Chamba,  etc.  Area 
of  principality,  68,944  sq.m.;  pop.  1,500,000. — C.  or  Srinagar,  the  capital,  lies  on  the 
Jhelum,  about  the  center  of  the  valley.  Pop.  15,000.  See  Bellew’s  Kasmir  and  Kas?i- 
gar  (1875). 

CASHMERE  GOAT,  a variety  of  the  common  goat,  remarkable  for  its  very  long,  fine, 
and  silky  hair,  from  which  the  highly  valued  Cashmere  shawls  are  made.  It  is  not  so 
much  in  Cashmere  that  this  variety  of  goat  is  to  be  found,  as  in  Thibet,  from  which  the 
finest  goat-hair  is  imported  into  Cashmere,  to  be  there  manufactured  into  shawls.  The 
hair  is  even  longer  than  that  of  the  Angora  goat,  and  not,  like  it,  curled  into  ringlets, 
but  straight.  It  is  about  18  in.  long.  A single  goat  does  not  yield  more  than  three 
ounces,  and  the  fleeces  of  ten  goats  are  requisite  for  the  manufacture  of  a shawl  a yard 
and  a half  square.  The  hair  is  spun  by  women,  and  dyed  after  it  is  spun.  It  is  said 
that  16,000  looms  are  kept  in  constant  employment  in  Cashmere,  producing  annually 
about  30,000  shawls.  The  shawls  are  woven  in  rudely  constructed  looms,  a pair  of  shawls 
sometimes  occupying  three  or  four  men  a whole  year  in  weaving.  C.  shawls,  of  the 
finest  quality,  are  sold  in  London  at  from  £100  to  £400  each.  Plain  shawls  are  simply 
woven  in  the  loom,  but  those  with  variegated  patterns  are  worked  with  wooden  needles, 
a separate  needle  being  used  for  each  color.  These  shawls  are  in  the  highest  request  in 
India;  but  the  hair  of  several  other  breeds  of  goat  inferior  to  that  of  Thibet  is  employed 
for  the  manufacture  of  shawls  called  by  the  same  name.  Imitations  of  these  are  manu- 
factured in  France  rather  extensively,  some  from  the  Thibet  wool  entirely,  and  others  of 
a mixture  of  this  with  silk  and  cotton.  It  is  said  that  24  lbs.  of  the  best  Thibetan 
goat-hair  sell  in  Cashmere  for  20  rupees,  or  £10  sterling. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  C.  G.  into  Europe.  Baron  Alstroemer 
attempted,  in  the  end  of  last  century,  to  naturalize  it  in  Sweden;  and  a very  spirited 
attempt  to  introduce  it  into  Britain  has  recently  been  made  by  Mr.  Towers.  A mixed 
race,  produced  by  crossing  the  C.  G.  and  the  Angora  goat,  has  been  found  to  possess- 
most  valuable  qualities,  the  hair  being  long,  fine,  and  more  abundant  than  in  any  of  the 
parent  breeds. — The  male  of  the  C.  G.  has  very  large,  flattened,  wavy  horns. 

CASIA,  or  Poet’s  Casia  {osyris  alba),  a shrub  of  the  natural  order  santalacem,  a native 
of  the  s.  of  Europe,  3 to  4 ft.  high,  with  linear-lanceolate  deciduous  leaves,  long  supple 
branches,  numerous  small  white  flowers,  and  red  drupes  (stone-fruit)  of  the  size  of  a pea.. 
The  branches  are  used  for  making  crates.  The  shrub  has  been  much  admired  for  its 
modest  beauty.  Keats  speaks  of 

“ The  drooping  flowers 

Of  whitest  casia,  fresh  from  summer  showers.” 

CASIMIR,  properly  Kazimierz,  was  the  name  of  many  Polish  princes  and  kings.  With 
the  establishment  of  the  power  of  Casimir  I.  in  1040,  the  predominance  of  Christianity 
was  decided  in  Poland.  But  the  most  distinguished  of  this  name  was  Casimir  III.,  called 
Casimir  the  great,  who  succeeded  his  father,  Vladislaus  Loketek,  as  king  of  Poland  in 
1333.  He  added  little  Russia  and  red  Russia  to  his  dominions;  repelled  the  Tartars, 
who  then  threatened  Poland;  and  waged  successful  war  in  Silesia,  which  he  conquered 
but  did  not  retain.  He  showed  great  anxiety  for  the  advancement  of  the  arts  and  of  learn- 
ing in  his  kingdom,  and  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  most  oppressed 
classes,  which  won  him  the  title  of  king  of  the  peasants.  A Je\yish  mistress  obtained 
from  him  liberties  for  the  Jews,  which  they  have  since  retained  in  Poland.  He  died  in 
consequence  of  the  falling  of  his  horse  in  1370. 

CASIMIR  I.  (see  Casimir),  called  “the  peaceful,”  son  of  the  Polish  king,  Miecis- 
las  II.,  and  a German  princess  named  Rixa.  The  mother  endeavored  to  rule  duringr 


515 


Caslunere. 

Caspian. 


C.’s  minority,  but  was  compelled  to  fly  to  Germany,  her  son  following  her  and  leaving 
Poland  in  anarchy.  In  1040,  C.  was  called  upon  % his  country,  and,  with  the  help  of 
the  German  emperor,  established  his  authority,  drove  out  the  plundering  Bohemians, 
and  earned  the  name  of  “the  restorer.”  He  left  a moderately  well  organized  govern- 
ment to  his  successor.  He  died  1058. 

CAS-IMIR  II.,  surnamed  “the  just,”  1138-94;  one  of  the  four  sons  of  Boleslas, 
king  of  Poland,  and  ruler  over  the  reunited  kingdom  after  the  expulsion  of  Miecislas 
III.  in  1177.  Under  C.  II.  the  first  Polish  senate  was  organized,  and  laws  were  enacted 
defending  the  peasants  against  the  oppression  of  the  nobles. 

CASIMIR  lY.,  1427-92;  brother  and  successor,  as  king  of  Poland,  of  Ladislas  III. 
He  reigned  48  years;  waged  successful  wars  against  the  Teutonic  knights;  kept  his 
country  for  most  of  the  time  in  peace  and  prosperity;  and  introduced  Latin  into  schools 
and  official  business.  Of  his  six  sons,  three  succeeded  each  other  on  the  throne,  one 
became  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  one  was  a cardinal,  and  one  was  canonized  as  a 
«aint. 

CASI'NO,  an  Italian  diminutive  of  cam,  a house,  signifies  a place  for  social  reunions. 
The  Italian  nobles  have  long  had  casinos  detached  from  the  palaces  in  which  they  live, 
whither  they  can  retreat  and  enjoy  themselves,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  public  casinos 
were  the  result  of  an  attempt  made  by  the  middle  classes  to  imitate  their  superiors.  In 
Italy,  a C.  is  generally  close  by  a theater,  and  is  a place  where  musical  or  dancing 
soirees  are  held,  containing  a conversation -room,  billiard-room,  and  rooms  for  other 
kinds  of  amusement,  as  well  as  small  apartments  where  refreshments  may  be  had. 
Casinos  are  numerous  in  Italy  and  Germany,  and  have  been  introduced  into  England. 
In  general,  they  are  not  supposed  to  exert  an  edifying  influence  on  the  community, 

CASINO,  or  Monte-Casino,  a mountain  overhanging  the  t.  of  San-Germano  (the 
ancient  Casinum),  in  the  Italian  province  of  Caserta,  between  50  and  60  m.  n.n.w.  of 
^Naples,  is  celebrated  on  account  of  the  monastery  founded  here  by  St.  Benedict  (q.v.)  in 
529  A.D.  This  monastery  is  remarkable  for  its  noble  architecture,  its  ancient  wealth,  its 
library  and  archives,  and  in  modern  times  for  the  learning  of  its  monks,  who  have 
a printing-press,  from  which  several  important  works  have  issued.  The  beautiful 
situation  of  the  abbey,  and  the  reputation  of  the  monks  as  masters  of  the  healing  art, 
formerly  made  Monte-Casino  a favorite  resort  of  pilgrims.  Luigi  Tosti,  the  librarian  of 
the  abbey,  has  given  an  account  of  its  literary  treasures  in  his  Storia  della  Badia  di  Monte- 
'(7«s^7^6>  (1841-43),  and  a most  valuable  catalogue  (1st  vol.,  1874;  2d,  1876)  is  in  preparation. 

CA'SOLI,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Chieti,  situated  on  a hill  17  m.  s.  of  the  city 
of  Chieti.  Pop.  between  5,000  and  6,000. 

CASO'BIA,  a t.  of  Italy,  5 m.  n.n.e.  from  Naples.  Silk  is  produced  in  the  district. 
Pop.  8,000. 

CASPE,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Saragossa,  57  m.  s.s.e.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  situated  near  the  Ebro,  has  manufactures  of  oil  and  soap,  and  a trade  in 
the  agricultural  produce  of  the  district.  Pop.  7,500. 

CASPIAN  SEA,  an  inland  sea  or  great  salt  lake,  the  largest  in  the  world,  on  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  extending  from  lat.  36°  40'  to  47°  20'  n.,  and 
long.  46°  50'  to  55°  10'  east.  Its  length  from  n.  to  s.  is  about  700  m.,  and  its 
average  breadth  about  200  miles.  Its  total  area  is  estimated  at  180,000  sq.  miles.  The 
coast-line  is  irregular,  and  on  the  e.  side  especially  there  are  several  bays  and  indenta- 
tions of  coast,  the  principal  being  those  of  Mertvoi,  Mangushlak,  Kenderlinsk,  Kara- 
bugos,  and  Balkan.  From  the  w.,  the  naphtha-impregnated  peninsula  of  Apsheron 
stretches  into  the  C.  opposite  the  Balkan  gulf;  Mt.  Caucasus  also  rises  on  its  w.  side. 
On  the  s.  rises  the  lofty  range  of  the  Elburz  mountains,  between  which,  however, 
and  the  coast,  on  this  side  almost  unbroken,  extends  a low  flat  plain  of  from  15  to  20 
m.,  in  breadth.  On  the  n.,  it  is  bordered  by  great  steppes,  and  the  country  eastward  is 
a vast  plain.  It  is  probable  that  at  one  time  its  waters,  which  are  said  to  be  still  dimin- 
ishing, covered  great  part  of  the  adjacent  steppes.  Some  singular  changes  appear  to 
take  place  in  the  level  of  the  Caspian.  Various  measurements  have  made  its  depth 
and  elevation  different.  One  Russian  measurement  made  it  348  ft.  below  the  level  of 
the  Black  sea,  another  only  84  feet.  The  latter  is  confirmed  by  maj.  Wood  {The  Shores 
•of  Lake  Aral,  1876).  It  has  no  tides,  but  its  navigation  is  dangerous  because  of  violent 
storms,  especially  from  the  s.e.,  by  which  its  waters  are  sometimes  driven  for  many 
miles  over  the  adjacent  plains.  The  depth  near  the  southern  end,  is  about  600  ft.,  and 
in  some  places  near  the  center  it  attains  a depth  of  nearly  3,000  ft. ; but  near  the  coast 
it  is  very  shallow,  seldom  reaching  a depth  of  more  than  3 ft.  at  100  yards  from  the 
shore,  and  in  many  places  a depth  of  12  ft.  is  not  reached  within  several  miles  of 
the  beach.  On  the  n.e.  and  e.  it  is  especially  shallow.  It  receives  the  waters  of  a num- 
ber of  large  rivers,  of  which  the  greatest  is  the  Volga.  The  Ural,  the  Terek,  the  Kur, 
and  the  Atrek  also  fall  into  it.  The  water  of  the  C.  S.  is  salt,  but  much  less  so  than  that 
•of  the  ocean.  Its  northern  parts  are  covered  with  ice  during  winter.  It  abounds  in  fish, 
and  very  valuable  fisheries  are  carried  on,  especially  for  sturgeon  and  salmon.  By 
a canal  uniting  the  head- waters  of  the  Volga  with  the  rivers  Tvertza  and  Schlina,  the 


Casque. 

Cassation. 


516 


C.  is  united  with  the  Baltic  sea.  The  sea  is  now  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  Russian' 
territory,  the  southern  shore  still  remaining  Persian.  The  Russians  have  a fleet 
stationed  upon  it,  and  the  most  of  its  commerce  is  in  their  hands.  Steam  packets  haver 
been  established  on  it.  The  chief  Russian  town  upon  its  shores  is  Astrakhan;  less 
important  are  Derbend,  Guriev,  Baku,  and  Krosnoi-yar.  Balfrush,  Reshd,  and  Astrabad 
are  Persian  towns.  The  practicability  of  making  the  Amu-Daria  (see  Oxus),  now  run- 
ning into  the  sea  of  Aral,  again  an  affluent  of  the  C.  S.,  has  recently  been  much  debated. 

The  C.  S.  was  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  According  to  Strabo,  it  derived 
its  name  from  the  Caspii,  a tribe  inhabiting  its  western  shores.  The  name  Caspian  was 
afterwards  limited  to  the  western  portion  of  the  lake — the  eastern  being  designated  the 
Hyrcanian  sea. 

CASQUE'.  See  Helmet. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  n.e.  Dakota,  organized  since  the  census  of  1870,  on  the  Red  river  of 
the  north.  The  surface  is  of  river  valleys  and  undulating  prairie;  and  the  soil  is  gen- 
erally fertile.  Co.  seat,  Fargo.  Pop.  ’80,  8998 — 42. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  w.  Illinois,  on  the  Illinois  river,  intersected  by  three  railroads;  350 
sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  14,494.  The  surface  is  level  prairie  and  woodland;  and  the  soil  is  very 
fertile,  producing  corn,  wheat,  oats,  etc.  There  are  also  a number  of  manufactories  of 
flour,  lumber,  paper,  and  carriages,  Co.  seat,  Beardstown. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  n.w.  Indiana,  on  Wabash  and  Eel  rivers,  traversed  by  the  Wabash 
and  Erie  canal  and  two  or  three  railroads;  420  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  27,610.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  bluffs  near  the  rivers,  the  surface  is  mostly  level  prairie  and  forest,  producing 
cereals,  butter,  wool,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Logansport. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  s.w.  Iowa,  on  the  tributaries  of  Nodaway  river,  and  intersected  by 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific  railroad;  576  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80, 16,943.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural  region.  Co.  seat,  Lewis. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  s.w.  Michigan,  on  the  Indiana  border,  traversed  by  the  Lake  Shore  and. 
Michigan  Southern,  the  Peninsular,  and  the  Michigan  Central  railroads;  528  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  22,008.  The  surface  is  level  prairie,  with  oak  openings,  and  dense  forests. 
Iron  and  limestone  are  found.  Other  productions  are  mainly  agricultural,  and  there  is 
considerable  manufacturing  business.  Co.  seat,  Cassopolis. 

CASS,  a large  co.  inn.  central  Minnesota,  nearly  surrounded  by  the  Mississippi  river; 
4,750  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  486.  There  are  numerous  streams  and  a great  number  of  large 
and  small  lakes,  one  of  which  (Itasca)  is  the  source  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Northern 
Pacific  railroad  will  probably  pass  through  the  s.  part  of  the  county. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  w.  Missouri,  on  a branch  of  Osage  river,  and  in  part  crossed  by  the 
Pacific  railroad  of  Missouri;  1000  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  22,431 — 750  colored.  Surface  mostly 
prairie;  productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Harrisonville. 

CASS,  a CO.  in  s.e.  Nebraska,  on  the  Platte  and  Missouri  rivers,  intersected  by  the 
Burlington  and  Missouri  River  railroad;  570  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,16,684.  The  surface  is 
chiefly  prairie,  well  watered  and  fertile;  productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Platts- 
mouth. 

CASS,  a CO.  (formerly  Davis)  in  n.e.  Texas,  on  the  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  border, 
bounded  n.  by  Sulphur  fork,  a tributary  of  Red  river;  927  sq.m.;  pop. ’80, 16,723 — 6451 
colored.  It  has  a heavily  wooded  and  fertile  soil,  producing  cotton,  rice,  corn,  etc.  Co. 
seat.  Linden. 

CASS,  Lewis,  an  American  statesman,  b.  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  in  1782.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  law,  but  quitting  that  profession,  he  entered  the  army  in  1812,  and  rose 
rapidly  to  the  rank  of  gen.,  though  his  merit  was  not  very  conspicuous.  In  1813,  he 
was  elected  governor  of  Michigan,  in  which  state  he  settled.  During  his  governorship, 
he  kept  himself  apart  from  party  politics,  yet  all  his  measures  had  a decidedly  demo- 
cratic tendency.  In  1831,  C.  was  made  minister  at  war  under  gen.  Jackson,  and  in 
1836  he  was  sent  as  plenipotentiary  to  Paris.  In  this  capacity  he  made  himself  popu- 
lar by  his  replies,  in  Oalignani's  Messenger,  to  the  attacks  of  the  English  press  on  the 
claims  of  the  union  with  regard  to  its  n.e.  boundaries,  and  by  his  protest  against  the 
measures  of  Guizot;  but  the  treaty  concluded  by  Daniel  Webster  with  lord  Ashburton 
was  so  much  opposed  to  the  views  maintained  by  C. , that  he  resigned  his  post,  and  in 
1843  returned  to  America,  where  he  was  received  with  marks  of  popular  favor.  He  now 
aimed  at  the  presidency,  and  in  1844  was  put  in  nomination,  but  was  defeated,  as  also 
in  1848,  when  he  made  another  effort  te  obtain  the  supreme  power.  In  1857  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  state,  resigning  office  in  1860.  Though  active  and  energetic,  he 
had  no  claim  whatever  to  anything  like  comprehensive  statesmanship.  In  regard  to 
slavery,  his  ideas  were  ludicrously  inconsistent,  determined  solely,  as  it  would  seem,  by 
a view  to  what  would  be  popular  with  those  whose  favor  he  was  seeking  to  secure  at. 
the  moment.  Latterly,  he  went  wholly  along  with  the  slave-holding  party,  advocating 
an  extension  of  territory  with  a view  to  extend  the  ramifications  of  slavery.  But  he  was 
chiefly  remarkable  on  account  of  his  bitter  hostility  to  Britain,  against  which  he  was 
ever  ready  to  inflame  the  minds  of  his  countrymen  on  the  slightest  and  silliest  pretext. 
He  is  author  of  the  Histcry,  Tradition,  Languages,  etc.,  of  Indians  in  the  United 


Ca«qn«. 
Cassation* 

States;  of  Prance — its  King,  Court,  and  Oovernment;  and  other  works.  He  died  in  June, 
1866. 

CASSA'BA,  or  Casaba,  a o.  in  Asia  Minor,  63  m.  e.  of  Smyrna,  with  which  it  la 
connected  by  a railroad.  C.  has  a flourishing  trade  with  the  surrounding  district. 
Cotton  is  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  trade,  and  silk-worms  are  raised  for  export. 
Another  valuable  industry  is  the  raising  of  melons  for  the  Constantinople  market.  In 
1865,  a large  portion  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  in  the  same  year  there  were 
many  deaths  from  cholera.  Pop.  about  15,000,  two  thirds  of  whom  are  Turks. 

CASSAGNAC.  See  Granier  de  Cassagnac,  ante. 

CASSAN'BER,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  son  of  Antipater,  was  b.  about  354  b.c.  When 
young,  he  is  said  to  have  been  ill  used  by  Alexander  the  great,  and  to  have  consequently 
conceived  a mortal  hatred  to  that  monarch’s  family.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  he 
expected  to  succeed  to  the  regency;  but  Polysperchon  received  the  honor  instead, 
which  so  dissatisfied  him,  that  he  resolved  to  contest  the  sovereignty  with  his  opponent. 
He  was  completely  successful ; but  while  pursuing  his  career  of  conquest  in  the  s. 
of  Greece,  he  learned  that  Olympias,  mother  of  Alexander,  was  committing  havoc 
in  the  north,  and  consequently  hurried  back  to  Macedonia.  In  less  than  a year  Olym- 
pias was  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  Only  Roxana,  wife  of  Alexander,  and  her 
son  .^gus,  now  stood  between  him  and  the  throne  of  Macedon ; but  he  did  not  find  it 
convenient  to  “make  away”  with  these  two  until  several  years  had  passed.  Mean- 
while, he  married  Thessalonica,  half-sister  to  Alexander,  in  whose  honor  he  founded, 
about  316  B.C.,  the  town  which  bears  her  name.  In  the  following  year  he  caused 
Thebes,  which  Alexander  had  destroyed,  to  be  rebuilt.  He  next  became  involved  in  a 
war  with  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia,  which,  with  an  intervening  peace  of  one  year,  lasted 
from  315  to  301  b.  c.,  in  the  last  of  which  years  Antigonus  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Ipsus.  Along  with  his  auxiliaries,  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  and  Lysimachus,  he  seized 
and  shared  the  dominions  of  the  vanquished.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  intrigue 
and  military  enterprise.  He  died  297  or  296  b.c. 

CASSAN'DER,  George,  1515-66;  a native  of  Zeeland;  professor  of  classics  at 
Bruges  and  Ghent ; spent  most  of  his  life  in  trying  to  effect  a union  between  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches;  to  which  end  he  published  several  works,  which  had 
the  distinction  of  being  both  fiercely  attacked  by  Calvin  and  pointedly  denounced  by 
the  council  of  Trent. 

CASSANDRA,  according  to  Homeric  legend,  was  the  fairest  daughter  of  Priam  and 
Hecuba,  and  the  twin-sister  of  Helenus.  The  children  playing  in  the  court  of  the  tem- 
ple of  the  Thymbraean  Apollo,  not  far  from  Ilium,  till  it  was  too  late  for  them  to  return 
home,  a bed  of  laurel  twigs  was  made  for  them  in  the  temple;  and  there,  in  the  morn- 
ing, two  snakes  were  found  licking  their  ears,  from  which  resulted  such  an  acuteness  of 
hearing,  that  they  could  hear  the  voice  of  the  gods.  C.  afterwards  attracted  the  love  of 
Apollo  by  her  beauty,  and  he  taught  her  the  secrets  of  prophecy;  but  displeased  by  her 
rejection  of  his  suit,  laid  upon  her  the  curse  that  her  vaticinations  should  never  be 
believed.  Accordingly,  she  prophesied  in  vain  of  the  treachery  of  the  Grecian  horse 
and  the  destruction  of  Troy.  On  the  capture  of  the  city,  she  fled  to  the  temple  of 
Minerva,  but  was  torn  from  the  altar  by  the  Locrian  Ajax,  and  ravished  in  the  temple. 
She  afterwards,  in  the  distribution  of  the  prey,  fell  to  the  share  of  Agamennon,  to 
whom  she  bore  twin  sons,  but  was  murdered  by  Clytemnestra. 

CASSANDRA,  a peninsula  in  the  province  of  Roumelia,  European  Turkey,  situated 
between  the  gulfs  of  Salonica  and  Cassandra,  in  lat.  40°  n.,  long  23°  30'  e.  The  ancient 
name  of  this  headland  was  Pallene.  Grain  of  superior  quality  is  raised  here;  wool, 
honey,  and  wax  are  produced;  and  silk-worms  are  extensively  reared.  The  gulf  of 
Cassandra  (ancient  Toronaicus  Sinus)  has  a length  of  33  m.  from  s.e.  to  n.w.,  and  a 
breadth  of  10  miles. 

CASSA'NO,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Cosenza,  34  m.  n.  of  the  town  of  that 
name.  It  is  situated  in  a valley  in  the  midst  of  the  most  beautiful  scenery,  has  a cathe- 
dral, an  old  castle  built  on  an  imposing  mass  of  rock  in  the  midst  of  the  city,  and 
manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  silk,  cotton,  and  macaroni.  Pop.  8,000. 

CASSA'NO,  a t.  of  northern  Italy,  17  m.  e.n.e.  of  Milan.  It  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Adda,  here  crossed  by  a bridge  on  the  railway  to  Brescia,  and  has  extensive 
silk-mills.  C.  was  the  scene  of  two  sanguinary  battles — one  in  1705,  between  the  French 
under  the  duke  de  Vendome,  and  the  imperialists  under  prince  Eugene,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated;  the  other  in  1799,  when  the  Russians  and  Austrians  under  Suwa- 
row  defeated  the  French  under  Moreau.  Pop.  4,500. 

CASSATION,  Court  op.  In  the  law  of  France,  the  act  of  annulling  the  decision  of  a 
court  or  judicial  tribunal  is  called  cassation,  from  the  verb  casser,  to  break  or  annul  (Lat. 
quatere;  Eng.  quash) ; and  the  function  of  cassation,  as  regards  the  judgments  of  all  the 
other  courts,  is  assigned  to  a special  tribunal  called  the  court  of  C.,  which  may  thus  be 
regarded,  in  a certain  sense,  as  the  last  and  highest  court  of  appeal  for  the  wnole  coun- 
try. But  as  everything  is  excluded  beyond  the  question  whether  or  not  the  view  taken 
of  the  law,  and  of  the  proper  method  of  administering  it  by  the  inferior  tribunal,  has 


Cassava. 

Cassianoa* 


518 


been  the  right  one,  the  idea  attached  to  this  institution  is  less  that  of  a court  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense,  than  of  a department  of  government  to  which  the  duty  of  inspecting  the 
administration  of  justice  is  assigned.  By  the  65th  article  of  the  constitution  of  the  year 
VIII.,  it  was  enacted  that  there  shall  be  “for  the  whole  of  France  a tribunal  of  cassa- 
tion, which  shall  pronounce  on  demands  for  cassation  against  judgments  in  the  last 
resort  pronounced  by  the  tribunals;”  and  the  following  article  of  the  same  constitution 
bears  that  this  supreme  tribunal  shall  pronounce  no  judgment  on  the  foundation  or 
merits  of  the  cause,  but  that,  in  case  of  its  breaking  the  judgment  pronounced,  it  shall 
remit  to  the  tribunal  appealed  from  to  pronounce  another.  The  title  of  tribunal  was 
afterwards  changed  for  that  of  court,  by  a senatus  consultum  of  the  year  XII. ; but  sub- 
stantially the  institution  has  retained  its  original  character,  notwithstanding  all  the 
changes  of  government  which  have  occurred  in  France.  The  demand  for  cassation  can 
be  made  only  by  the  parties  to  the  suit,  or  by  the  'procureur-general  of  the  court  of  C.  for 
the  public  interest.  Criminal  as  well  as  civil  judgment  may  be  reviewed  by  the  court 
of  C.,  the  only  exceptions  being  the  judgments  of  justices  of  the  peace  and  of  courts- 
martial,  military  and  naval.  The  delay  allowed  for  bringing  a civil  case  before  the 
court  of  C.  is  three  months  for  persons  domiciled  in  France,  six  months  for  those  in 
Corsica,  a year  for  American  colonists,  and  two  for  all  persons  resident  beyond  the  cape 
of  Good  Hope.  In  criminal  matters,  the  procedure  is  greatly  more  prompt,  three  full 
days  only  being  allowed  to  the  person  condemned  to  bring  his  action  of  C.,  and  the  same 
space  being  given  to  the  procureur-general.  In  all  criminal  and  police  cases,  the  court 
of  C.  may  pronounce  judgment  immediately  after  the  expiry  of  these  days,  and  must 
do  so  within  a month.  The  court  of  C.  is  divided  into  three  sections,  one  of  which  is 
devoted  to  criminal  matters.  Its  staff  consists  of  a president,  who  has  the  title  of  first 
president,  and  three  vice-presidents,  who  are  called  presidents;  45  counselors  or  ordinary 
judges;  a procureur-general,  or  public  prosecutor;  6 substitutes,  who  have  the  title  of 
advocates-general;  and  several  inferior  otScers.  The  presidents  and  counselors  are  named 
by  the  sovereign  for  life,  the  other  officers  being  removable  at  pleasure.  No  judgment 
can  be  pronounced  unless  11  judges  are  present,  the  decision  being  determined  by  the 
majority.  Where  the  numbers  are  equally  divided,  5 judges  are  called  in;  and  cases  of 
peculiar  difficulty  may  be  judged  of  by  the  three  sections  united.  The  whole  court,  when 
presided  over  by  the  minister  of  justice,  possesses  also  the  right  of  discipline  and  censure 
over  all  judges  for  grave  offenses,  not  specially  provided  for  by  the  law.  When  thus 
constituted,  the  court  of  C.  may  suspend  the  judges  of  the  imperial  courts  from  the 
exercise  of  their  functions,  and  call  them  to  its  bar.  The  procureur-general  of  the 
court  of  C.  likewise  possesses  a surveillance  over  the  procureurs-generaux  of  the  imperial 
courts. 

The  members  of  this  august  tribunal  wear  a red  gown  with  a violet  toque,  or  cap 
of  velvet ; the  robes  of  the  presidents  and  of  the  procureur-general  being  doubled  with 
white  fur. 

CASS'AVA,  aWest  Indian  name  of  the  plant  also  called  Manioc  (q.v.),  and  of  the  starch 
produced  from  it,  which  is  otherwise  called  Brazilian  arrow-root,  and  is  popularly  known 
in  Britain  as  Tapioca  (q.v.). 

CASSAY',  or  Manipur',  a mountainous  country  in  farther  India,  to  the  s.e.  of  Upper 
Assam,  stretching  from  23°  49'  to  25°  41'  n.  lat.,  and  from  93°  5'  to  94°  32'  e.  long.,  and 
having  an  area  of  7,584  sq.  miles.  It  contains  a pop.  estimated  at  126,000.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  England  merely  from  its  being  on  the  Burmese  frontier.  Accordingly,  before 
the  war  of  1825  began,  it  was  occupied  by  the  British;  and,  being  permanently  ceded  at 
the  close  of  the  contest,  it  was  handed  over,  free  from  tribute,  to  the  native  rajah.  The 
inhabitants  are  more  generally  Brahmanists  than  Buddhists.  The  productions  are  tea, 
rice,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  opium,  and  mustard ; and  the  manufactures  are  mus- 
lins, silks,  and  a few  iron  wares.  The  chief  town  is  Manipur,  which  sometimes  gives 
name  to  the  principality. 

CASSEL,  the  capital  of  the  former  electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  now  a portion  of  Prus- 
sia, pleasantly  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Fulda,  here  a navigable  river,  120  m.  by  rail, 
n.n.e.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  It  contains  (1875)  53,043  inhabitants,  including  military 
and  servants  and  laborers  connected  with  them.  The  oldest  part  of  the  town  consists  of 
a few  very  narrow,  crooked  streets,  close  on  the  banks  of  the  Fulda;  the  more  modern 
parts  are  on  hills,  which  rise  gently  from  the  river.  C.  is  partially  walled.  In  Fried- 
richs-Platz,  the  largest  square  in  any  German  town,  stands  the  elector’s  palace,  a com- 
paratively mean  structure ; a little  below  is  the  first  story  of  a magnificent  palace  com- 
menced in  1820,  and  stopped  in  the  following  year  by  the  death  of  the  elector  who 
projected  it.  Amongst  the  other  public  buildings  and  institutions,  one  of  the  most 
important  is  the  Museum  Fvedericianum,  which  has  a library  of  90,000  volumes  and 
some  valuable  MSS.  The  picture-gallery  contains  about  1400  paintings,  including  some 
excellent  specimens  of  the  best  masters"  In  the  cabinet  of  curiosities,  there  are  exam- 
ples showing  the  gradual  development  and  improvement  of  watch-making  from  the  ear- 
liest invention  at  Nuremberg  to  the  present  time.  C.  contains  an  observatory,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a number  of  learned  and  scientific  associations.  From  1807  to  1813  it  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  The  gardens  of  Wilheimshohe— which  was 
assigned  by  the  present  emperor  of  Germany  to  the  late  emperor  Napoleon  as  a resi- 


519 


Cassara.  ' 
Cassianxub 


dence  after  his  fall  at  Sedan,  in  Sept.,  1870 — with  their  splendid  fountains  and  cascades, 
and  the  colossal  statue  of  Hercules,  within  the  hollow  of  whose  club  eight  persons  can 
stand  at  one  time,  are  only  3 m.  from  Cassel.  There  are  manufactures  of  cotton,  woolen, 
and  silk  fabrics,  lace,  and  carpets.  Under  the  name  of  Ghassala,  the  town  appear  to 
have  existed  as  early  as  the  10th  century. 

CASSEL,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Nord,  27  m.  n.w.  of  Lille,  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a hill,  overlooking  a country  on  all  sides  so  flat,  that  the  view, 
although  the  elevation  is  only  800  ft.,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  widest  in  Europe,  extend- 
ing over  the  broad  fertile  plains  of  Flanders,  and  to  the  chalk  cliffs  of  England,  and  tak- 
ing in  32  towns  and  100  villages.  During  the  great  trigonometrical  survey  undertaken 
in  the  reign  of  the  first  Napoleon,  Mont  Cassel  was  one  of  the  chief  signal-stations.  C. 
has  manufactures  of  lace,  linen,  thread,  hosiery,  etc.  Pop.  ’76,  3,224.  It  was  known 
to  the  Romans,  who  had  a station  here,  as  Castellum. 

CAS'SEL,  Paulus  Stephanus  Selig,  b.  1827;  a German  author  of  Jewish  descent; 
educated  both  in  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant  schools;  finished  his  studies  under 
Ranke  in  Berlin,  and  became  a journalist.  He  was  in  the  Prussian  chamber  of  depu- 
ties, 1866-67,  and  declined  re-election,  preferring  to  become  minister  of  Christ  church, 
Berlin.  He  has  published  articles  and  books  on  the  Jews,  and  on  religion  and  politics; 
and  is  well  known  as  a lecturer  on  papal  history,  the  German  war,  etc. 

CASSIA,  a name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a kind  of  medicinal  bark,  but  their  descriptions 
are  so  imperfect  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine  what  bark  it  is.  The  name  is  employed 
in  the  English  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Exodus  xxx.  24,  and  in  Psa.  xlv.  8,  its 
use  in  these  places  being  derived  from  the  Septuagint;  and  it  is  not  improbably  sup- 
posed that  the  substance  intended  is  the  same  now  known  in  our  shops  as  C.  bark,  or  G. 
lignea. — 2.  G.  is  now  the  botanical  name  of  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  leg- 
uminom,  sub-order  ccesalpinem,  containing  many  species — more  than  200  having  been 
described — trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  Africa  and  of  the  warm 
parts  of  Asia  and  America.  They  have  abruptly  pinnate  leaves,  and  flowers  with  deci- 
duous calyx  of  five  somewhat  unequal  sepals,  corolla  of  five  petals,  of  which  the  lower 
ones  are  the  larger,  ten  free  stamens,  of  which  three  are  long,  four  short,  and  three 
abortive,  and  anthers  opening  by  two  holes  at  the  top.  The  leaves  and  pods  of  many 
species  have  a peculiar  sweetish  but  nauseous  smell,  and  a nauseous  bitter  taste  accom- 
panied with  a loathsome  sliminess.  They  seem  all  to  contain  the  purgative  principle 
called  cathartine  (q.v.),  and  the  leaves  of  some  of  the  Asiatic  and  African  species  are 
highly  valued,  and  much  used  as  a medicine,  under  the  name  of  Senna  (q.v.).  The 
leaves  of  G.  Marylandica  possess  similar  properties,  and  are  now  used  to  some  extent 
in  the  United  States  of  America. — G.  fistula  {cathartocarpus)  yields  the  C.  of  the  pharma- 
copoeias, the  G.  pods,  pipe  G.,  or  purging  G.  of  the  shops.  It  is  a large  tree,  a native  of 
Egypt  and  other  parts  of  Africa,  perhaps  also  of  the  East  Indies,  in  which,  at  all  events, 
it  is  now  widely  diffused  and  cultivated,  as  well  as  in  the  West  Indies  and  warm  parts 
of  America.  Its  leaves  have  4 to  6 pair  of  ovate  smooth  leaflets,  its  flowers  are  yellow 
and  in  loose  racemes ; its  pods,  which  have  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  pudding-pipe  tree, 
are  sometimes  2 ft.  in  length,  cylindrical,  black,  consisting  of  thin  brittle  woody  valves, 
within  which  is  a cavity  divided  by  numerous  thin  transverse  partitions,  each  cell  con- 
taining a single  seed  imbedded  in  a soft  black  pulp.  It  is  this  pulp  that  is  the  part 
used  in  medicine ; it  has  a sweetish  mucilaginous  taste,  and  in  small  doses  is  a mild  lax- 
ative. It  is  sometimes  removed  from  the  pods  when  fresh ; or  an  extract  is  obtained, 
after  they  are  dried,  by  boiling  and  evaporating.  It  is  said  to  contain  61  to  69  per  cent 
of  sugar.  The  C.  pods  of  the  West  Indies  contain  much  more  pulp,  and  are  therefore 
more  valuable  than  those  imported  from  the  East. — 3.  G.  bark,  or  G.  lignea,  sometimes 
called  Ghina  cinnamon,  is  a bark  very  similar  to  cinnamon  both  in  appearance  and 
properties;  but  in  thicker  pieces,  and  less  closely  quilled,  of  a less  sweet  and  delicate 
flavor,  but  more  pungent.  It  is  the  produce  of  the  cinnamomum  G.,  or  aromaticum,  a 
tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  cinnamon -tree,  a native  of  China,  and  extensively  culti- 
vated there.  It  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  Chinese,  and  is  now  largely  imported  into 
Europe.  As  it  contains  a greater  proportion  of  essential  oil,  and  is  also  much  cheaper 
than  true  cinnamon,  it  is  much  more  generally  used.  The  oil  which  it  contains  is  called 
oil  of  G. , and  is  very  similar  to  oil  of  cinnamon.  Coarse  cinnamon  is  sometimes  sold 
as  cassia.  C.  buds  are  believed  to  be  the  dried  flower-buds  of  the  same  tree  which 
yields  C.  bark.  They  are  now  imported  into  Britain  in  large  quantities,  and  are  much 
used  in  confectionery.  In  flavor  and  other  qualities  they  resemble  C.  bark;  in  appear- 
ance they  are  very  similar  to  cloves, 

CASSIA'NUS,  Joannes,  or  Joannes  Massiliensis,  or  Joannes  Eremita,  a Christian 
teacher  of  the  ancient  church,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  5th  c.,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  the  promoter  of  monachism  in  Southern  Gaul,  and  as  the  oppo- 
nent of  the  extreme  dogmas  of  St,  Augustine  respecting  grace  and  free-will.  Shortly 
before  415  a.d,,  he  went  to  Massilia  (Marseille),  where  he  founded  two  monasteries 
according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  his  Be  Institutis  Goenobiorum.  One  of  these  mon- 
asteries was  for  nuns,  the  other  was  the  famous  abbey  of  St.  Victor,  which  under  C.  is 
said  to  have  possessed  not  less  than  5,000  inmates,  and  which  served  as  a model  to  a 
multitude  of  monastic  institutions  in  Gaul  and  Spain.  His  Gollationes  Patrum  Sceti- 


Csssioan. 

Cassiopeia* 


520 


corum,  is  a work  in  24  chapters,  each  of  which  gives  a “ spiritual  colloquy  between 
monks  in  the  desert  of  Sketis,”  regarding  the  monastic  life,  and  tlie  vexed  questions  of 
theology.  C.’s  Grecian  erudition,  his  dislike  of  dogmatic  subtleties,  and  his  zeal  for 
monastic  habits,  led  him  to  oppose  the  doctrine  of  St.  Augustine  on  works  and  grace, 
and  to  set  up  a doctrine  which  was  knov>^n  by  the  schoolmen  as  “semi-pelagianism.” 
See  Pelagianism.  As  C.’s  doctrine  gained  support  from  the  Massilian  monks,  St. 
Augustine,  having  been  informed  of  it  by  his  friend  Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  wrote 
strongly  against  it,  especially  in  his  treatise  Be  Oratia  et  Lihero  ArUtrio,  contra  Collar 
torem.  It  is  not  known  when  C.  died;  but  it  must  have  been  subsequent  to  433  a.d. 
The  first  collected  edition  of  the  various  works  attributed  to  him  was  published  at 
Basel  in  1559;  the  best  at  Frankfurt,  in  1722.  The  best  account  of  his  life  and  writings 
is  by  Wiggers,  Be  Johanni  C.  (Rostock,  1824-25). 

CASSICAN,  Cassicus,  a genus  of  birds  allied  to  starlings,  having  an  exactly  conical 
bill,  thick  at  the  base,  and  extremely  sharp  pointed,  the  commissure  forming  an  angu- 
lated  line,  the  bill  ascending  on  the  forehead,  and  encroaching  circularly  on  the  plum- 
age. They  are  all  American  birds  of  gregarious  habits,  feeding  both  on  fruits  and 
insects,  and  “ exhibiting  such  surprising  skill  and  ingenuity  in  the  structure  of  their 
nests,  that  an  old  lady  once  gravely  asked  an  American  ornithologist  whether  he  did 
not  think  they  might  be  taught  to  darn  stockings!”  The  crested  C.,  or  crested  oriole 
{C.  cristatus),  is  a native  of  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  Paraguay.  It  is  about  20  in.  long,  is 
sometimes  seen  in  flocks  of  50  or  100,  and  constructs  its  nest  by  knitting  together  shreds 
of  a thin  bark,  tillandsia^,  etc.  The  nest  is  about  36  in.  long,  and  resembles  a purse  or 
pouch,  the  lower  end  hemispherical,  and  10  in.  wide,  and  is  suspended  from  the 
extremity  of  a branch  of  a tall  smooth-stemmed  tree  on  the  outskirt  of  a forest,  appar- 
ently to  insure  safety  from  monkeys  and  serpents.  Several  of  these  nests  are  often  to 
be  seen  hanging  from  the  branches  of  the  same  tree. 

CASSIDA'RIA,  a genus  of  mollusks — gasteropoda  {q.Y.),  order  pectinihrancMata — 
w,ith  univalve  shells,  generally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  family  huccinidm  or  whelks 
(q.v.),  but  is  forming  a connecting  link  with  the  family  muricidee  (see  Murex).  The  shell 
is  ventricose,  with  a moderately  elevated  spire,  the  aperture  elongated,  and  the  canal 
recurved,  but  not  very  abruptly — much  less  so  than  in  the  nearly  allied  genus  cassis 
(see  Helmet  Shell). — the  columellar  lip  covered  with  a plate,  and  the  outer  lip 
similarly  margined  within.  The  recent  species,  which  are  not  numerous,  belong  to  trop- 
ical and  subtropical  seas.  Fifty  fossil  species  have  been  described.  The  genus  first 
appears  in  the  upper  cretaceous  measures,  where  a single  species  occurs.  In  the  eocene 
11  have  been  found,  and  about  40  in  the  pliocene.  It  has  its  fullest  development  as  a 
recent  shell,  no  less  than  70  species  being  known. 

The  name  cassidarm  is  sometimes  given  to  a family  of  coleopterous  insects,  of  which 
the  type  is  the  genus  cassida.  See  Tortoise  Beetle. 

CASSIN,  John,  1813-69;  b.  Penn.;  except  a few  years  in  business,  he  devoted 
most  of  his  life  to  ornithology,  and  published  many  works  thereon,  among  which  are 
Birds  of  Califoi'nia;  American  Ornithology;  Mammalogy  and  Ornithology  of  the  TJ.  S. 
Exploring  Expedition;  Ornithology  of  the  Japan  Exploring  Expedition;  Ornithology  of 
Oilliss’s  Astronomical  Expedition  to  Chili;  a portion  of  the  Ornithology  of  the  Pacific 
Railroad  Explorations  and  Surveys;  and  the  ornithology  of  the  Iconographic  Encyclopaedia. 
He  was  grand-nephew  of  commodore  John  Cassin,  and  nephew  of  commodore  Stephen 
Cassin,  both  of  the  U.  S.  navy. 

CASSI'NI,  the  name  of  a family  distinguished  by  their  services  in  astronomy  and 
geography. 

Cassini,  Giovanni  Domenico,  was  b.  at  Perinaldo,  near  Nice,  on  the  8th  of  June, 
1625,  and  studied  at  the  college  of  Jesuits,  Genoa.  In  1650  he  was  appointed  to  the 
astronomical  chair  in  the  university  of  Bologna.  His  first  work  related  to  the  comet  of 
1652.  He  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the  determination  of  astronomical  refraction, 
and  of  the  sun’s  parallax,  etc.  In  1664^65  he  determined  the  period  of  Jupiter’s  rotation. 
Subsequently,  he  determined  the  periods  of  the  planets  Mars  and  Venus,  as  also  of  the 
apparent  rotation  of  the  sun.  He  it  was  who  discovered  the  third  and  fifth  satellites  of 
Saturn,  and  afterwards  the  first  and  second,  as  well  as  the  dual  character  of  that 
planet’s  ring.  He  was  also  the  first  who  carefully  observed  the  zodiacal  light;  he 
demonstrated  that  the  axis  of  the  moon  was  not  (as  had  been  believed)  at  a right  angle 
to  the  ecliptic,  and  explained  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon  known  under  the  name  of 
lunar  libration.  One  of  his  finest  observations  was  the  coincidence  of  the  nodes  of  the 
moon’s  equator  and  orbit.  C.  died  Sept.  14,  1712,  at  Paris,  whither  he  had  gone  in 
1669,  at  the  invitation  of  Colbert,  to  take  charge  of  the  observatory  erected  by  that 
minister. 

Cassini,  Jacques,  son  of  the  preceding  was  b.  at  Paris,  Feb.  18,  1677,  In  1694  he 
was  elected  a member  of  the  academy  of  sciences.  He  traveled  in  Italy,  Holland,  and 
England,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Newton,  Halley,  Flamsteed,  etc,,  and 
was  elected  a member  of  the  royal  society  of  London.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  he 
succeeded  to  the  charge  of  the  observatory  at  Paris,  and  died  April  16,  1756.  C.  wrote 
jeveral  treatises  on  electricity,  the  barometer,  etc.  In  his  treatise.  Be  la  Grandeur  et  d4 
b Figure  de  la  lei're  (Par.  1720),  he  attempted  to  show  that  the  earth  must  be  a spheroid 


521 


Cassican. ' 
Cassiopaia* 


elongated  at  the  poles.  The  Newtonians  denied  this,  inasmuch  as  it  was  opposed  to  the 
ascertained  facts  of  gravitation  and  rotation,  which  necessitated  the  earth’s  being  a 
spheroid  flattened  at  the  poles.  As  an  observer,  C.  was  eminently  successful.  He 
determined  the  periods  of  rotation  of  all  the  satellites  of  Saturn  then  known,  the  incli- 
nation of  the  planetary  orbits,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  very  nearly,  and  the  length 
of  the  year,  etc. — His  son,  C.<esar  Cassini,  was  also  engaged  in  scientific  pursuits. 

Cassini,  Jean  Dominique,  Comte  de,  the  son  of  Csesar  Cassini,  was  b.  at  Paris, 
June  30,  1748.  He  succeeded  to  the  charge  of  the  observatory,  and  completed  in  1789 
the  great  topographical  map  of  France,  begun  by  his  father.  But  it  having  been  decreed 
in  1793  that  the  observatory  should  no  longer  be  in  the  hands  of  one  person,  three 
others  were  in  consequence  elected  to  the  superintendence  of  it  along  with  C.,  whose 
conduct  on  learning  this  fact  showed  that  he  had  a greater  regard  for  his  own  dignity 
than  for  the  whole  stellar  universe.  He  refused  to  have  anything  more  to  do  with 
astronomical  science,  and  obstinately  kept  his  purpose  through  a life  that  lasted  nearly 
a century,  and  which  was  apparently  so  prolonged  to  test  the  durability  of  a French- 
man’s disdain.  In  his  95th  year  he  published  a small  volume  of  poems!  He  died  Oct. 
18,  1845. 

CASSI'NO,  a game  at  cards  played  by  two  or  more  persons.  Four  cards  are 
dealt,  one  at  a time,  to  each  player,  and  four  are  turned  face  up  on  the  table.  After 
the  hands  are  played  the  greatest  number  of  cards  counts  the  holder  three,  the  greatest 
number  of  spades  one,  big  C.  (the  ten  of  diamonds)  two,  little  C.  (the  deuce  of 
spades)  one,  and  each  ace  one,  so  that  nine  can  be  possibly  counted  by  one  person; 
the  whole  game  is  21.  The  play  is  to  take  from  the  table  as  many  cards  as  possible, 
preferring  spades,  or  aces,  or  big  or  little  Cassino.  The  cards  are  taken  by  the  num- 
ber of  their  spots ; thus  a ten  will  take  a ten,  or  a nine  and  an  ace,  or  four  aces  and  a 
six,  or  any  combination  of  spots  that  make  just  ten.  Another  part  of  the  game  is 
“building;”  for  example,  a player  puts  a four  on  a six  to  make  up  ten,  meaning  to 
take  both  when  it  again  comes  his  turn;  but  any  one  having  a ten  may  take  them 
before  him;  or  if  he  builds  a six,  the  next  player  may  make  it  a nine,  and  the  next 
still  may  put  on  an  ace  and  call  it  ten ; but  in  building,  the  one  who  makes  any  par- 
ticular number  must  hold  the  card  that  will  take  it.  Some  persons  make  a progressive 
build;  that  is,  if  one  has  a nine  and  cannot  at  the  time  make  a nine,  he  puts  a four  on 
a two  and  calls  it  six,  having  of  course  a three  to  make  nine  when  it  is  next  his  turn  to 
play.  But  this  kind  of  building  is  generally  ruled  out  as  irregular.  A modern  varia- 
tion of  the  game  is  now  common,  in  which  the  knave  counts  eleven,  the  queen  twelve, 
the  king  thirteen,  the  ace  one  or  fourteen  as  the  players  may  choose,  and  the  “joker  ” 
fifteen.  This  plan  greatly  enlarges  the  number  of  combinations,  and  makes  the  game  more 
intricate ; as,  for  instance,  an  ace  may  possibly  take  three  other  aces,  four  deuces,  and 
a tray,  making  fourteen  spots;  or  the  ace  may  take  the  big  and  little  C.  and  two 
aces,  which  would  make  six  points  in  the  game. 

CASSIODORTJS,  or  (according  to  several  MSS.)  CASSIODO'RUS, Magnus  Aurelius,  a 
Latin  writer,  who  distinguished  himself  by  his  erudition  in  an  age  of  barbarism,  was 
b.  at  Scylaceum  (now  Squillace),  in  Calabria,  about  468  a.d.  He  was  a member  of  a 
noble  Roman  family,  and  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  Odoacer  by  his  superior  abili- 
ties and  accomplishments.  Under  this  monarch  he  held  various  offices,  but  after  the 
defeat  and  murder  of  Odoacer  by  Thedoric  the  Ostrogoth,  he  passed  into  the  service  of 
the  latter.  The  highest  honors  now  fell  upon  him;  and  for  years  he  administered  the 
Ostrogothic  power  with  remarkable  prudence  and  success.  In  his  70th  year,  however, 
he  withdrew  to  Calabria,  where  he  founded  the  monastery  of  Viviers,  and  employed 
himself  and  the  other  monks  in  the  invaluable  work  of  copying  classical  MSS.;  his 
great  desire  being  to  improve  the  education  of  the  clergy.  C.  was  about  100  years  old 
when  he  died.  Besides  his  grammatical  and  rhetorical  manuals,  which  were  used  as 
text-books  during  the  middle  ages,  he  wrote  a very  important  work,  entiled  Variarum 
Epistolarum  Lihri  XII.  This  is  a collection  of  state-papers,  and  is,  in  fact  the  most 
extensive  as  well  as  the  most  reliable  source  of  information  which  we  possess  in  regard 
to  everything  connected  with  the  Ostrogothic  rule  in  Italy.  The  style,  however,  is 
very  peculiar,  and  shows  the  influence  which  the  political  career  of  C.  had  exercised  on 
his  language  and  modes  of  thought.  The  editio  princeps  of  the  Vanarum  was  printed 
at  Augsburg  in  1533. 

CASSIOPEIA,  the  lady  in  her  chair,  a constellation  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  near 
Cepheus,  and  not  far  from  the  n.  pole.  It  is  marked  by  five  stars  of  the  third  magni- 
tude, forming  a figure  like  an  M.  A line  from  Capella  to  the  bright  star  in  Cygnus 
passes  nearly  through  the  middle  of  this  M.  C.,  according  to  Flamsteed,  contains  55 
stars,  all  of  small  magnitude.  The  figure  is  that  of  a woman  siting  in  a chair  with  a 
branch  in  her  hand.  In  the  year  1572,  there  all  at  once  appeared  in  C.  a new  star.  It 
was  first  noticed  by  Tycho  Brahe  on  the  11th  Nov.,  when  its  luster  exceeded  that  of  all 
the  fixed  stars,  and  nearly  equaled  that  of  Venus.  The  star  gradually  diminished  m 
luster,  from  the  time  of  its  being  observed  until,  in  Mar.,  1574,  it  disappeared.  It  is 
said  to  have  alarmed  all  the  astronomers  of  the  age.  Tycho  Brahe  wrote  a treatise  on 
it,  and  supposed — without  good  reasons — that  it  had  previously  appeared  in  945  and 


Cassiquiare. 

Castauos. 


522 


1264.  Sir  John  Herschel  suggested  the  possibility  of  its  reappearance  in  1872,  but  his 
suggestion  was  not  verified. 

CASSIQUIA'RE,  or  Cassiquiari,  a river  of  Venezuela,  South  America,  forming  the  a. 
bifurcation  of  the  Orinoco,  which  it  leaves  in  lat.  3°  10'  n.,  long.  66°  20'  w.,  and  after  a 
rapid  s.w.  course  of  about  130  m.,  joins  the  Rio  Negro  in  lat.  2°  5'  n.,  long.  67°  40'  west. 
About  100  yards  in  breadth  when  it  issues  from  the  Orinoco,  it  gradually  increases  until 
at  its  union  with  the  Rio  Negro  it  attains  a width  of  600  yards.  By  means  of  this  singu- 
lar river,  water-communication  is  established,  through  the  Amazon,  Orinoco,  and  their 
affluents,  between  the  interior  of  Brazil  and  the  Caraccas  in  Venezuela. 

CAS  SIS  (Fr.,  the  black  currant-tree),  a French  liqueur  prepared  from  black  currants; 
the  manufacture  has  recently  become  of  great  importance.  See  Currant. 

CASSIS.  See  Helmet  Shell,  ante. 

CASSITE'RIDES.  See  Scilly  Isles. 

CAS'SITERITE,  the  common  ore  of  tin,  the  only  source  of  the  metal;  found  in 
Banca  (an  island  in  the  Malay  archipelago),  in  Cornwall  (England),  Spain,  Sweden, 
France,  California,  and  Chili.  It  consists  of  78.38  tin,  and  21.62  oxygen;  it  is  found  in 
mass,  in  fibres,  in  rolled  flakes,  and  in  grains. 

CAS  SIUS,  Longi'nus  Caius,  one  of  Caesar’s  assassins.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  though  a tribune  of  the  plebs,  he  sided  with  Pompey  and  the  aristocratic  fac- 
tion against  Caesar.  He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  latter,  who  pardoned  him,  and  even 
made  him  one  of  his  legates.  In  44  b.c.,  through  the  influence  of  Caesar,  he  was  made 
prcBior  peregrinus,  and  was  promised  the  governorship  of  Syria  in  the  following  year. 
But  his  mean  and  jealous  spirit  could  not  endure  the  burden  of  gratitude  imposed  upon 
him  by  the  generosity  of  the  dictator,  and  he  resolved  to  be  released  by  the  murder  of 
his  benefactor.  Having  attached  to  himself  the  mutinous  spirits  among  the  subjugated 
aristocracy,  and  also  won  over  M.  Brutus,  the  pseudo-patriotic  conspiracy  was  soon 
matured,  and  on  the  15th  of  Mar.,  44  b.c.,  Caesar  fell  by  the  daggers  of  assassins.  The 
result  of  this  bloody  deed  was  not  what  C.  had  expected.  The  popular  feeling — as  wit- 
nessed by  the  riots  that  broke  out  at  Caesar’s  funeral — was  strongly  against  the  murder- 
ers ; and  the  military  power  fell  into  the  hands  of  Mark  Antony.  C.  therefore  fled  to 
the  east,  and  made  himself  master  of  Syria.  Afterwards  he  united  his  forces  with  those 
of  Brutus,  and  having  greedily  plundered  Asia  Minor,  they  crossed  the  Hellespont  in 
the  beginning  of  42  b.c.,  marched  through  Thrace,  and  took  up  a superior  position  near 
Philippi,  in  Macedonia.  Here  they  were  attacked  by  Antony  and  Octavian.  The  divi- 
sion commanded  by  C.  was  totally  routed,  although,  on  the  other  hand,  Brutus  succeeded 
in  repulsing  the  troops  of  Octavian.  C.,  supposing  that  all  was  lost,  compelled  his 
freedman,  Pindarus,  to  put  him  to  death.  C.’swife,  a half-sister  of  Brutus,  survived 
him  upwards  of  60  years.  She  died  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  22  a.d. 

CASSIUS,  Purple  op,  is  a coloring  substance  of  very  ancient  use,  which  is  prepared 
by  adding  a mixed  solution  of  protochloride  and  bichloride  of  tin  gradually  to  a solution 
of  chloride  of  gold,  when  a more  or  less  abundant  precipitate  of  the  double  stannate  of 
gold  and  tin  (Au0,Sn02-|-Sn0,Sn02)  is  thrown  down.  The  purple  of  C.  is  soluble  in 
ammonia,  yielding  a very  pretty  purple  solution,  from  which  it  can  again  be  obtained, 
with  solid  form  unchanged,  by  evaporating  the  ammonia.  Mixed  with  borax,  or  some 
fusible  glass,  purple  of  C.  is  employed  by  the  potter  to  communicate  a rich  purple  or  rose 
tint  to  the  better  kinds  of  china,  and  it  also  imparts  the  red  color  to  the  kind  of  glass 
known  as  Bohemian  glass. 

CASSIUS  PARMENSIS,  or  Caius  Cassius  Severus,  one  of  the  conspirators  against 
the  life  of  Julius  Csesar.  He  was  an  adherent  of  his  namesake  Cassius,  and  fought  on 
his  side  until  their  defeat  at  Philippi.  Afterwards  he  adhered  to  Pompey,  and  finally 
supported  Anthony  until  the  defeat  at  Actium.  He  went  to  Athens,  but  was  arrested 
and  executed  by  order  of  Augustus.  He  made  some  pretensions  to  poetry,  but  he  was 
not  the  Cassius  alluded  to  by  Horace  as  noted  for  the  abundance  and  the  poverty  of  his 
compositions. 

CASSIVELAU'NUS,  a British  chief,  who  fought  against  Caesar  during  his  second 
invasion  of  the  island,  54  b.c.  He  ruled  the  country  n.  of  the  Thames,  and  had  a great 
reputation  as  a warrior,  but  his  capital  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  and  he  himself  com- 
pelled to  flee.  He  afterwards  sued  for  peace,  which  he  obtained,  on  condition  of  paying 
tribute  and  giving  hostages. 

CASSOCK,  a long  loose  coat,  formerly  in  common  wear,  but  now  usually  worn  only 
by  the  clergy.  As  worn  by  the  clergy  of  the  church  of  England  it  is  a long  coat  with 
a single  upright  collar.  Black  is  the  common  color  for  all  orders  of  the  clergy,  but  on 
state  occasions  bishops  frequently  wear  purple  cassocks.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
cassocks  vary  in  color  according  to  the  dignity  of  the  wearer — priests  wearing  black, 
bishops  purple,  cardinals  scarlet,  and  the  pope  white. 

CAS  SOWARY,  GasuaHus,  a genus  of  birds  nearly  allied  to  the  ostrich  (see  Brevi- 
PENNES  and  Ostrich),  but  distinctively  characterized  by  still  greater  shortness  of  wing, 
by  a laterally  compressed  bill,  by  a bony  crest,  by  pendent  wattles  on  the  naked  neck, 
and  by  three  toes  on  each  foot,  all  furnished  with  claws,  the  inner  toe  short,  and  armed 


523 


Cassiquiar«« 

Castanos. 


■with  a very  long  and  sharp  claw.  There  are  also  very  important  anatomical  differ- 
ences in  its  digestive  organs,  which  are  not  adapted  to  the  same  coarse  diet,  for  the  C. 

‘ ‘ has  short  intestines  and  small  coeca,  wants  the  intermediate  stomach  between  the  crop 
and  gizzard,  and  its  cloaca  does  not  proportionally  exceed  that  of  other  birds.”  Only 
one  species  is  known,  casuarius  galeatus,  sometimes  called  emu  by  the  older  naturalists, 
before  that  name  was  appropriated  to  the  Australian  bird  which  now  alone  receives  it. 
The  C.  is  a native  of  the  Moluccas,  New  Guinea,  and  other  Asiatic  islands,  chiefly 
inhabiting  deep  forests.  In  general  appearance,  it  is  not  unlike  the  ostrich,  but  has  a 
much  shorter  neck.  It  is  the  largest  known  bird  except  the  ostrich,  and  its  height,  when 
erect,  is  about  5 feet.  It  feeds  on  fruit,  eggs,  and  succulent  herbage.  When  attacked, 
it  defends  itself  by  kicking  obliquely  backwards  with  its  feet,  and  by  striking  with  its 
short  wings,  the  rigid  barbless  shafts  of  which,  although  useless  even  to  aid  it  in  running, 
are  not  without  value  as  weapons.  There  are  only  about  five  of  them  in  each  wing, 
somewhat  resembling  the  quills  of  a porcupine;  and  at  the  end  of  the  last  joint  of  the 
wing  there  is  a spur.  The  color  of  the  C.  is  brownish  black;  the  feathers  are  loosely 
webbed,  and  hang  down,  so  that,  at  a little  distance,  the  bird  seems  clothed  with  hair. 
Those  of  the  rump  are  14  in.  long,  hanging  down  in  place  of  a tail.  The  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  neck  are  naked  and  of  a bluish  color,  and  there  are  two  pendent  wat- 
tles, partly  red  and  partly  blue,  on  the  front  of  the  neck.  On  the  breast  is  a callous 
bare  part,  on  which  the  bird  rests  its  body  on  the  ground.  The  bony  crest  or  helmet 
reaches  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  the  middle  of  the  crown,  and  is  about  3 in.  high, 
exhibiting  the  most  intense  blue,  purple,  ard  scarlet  blended  together.  The  C.  lays  a 
few  eggs,  which  it  leaves  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun ; and  which  are  greenish, 
and  have  a much  thinner  shell  than  those  of  the  ostrich.  Its  flesh  is  black,  tough,  and 
juiceless.  The  C.  is  not  unfrequently  to  be  seen  in  menageries  in  Europe,  but  is  becom- 
ing more  rare  in  its  native  regions,  in  which  it  is  sometimes  kept  tame. 

CAST,  an  impression  produced  by  pouring  a ductile  substance,  such  as  plaster  of 
Paris,  into  a mold.  This  method  was  employed  by  the  ancients  in  multiplying  not 
only  objects  of  art,  such  as  the  small  household  statues  of  the  gods,  but  articles  of  direct 
utility.  Thes  so-called  Celts,  or  chisels  of  bronze,  which,  with  the  molds  for  casting 
them,  are  found  in  England,  Ireland,  and  France,  testify  to  the  fact  that  the  art  of 
casting  from  a mold  is  one  of  the  earliest  acquired  by  semi-civilized  nations.  Casts  are 
of  incalculable  value  in  familiarizing  the  eyes  of  those  who  can  never  look  on  the 
originals  with  the  grand  and  beautiful  forms  of  antique  art.  The  best  to  be  had  in  this 
country  are  those  executed,  and  sold  on  application,  at  the  British  Museum.  Casting, 
when  applied  to  metals,  is  called  founding  (q.v.). 

CASTAGN'O,  Andkea  del,  1390-1457;  a painter  of  the  Florentine  school,  who 
imitated  the  naturalists  of  the  time  in  boldness  of  attitude,  but  was  deficient  in  grace 
and  coloring.  For  several  centuries,  C.  rested  under  the  imputation  of  having  mur- 
dered his  colleague,  Domenico  Venezaino,  in  order  to  monopolize  the  then  recent  secret 
of  oil  painting  as  practiced  in  Flanders  by  the  Van  Eycks;  but  the  charge  has  been 
proved  untrue,  as  Domenico  outlived  C.  by  four  years.  One  of  C.  ’s  extant  works  is  an 
equestrian  figure  in  the  Florentine  cathedral. 

CASTA'LIA,  a fountain  on  the  slope  of  Parnassus,  a little  above  Delphi,  in  Phocis,  * 
sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  It  was  the  ‘ ‘ holy- water”  of  the  Delphian  temple ; and 
all  who  came  to  consult  the  oracle,  or  visited  the  place  with  any  religious  purpose  what- 
ever, were  wont  to  bathe  their  hair  rore  puro  Castalice  (in  the  pure  dew  of  C.),  but  those 
who  wished  to  be  purified  from  murder  bathed  their  whole  body.  The  Roman  poets 
feigned  that  its  waters  filled  the  mind  of  those  who  drank  of  it  with  poetic  inspiration. 

It  was  imagined  to  have  some  connection  with  the  river  Cephisus,  and  to  flow  from  the 
subterranean  Styx.  The  fountain,  whose  waters  are  still  pure  and  delightful  as  in  the 
days  of  classical  antiquity,  now  bears  the  name  of  St.  John,  from  a small  chapel  of  that 
name  close  by. 

CAS'TANETS,  a musical  instrument  of  percussion  in  the  form  of  two  hollow  nut-shells, 
which  are  bound  together  by  a band  fastened  on  the  thumb,  and  struck  by  the  fingers 
to  produce  a trilling  sound  in  keeping  with  the  rhythm  of  the  music.  The  krotalon  of 
the  ancients  was  somewhat  similar.  The  C.  were  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors, 
where  they  retain  the  name  of  castanulas,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  form  of  the 
chestnut.  The  0.  are  now  much  used  in  the  ballet  and  in  the  opera. 

CASTA'NEA.  See  Chestnut,  ante. 

CASTA'NOS,  Don  Francisco  Xavier  de,  Duke  of  Baylen,  a celebrated  Spanish  gen- 
eral, was  b.  at  Madrid  in  1756,  and  studied  in  Germany  the  military  tactics  of  Frederick 
the  ^eat.  For  some  time  after  his  return  to  Spain,  he  had  no  opportunity  of  acquiring 
distinction;  but  when  Napoleon  I.  invaded  that  country,  C.  received  the  command  of  a 
division  of  the  Spanish  army,  and  on  the  22d  of  July,  1808,  compelled  20,000  French, 
under  gen.  Dupont,  to  surrender  at  Baylen.  It  is  asserted,  however,  that  the  merit  of 
this  prodigious  success  belonged  more  to  Aloys  Reding,  a Swiss  by  birth,  and  the  second 
in  command.  In  Nov.  of  the  same  year,  C.  was  in  turn  defeated  by  the  French  at 
Tudela.  The  arrival  of  Wellington  necessarily  reduced  him  to  a subordinate  position, 
but  he  took  part  in  the  important  battles  of  Albuera,  Salamanca,  and  Vittoria.  In  1811, 


Cast. 

Caste. 


524 


he  was  appointed  general  of  the  4th  Spanish  carps  d'armee,  and  commandant  of  several 
provinces.  In  1815,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  80,000  troops,  destined  to  invade 
France,  some  of  which  had  already  crossed  the  frontier  when  the  news  came  of  the 
battle  of  Waterloo.  Although  no  great  favorite  with  the  court  politicians,  his  talents 
could  not  be  overlooked.  In  1825,  he  was  called  to  the  state  council,  where  he 
became  a decided  opponent  of  the  Carlist  party.  He  died  24th  Sept.,  1852,  at  the 
advanced  age  of  96. 

CAST — CASTING-LINE.  The  casting-line,  in  angling,  is  a gut-line  on  which  the  arti- 
ficial flies  are  fastened.  It  is  made  up  of  several  lengths  of  gut,  knotted  together,  and, 
usually  from  2 to  4 yards  long.  The  flies  are  attached  at  intervals  of  about  2 ft.,  and 
the  line  with  its  flies  is  called  a cast.  The  term  cast  is  also  applied  to  a part  of  a stream 
where  certain  fish  may  be  taken,  as  a trout-cast,  a salmon-cast. 

CASTE,  a term  applied  chiefly  to  distinct  classes  or  sections  of  society  in  India,  and, 
in  a modifled  sense,  to  social  distinctions  of  an  exclusive  nature  among  the  nations  of  the 
west.  When,  at  the  end  of  the  15th  c.,  the  Portuguese  began  to  penetrate  to  India  by 
the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  to  trade  with  the  Deccan  or  southern  portion  of  the  Indian 
peninsula,  they  found  arbitrary  social  laws,  full  of  intricate  regulations  which  con- 
stantly interfered  with  their  intercourse  with  the  natives,  especially  in  matters  involving 
the  subdivision  of  labor.  They  found  certain  pursuits  invariably  followed  by  a certain 
class,  and  any  attempt  to  induce  a man  to  perform  offices  not  appointed  for  the  class  of 
which  he  was  a member,  met  with  violent  opposition,  though  such  offices  might,  accord- 
ing to  European  notions,  be  more  honorable  than  many  he  was  content  to  fulfill.  They 
observed,  also,  that  these  different  classes  often  varied  in  appearance,  the  result,  in  some 
cases,  of  their  addiction  for  many  generations  to  the  same  pursuits;  in  others,  of  their 
having  actually  arisen  from  a different  stock.  Hence  they  applied  to  these  various  divi- 
sions of  society  the  term  casta — a Portuguese  and  Spanish  word,  meaning  a breed.  As 
applied  to  these  classes  of  Hindu  society,  the  word  has  passed  into  most  European  lan- 
guages. From  its  frequent  use  in  India,  it  has  sometimes  been  erroneously  considered 
of  Hindu  origin.*  Of  late,  it  has  been  spelled  caste,  but  by  old  authors  cast;  and  it  is 
even  a question  whether  the  word  may  not  be  as  genuine  English,  as  casta  is  Spanish. 

In  the  s.  of  India,  the  Portuguese  became  acquainted  with  what  is  considered  the 
most  exaggerated  evil  of  caste.  There  are  found  there  large  numbers  of  a class  called 
pariahs,  or,  in  other  districts  of  India,  chandalas.  They  are  probably  the  relics  of  some 
early  conquered  race,  who  have  been  degraded  by  uninterrupted  ages  of  oppression,  as 
is  represented  to  have  been  the  case  with  the  Helots  of  Sparta,  and  people  in  a similar 
condition.  These  pariahs  were  always  identified  with  outcasts — i.e.,  persons  who  had 
forfeited  the  privileges  of  their  original  order.  No  one  of  any  C.  would  have  any  com- 
munication with  them.  If  one  of  them  even  touched  a Nayr,  or  warrior  of  high  C.,  he 
might  with  impunity  kill  him.  Some  sorts  of  food  were  defiled  by  even  their  shadow 
passing  over  them;  and  the  name  of  Pariah  or  Chandala  conveyed  to  the  Hindu  the  idea 
of  the  utmost  vileness  and  disgust.  All  who  violated  the  institutions  of  their  class  were 
held  to  sink  into  this  class — a condition  which  involved  the  loss  of  all  human  respecta- 
bility and  comfort.  These  regulations  were,  moreover,  referred  to  religion. 

As  India  was  at  this  time  the  land  of  the  marvelous,  and  its  inhabitants,  though  as 
various  as  the  different  nations  of  Europe,  viewed  as  one  homogeneous  people,  what 
was  only  true  of  one  portion  of  the  peninsula,  was  considered  as  prevailing  everywhere, 
and  as  identical  with  the  divisions  of  the  Indians  into  seven  tribes  or  castes,  mentioned 
in  olden  times  by  Strabo,  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  and  by  Arrian.  Nor  was  it  forgotten 
that  the  Egyptians,  whose  early  civilization  was  as  undoubted  as  that  of  India,  were 
also  divided,  according  to  Herodotus,  into  seven  classes  of  priests,  warriors,  herdsmen, 
swineherds,  tradesmen,  interpreters,  and  pilots,  to  each  of  which  w^ere  assigned  particu- 
lar districts. 

About  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.,  however,  Abraham  Roger,  chaplain  of  the  Dutch 
factory  at  Pulicat,  gained  the  confidence  of  a Brahman,  acquainted  with  the  Sanscrit 
language,  and  by  this  means  learned  pretty  exactly  the  account  of  the  origin  of  C.  given 
in  the  Laws  of  Menu,  a work  inferred  to  have  been  written  not  later  than  900  b.c.,  which 
was  long  known  only  by  name  in  Europe,  until  about  the  end  of  the  last  century,  when 
a copy  was  obtained,  and  translated  by  sir  William  Jones.  The  whole  of  the  Hindus 
are  represented  by  Menu  as  divided  into  four  classes: 

1.  The  Brahmans,  or  sacerdotal  class,  who  are  said,  at  the  moment  of  creation,  to 
have  issued  from  the  mouth  of  Brahma.  Their  business  is  reading  and  teaching  the 
Vedas,  and  the  performance  of  sacrifice  for  themselves  and  others.  They  are  to  be  the 
chief  of  all  created  beings;  the  rest  of  mortals  enjoy^  life  through  them.  By  their 
imprecations,  they  can  destroy  kings,  with  all  their  troops,  and  elephants,  and  pomps. 
Indra,  wnen  cursed  by  one  of  them,  was  hurled  from  his  own  heaven,  and  compelled 
to  animate  a cat.  Hence,  the  Brahman  is  to  be  treated  with  the  most  profound  respect, 
even  by  kings.  His  life  and  person  are  protected  by  the  severest  laws  in  this  world, 
and  the  most  tremendous  denunciations  for  the  next.  His  own  offenses  are  treated 
with  singular  lenity;  all  offenses  against  him,  with  terrible  severity.  He  is  forbidden 

* In  Sanscrit,  castes  are  called  vamas,  i.e.,  “ colors;”  color  being,  no  doubt,  the  chief  distinction  ai 
first 


525 


Cast. 

Caste. 


to  live  by  service,  but  on  alms;  and  it  is  incumbent  upon  virtuous  men  and  kings  to 
support  him  with  liberality ; and  all  ceremonies  of  religion  involve  feasts  and  presents 
to  him.  The  first  part  of  his  life  is  to  be  devoted  to  an  unremitting  study  of  the  Vedas 
— books,  be  it  observed,  older  than  the  code  of  Menu,  and  yet,  except,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  later  hymns,  containing  no  mention  of  C.  as  a religious  ordinance.  He  is  to  per- 
form servile  offices  for  his  preceptor,  and  beg  from  door  to  door.  In  the  second  quar- 
ter, he  lives  with  his  wife,  reads  and  teaches  the  Vedas,  assists  at  sacrifices,  and,  “clean 
;and  decent,  his  hair  and  beard  clipped,  his  passions  subdued,  his  mantle  white,  his  body 
pure,  with  a staff  and  a copy  of  the  Vedas  in  his  hand,  and  bright  golden  rings  in  his 
ears,”  he  leads  a studious  and  decorous  life.  The  third  quarter  of  his  life  he  must 
spend  in  the  woods,  as  an  anchorite,  clad  in  bark,  without  fire,  wholly  silent,  and  feed- 
ing on  roots  and  fruits.  The  last  period  he  is  released  from  external  forms  and  morti- 
fications, and  is  to  spend  his  time  meditating  on  the  divinity,  until  at  length  he  quits 
the  body,  “as  a bird  leaves  the  branch  of  a tree,  at  pleasure.” 

2.  The  Ksliatrya,  or  Ghuttree,  or  military  class,  sprang  from  the  arm  of  Bramha,  and 
bear  something  of  a sacred  character.  It  is  stated  that  the  sacerdotal  order  cannot 
prosper  without  the  military,  or  the  military  without  the  sacerdotal ; and  the  prosperity 
•of  both,  as  well  in  this  world  as  in  the  next,  is  made  to  depend  on  their  cordial  union. 
The  Kshatrya  are  to  give  alms,  to  sacrifice,  to  read  the  Vedas,  and  defend  the  people. 
Though  Brahmans  are  to  draw  up  and  interpret  laws,  they  are  carefully  excluded  from 
administering  them.  The  executive  government  is  vested  in  the  Kshatryas  alone. 

3.  The  Vaisya,  or  Bais,  or  mercantile  class,  sprang  from  the  thigh  of  Brahma.  Their 
^and  duties  are  to  keep  cattle,  carry  on  trade,  lend  on  interest,  cultivate  the  soil,  and 
turn  their  attention  to  every  description  of  practical  knowledge.  They  are  to  be  perfect 
men  of  business. 

The  Sudras,  or  Sooders,  or  servile  class,  came  from  the  foot  of  Brahma.  They  are  to 
serve  the  three  superior  classes,  more  especially  the  Brahmans.  Their  condition  is 
never  to  be  improved;  they  are  not  to  accumulate  property,  and  are  unable  by  any 
means  to  approach  the  dignity  of  the  higher  classes.  Utter  and  entire  submissiveness 
to  the  Brahmans  is  the  spirit  of  all  the  Sudra’s  duties,  and  this  is  to  be  enforced  by 
penalties  as  severe  as  they  are  ridiculous.  Yet,  withal,  the  Sudras  were  not  to  be  slaves, 
■either  public  or  private,  and  to  occupy  a position  much  higher  than  the  Chandalas. 

Mixture  of  castes,  though  not  absolutely  forbidden,  entails  disadvantages  on  the 
ehildren,  and  the  offspring  of  a Brahmanical  woman  and  a Sudra  becomes  a Chandala, 
■or  outcast. 

Such — omitting  the  minute  and  childish  laws  and  penalties,  many  hundreds  in  num- 
ber, by  which  it  is  proposed  to  carry  the  principle  of  C.  into  the  pettiest  affairs  of  life — 
is  a brief  outline  of  it,  as  gathered  from  the  code  of  Menu.  There  is  no  historical  evi- 
dence that  it  ever  existed  in  this  form,  and,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  we  may  con- 
•clude  that  it  never  did.  In  the  Toy-cart,  the  oldest  Hindu  drama,  no  extravagant  vene- 
ration for  Brahmans  anywhere  appears.  In  fact,  one  of  them  is  condemned  to  death; 
and  the  arrangements  of  society  appear  to  have  been  the  same  as  at  present.  The  laws 
of  C.  form,  it  is  true,  a part  of  what  is  reputed  to  be  Hindu  law,  but  they  have  remained 
in  all  the  states  of  India,  Hindu  as  well  as  Mohammedan,  to  a great  extent  a dead-letter. 
There  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  code  of  Menu  was  drawn  up  for  the  regulation  of  any 
particular  state.  Some  have  even  conjectured  that  it  may  have  been  the  work  of  some 
learned  man,  designed  to  set  forth  his  idea  of  a perfect  commonwealth  under  Hindu 
institutions,  just  as  Plato  in  The  Republic  gives  us  his  idea  of  a model  government  under 
<3-reek  institutions. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  C.  which  at  present  exists  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
India  is  very  different  from  that  described  in  the  code  of  Menu,  though  to  this  it  owes, 
no  doubt,  much  of  its  stability  and  its  importance  in  the  eyes  of  Europeans.  With  the 
-exception  of  the  Brahmans,  the  pure  castes  have  disappeared,  and  out  of  the  intermix- 
ture of  the  others  have  sprung  innumerable  classes,  many  of  them  unauthorized  except 
by  the  people  themselves.  So  ingrained  in  the  whole  community  is  this  tendency  to 
-class  distinctions,  that  Mussulmans,  Jews,  Parsees,  and  Christians  fall,  in  some  degree, 
into  it;  and  even  excommunicated  or  outcast  Pariahs  form  castes  among  themselves. 
Most  of  the  existing  castes  partake  of  the  nature  of  associations  for  mutual  support  or 
familiar  intercourse,  and  are  dependent  upon  a man’s  trade,  occupation,  or  profession. 
Many  of  them  have  been  described  by  Mr.  Colebrook  in  the  Asiatic  Transactions,  vol.  v. 
Many  have  had  their  origin  in  guilds,  in  schism  from  other  castes,  in  the  possession  of 
a particular  sort  of  property  (as,  for  instance,  landlords  are  spoken  of  as  the  C.  of 
ssmindars),  and  similar  accidental  circumstances.  Their  names  are  often  due  to  the 
district  in  which  the  C.  took  its  rise,  to  their  founder,  to  their  peculiar  creed,  or  any 
random  circumstance.  In  the  Bengal  presidency,  there  are  many  hundreds  of  such 
castes,  almost  every  district  containing  some  unknown  in  those  adjacent.  Among  the 
lowest  classes,  and  especially  among  the  servants  of  the  English  at  Calcutta,  it  has 
degenerated  into  a fastidious  tenacity  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of  station.  For 
example,  the  man  who  sweeps  your  room  will  not  take  an  empty  cup  from  your  hand; 
your  groom  will  not  mow  a little  grass;  a coolie  will  carry  any  load,  however  offensive, 
upon  his  head,  but  even  in  a matter  of  life  and  death,  would  refuse  to  carry  a man,  for 
that  is  the  business  of  another  caste.  Such  and  many  other  regulations  are  described  in 


Cast«gg:io. 

Castellan. 


526 


every  work  on  C.,  but  are  as  unworthy  of  serious  regard  as  are  the  assertions  of  self- 
importance  found  among  little  people  all  the  world  over.  When  an  English  servant 
pleads  that  such  a thing  “ is  not  his  place,”  his  excuse  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  Hindu 
servant  when  he  pleads  his  caste.  When  an  Englishman  of  birth  or  profession,  which 
is  held  to  confer  gentility,  refuses  to  associate  with  a tradesman  or  mechanic — or  when 
members  of  a secret  order  exclude  all  others  from  their  meetings — or  when  any  other 
similar  social  distinction  arises,  it  would  present  itself  to  the  mind  of  the  Hindu  as  a. 
regulation  of  caste. 

Nor  does  C.,  at  the  present  day,  tie  a man  down  to  follow  Ms  father's  business,  except,, 
perhaps,  in  the  case  of  the  more  sacred  functions  of  the  Brahmans.  For  the  rest.  Brah- 
mans serve  as  soldiers,  and  even  as  cooks.  Men  of  all  castes  have  risen  to  power,  just 
as  in  England  our  statesman  have  sprung  from  every  class  of  society.  Nor,  again,  is. 
loss  of  C.  anything  so  terrible  as  has  been  represented;  in  most  cases,  it  may  be  recov- 
ered by  a frugal  repast  given  to  the  members  of  the  C. ; or  the  outcast  joins  another  C.,. 
among  whom  he  will  commonly  be  received  with  the  heartiness  due  to  a new  convert.. 
The  question  of  the  restoration  of  a Christian  convert  wishing  to  rejoin  the  Brahmanical 
C.,  has  been  differently  decided  by  his  fellow  caste-men  in  different  places. 

As  in  the  west,  so  in  the  east,  C.  enters  into  all  the  most  ordinary  relations  of  life,  pro- 
ducing laws  often  most  tyrannical  and  too  anomalous  to  admit  of  generalization.  In 
the  west,  however,  whilst  good  sense  and  Christianity  have  ever  tended  to  ameliorate 
social  differences,  the  feeble  mind  of  the  Hindu  and  the  records  of  his  religion  have  had 
a contrary  effect. 

These  modified  views  of  C.,  which  have  begun  to  prevail  in  recent  years,  will  be 
found  more  fully  developed  in  Shore  On  Indian  Affairs,  Irving’s  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Caste.  Full  accounts  of  the  petty  regulations  of  C.,  as  laid  down  in  the  code  of  Menu, 
may  be  seen  in  sir  William  Jones’s  Translation  of  the  Code  of  Menu,  Robertson’s  Disqui- 
sition on  India,  Richard’s  India,  Elphinstone’s  History  of  India,  Dubois’s  India,  Cole- 
brooke’s  Asiatic  Transactions,  vol.  v.,  and  in  various  articles  in  the  Calcutta  Review. 
The  most  authoritative  account  of  the  subject  of  caste  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume 
of  Dr.  John  Muir’s  Original  Sanscrit  lexts  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Religion  and 
Institutions  on  India;  collected,  translated  into  English,  and  illustrated  by  Notes  (5  vols.. 
Bond.  1867-71 ; vols.  1 to  4,  new  ed.),  a work  of  the  utmost  value. 

The  question  how  C.  is  to  be  dealt  with  in  converts  to  Christianity,  has  now  been 
determined  by  common  consent  of  missionaries  in  India ; and  it  receives  no  recognition 
within  the  Christian  church.  An  opposite  policy,  in  former  times,  founded  on  the 
opinion  that  C.  might  be  regarded  as  merely  a civil  or  social  institution,  and  not  as  a 
part  of  the  religion  of  the  Hindus,  is  now  believed  to  have  been  among  the  principal 
causes  of  the  comparative  decay  of  the  churches  or  congregations  founded  during  the 
18th  c.  in  the  s.  of  India. 

CASTEG'GIO,  or  Montebello,  a t.  of  Piedmont,  northern  Italy,  5 m.  e.n.e.  of  Vog- 
hera.  In  the  campaign  of  1859,  C.  was  occupied  by  Austrians  prior  to  the  battle  of 
Montebello,  in  which  they  were  defeated  by  the  French  and  Sardinians.  C.  was  also 
valorously  but  unsuccessfully  defended  by  the  Austrians  in  the  great  battle  of  Monte- 
bello between  them  and  the  army  of  Napoleon  I.  in  1800.  As  Castidium,  C.  was  an 
important  military  position  as  early  as  the  times  of  the  Gallic  and  Punic  wars.  Some 
Roman  antiquities  still  remain,  and  numerous  curious  inscriptions  and  coins  have  been 
found.  Pop.  3,206. 

CASTEL'  (from  the  Latin  Castellum)  is  a name  prefixed  to  various  places  in  Italy, 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  etc.,  of  which  the  most  important  are: 

1.  Castel-Arquato,  a t.  of  Parma,  n.  Italy,  19  m.  s.e.  of  Piacenza,  picturesquely 
situated  amid  forests  and  vineyards,  with  a fine  Gothic  church  and  a noble  old  castle, 
from  which  the  town  derives  its  name.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk,  and  a pop.  of  4,400, 

2.  Castel-Bolognese,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  about  22  m.  w.s.w.  from  Ravenna.  It 
derives  its  name  from  a strong  fortress  built  here  by  the  Bolognese  in  the  14th  c. ; and 
is  historically  famous  as  the  scene  of  a decisive  battle  between  the  Milanese  and  Flor- 
entines in  1434,  in  which  the  latter  were  completely  vanquished. 

3.  Castel-Buono,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  8 m.  s.e.  of  Cefalu. 
It  is  noted  for  its  mineral  springs,  and  has  a trade  in  manna.  Pop.  5,288. 

4.  Castel-Franco,  a t.  of  central  Italy,  8 m.  e.  of  Modena,  with  the  old  walls  and 
ramparts  of  a castle  built  by  Urban  VIIL,  and  near  the  site  of  the  battle  between  the 
consuls  Hirtius  and  Pansa  and  Mark  Antony. — Also  the  name  of  a town  of  Italy,  in  the 
government  of  Venice,  about  25  m.  n.w.  from  the  city  of  that  name,  with  linen  and 
woolen  manufactures,  and  a pop.  of  4,220. 

5.  Castel-Gandolfo,  a village  of  the  former  Papal  states,  11  m.  s.e.  of  Rome,  near 
the  w.  shore  of  lake  Albano.  Its  situation  is  extremely  picturesque,  and  it  commands 
extensive  views  of  some  of  the  most  beautiful  scenery  m Italy.  The  pope  has  his  sum- 
mer residence  here.  In  early  times,  the  noble  family  of  the  Savelli  had  a stronghold  at 
C. , by  means  of  which,  for  a period  of  nearly  400  years,  they  bade  defiance  to  popes, 
barons,  and  bourgeoisie.  Pop.  1144. 

6.  Castel-Sardo  (formerly  C.  Aragonese),  a fortified  t.  and  seaport,  the  strongest 


527 


Castegrgio. 

Castellan. 


on  the  island  of  Sardinia,  is  situated  on  a steep  rock  on  the  n.  coast,  16  m.  n.e.  of  Sas- 
•sari.  The  environs  produce  wine.  Pop.  1946. 

7.  Castel-Sakiiasin,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Tarn  et  Garonne,  on  the 
Songuine,  12  m.  w.  from  Montauban.  It  has  the  remains  of  an  old  castle  said  to  be  of 
Saracenic  origin,  a pop.  in  1876  of  3,547,  manufactures  of  serge  and  worsted  stockings, 
and  a trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  district. 

8.  Castel-Termini  (ancient  CamicianoB  Aqud),  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Gir- 
genti,  and  16  m.  n.  from  the  city  of  that  name.  It  has  extensive  mines  of  rock-salt  and 
sulphur,  and  a pop.  of  8,200. 

9.  Castel-Vetrano,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Trapani,  20  m.  s.e.  of  the  town 
of  that  name.  It  is  an  interesting  place,  with  an  old  castle,  several  convents,  manufac- 
tures of  articles  of  coral  and  alabaster,  and  a pop.  in  1872  of  20,420.  Some  of  the  most 
-esteemed  white  wine  of  Sicily  is  produced  in  the  vicinity. 

CASTELAR',  Emilio,  b.  1832;  an  author,  statesman,  and  president  of  the  Spanish 
Tepublic.  He  was  the  son  of  a broker,  and  at  the  death  of  his  father  was  left  in  poverty, 
but  managed  to  secure  a good  education.  He  came  before  the  public  as  a writer  of 
novels,  more  prominently  as  an  advanced  liberal  in  politics.  In  1856,  he  obtained  the 
professorship  of  history  in  the  university  of  Madrid,  but  lost  the  place  in  1864,  in  con- 
sequence of  joining  Carrasen  in  the  establishment  of  La  Bemocrada,  a radical  journal. 
The  paper  was  suppressed  in  1866,  and  C.  was  sentenced  to  death  for  participation  in 
the  disturbance  of  June  in  that  year;  but  he  escaped  to  Switzerland,  and  subsequently 
went  to  France.  At  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  in  1868  he  went  back  to  Spain  and 
resumed  his  professorship,  and  in  1869  was  one  of  the  few  republicans  returned  to  the 
cortes.  In  that  body  he  advocated  republicanism  and  vigorously  opposed  the  prospect 
of  a regency.  In  the  government  chosen  by  the  cortes  after  the  abdication  of  Amadeo, 
■C.  was  made  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  In  Aug.,  1873,  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
cortes,  but  vacated  the  post  when.  Sept.  6,  he  was  nominated  for  president  of  the  exec- 
utive power.  His  first  act  was  to  prorogue  the  cortes  and  assume  complete  authority. 
He  made  energetic  but  ineffectual  efforts  to  suppress  the  Carlists,  and  sent  the  minister 
of  war  to  Cuba,  in  person  to  protect  Spanish  interests  in  that  island.  When  the  cortes 
re-assembled,  Jan.  2,  1874,  a vote  of  confidence  in  president  C.  was  defeated,  and  he  at 
once  resigned.  Thereupon,  Pavia,  as  capt.gen.  of  Madrid,  forcibly  dissolved  the  cortes 
Rnd  appointed  a provisional  government  with  marshal  Serrano  at  its  head.  Soon  after 
the  pronunciamento  in  favor  of  Alphonso  XII.,  Dec.  13,  1874,  C.  went  to  Switzerland, 
whence  in  Mar.,  1875,  he  sent  back  his  resignation  of  the  chair  of  history  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Madrid.  Among  his  writings  are  novels,  poems,  works  on  politics,  slavery, 
the  war  in  Africa,  Old  Borne  and  New  Italy  (translated  into  English),  parliamentary  dis- 
courses, etc.  His  oratory  is  vigorous  and  elegant. 

CAS'TELL,  Edmund,  1606-85;  an  English  orientalist  who  spent  18  years  in  compil- 
ing a lexicon  of  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syrian,  Samaritan,  Ethiopic,  Arabic,  and  Persian. 
He  spent  from  16  to  18  hours  a day  on  the  work,  and  had  14  assistants.  The  outlay 
was  $60,000,  which  reduced  him  to  poverty,  but  his  losses  were  in  part  compensated  by 
a number  of  preferments,  among  them  that  of  prebend  of  Canterbury.  C.  assisted  Dr. 
Walter  in  the  preparation  of  the  polyglot  Bible. 

CASTELLAMA'BE,  a fortified  city  and  seaport  of  s.  Italy,  about  17  m.  s.e.  of  the  city 
of  Naples.  It  is  built  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Monte  d’Auro,  and  along  a sheltered  beach 
on  the  s.e.  side  of  the  gulf  of  Naples,  over  which  it  commands  a magnificent  view.  It 
is  on  or  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Stabice,  which  was  desolated  by  Sylla  during  the 
social  war,  and  where  the  elder  Pliny  afterwards  lost  his  wife  when  the  city  was  over- 
whelmed with  lava  from  Vesuvius.  Some  ancient  remains  have  been  found  here.  The 
town  was  sacked  in  the  15th  c.  by  pope  Pius  II.,  and  again  in  the  17th  c.  by  the  due  de 
Guise.  It  has  a royal  palace,  a cathedral,  several  convents,  among  which  that  founded 
by  Gonsalvo  do  Cordova,  in  the  16th  c.,  is  famous  for  the  possession  of  an  image  of  the 
Madonna  found  in  a well  in  the  11th  c.,  which  is  greatly  venerated  by  the  peasantry, 
who  make  an  annual  pilgrimage  to  the  church.  The  old  castle,  which  gave  name  to  the 
town,  was  built  in  the  12th  century.  C.  has  a royal  dockyard,  affording  employment  to 
many  of  the  inhabitants,  and  manufactures  of  linen,  silk,  cotton,  leather,  and  sail-cloth. 
Pop.  20,488. — Castellamare  is  also  the  name  of  a town  in  Sicily,  situated  at  the  head 
of  a gulf  of  the  same  name,  and  20  m.  e.  from  Trapani.  It  has  a population  of  11,280, 
and  exports  of  cotton,  wine,  fruit,  and  manna. — C.,  Gulf  of,  is  an  extensive  bay  on  the 
n.  coast  of  Sicily.  Its  width  from  e.  to  w.,  between  point  Uomo  Morto  and  cape  St. 
Vito,  is  about  15  m.;  and  its  depth  about  14  miles.  It  has  deep  water  and  good  anchor- 
age, but  is  much  exposed  to  n.  winds. 

CASTELLAMON'TE,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Turin,  10  m.  s.w.  of  Ivrea. 
It  has  an  old  castle,  manufactures  of  earthenware,  and  a trade  in  the  agricultural  prod- 
uce of  the  district.  Pop.  5,641. 

CASTELLAN,  or  Chatelaln,  the  keeper  of  a castle  or  hurg  in  the  middle  ages.  The 
office  and  the  rank  of  the  C.  were  various  in  various  countries.  In  Prance  and  Flanders, 
the  title  C.  belonged  to  the  holders  of  certain  demesnes,  and  was  next  in  order  of  rank 
to  that  of  a bailiff.  In  Germany,  the  C.  had  the  jurisdiction  of  a burg-graf  during  the 


Castellana. 

Castigflione. 


528 


ages  of  chivalry.  In  Poland,  the  title  of  C.,  with  its  appendages,  remained  in  later 
times,  and,  after  the  16th  c.,  the  castellans,  with  the  waiwodes  and  bishops,  formed  the 
senate  or  superior  legislative  chamber. 

CASTELLA'NA,  a t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Bari,  and  26  m.  s.e.  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  Its  trade  is  confined  to  the  produce  of  the  district.  Pop.  9,691. 

CASTELLANETA,  a t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  20  m.  n.w.  of  Taranto. 
It  has  a cathedral  and  several  convents.  Cotton  is  grown  in  the  district.  Pop.  8,358. 

CASTELLAZ'ZO,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  about  5 m.  s.w.  of  Alessandria.  Pop.  5,749. 

CASTELLEO'NE,a  t.  of  Lombardy,  n.  Italy,  situated  near  the  Oglio,  about  12  m.  n.n.w. 
of  Cremona.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls,  has  a fine  church,  and  a population  of  5,700. 

CASTELLIO,  or  GASTALIO,  Sebastianus,  a theologian,  b.  in  Dauphine  in  1515.  Hi» 
proper  name  was  Ghdteillon,  which  he  Latinized,  according  to  the  usage  of  his  time. 
About  1540,  he  was  invited  to  Geneva,  by  Calvin,  and  appointed  humanity  professor; 
but  having  the  misfortune,  afterwards,  to  differ  from  the  reformer  in  religious  opinion, 
he  was  banished  from  the  city,  and  went  to  Basel,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in- 
great poverty.  He  died  in  1563.  See  Calvin. 

Among  his  various  writings  may  be  mentioned  De  HoRreticis,  etc.  —a  treatise  which, 
argues  against  the  right  of  the  magistrate  to  punish  heretical  opinions,  and  which  pro- 
duced a rebly  from.Beza;  a Latin  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  published  in 
1551,  and  dedicated  to  Edward  VI.  of  England;  and  a posthumous  work,  in  dialogue, 
on  predestination,  election,  free-will,  and  faith,  first  published  bv  Faustus  Socinus  in 
1578. 

CASTEL'LO,  Giovanni  Battista,  1500-69 ; an  Italian  historical  painter  of  the  Geno 
ese  school.  His  best  known  works  are  the  “ Martyrdom  of  St.  Sebastian,”  and  “Our 
Savior  as  Judge  of  the  World.”  He  was  also  an  architect  and  sculptor. 

CASTEL'LO,  Valerio,  1625-59;  a son  of  Giovanni  Battista,  who  excelled  his  father 
in  painting,  especially  in  cattle  scenes.  He  decorated  the  cupola  of  the  church  of  the 
Annunciation,  in  Genoa,  and  painted  the  “ Rape  of  the  Sabines,”  in  the  Brignole  palace 
in  that  city. 

CASTELLON',  a province  in  e.  Spain,  on  the  Mediterranean,  2,447  sq.m. ; pop.  ’70, 
296,222.  It  is  a rough  and  mountainous  region,  containing  many  mines,  and  mineral 
Bprings.  A railroad  runs  through  the  province  parallel  with,  and  not  far  from,  the  sea. 
The  chief  town  is  Castellon  de  la  Plana,  near  the  Mediterranean,  40  m.  n.n.e.  of  Valen- 
cia, with  which  there  is  railroad  connection;  pop.  20,123. 

CASTELLON  DE  LA  PLANA,  a t.  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a fruitful  plain,  about  4 m.  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  40 
m.  n.n.e.  of  Valencia.  A magnificent  aqueduct  supplies  the  means  of  irrigation.  C.  is 
surrounded  by  walls,  and  is  for  the  most  part  well  built.  It  has  some  handsome  old 
churches,  and  a singular  bell-tower,  260  ft.  high.  Ribalta,  the  celebrated  Spanish 
painter,  was  a native  of  Castellon  de  la  Plana.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen,  woolen, 
sail-cloth,  paper,  earthenware,  and  fire-arms;  also  brandy  distilleries,  and  an  active 
trade.  Pop.  20,000. 

CASTELNAU',  Michel  de,  Sieur  de  la  Mauvissiere,  1520-92;  a French  soldier 
and  ambassador  to  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  thoroughly  educated,  traveled 
much,  and  served  in  the  French  army  in  active  service  in  Italy,  where  his  courage 
and  ability  secured  for  him  the  friendship  of  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  who  took  him 
into  his  service.  In  1557,  he  was  given  a command  in  the  navy,  but  soon  rejoined  the 
French  army  in  Picardy.  He  executed  several  delicate  diplomatic  commissions  so  satis- 
factorily to  the  constable  de  Montmorency  that  he  was  sent  by  the  king  to  Henry  II.  of 
Scotland  with  dispatches  for  Mary  Stuart,  who  was  then  betrothed  to  the  dauphin 
(afterwards  Francis  II).  He  went  also  to  England  and  treated  with  Elizabeth  respect- 
ing her  claims  in  Calais,  a settlement  of  which  was  made  at  the  congress  of  Cambray. 
Afterwards  he  was  sent  to  Margaret  of  Parma,  governess  of  the  Netherlands,  and  later 
still  to  Rome  to  ascertain  the  views  of  the  pope  with  regard  to  France.  Returning  to 
France  he  again  entered  the  navy  and  had  the  fortune  to  discover  the  earliest  symptoms 
of  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise.  After  the  death  of  Francis  II.  he  accompanied  the  queen 
(Mary  Stuart)  to  Scotland,  remaining  a year,  during  which  time  he  made  several 
journeys  to  England  and  attempted  to  bring  about  a reconciliation  between  Mary 
and  Elizabeth,  but  his  wise  and  temperate  counsels  were  disregarded.  In  1562,  he 
retired  to  France  in  consequence  of  the  civil  war,  and  was  employed  against  the  Protest- 
ants of  Brittany,  by  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  was  soon  afterwards  exchanged. 
He  served  at  the  siege  of  Rouen  and  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  took  possession  of  Tanker- 
ville,  and  contributed  in  1563  to  the  recapture  of  Havre  from  the  English.  Within  the 
next  ten  years  he  was  employed  in  a number  of  important  missions;  first  to  queen  Eliza- 
beth to  negotiate  a peace ; next  to  the  duke  of  Alva,  the  new  governor  of  the  Nether- 
lands, on  which  occasion  he  discovered  the  project  formed  by  Conde  and  Coligny  to 
seize  and  carry  off  the  royal  family  (1567).  After  the  battle  of  St.  Denis  he  was  again 
sent  to  Germany  to  solicit  aid  against  the  Protestants,  and  on  his  return  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  St.  Dizier.  In  1572,  he  was  sent  to  England  by  Charles  IX.  to  allay  the  excite- 


529 


CaHtellaaa. 

CaHtiglione. 


ment  caused  by  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  in  the  same  year  was  sent  to 
Germany  and  Switzerland.  Two  years  later  he  was  sent  by  Henry  III.  as  ambassador 
to  queen  Elizabeth’s  court,  w'here  he  remained  ten  years.  While  on  this  duty,  with  a 
view  of  strengthening  and  maintaining  the  alliance  between  the  two  countries  he  used 
his  influence  to  procure  the  marriage  of  Elizabeth  with  the  duke  of  Alengon;  but  Eliza- 
beth made  so  many  promises,  only  to  break  them,  that  C.  at  last  refused  to  trans- 
mit them  to  his  government.  On  returning  to  France  he  was  out  of  favor  with  the 
league,  lost  his  governorship  of  St.  Dizier,  and  was  reduced  to  extreme  destitution; 
but  on  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  he  was,  though  a Roman  Catholic,  intrusted  with 
many  important  missions.  The  memoirs  of  C.  are  valuable  for  their  accuracy  and 
impartiality. 

CASTELNATJDAEY,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Aude,  France,  situated  on  a declivity, 
skirted  at  the  base  by  the  canal  du  Midi,  22  m.  from  Carcassone.  Pop.  ’76,  7,628.  It 
has  manufactures  of  woolen  and  silk  fabrics,  and  earthenware,  and  carries  on  a lively 
trade  in  agricultural  produce.  The  canal  at  this  point  expands  into  a large  basin,  which 
serves  as  a haven.  It  suffered  dreadfully  in  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and 
was,  in  1212,  the  scene  of  a battle  between  Simon  de  Montfort  and  Raymond,  count  of 
Toulouse.  In  1355,  it  was  captured  by  the  black  prince.  In  1632,  marshal  Schomberg 
here  gained  a victory  over  the  party  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  when  the  brave  duke  of 
Montmorency  was  taken  prisoner,  and  afterwards  executed  at  Toulouse. 

CASTELNUO'VO,  a seaport  t.  of  Dalmatia,  Austria,  situated  near  the  w.  entrance  of 
the  gulf  of  Cattaro.  It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  defended  by  two  forts  and  a cita- 
del. It  has  manufactures  of  brass,  and  a trade  in  the  produce  of  the  district,  which  is 
fertile.  It  was  captured  by  the  British  in  1814.  Pop.,  including  commune  (’69),  6,105. 

CAS'TI,  Giovanni  Battista,  1721-1803;  an  Italian  poet  of  humble  origin,  who  rose 
to  the  dignity  of  a canon  in  the  church,  but  preferred,  to  further  preferment,  a life  of 
travel  to  the  gay  cities  of  Europe.  In  1782,  on  the  death  of  Metastasio,  he  was  appointed 
poet-laureate  of  Austria,  in  which  position  he  devoted  himself  to  comic  operas.  His 
best  known  work  is  Gli  Annimali  Parlanti,  freely  used  in  W.  S.  Rose’s  Court  and  Par- 
liament of  Beasts.  On  the  whole,  his  poems  are  harmonious  and  pure  in  style,  lively 
and  sarcastic,  but  without  originality  of  plot,  and  often  grossly  licentious. 

CASTIGLIO'NE,  a t.  of  Sicily,  province  of  Catania,  on  the  n.  slope  of  Mt.  Etna, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Cantara,  35  m.  s.w.  of  Messina.  The  town  stands  on  a square 
rock  rising  abruptly  from  the  valley,  and  having  a double  crest,  on  which  stand  a domed 
church  and  the  ruins  of  a feudal  castle.  Here,  in  1297,  in  the  war  of  the  Vespers, 
admiral  Roger  Toria  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  against  his  sovereign,  Frederick  of 
Aragon.  In  the  district  are  several  large  nut-plantations,  which  produce  the  best  Sicilian 
hazel-nuts.  Pop.  8,000. 

CASTIGLIO'NE,  a village  on  the  site  of  the  old  city  of  Gabii,  in  Italy,  10  m.  e.  of 
Rome.  The  place  is  noted  for  ruins  of  a temple  to  Juno,  a theater,  the  ancient  walls, 
and  other  relics  of  the  past. 

CASTIGLIO'NE,  Lake  of,  a lagoon  of  central  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Siena.  It  lies 
n.  of  Grosseto,  and  has  a length  of  about  10  m.,  with  a breadth  of  from  1 to  3 miles. 
Receiving  the  waters  of  the  Bruna  and  other  rivers,  it  discharges  its  waters,  by  a short 
canal,  into  the  Mediterranean. 

CASTIGLIO'NE,  Baldasak're,  Count,  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  the  old  Italian 
writers,  was  b.,  1478,  at  Casatico,  in  the  duchy  of  Mantua,  and  studied  at  Milan.  His 
shining  talents,  knowledge,  and  pleasing  manners  made  him  a favorite  of  Guidobaldo 
di  Montefeltro,  duke  of  Urbino,  a great  patron  of  literature,  at  whose  court  he  was 
honorably  entertained,  along  with  other  men  of  eminence  in  letters.  He  was  employed 
by  the  duke  as  envoy  to  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  made  him  a knight;  and  was 
afterwards  sent  in  the  same  capacity  to  Louis  XII.  of  France,  under  Guidobaldo’s  suc- 
cessor, in  several  important  ambassadorial  missions.  He  died  at  Toledo  in  1529.  His 
chief  work  is  the  book  Del  Cortegiano,  a manual  for  courtiers,  remarkable  for  its  elegant 
style.  His  Italian  and  Latin  poems  are  also  models  of  elegance,  and  his  Letters  (2  vols., 
Padua,  1769-71)  contain  interesting  contributions  to  the  political  and  literary  history  of 
his  time,  Tasso  devoted  a sonnet  to  the  death  of  C.,  and  Giulio  Romano  raised  to  his 
memory  a monument  in  Padua. 

^ CASTIGLIO'NE,  Carlo  Ottavio,  Count,  an  eminent  Italian  philologist,  was  b.  at 
Milan  in  1795.  At  an  early  period,  he  displayed  a predilection  for  antiquarian  studies, 
more  particularly  numismatics.  When  only  24  years  of  age,  he  published  a descrip- 
tion of  the  Kufic  coins  in  the  cabinet  of  Brera,  at  Milan,  under  the  title,  Monete  Gufiche 
del  Museo  di  Milano  (Milan,  1819),  which  showed  a great  knowledge  of  oriental  languages 
and  history,  C.’s  principal  work  in  the  sphere  of  oriental  literature  is  his  Memoire  geo- 
graphique  et  numismatique  sur  la  Partie  orientale  de  la  Barharie  appelee  AfHkiah  par  les 
Arabes,  suivi  de  Recherches  sur  les  Berhbres  Atlantiques  (Milan,  1826),  in  which  he  seeks 
to  ascertain  the  origin  and  the  history  of  the  towns  in  Barbary  whose  names  are  found 
on  Arabic  coins.  Out  of  Italy,  C.  is  perhaps  best  known  by  his  edition  of  some  frag- 
ments of  the  Moeso-Gothic  translation  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphilas  (q.v.),  which  had  been 
discovered,  in  1817,  by  cardinal  Mai  among  the  palimpsests  of  the  Ambrosian  library.  At 
U.  K.  III.-34 


Castig^lione. 

Casting-net. 


530 


first,  he  published  some  specimens  in  conjunction  with  Mai,  but  in  1829,  1834, 1835,  and 
1839,  appeared  a variety  of  fra^ents  of  the  Pauline  epistles,  edited  by  himself,  and 
enriched  with  valuable  disquisitions,  commentaries,  and  glossaries.  He  died  at  Genoa 
April  10,  1849. 

CASTIGLIO'NE,  Giovanni  Benedetto,  1616-70 ; a Genoese  painter  whjo  studied 
for  some  time  under  Vandyke.  He  excelled  in  depicting  fairs,  markets,  and  rural 
scenes,  and  painted  portraits  and  historical  pieces.  He  also  made  many  etchings  which 
were  remarkable  for  light  and  shade.  Among  the  most  famous  of  his  paintings  was 
“ The  Nativity  of  Jessus,”  in  the  church  of  San  Luca  at  Genoa.  His  brother  Salvatore, 
and  his  son  Francesco,  excelled  in  similar  subjects, 

CASTIGLIO'NE,  Giuseppe,  1698-1768;  an  Italian  Jesuit  missionary  who  labored 
njany  years  in  Pekin  and  other  parts  of  China.  He  was  also  an  artist  of  ability,  and  it 
is  said  that  the  emperor  Kien-Long  erected  several  palaces  from  his  designs. 

CASTIGLIO'NE  DEL'LE  STIVIE'RE,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  22  m.  n.w.  of  Mantua.  It 
is  walled  and  defended  by  an  ancient  castle;  but  is  chiefly  celebrated  on  account  of  the 
victory  obtained  here  by  the  French  over  the  Austrians  in  1796,  and  which  gave  the  title 
of  due  de  Castiglione  to  marshal  Augereau.  Pop.  3,716. 

CASTILE'  (Spanish,  Castil'la)  forms,  in  a geographical  and  political  point  of  view, 
the  central  district  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  being  the  middle  and  most  strongly  marked 
plateau  of  Spain,  as  well  as  the  central  seat  of  the  monarchy.  Both  geographically  and 
politically  it  is  divided  into  Old  and  New  Castile — Castilla  la  Vieja  and  Castilla  la  Nuem. 
The  former  district,  situated  in  40°  5'  to  43°  32'  n.  lat.,  and  1°  40' to  5°  35'  w.  long.,  rises, 
in  the  form  of  an  elevated  plateau,  to  the  height  of  2,500  to  3,000  feet.  It  is  walled  in 
on  all  sides:  on  the  n.,  by  the  highest  masses  of  the  Cantabrian  mountains,  which  sepa- 
rate it  from  the  Basque  provinces  and  Asturias;  on  the  s.,  by  the  high  ridge  forming  the 
water-shed  between  the  Douro  and  the  Tagus;  while  the  Sierras  de  Oca,  de  Urbion,  and 
Moncayo,  and  the  heights  of  Leon  and  Tras-os-Montes  bound  it  on  the  e.  and  west.  The 
high  plateau  of  Old  C.  is  but  scantily  watered,  and  its  natural  characteristics  far  from 
inviting.  In  many  parts,  nothing  is  presented  to  the  eye  but  a wide,  unwooded,  almost 
treeless  waste  of  land,  unrefreshed  % streams,  in  some  parts  monotonously  covered 
with  stunted  grasses,  and  in  others  almost  destitute  of  vegetation.  The  traveler  may 
walk  many  miles  without  finding  a village,  or  even  a solitary  farm-house.  All  Old  C., 
however,  is  not  a dusty  desert.  There  are  rich  tracts  in  it  producing  some  of  the  finest 
wheat  in  the  world.  Madder  and  grasses  are  also  produced  abundantly  in  some  parts; 
and  even  the  olive  flourishes  where  it  is  protected  from  the  frost  and  snow  of  winter, 
and  from  the  cold  winds  prevailing  in  Oct.  and  the  following  months.  Iron  and  other 
minerals  exist  in  plenty,  but  are  not  worked  to  any  great  extent.  Sheep,  cattle,  pigs, 
and  mules  form  the  chief  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  Manufactures  consist  of  coarse 
woolens,  cotton,  linen,  leather,  and  glass. 

The  plateau  of  New  Castile — which  is  situated  between  lat.  38°  23'  and  41°  15'  n., 
and  long.  1°  and  5°  25' w. — like  Old  C.,  is  also  inclosed  by  mountains.  Though  lying 
1800  ft.  lower  than  Old  C.,  New  C.  presents  many  similar  characteristics  of  soil  and 
scenery.  It  is  mostly  sterile,  and  scantily  irrigated;  little  rain  falls,  and  the  nightly 
dews  are  insutficient  to  refresh  the  plains,  which  are  entirely  destitute  of  trees,  and,  in 
summer,  appear  quite  burned  up.  Olives,  corn,  pulse,  and  saffron  are  cultivated  in 
some  neighborhoods;  but  flocks  of  sheep  constitute  the  chief  wealth  of  extensive  tracts 
of  land.  The  commerce,  carried  on  by  means  of  long  trains  of  mules,  reminds  the  tour- 
ist of  the  caravan  traflQc  over  eastern  deserts.  Industry  is  almost  entirely  restricted  to 
manufactures  of  coarse  w^oolen  goods.  The  yield  of  the  salt-mines  in  the  s.  is  consid- 
erable; and  quicksilver,  especially  at  Almaden  (q.v.),  and  iron  (manufactured  at  Toledo) 
are  plentiful.  The  Castilians  have  even  more  than  the  general  haughtiness  of  the  Span- 
ish character.  Their  language  prevails’ throughout  the  educated  classes,  as  in  the  litera- 
ture of  Spain,  and  their  rulers  have  extended  their  sway  over  the  whole  nation. 

In  the  present  administrative  division  of  Spain  into  forty-nine  provinces,  the  division 
of  Old  and  New  C.,  though  it  will  long  be  remembered  by  the  people,  is  one  belonging 
to  past  history.  Old  C.  is  now  divided  into  the  eight  provinces  of  Burgos,  Logrono, 
Santander,  Soria,  Segovia,  Avila,  Palencia,  and  Valladolid.  The  population,  distributed 
over  an  area  of  22,797  sq.m.,  amounted,  in  1870,  to  1,689,864.  New  C.  includes  the  five 
provinces — Madrid,  Guadalaxara,  Guen9a,  Toledo,  and  Ciudad  Real,  and  on  an  area  of 
80,882  sq.m,  has  1,541,772  inhabitants.  Besides  these  provinces,  the  kingdom  of  Leon, 
Galicia,  the  principality  of  Asturias,  and  the  districts  of  Estremadura,  Andalusia, 
Granada,  and  Murcia,  belonged  to  the  crown  of  Castile. 

C.  first  became  an  independent  country  in  762,  and  remained  so  until  1028,  when  it 
passed  to  Sancho  III.,  king  of  Navarre.  His  son,  Ferdinand  I.  (great),  founded  the 
kingdom  of  C. , and  among  other  acquisitions  annexed  to  it  the  kingdom  of  Leon.  This 
union,  however,  was  not  permanent,  Leon  being  made  a separate  kingdom  for  Ferdinand 
II.  The  two  kingdoms,  however,  were  afterwards  reunited  in  the  13th  c.  in  the  person 
of  Ferdinand  III. , and  remained  ever  after  under  one  scepter.  Among  the  successors 
of  Ferdinand  III.,  the  most  distinguished  was  Alfonso  X.,  by  whose  direction  the 
Alfonsine  (astronomical)  tables  were  drawn  up.  By  the  marriage  of  Isabella,  sister  and 
successor  of  Henry  IV.,  with  Ferdinand,  king  of  Aragon  (1469),  the  two  crowns  of  C- 


531 


Castig:lione* 

Castin£^-net* 


and  Aragon  became  united  (1479),  and  from  these  sprang  the  kingdom  of  Spain,  which, 
however,  was  not  fully  established  before  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  in  1516,  when 
Charles  I.  of  Spain  (Charles  V.  of  Germany)  inherited  both  crowns. 

CASTIL'LA,  Don  Ramon,  1797-1867;  a Peruvian  who  entered  the  Spanish  army  in 
1816,  but  soon  after  1830  joined  the  revolt  against  Spanish  rule.  In  1830,  Gamarra 
made  him  chief  of  staff  of  the  whole  army,  and  the  provisional  president  appointed 
him  brig.  gen.  After  the  treaty  with  the  president  of  Bolivia,  Castilla  went  to 
Chili,  and  in  1837  joined  the  Peruvians  who  marched  against  Santa  Cruz,  the  president 
of  Bolivia.  When  the  revolutionists  proclaimed  Gamarra  president,  Castilla  was  made 
minister  of  war.  In  1841,  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Peruvian  force  that  invaded 
Bolivia,  and  in  1845  he  was  elected  president  of  Peru.  His  successor,  Echenique, 
became  unpopular,  and  Castilla  started  a revolution,  overcame  Echenique,  and  became 
sole  ruler  of  the  country.  One  of  his  important  reforms  was  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
In  1858,  he  was  re-elected  president,  and  in  1860,  he  proclaimed  a new  constitution 
which  granted  universal  suffrage  and  prohibited  the  exercise  of  any  religion  except  tlio 
Roman  Catholic.  His  last  political  movement  was  in  1867,  when  he  led  an  insurrectioii 
against  Prado,  then  president;  and  he  was  on  his  way  to  Arica  when  he  died. 

CASTILLE'JO,  Christoval  De,  1494-1556;  a Spanish  verse-writer  of  great  fertility, 
whose  poems  were  about  the  last  of  the  old  Spanish  school  before  the  changes  led  by 
Garcilaso  de  la  Vega.  Being  strongly  anti-clerical,  Castillejo’s  writings  were  usually 
noted  on  the  Index  Expurgatorius,  and  were  smuggled  into  Spain  from  foreign  printing- 
houses,  while  in  a later  period  the  agents  of  the  church  altered  the  verses  to  suit  them- 
selves. The  works  of  Castillejo  are  in  three  books,  one  entitled  Love,  one  Conversation 
and  Pastime,  and  the  third  comprising  moral  and  religious  verses.  He  died  in  a 
monastery. 

CASTILLON,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Gironde,  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Dordogne,  26  m.  e.  of  Bordeaux.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  woolen 
yarns,  nails,  and  cordage.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  the  forces 
of  Henry  VI.  of  England  and  Charles  VII.  of  Fi-ance,  July,  1453,  in  which  the  English 
met  with  a signal  defeat,  their  leader,  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and  his  son,  being  slain. 
Of  all  their  possessions  in  France,  Calais  alone  remained  to  the  English  after  this  battle, 
the  incidents  of  which  were  seized  on  by  Shakespeare  for  the  sixth  scene  in  his  play  of 
King  Henry  VI.,  part  i.  Pop.  ’76,  3,766. 

CASTINE,  a t.  in  Hancock  co.,  Maine,  on  the  Penobscot,  34  m.  below  Bangor;  pop. 
’70,  1303.  It  was  here  that  the  baron  de  Castine  settled  in  1667  a French  colony,  which 
was  soon  abandoned  in  consequence  of  Indian  and  English  wars.  In  1760,  it  was  re- 
occupied by  the  English,  who  made  a harbor  that  was  always  accessible  for  the  largest 
ships.  Castine  is  now  a port  of  entry,  and  ship-building  and  fishing  are  the  employ- 
ments of  the  greater  portion  of  the  people. 

CASTING,  in  angling,  is  the  term  applied  to  the  act  of  throwing  a fly  or  a fish-bait. 
In  casting  a fly  with  a single-handed  rod,  the  beginner  should  let  out  about  as  much 
line  as  the  length  of  the  rod;  grasp  the  rod  just  above  the  reel;  then  wave  it  back  over 
the  right  or  left  shoulder,  with  a slightly  circular  sweep,  so  as  to  extend  the  line  behind; 
and  then  bring  it  forward  with  a steady  cutting  kind  of  action,  urging  the  point  of  the 
rod  towards  the  spot  where  the  fly  is  to  fall,  taking  care  not  to  carry  the  point  of  the 
rod  too  far  forward,  or  too  low,  or  the  line  will  not  fall  straight  and  evenly  on  the  water. 
The  object  of  the  circular  sweep  behind  is  to  prevent  the  fly  from  cracking  off.  By 
slightly  raising  the  point  of  the  rod  just  as  the  fly  is  delivered,  the  line  is  straightened ; 
and  the  fly,  checked  in  mid  career,  falls  like  thistle-down  upon  the  water.  Always  allow 
time  for  the  line  to  go  straight  out  behind,  for  if  returned  too  quickly,  the  fly  cracks  off. 
In  casting  with  the  double-handed  rod,  the  one  hand  grasps  the  rod  above  the  reel,  and 
the  other  below  it,  the  lower  hand  acting  as  a pivot  upon  which  the  rod  turns. 

In  casting  a bait,  either  for  spinning,  trolling,  or  live-baiting,  the  bait  is  suffered  to 
hang  from  the  point  of  the  rod  about  a yard.  Taking  the  rod  in  both  hands,  the  line 
clasped  to  the  rod  in  his  right,  the  angler  waves  the  bait  gently  back ; and  having  first 
drawn  as  much  line  as  he  requires  off  the  reel,  and  laid  it  loosely  at  his  feet,  he  senda 
the  bait  forward  with  a swing  towards  the  point  he  desires  to  reach. 

CASTING.  See  Founding,  ante. 

CASTING-NET,  a species  of  net  very  widely  distributed,  having  been  found  in  use 
amongst  various  savage  tribes  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  some  of  whom,  from  long 
and  constant  practice,  use  it  with  a dexterity  and  address  unknown  in  England.  The 
nets  used  in  England  are  usually  from  13  to  20  ft.  in  circumference  when  spread  out. 
They  are  netted  in  the  shape  of  a kind  of  long  loose  bag  or  cone ; and  so  much  is  the 
number  of  meshes  increased  as  the  net  progresses,  that  it  is  capable  of  being  spread  out 
in  a perfectly  flat  and  circular  form,  the  apex  of  the  cone  forming  the  center  of  the 
circle.  To  this  apex  is  attached  a rope  of  some  yards  in  length;  when  casting,  this  rope 
is  fastened  round  the  left  wrist  of  the  caster.  The  bottom  of  the  net,  which  forms, 
when  it  is  held  up  by  the  apex,  the  base  of  the  cone,  or,  when  spread,  the  circumference 
of  the  circle,  is  hung  around  with  perforated  leads  or  bullets.  These  have  not  only  the 
effect  of  carrying  the  net  to  the  bottom  of  the  water,  but  also,  when  it  is  cast,  of  causing 


Casting-Tote. 

Castle. 


532 


• the  net  to  spread  open.  The  bottom  of  the  net  is  turned  up  some  6 in.  or  more  in  depth, 
and  hung  up  on  the  inside  about  every  10  in.  or  so,  to  an  upper  portion  of  the  net,  bj 
«tout  strings,  so  as  to  form  a kind  of  purse;  this  is  called  the  “ tuck.”  When  the  net  is 
required  to  be  cast,  the  caster,  having  fastened  the  rope  to  his  wrist,  and  coiled  it  loosely 
in  his  left  hand,  hangs  a portion  of  the  net  over  his  left  shoulder;  and  then  gathering  ^ 
much  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  net  as  he  can  collect  in  his  right  hand,  and  holding  it  up 
so  as  to  open  the  net  as  much  as  possible,  makes  a semicircular  sweep  of  the  body  and 
the  right  hand — rather  difficult  to  accomplish  without  practice — and  whirls  the  net  away 
off  the  shoulder.  The  centrifugal  motion  thus  communicated  to  the  leads,  etc.,  on  the 
bottom  of  the  net,  causes  it  to  open  like  a circle  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  leads 
carry  it  to  the  bottom,  and  the  net  thus  covers  all  that  comes  within  its  circle.  The 
rope  is  then  pulled  gradually,  and  worked  from  side  to  side,  in  order  to  narrow  the 
circle,  to  bring  it  once  more  into  a cone ; and,  in  their  efforts  to  escape,  the  fish  that 
may  have  been  covered  are  gradually  driven  into  the  tuck  or  purse  of  the  net.  When 
the  leads  are  all  close  together,  the  net  is  lifted  from  the  water,  and  the  fish  in  the  tuck 
are  taken  out.  The  cost  of  a cast-net  is  regulated  by  the  circumference  and  the  size  of 
the  mesh.  They  may  be  had  from  12s.  to  80s.  or  more. 

CASTING-VOTE,  the  vote  by  which  the  chairman  or  president  of  a meeting  is  generally 
empowered  to  cast  the  balance  on  the  one  side  or  the  other,  where  the  other  votes  are 
equally  divided.  In  the  house  of  commons,  the  speaker  does  not  vote  at  all  unless  this 
occurrence  takes  place.  As  his  position  in  this  respect  is  felt  to  be  a delicate  one  for  a 
person  whose  duty  it  is  to  withdraw  himself  from  the  contentions  of  party,  it  is  usual 
for  the  speaker  to  vote  in  such  a way  as  to  give  the  house  an  opportunity  of  reconsidering 
its  decision.  The  same  rule  prevails  in  select  committees.  Following  a similar  rule, 
the  chairman  at  corporation  and  general  meetings  usually  gives  his  casting-vote  either  in 
a way  that  will  lead  to  a reconsideration  of  the  subject,  or  for  what  seems  the  popular 
view  of  the  case,  although  that  may  be  at  variance  with  liis  convictions. 

CAST-IRON,  or  Pig-Iron.  This  is  the  crudest  form  of  iron,  and  the  method  of  its 
production  is  described  under  the  head  Iron.  There  are  two  leading  kinds  of  it,  namely, 
white  pig-iron  and  gray  pig-iron ; the  former  is  also  called  forge-iron,  from  the  fact  of 
its  being  chiefl^r  used  for  conversion  into  malleable  iron  and  steel;  and  the  latter  is  often 
called  foundry-iron,  on  account  of  its  suitability  for  castings.  Of  each  of  these,  again, 
there  are  many  varieties;  and  much  light  has  of  late  years  been  thrown  on  what  consti- 
tutes their  different  qualities,  by  experiments  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  White  cast- 
iron,  when  smelted  from  the  argillaceous  ores  of  the  coal-measures,  is  of  inferior  value 
to  the  gray;  much  of  it,  indeed,  being  produced  against  the  will  of  the  iron-master, 
when  the  blast-furnace  is  working  badly.  But  when  obtained  from  pure  ores  and  fuel 
it  is  the  most  valuable  kind,  because  it  contains  fewer  impurities,  and  has  its  carbon 
nearly  all  in  the  combined  state,  in  which  case  it  is  best  suited  for  the  manufacture  of 
wrought-iron  and  steel.  Gray  pig-iron  contains  carbon  both  in  the  combined  and  the 
uncombined  (graphitic)  state.  In  the  grayest  kind,  uncombined  carbon  greatly  prevails, 
and  the  fracture  of  the  iron  is  more  distinctly  granular  or  scaly-crystalline  than  is  the 
case  with  other  varieties.  Such  cast-iron  is  usually  called  No.  1.  It  is  much  softer,  but 
fuses  at  a higher  temperature  than  white  pig-iron.  It  also  becomes  thinly  liquid  when 
melted,  and  expands  slightly  just  before  cooling — properties  which  render  it  extremely 
valuable  for  castings.  As  the  grayness  and  graphite-like  brightness  diminish,  the  iron 
is  known  as  No.  2,  No.  3,  and  so  on  for  several  numbers,  till  we  come  to  the  close  tex- 
ture and  light  color  of  white  pig-iron ; No.  2 being  but  slightly  different  from  No.  1, 
and  No.  5 from  white-iron,  in  quality.  No.  3 is  intermediate  between  the  extremes. 
When  cast-iron  is  partly  gray  and  partly  white,  it  is  called  mottled  iron.  Cast-iron  con- 
tains from  2 to  5 per  cent  of  carbon,  the  maximum  amount  in  steel  being  2;  but  steel  is 
practically  free  from  silicon,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  while  cast-iron  is  not. 

CASTLE  (Sax.  castel;  Lat.  castellum,  dimin.  from  castrum),  a building  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  repelling  attack.  The  root  of  the  word  is  the  same  as  that  of  casa, 
a little  house  or  hut,  and  probably  means  a driving  off  or  repelling;  and  it  is  worthy  of 
notice,  in  confirmation  of  this  view,  that  in  Welsh  the  radical  syllable  cas  signifies  a G., 
separated,  and  also  hatred,  malice,  etc.  The  castella,  left  by  the  Romans  in  Britain  and 
elsewhere,  were  constructed  on  the  general  model  of  their  stationary  encampments 
{astra  stativa),  (see  Camp  and  Encampment);  and  though  they  may  have  suggested  the 
castles  of  the  middle  ages,  they  differed  from  them  in  being  designed  for  military  pur- 
poses only,  and  not  also  as  places  of  permanent  residence.  Even  Burgh  castle,  in  Suf- 
folk, the  ancient  Garamonium,  and  Richborough  castle,  in  Kent,  the  ancient  Rutupiae, 
were  encampments  or  fortresses,  rather  than  castles. 

Besides  these  monuments  of  the  military  occupation  of  the  Island  by  the  Romans, 
traces  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country  of  encampments  or  castles,  which  are 
ascribed  to  its  aboriginal  or  early  inhabitants.  These  are  generally  situated  on  the  tops 
of  hills;  as,  for  example,  the  Herefordshire  beacon,  on  the  Malvern  hills;  Moel  Arthur, 
in  Flintshire;  Chem  castle,  in  Cornwall;  the  Maiden  castle,  in  Dorsetshire;  the  Cater- 
thuns,  near  Brechin,  in  Forfarshire;  the  Barmkin  of  Echt,  in  Aberdeenshire.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Saxons  adapted  the  Roman  castles  to  a certain  extent  to  their  modes 
of  defense,  and  traces  of  Saxon  and  even  Norman  workmanship  are  found  in  struc- 


533 


Casting-vote. 

Castle. 


tures  which  are  believed  to  have  been  originally  Roman.  One  very  frequent  change 
consisted  in  raising  a mound  of  earth  on  one  side  of  the  walls  on  which  the  keep  or 
citadel  was-  erected.  The  Decuman  and  Praetorian  gates  were  also,  as  at  Portchester, 
converted  into  the  fortified  entrances  peculiar  to  the  castellated  structures  of  the  middle 
ages.  But  of  castles  designed  for  residence  as  well  as  defense,  there  are  few  or  none 
which  are  of  higher  antiquity  than  the  conquest.  They  were  part  of  the  organization 
of  the  feudal  system — castle-guard  being  one  of  the  duties  which  the  tenants  were  taken 
bound  to  pay  in  return  for  their  lands;  and  till  that  system  was  developed  by  the  Nor- 
mans, the  residences  of  persons  of  importance  were  probably  guarded  only  by  their 
domestic  retainers,  or,  in  extraordinary  circumstances,  perhaps  by  the  national  militia. 
The  absence  of  strongholds  is  said  to  have  been  a reason  why  William  the  conqueror  so 
easily  became  master  of  the  kingdom;  and  it  was  as  a protection  against  the  resentment 
which  the  conquest  occasioned,  that  most  of  the  great  Norman  castles  of  England  were 
built.  As  these  castles  grew  in  strength  by  the  additions  and  improvements  of  each  gen- 
eration, they  afforded  their  possessors  the  means  not  only  of  security  from  their  fellow- 
subjects,  but  of  independence  as  regarded  the  central  government.  The  lord  of  every 
C.  became  a petty  tyrant ; and  no  small  portion  of  the  history  of  England,  and,  indeed, 
of  Europe  altogether,  during  the  feudal  period,  consists  of  an  account  of  the  attempts 
which  were  made  by  the  monarch  to  extirpate  what  Matthew  Paris  has  emphatically 
designated  as  “ these  nests  of  devils  and  dens  of  thieves.”  Of  castles  of  this  descrip- 
tion, it  is  said  that  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Stephen  (1135-54),  no  fewer  than  1115 
were  built. 

The  Norman  C.,  which  was  the  most  complete  structure  of  the  kind,  was  generally 
surrounded  by  a moat  or  ditch ; and  in  order  that  the  ditch  might  be  readily  filled  with 
water,  the  site  chosen  was  usually  either  on  the  banks  of  a river,  or  on  a peninsula  running 
into  a lake.  In  the  latter  case,  the  ditch  was  of  course  merely  a deep  cut  made  through 
the  neck  of  land,  by  means  of  which  the  C.  and  its  surroundings  were  converted  into  an 
island.  On  the  inner  side  of  the  ditch,  mounds  were  constructed,  which  were  sur- 
mounted with  walls  and  towers,  both  of  which,  but  particularly  the  latter,  were  supplied 
with  battlements  and  bastions.  The  entrance-gates  were  also  protected  by  towers, 
which  were  usually  of  great  strength.  The  communication  was  by  a bridge,  sometimes 
of  stone,  but  usually  of  wood,  which  was  made  to  draw  up  and  down ; and  the  entrance, 
in  addition  to  thick  folding-doors,  was  protected  by  a portcullis  (q.v.),  which  was  dropped 
down  through  grooves  in  the  masonry  at  the  sides.  The  gateway,  in  castles  of  the 
larger  sort,  was  further  defended  by  a barbican  (q.v.).  On  passing  the  external  wall, 
you  entered  the  bailey  (q.v.),  which  sometimes  consisted  of  several  courts,  and  contained 
the  barracks,  magazines,  well,  a chapel,  and  sometimes  even  a monastery.  The  only 
portion  of  the  C.  which  was  always  spoken  of  as  distinguished  from  the  bailey,  was  the 
keep  (q.v.)  or  citadel,  which  corresponded  to  the  prsetorium  of  the  Roman  fortification. 
The  keep  was  a species  of  internal  0.,  more  strongly  defended  than  any  other  portion 
of  the  fortress,  and  placed  in  the  most  advantageous  position,  so  as  to  afford  a last 
chance  to  the  garrison  when  driven  from  the  external  works.  As  the  keep  had 
the  same  design  as  the  C.  itself,  it  contained  most  of  its  appliances,  even  to  a chapel, 
when  large  and  complete.  The  keep  was  also  called  the  dungeon  or  donjon  (q.v.). 
An  excellent  example  of  a keep  is  seen  at  Rochester  castle.  The  best  known  is  proba- 
bly that  at  Windsor,  which  forms  so  prominent  an  object  in  the  surrounding  land- 
scape. The  protection  which  the  walls  of  his  C.  afforded  to  the  retainers  of  a baron 
in  a state  of  society  in  which  life  and  property  were  extremely  insecure,  naturally 
led  to  the  construction  of  houses  around  the  moat,  and  to  this  custom  a very  large 
, number  of  the  towns,  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  owe  their 
origin.  Along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  this  process  of  town-formation  may  be  seen 
in  all  its  earlier  stages;  from  the  few  peasants’  houses  and  the  village  church  nestling 
under  the  ivy -covered  ruin  on  the  cliff,  to  the  large  and  prosperous  city  of  Coblenz. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  existence  of  these  castles  may  be  regarded  not  only  as  a 
cause,  but  as  an  effect  of  a certain  feeling  of  security  on  the  part  of  the  surrounding  pop- 
ulation ; for  where  a country  was  thoroughly  insecure,  the  risk  of  the  castles  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  thus  proving  a source  not  of  protection  but  of  oppression, 
was  so  great  as  to  prevent  their  erection.  It  is  on  this  ground  that  sir  Walter  Scott 
explains  the  slight  character  of  the  fortresses  on  the  Scottish  border,  notwithstanding 
centuries  of  warfare.  “ It  was  early  discovered  that  the  English  surpassed  their  neigh- 
bors in  the  arts  of  assaulting  and  defending  fortified  places.  The  policy  of  the  Scotch, 
therefore,  deterred  them  from  erecting  upon  the  borders  buildings  of  such  extent  and 
strength,  as  being  once  taken  by  the  foe,  would  have  been  capable  of  receiving  a per- 
manent garrison.  To  themselves,  the  woods  and  hills  of  their  country  were  pointed  out 
by  the  great  Bruce  as  their  safest  bulwarks;  and  the  maxim  of  the  Douglases,  that  ‘it 
was  better  to  hear  the  lark  sing  than  the  mouse  cheep,’  was  adopted  by  every  border 
chief.”  For  these  reasons,  “we  do  not  find,  on  the  Scottish  borders,  the  splendid  and 
extensive  castles  which  graced  and  defended  the  opposite  frontier.  The  Gothic  grandeur 
of  Alnwick,  of  Raby,  and  of  Naworth,  marks  the  wealthier  and  more  secure  state  of  the 
English  nobles.”  The  residence  of  the  Scottish  chieftain,  “ was  commonly  a large 
square  battlemented  tower,  called  a yfceep  ov  peel,  placed  on  a precipice,  or  on  the  banks 
of  a torrent,  and,  if  the  ground  would  permit,  surrounded  by  a moat.  In  short,  the  sit- 


Castlebar. 

Castor. 


534 


uation  of  a border-house,  encompassed  by  woods,  and  rendered  almost  inaccessible  by- 
torrents,  by  rocks  and  morasses,  sufficiently  indicated  the  pursuits  and  apprehensions  of 
its  inhabitants.” — Minstrelsy  of  the  Sottish  Border,  Introduction. 

CASTLEBAR',  the  capital  of  the  co.  of  Mayo,  Ireland,  159  m.  w.n.w.  of  Dublin.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Castlebar  river,  near  the  head  of  a valley  at  the  n.w.  end  of  the  great 
limestone  plain  which  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  counties  of  Roscommon,  Sligo, 
Galway,  and  Mayo.  The  two  main  streets  cross  each  other,  and  the  chief  buildings  are 
in  a square  near  the  w.  end.  The  suburbs,  as  in  most  of  the  w.  Irish  towns,  consist  of 
the  wretched  hovels  of  agricultural  laborers.  Pop.  ’71,  3,571.  C.  has  some  coarse  linen 
manufactures.  Here  the  Irish,  in  the  rebellion  of  1641,  massacred  the  English  parlia- 
mentary army,  and  in  1786  was  executed  the  famous  “fighting  Fitzgerald.”  In  1798, 
the  French  gen.  Humbert,  held  the  town  for  a fortnight.  In  1846  and  1847,  C.  suf- 
fered extremely  from  the  famine. 

CASTLEMAINE,  a t.  in  the  province  of  Victoria,  Australia,  65  m.  n.w.  of  Mel- 
bourne; pop.  ’71,  7,308.  It  was  a place  of  much  importance  when  gold  mining  began,, 
the  diggings  near  by  being  among  the  earliest  opened.  The  Victoria  railroad  passes 
through  the  town. 

CASTLE  PEAK,  a peak  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California,  about  38°  10'  n. ; height 
estimated  at  13,000  feet. 

CASTLEREAGH',  Lord.  See  Londonderry,  Marquis  op. 

CASTLES,  in  heraldry,  are  often  given  as  charges  in  the  shields  of  persons  who  have 
reduced  them,  or  been  the  first  to  mount  their  walls  in  an  assault.  The  practice  of 
heralds,  in  this  as  in  other  respects,  has  not  been  very  consistent,  as  we  learn  that  in 
1602,  a castle  was  granted  by  William  Cambden,  Clarencieux  king  of  arms,  to  William 
Frear,  doctor  of  physic ! 

CASTLETON,  a t.  in  Richmond  co..  New  York,  forming  the  n.  portion  of  Staten 
island,  and  occupied  in  part  by  the  summer  residences  of  business  men  of  the  city, 
pop.  ’75,  10,957;  in  ’80,  12,679.  New  Brighton  is  the  only  considerable  village.  There 
are  ferries  from  several  points  in  the  township  to  New  York,  and  one  to  New  Jersey; 
and  a railroad  connects  with  the  southern  part  of  the  island.  Among  the  institutions  is 
“ Sailor’s  Snug  Harbor,”  a home  for  old  and  indigent  seamen,  established  about  the 
beginning  of  the  century  by  capt.  Randall.  The  surface  of  the  township  is  hilly,  and 
there  are  many  charming  sites  occupied  by  handsome  modern  villas,  from  some  of 
which  wide  views  may  be  had  over  the  city  of  New  York,  and  large  portions  of  New 
Jersey,  Long  Island,  and  the  ocean. 

CASTLETON,  a village  in  Rutland  co.,  Vt.,  12  m.  s.  of  Rutland,  reached  by  the 
Rensselaer  and  Saratoga,  and  the  Rutland  and  Washington  railroads;  pop.  ’80,  2605. 
The  slate  quarries  in  the  neighborhood  are  valuable.  In  the  village  is  the  state  normal 
school. 

CASTLETOWN,  the  capital  town  and  seat  of  government  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  called  in 
Manx  Bailey  Cashtal,  or  the  Town  of  the  Castle.  C.  is  situated  on  the  margin  of  Castle- 
town bay,  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island,  and  surrounds  Castle  Rushen,  a 
Danish  fortress  of  prodigious  strength,  having  walls  from  12  to  18  ft.  in  thickness, 
built  of  the  limestone  found  on  the  spot,  which  is  of  so  imperishable  a nature  that  the 
sharp  angles  of  the  keep  retain  the  marks  of  the  builder’s  chisel,  though  completed  in 
the  10th  century.  The  castle  was  founded  by  Guthred  II.  of  the  Orrys  kings  of  Man, 
md  having  been  added  to  from  time  to  time,  it  now  consists  of  a pile  of  building  of  a 
most  imposing  appearance.  It  underwent  a six  months’  siege  by  Robert  Bruce  in  1313. 
The  keep  is  used  as  the  public  jail  of  the  island,  and  the  other  portion  of  the  castle  con- 
sists of  public  offices,  officer’s  apartments,  and  accommodation  for  the  chancery  and 
other  superior  courts. 

Being  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  bold  coast-scenery  of  the  Calf  of  Man,  Spanish 
head,  etc. , C.  is  a desirable  resort  for  the  numerous  tourists  who  frequent  the  Isle  of 
Man.  Ship-building  has  of  late  made  considerable  progress  in  Castletown.  Pop.  ’71, 
2,820. 

CASTOR,  Antonius,  an  eminent  botanist  of  Rome  in  the  first  century  after  Christ; 
several  times  quoted  and  mentioned  by  Pliny.  He  had  a botanical  garden,  probably  the 
earliest  on  record.  He  lived  more  than  100  years  in  perfect  health,  it  is  reported,  both 
of  body  and  mind. 

CASTOREUM,  a substance  secreted  in  two  glandular  sacs,  closely  connected  with, 
but  quite  distinct  from,  the  organs  of  reproduction  in  the  beaver  (q.v.),  and  at  one  time 
held  in  the  highest  repute  in  medicine,  although  now  regarded  as  almost  inert,  and 
chiefly  used  by  perfumers.  The  C.  sacs  are  pear-shaped,  and  it  appears  in  commerce  in 
these  sacs  themselves,  connected  in  pairs  as  they  are  taken  from  the  animal.  C.  is  pro- 
duced both  by  the  male  and  by  the  female  beaver.  In  Hudson’s  bay  commerce,  ten 
pair  of  them  are  equal  in  value  to  one  beaver  skin.  Russian  C.  is  of  much  higher  value 
than  American.  C.  was  well  known  to  the  ancients.  From  the  time  of  Hippocrates, 
it  was  regarded  as  having  a specific  influence  over  the  uterus,  and  is  still  in  use  in  th® 


535 


Castlebar. 

Castor. 


of  Europe,  It  was  at  one  time  also  esteemed  a most  Yaluable  medicine  in  hysteria, 
catalepsy,  and  other  spasmodic  diseases. 

CASTOEID.S:,  a famly  of  mammalia,  of  the  or dier  rodentia,  of  which  the  beaver  {castor) 
is  the  type,  and  in  which,  besides  the  beaver,  the  coypu  {myopotamus),  and  the  mus- 
quash, some  naturalists  include  other  genera  more  commonly  regarded  as  belonging  to 
the  mouse  and  rat  family  {muridm),  as  the  lemmings  and  voles. 

CASTOB  OIL,  a fixed  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  C.  O.  plant.  In  extracting 
the  oil,  the  seeds  are  first  bruised  between  heavy  rollers,  and  then  pressed  in  hempen 
bags  under  a hydraulic  or  screw  press.  The  best  variety  of  oil  is  thus  obtained  by  press- 
ure in  the  cold,  and  is  known  as  cold-drawn  C.  O. ; but  if  the  bruised  and  pressed 
seeds  be  afterwards  steamed  or  heated,  and  again  pressed,  a second  quality  of  oil  is 
obtained,  which  is  apt  to  become  partially  solid  or  frozen  in  cold  weather.  In  either 
case  the  crude  oil  is  heated  with  water  to  212°,  which  coagulates,  and  separates  the 
albumen  and  other  impurities.  Exposure  to  the  sun’s  light  bleaches  the  oil,  and  this 
process  is  resorted  to  on  the  large  scale.  When  pure  and  cold-drawn,  C.  O.  is  of  a light 
yellow  color;  but  when  of  an  inferior  quality,  it  has  a greenish,  and  occasionally  a 
brownish  tinge.  It  is  somewhat  thick  and  viscid.  Its  specific  gravity  is  high  for  an 
oil,  being  about  960  (water  being  taken  as  1000).  It  is  miscible  with  alcohol  or  spirits 
of  wine  and  ether.  Reduced  to  a temperature  of  0°  F.,  it  does  not  become  solid;  but 
exposed  to  the  air,  it  very  slowly  becomes  rancid,  then  dry  and  hard,  and  serves  as  a 
connecting  link  between  the  drying  and  non-drying  oils.  It  has  a nauseous  smell,  and 
an  acrid,  disagreeable,  and  sickening  taste,  which  may  be  overcome  by  the  addition  of 
a little  magnesia.  The  principal  acid  present  in  it  is  ricinolicdLcid.  (HO,C3eH33  06),  which 
is  allied  to  oleic  acid. 

C.  O.  is  one  of  the  most  convenient  and  mildest  of  purgative  medicines.  Given  in 
doses  of  one  or  two  tea-spoonfuls,  with  a little  peppermint-water,  it  forms  a gentle  laxa- 
tive for  habits  easily  acted  on  by  medicine ; while  a dose  of  a table-spoonful,  or  a little 
more,  will  almost  alw^s  succeed  if  it  remains  on  the  stomach.  The  only  serious 
objections  to  the  use  of  C.  O.,  are  its  disagreeable  flavor,  and  the  sickness  often  produced 
by  it ; some  persons  get  over  this  difficulty  by  floating  the  oil  in  hot  coffee,  which  is 
said  to  remove  its  nauseous  quality. 

The  adulteration  of  C.  O.  may  be  various.  Several  of  the  fixed  oils,  including  lard, 
may  be  employed.  The  best  test  of  its  purity  is  its  complete  solubility  in  its  own  vol- 
ume of  absolute  alcohol,  which  other  fixed  oils  are  not.  Croton  oil  is  occasionally 
added  to  increase  the  purgative  powers  of  the  oil. 

The  Castor  Oil  Plant  {ricinus  communis)  is  a native  of  the  s.  of  Asia,  but  now 
naturalized  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  in  other  warm  regions  of  the  globe.  The  genus 
ricinus  belongs  to  the  natural  order  euphorbiacem.  It  has  panicled  flowers,  with  3 to  5- 
partite  perianth;  the  fruit  a tricoccous  capsule, with  one  seed  in  each  cell,  the  outside  of 
the  capsule  generally  covered  with  soft  spines.  The  C.  O.  plant  is  often  cultivated  in 
gardens  in  the  middle  and  even  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  where  it  is  only  an 
annual,  attaining  a height  of  3 to  10  feet,  but  highly  ornamented  by  its  stately  growth, 
its  large,  broad,  palmato-peltate,  7 to  9-fid  leaves,  f to  2 ft.  in  diameter,  and  its  gener- 
ally purplish  hue.  Its  flowers  are  produced  in  long  glaucous  racemes.  In  warmer 
climates,  it  is  perennial,  and  its  stem  becomes  arborescent,  attaining  even  30  ft.  in 
height,  with  a corresponding  thickness,  so  that  ladders  are  used  for  climbing  it.  Dif- 
ferent species  which<have  been  described,  are  probably  mere  varieties.  It  was  known 
to  the  ancients,  and  appears  to  have  been  valued  by  them.  Its  seeds  have  been  found 
in  Egyptian  sarcophagi.  From  the  resemblance  of  its  seeds  to  an  insect  called  ricinus, 
it  received  that  name  from  the  Romans.  The  seeds  are  oval,  and  about  four  lines 
long.  They  are  chiefly  valued  for  the  oil  which  they  yield,  on  account  of  which  the 
plant  is  cultivated  in  the  Levant,  Spain,  Provence,  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  the  United 
States  of  America,  as  far  n.  as  New  Jersey,  and  in  other  tropical  and  warm  temperate 
countries. — Although  C.  O.  is  chiefly  used  in  medicine,  it  is  not  unfit  for  lamps  and  for 
oiling  the  wheels  of  machinery.  The  streets  of  Lima  are  lighted  and  the  machines 
used  in  the  works  of  the  sugar  plantations  of  Peru  are  oiled  with  it.  The  appearance 
of  the  C.  O.  plant  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  palma  christi,  by  which  it  is  still  some- 
times called.  Its  seeds  were  formerly  known  as  semina  cataputim  majoris. 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  twin  gods  of  Greece  and  Rome;  known  under  the  name 
of  Dioscuri  (from  Dios  or  Jupiter,  %nd  Kouroi,  children);  children  of  Jupiter  by  Leda, 
who  met  the  divinity  in  his  form  of  a swan.  The  Dioscuri  were  specially  reverenced 
among  people  of  the  Dorian  race,  and  were  said  to  have  reigned  at  Sparta.  They  pre- 
sided over  public  games.  Castor  being  the  god  of  equestrian  exercises,  and  Pollux  the 
god  of  boxing;  but  both  were  usually  represented  on  fiery  steeds,  with  spears,  and  egg- 
shaped  helmets  crowned  with  stars.  They  were  the  patrons  of  hospitality,  and  their 
aid  was  especially  sought  by  travelers,  to  whom  they  were  always  gracious.  Among 
their  exploits  were  the  invasion  of  Attica  to  rescue  their  sister  Helen  from  Theseus;  their 
part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt;  their  participation  in  the  Argonautic  expedition,  during 
which  they  married  the  daughters  of  Leucippus;  and  lastly  their  battle  with  the  sons 
of  Aphareus,  in  which  Castor  (the  mortal  brother)  was  slain  by  Idas.  On  finding  him 
dead,  Pollux,  who  was  immortal,  implored  Jupiter  to  permit  him  also  to  die;  but 


Castor. 

Castro. 


536 


Homer  says  the  dead  one  was  permitted  to  live  again  on  condition  that  both  should,  oa 
alternate  days,  descend  to  Hades,  or  that  they  should  live  orjly  on  alternate  days 
Another  story  is  that  they  were  placed  among  the  stars,  and  now,  as  the  Twins,  forn? 
one  of  the  13  zodiacal  signs.  They  were  greatly  venerated  at  Rome,  where  it  was 
believed  that  at  the  battle  of  lake  Kegillus  they  fought  at  the  head  of  the  legions  of 
the  commonwealth,  and  afterwards  with  incredible  speed  carried  to  the  city  the  news 
of  the  victory.  Where  they  alighted  near  a well  in  the  forum,  a temple  was  built,  and 
a great  festival  was  held  in  their  honor  during  the  ides  of  Quintilis,  the  supposed  anni- 
versary of  the  battle,  where  sacrifices  were  offered  at  the  public  charge,  A part  of  the 
ceremonies  was  a grand  muster  of  the  equestrian  body,  when  all  the  knights,  clad  m 
purple  and  crowned  with  olive,  assembled  at  the  temple  of  Mars,  out  of  the  city,  and 
rode  in  state  to  the  forum  where  stood  the  temple  of  the  twins.  For  centuries  this 
pageant  was  one  of  the  most  splendid  sights  in  Rome.  In  the  days  of  Dionysius  the 
cavalcade  consisted  of  5,000  horsemen,  all  persons  of  wealth  and  honorable  repute. 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  the  two  principal  stars  in  the  constellation  Gemini  (q.v.), 
were  so  called  from  Castor  and  Pollux,  sons  of  Leda  and  Tyndareus,  king  of  Lacede- 
mon.  Their  sister  was  the  famous  Helen  of  Troy.  On  account  of  their  mutual  attach- 
ment, Zeus  placed  them  among  the  stars. 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  the  name  given  to  a meteor,  seen  at  sea,  and  which,  under 
the  form  of  twin  balls  of  fire,  attaches  itself  to  the  masts  of  ships.  Sailors  predict  fair 
weather  from  its  appearance.  Sometimes,  however,  only  one  ball  of  fire  is  seen;  the 
meteor  is  then  called  Helena,  and  it  is  regarded  as  foreboding  a storm.  Shakespeare 
makes  mention  of  this  superstition  in  the  Tempest  (act  i.  scene  2). 

CASTRAMETATION  is  the  art  of  encamping;  and  a camp  is  the  result  of  that  art. 
See  Camp,  Encampment. 

CASTRATION,  taking  away,  or  destroying  the  natural  powers,  or  the  essential 
organs  of  generation  in  animals ; in  males  the  removal  of  the  testicles,  and  in  females 
a mutilation  or  removal  of  the  ovaries,  commonly  called  “spaying.”  The  general 
purpose  is  to  make  domestic  animals  more  docile  and  useful,  and  more  valuable  for 
meat,  as  well  as  to  restrict  unlimited  reproduction. 

CASTREN,  Matthias  Alexander,  the  greatest  authority  in  regard  to  the  Finnish 
people  and  language,  was  b.  in  1813,  not  far  from  the  Lappish  boundaries  of  Finland. 
He  received  his  earliest  instruction  in  the  town  of  Tornea,  and  afterwards  studied  at 
Helsingfors.  About  the  year  1838,  he  undertook  a pedestrian  excursion  through  Fin- 
nish Lapland,  in  order  to  extend  his  knowledge  of  the  language  and  literature;  and,  in 
1840,  another  through  Carelia,  to  collect  ballads,  legends,  etc.,  illustrative  of  Finnish 
mythology.  On  his  return,  he  published  in  Swedish  a translation  of  the  famous  Finnish 
poem,  Kalevala,  the  meter  and  style  of  which  have  been  imitated  by  Longfellow  in  his 
poem  of  Hiawatha.  Aided  by  the  government  of  his  native  province,  he  commenced 
his  researches  among  the  Finnish,  Norwegian,  and  Russian  Laplanders,  as  also  among 
the  European  and  Siberian  Samoyeds.  Appointedi  linguist  and  ethnographer  to  the  St. 
Petersburg  academy,  C.,  between  the  years  1845  and  1849,  prosecuted  his  laborious 
investigations  as  far  e.  as  China,  and  as  far  n.  as  the  Arctic  ocean.  On  his  return,  he 
was  appointed  first  professor  of  the  Finnish  language  and  literature  at  the  university  of 
Helsingfors.  He  employed  himself  in  preparing  for  publication  the  vast  materials 
which  he  had  collected,  but  died  7th  May,  1852,  from  exhaustion — a martyr  to  science. 
Before  his  death,  appeared  Versuch  einer  ostjdkischen  Sprachlehre  nehst  kurzen  Worter- 
aerzeichniss  (Petersburg,  1849),  as  the  first  installment  of  his  Northern  Travels  and  Be- 
tearches.  He  also  wrote  Elementa  Grammatics  Syrjaence  (Helsingfors,  1844),  and  Elementa 
Grammatics  Tscheremisss  (1845) ; On  the  Influence  of  the  Accent  in  the  Lappish  Language 
(Petersburg,  1845);  De  Aflixis  Personalibus  Linguarum  Altaicarum  (Helsingfors,  1850), 
etc. 

CASTR^1N',  Matthias  Alexander,  1813-53;  a native  of  Finland,  and  the  first 
eminent  philologist  and  antiquarian  of  that  country.  He  traveled  extensively  in  all  parts 
of  the  country  to  become  familiar  with  the  language  (having  been  educated  in  Swedish), 
and  with  the  antiquities  and  folk-lore  of  the  people.  He  also  traveled  among  the 
Samoieds  of  Europe  and  Siberia  to  the  provinces  of  China  and  the  Arctic  ocean.  He 
was  the  first  professor  of  the  Finnish  language  and_^  literature  at  the  university  of  Hel- 
singfors. All  his  works  were  published  after  his  death,  and  a monument  has  been 
dedicated  to  his  memory  at  Helsingfors. 

CASTRES,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Tarn,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Agout,  46  m.  e.  of  Toulouse.  The  two  parts  of  the  town  are  united  by  two  stone 
bridges.  In  the  middle  ages,  C.  was  celebrated  for  its  Benedictine  abbey,  the  heads  of 
which  exercised  a temporal  sway  over  the  place.  Later,  it  was  one  of  the  strongholds 
of  the  reformed  party,  but  it  was  forced  to  submit,  and  had  its  fortifications  demolished 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  C.  has  beautiful  promenades,  shaded  by  fine  alleys  of  trees, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  is  a remarkable  rocking-stone,  11  ft.  high,  and  weighing  some 
80  tons.  It  is  of  egg-shape,  and  rests  upon  its  smaller  end ; a strong  push  is  sufficient 
to  cause  its  vibration.  C.  is  a busy  manufacturing  place.  Its  fine  wool-dyed  goods  are 


537 


Castor. 

Castro. 


especially  famous,  and  it  has  also  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  paper,  soap,  etc. 
Pop.  76,  20,520. 

CASTBI,  or  Kastri,  a village  of  modern  Greece,  in  the  government  of  Phocis,  sit- 
uated on  the  s.  declivity  of  Mt.  Parnassus,  and  worthy  of  notice,  as  occupying  a portion 
of  the  site  of  the  ancient  Delphi  (q.v.).  The  famous  Castalian  spring,  now  called  the 
fountain  of  St.  John,  is  situated  between  200  and  300  yards  to  the  e.  of  the  village. 
Beside  it  grows  a plane-tree,  the  only  one  in  C.,  which  is  fabled  to  be  that  planted  by 
Agamemnon. 

CASTRO  (ancient  Mitylene),  a seaport  t.  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  capital  of  the  island  of 
Mitylene,  situated  on  the  e.  coast,  about  55  m.  n.w.  of  Smyrna.  It  is  surrounded  with 
walls,  and  defended  by  a castle,  and  its  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty.  Remains  of  the 
ancient  town  are  found  to  the  west.  Pop.  6,500. 

CASTRO,  Guillen  de,  1569-1631 ; a Spanish  dramatist  who  enjoyed  the  friendship 
of  Lope  de  Vega,  whom  he  assisted  in  the  famous  festival  of  the  canonization  of  San 
Isidoro,  where  he  won  a prize  in  the  literary  tournament.  Castro  wrote  about  40  plays, 
the  most  celebrated  of  which  was  Las  Mercedes  del  Cid,  to  which  Corneille  was  greatly 
indebted  for  the  materials  of  his  renowned  tragedy.  It  is  said  that  Castro  died  in 
poverty  and  was  buried  by  charitable  friends. 

CASTRO,  Henry,  1786-1861 ; a native  of  France,  an  officer  of  the  national  guard  of 
Paris,  who,  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  emigrated  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1827, 
was  consul  for  Naples  at  Providence,  R.  I.  He  returned  to  Paris  11  years  later,  became  a 
partner  in  the  counting-house  of  Lafitte,  and  was  made  consul-general  for  the  new  republic 
of  Texas.  He  engaged  in  the  business  of  sending  out  emigrants,  and  within  a few  years 
established  at  Castroville  and  other  places  settlements  which,  after  the  annexation,  were 
organized  into  Medina  county. 

CASTRO,  Inez  de,  whose  mournful  fate  is  the  subject  of  several  tragedies  and  poems, 
was  the  daughter  of  Pedro  Fernandez  de  Castro,  and  sprang  from  a branch  of  the  royal 
family  of  Castile.  She  was  appointed  lady-in-waiting  to  the  wife  of  Dom  Pedro,  son  of 
Alfonso  IV.  of  Portugal.  Her  beauty  captivated  Dom  Pedro,  and,  after  the  death  of 
hi^  wife,  in  1345,  he  secretly  married  Inez.  Their  stolen  interviews  took  place  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Clara,  at  Coimbra,  until  the  secret  was  discovered  and  revealed  to  the 
king,  who  was  made  to  believe  that  this  union  might  prove  injurious  to  the  young  Fer- 
dinand, son  of  Dom  Pedro  by  his  deceased  wife.  Questioned  by  his  father,  Dom  Pedro 
had  not  the  courage  to  reveal  the  whole  truth,  while  he  refused  to  marry  another.  In 
the  king’s  council,  it  was  determined  that  Inez  mu.st  die.  To  see  this  sentence  exe- 
cuted, the  king  hastened  to  Coimbra,  while  his  son,  Dom  Pedro,  was  engaged  in  hunting 
(1355);  but  the  sight  of  the  beautiful  Inez,  who,  with  her  children,  cast  herself  at  the 
feet  of  the  king,  and  prayed  for  mercy,  diverted  him  for  a few  moments  from  his  pur- 
pose. His  advisers,  however,  soon  obtained  from  the  king  permission  to  execute  the 
sentence,  and,  in  the  course  of  an  hour  after  the  interview,  Ihez  fell  pierced  by  the  dag- 
gers of  assassins.  Dom  Pedro  attempted  a revolt  against  his  father,  but  was  pacified  by 
the  queen  and  the  archbishop  of  Braga,  and  promised  not  to  seek  revenge  for  the  death 
of  Inez.  Two  years  afterwards,  the  king  died,  having  shortly  before  his  death  recom- 
mended the  murderers  of  Inez  to  leave  Portugal,  and  seek  shelter  in  Castile,  where  Peter 
the  cruel  was  then  ruling.  As  several  of  Peter’s  nobles  had  escaped  into  Portugal,  to 
avoid  his  oppression,  he  now  proposed  to  Dom  Pedro  an  exchange  of  fugitives,  to  which 
the  latter  (now  king  of  Portugal)  consented.  Two  of  the  assassins  accordingly  were 
delivered  up,  and  were  tortured  and  burned.  Two  years  afterwards,  the  king,  in  an 
assembly  of  the  nobility,  declared  that  he  had  been  lawfully  married,  by  papal  sanc- 
tion, and  in  the  presence  of  the  archbishop  of  Guarda,  to  Inez  de  Castro.  When  this 
statement  had  been  confirmed  by  several  testimonies,  the  king  gave  orders  that  the  corpse 
of  Inez  should  be  removed  from  its  grave,  clothed  in  royal  attire,  with  a crown  on  the 
head,  and  seated  on  a throne,  should  receive  homage  as  queen.  This  strange  ceremony 
was  performed,  the  nobles  of  Portugal  bowing  before  the  enthroned  dead,  and  kissing 
the  hem  of  the  royal  robe.  The  body  was  then  removed  to  Alcoba9a  followed  by  the 
king,  with  the  bishops  and  the  nobility,  all  on  foot.  A splendid  marble  monument  was 
erected  over  the  grave  of  Inez,  surmounted  by  her  statue,  wearing  a crown. 

CASTRO,  JoAODE,  1500-48;  viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  Indies,  son  of  the  civil  gover- 
nor of  Lisbon.  He  served  in  a military  capacity  in  Tangier,  Tunis,  and  elsewhere,  and  went 
to  the  Indies  with  his  uncle,  Garcia  de  Noronha.  On  arriving  at  Goa  he  enlisted  among 
the  “bravest  of  the  brave”  who  were  told  off  for  the  relief  of  Diu  (a  Portuguese  settle- 
ment on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  in  the  present  province  of  Guzerat).  Returning  to 
Portugal  he  was  made  commander  of  a fleet  to  clear  the  European  seas  of  pirates;  and 
in  1545  he  was  sent  out  as  viceroy  of  the  Indies  to  supplant  Martin  de  Souza.  The  next 
three  years  were  full  of  struggle,  suffering,  and  triumph.  Valiantly  seconded  by  his  two 
sons,  one  of  whom  was  killed  before  Diu,  he  overthrew  Mahmoud,  king  of  Cambodia, 
relieved  the  beleaguered  town  of  Diu,  and  defeated  the  great  army  of  Adhel  Khan.  He 
subsequently  completed  the  subjugation  of  Malacca,  soon  after  which  he  was  fully  com- 
missioned as  viceroy,  but  did  not  live  long  to  fill  the  place,  dying  the  next  year  in  the 
arms  of  his  friend,  St.  Francis  Xavier.  He  was  buried  at  Goa,  but  the  body  was  after- 


Cantro. 

«Jat. 


538 


wards  remored  to  Portugal,  to  be  interred  under  a splendid  monument  in  the  convent  at 
Bemtica. 

CASTRO  DEL  RIO,  a t,  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  situated  on  a slope  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Guadajocillo,  16  m.  s.e.  of  Cordova.  A portion  of  the  old  town  is  surrounded  by 
ruinous  walls;  the  new  town  lying  outside  of  these  has  some  good  streets.  It  has  man- 
ufactures of  woolen  and  linen  fabrics,  earthenware,  etc.,  and  considerable  trade  in  agri- 
cultural produce.  Pop.  9,100. 

CASTRO-GIOVANNI,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta,  is  situated  13  m.  n.e. 
of  the  chief  town  of  the  province,  on  a remarkably  fertile  plateau,  which  rises  precipitously 
to  a height  of  4,000  ft.  above  the  sea-level.  Castro-Giovanni  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Enna,  of  which  Ceres  was  the  presiding  goddess,  and  her  most  famous  temple 
was  here.  The  neighborhood  was  the  scene  of  Proserpine’s  abduction  by  Pluto.  In 
connection  with  the  Punic  and  Servile  wars,  Enna  has  a conspicuous  part  in  early 
history.  There  are  no  remains  of  the  old  town.  A castle  and  other  buildings  of  Sara- 
cenic origin  are  still  standing.  The  district  yields  large  quantities  of  sulphur.  Pop. 
14,633. 

CASTRONUOVO,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  25  m.  n.  of  Girgenti.  It 
is  situated  on  a hill,  is  fortified,  and  in  its  vicinity  are  quarries  of  fine  marble.  Pop. 
4,029. 

CASTROVILLA'RI,  a t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  presence  of  Cosenza,  34  m.  n.  of  Cosenza. 
It  is  situated  on  an  eminence  surrounded  by  mountains,  is  partially  fortified,  and  has  an 
old  massive  castle,  and  a trade  in  wine,  manna,  silk,  etc.  Pop.  7,931. 

CASTRUC'CIO  CASTRACA'NI,  1283-1328;  a Ghibelline  exiled  at  an  early  age 
with  his  parents  and  others  of  that  faction;  orphaned  at  the  age  of  19;'iserved  as  a sol- 
dier in  England,  France,  and  Lombardy,  until  in  1313  he  returned  to  Italy  and  was 
chosen  chief  of  the  Ghibellines,  who  had  obtained  mastery  over  the  Guelphs.  Thence- 
forth he  passed  a stormy  life,  chiefiy  in  the  support  of  the  emperor  Louis  V. , whom  he 
accompanied  to  Rome,  and  who  made  him  duke  of  Lucca,  count  of  the  Lateran  palace, 
and  senator  of  the  empire.  Castruccio  was  excommunicated  by  a Guelphic  legate,  and 
died  soon  afterwards,  leaving  several  children,  whose  fortunes  were  wrecked  in  the 
Guelphic  triumph  that  followed  his  death. 

CAST-STEEL.  This  term,  until  lately,  was  confined  to  steel  made  by  melting  blister- 
steel  (q.v.),  obtained  by  the  old  cementation  process.  Through  this  simple  operation  of 
melting  it  in  crucibles,  which  was  invented  by  an  Englishman  named  Huntsman  about  the 
middle  of  last  century,  steel  was  first  readily  made  perfectly  homogeneous,  and  fitted  for 
the  production  of  the  finer  kinds  of  tools  and  cutting  instruments.  The  crucibles  are 
made  of  fire-clay,  mixed  with  a small  proportion  of  the  material  of  old  ones  and  coke. 
They  are  very  carefully  prepared  and  annealed,  but  notwithstanding  this,  the  heat  of 
the  furnace  is  so  high  that  they  can  only  be  three  times  used.  Each  crucible  contains 
from  30  to  40  lbs.  of  steel,  which  is  poured,  when  melted,  into  cast-iron  ingot-molds 
previously  smoked.  The  name  “cast-steel,”  however,  can  no  longer  be  confined  to  steel 
so  made,  because  Bessemer  steel,  although  produced  by  a quite  different  process,  is  truly 
a cast -steel.  In  Sheffield,  the  finer  kinds  of  cast-steel  are  now  sometimes  called  “ cruci- 
ble steel ;”  but  since  puddled  steel,  which,  like  the  Bessemer,  cannot  be  used  for  fine 
cutlery,  is  also  cast  in  crucibles,  such  a term  is  not  sufficiently  distinctive. 

CASTTJE'RA,  a t.  of  Estremadura,  Spain,  68  m.  e.s.e.  of  Badajos.  It  is  situated  near 
the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalefra,  has  several  good  streets,  manufactures  of  brick,  earth- 
enware, etc.,  and  a trade  in  agricultural  produce;  there  is  also  some  weaving  carried  on. 
Pop.  5,600. 

CASUAL  POOR  are  persons  temporarily  relieved  without  being  admitted  to  the  roll  of 
permanent  paupers.  See  Poor-Laws. 

CASUALTIES  OF  SUPERIORITY,  in  the  feudal  law  of  Scotland,  are  such  emoluments 
arising  as  to  the  superior  as  depend  on  uncertain  events.  See  Ward-holding. 

CASUARI'NA,  a genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  amentacece,  and  of  the  sub-order 
casuarinece,  which  is  regarded  by  some  as  a distinct  natural  order.  The  trees  of  this 

fenus  are  almost  exclusively  Australian ; one  only,  G.  equisetifolia,  being  found  in  the 
outh  Sea  islands,  the  Indian  archipelago,  the  Malayan  peninsula,  and  on  the  e.  side  of 
the  bay  of  Bengal,  as  far  n.  as  Arracan.  Some  of  them  are  large  trees,  producing  tim- 
ber of  excellent  quality,  hard  and  heavy,  the  beef-wood  of  the  Australian  colonists,  so 
called  from  the  resemblance  in  color  to  raw  beef.  C.  equisetifolia  is  called  in  Australia 
the  Swamp  Oak.  It  is  a lofty  tree,  the  toa  or  aitoa  of  the  Society  islands,  where  it  grows 
chieffy  on  the  sides  of  hills,  and  where  its  wood  was  formerly  used  for  clubs  and  other 
implements  of  war.  It  has  been  introduced  into  India,  and  is  there  rnuch  valued,  as 
its  wood  bears  a great  strain,  and  is  not  readily  injured  by  submersion  in  water.  The 
hardness  and  durability  of  this  wood  led  the  earlier  vo3’agers  to  the  South  Sea  islands  to 
designate  it  iron  wood.  G.  quadrivalvis  is  the  She  Oak  of  New  South  Wales.  Casso- 
wary Tree  is  a popular  generic  name  of  the  casuarinw.  Some  of  the  species  are 
scrubby  bushes.  All  of  them  have  a very  peculiar  appearance,  their  branches  being 
long,  slender,  wiry,  drooping,  green,  jointed,  with  very  small  scale-like  sheaths  instead 


589 


Castro. 

Cat. 


of  leaves.  They  resemble  arborescent  equuetacem.  The  fruit  consists  of  hardened 
bracts,  collected  in  a strobilus,  or  cone,  and  inclosing  small  winged  nuts.  The  flowers 
have  neither  calyx  nor  corolla;  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  separate  flowers,  the 
male  flowers  with  only  one  stamen,  the  female  flowers  with  a one-celled  ovary,  the 
male  flowers  in  spikes,  the  female  flowers  in  dense  heads.  More  than  20  species  are 
known. 

CAS  UISTRY,  called  by  Kant  the  dialectics  of  conscience,  is  that  branch  of  theology  and 
morals  which  professes  to  deal  with  very  delicate  moral  questions — casus  conscientice — 
and  which  supplies  rules  and  principles  of  reasoning  for  resolving  the  same;  drawn 
partly  from  natural  reason  and  equity,  and  partly  from  the  authority  of  Scripture,  the 
canon  law,  councils,  fathers,  etc.  C.  has  been,  and  still  is,  studied  chiefly  by  Roman 
Catholic  theologians;  but  at  one  period  Protestant  divines  also  paid  some  attention  to 
the  perilous  science.  The  rudiments  of  it,  however,  are  to  be  sought  for  in  antiquity. 
Traces  of  it  are  found  in  the  Stoic  philosophers  of  ancient  Greece.  This  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  for  C.  is  not,  in  its  essence,  a device  of  the  schoolmen,  although  the  latter 
elaborated  it  into  a science,  but  a natural  expression  of  the  intellect  and  moral  nature 
of  man,  when  he  is  placed  in  circumstances  of  great  perplexity.  The  sound  and  healthy 
reason  of  antiquity,  however,  could  not  enter  into  the  morbid  refinement,  or  rather  the 
insidious  corruption  of  morals  found  in  certain  Jewish  and  Christian  writers.  The 
Talmud  (q.v.)  contains  an  enormous  accumulation  of  casuistical  questions,  while  the 
sphere  of  Christian  ethics  in  the  middle  ages  often  became  a mere  arena  for  unprofit- 
able and  pernicious  disputations  of  this  nature,  as  is  seen  in  such  works  as  the  Summa 
Baymundiana,  Summa  Astesana,  Summa  Bartholina,  which  obtained  their  names  from 
their  respective  compilers.  At  a later  period,  the  Jesuits  Molina,  Escobar,  Sanchez, 
Busenbaum,  etc.,  became  notorious  for  their  abuse  of  ingenuity  in  the  construction  of 
moral  puzzles,  and  for  the  flagrant  immorality  of  their  solutions.  Some  of  them  still 
“ suffer  the  vengeance”  of  Pascal’s  immortal  satire.  It  is  nevertheless  indubitable,  that 
in  the  life  of  every  man — now  as  formerly — casus  conscientice  will  at  times  arise,  when 
the  higher  laws  of  morality  come  into  collision  with  subordinate  conventional  ones. 
The  dubiety  as  to  what  the  path  of  duty  is,  what  ought  to  be  done,  resulting  from  this 
collision,  naturally  and  legitimately  leads  to  many  nice  considerations.  If  these  are 
carried  on  under  the  guidance  of  a pure  conscience,  no  harm  can  ensue,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  much  good.  Such,  however,  is  nol  th.Q  permrted  C.  of  the  Jesuits,  “the  art  of 
quibbling  with  God,”  as  M.  Le  Feore,  preceptor  to  Louis  XIII.,  called  it,  in  which  a 
man  seeks  to  justify,  by  subtle  quirks,  his  immoral  actions.  Mayer  has  published  an 
account  of  all  the  writers  on  cases  of  conscience,  ranging  them  under  three  heads — 
Lutheran,  Calvinistic,  and  Romish. 

CA'SUS  BEL'LI,  or  a case  of  war,  is  the  reason  alleged  by  one  power  for  going  to 
war  with  another.  It  is  found  impossible  to  reduce  these  causes  or  reasons  to  any 
definite  code,  because  an  ambitious  or  aggressive  power  has  no  difficulty  in  making  a 
reason  to  declare  to  others,  without  acknowledging  the  real  reason. 

CASWALL,  Henry,  d.d.,  1810-70;  b.  in  England,  and  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  at  the  age  of  18,  graduating  at  Kenyon  college,  Ohio.  After  some  years  of  service 
as  minister  and  professor  of  theology,  in  1842  he  returned  to  England,  and  procured  a 
private  act  of  parliament  recognizing  the  validity  of  his  ordination  in  the  United  States. 
He  was  appointed  vicar,  became  proctor,  and  prebendary  of  Salisbury  cathedral.  About 
1868,  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  and  he  died  in  Pennsylvania.  He  wTote  America 
and  the  American  Church;  Scotland  and  the  Scottish  Church;  1 he  Western  World  Bevisited; 
The  Martyr  of  the  Pongas;  and  two  works  on  Mormonism. 

CASWELL,  a co.  in  n.  North  Carolina,  on  the  Virginia  border,  watered  by  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  river  Dan,  and  intersected  by  the  Richmond,  Danville  and  Piedmont  rail- 
road; 400  sq.m.;  pop. ’SO,  17,825 — 10,657  colored.  The  chief  productions  are  tobacco, 
corn,  oats,  and  wheat.  Co.  seat,  Yancey ville. 

CASWELL,  Alexis,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  1799-1877;  one  of  the  corporators  of  the  national 
academy  of  sciences.  He  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  Brown  university  from 
1828  to  1850,  and  of  mathematics  and  astronomy  from  1850  to  1864,  and  president  from 
1868  to  1872.  Author  of  a Memorial  of  John  Barstow. 

CASWELL,  Richard,  1729-89;  a revolutionary  officer,  native  of  Maryland,  but  an 
early  settler  in  North  Carolina,  where  he  was  for  many  years  a member  of  the  colonial 
assembly,  speaker  of  the  house,  treasurer  of  the  state,  first  governor,  and  thrice  re- 
elected. He  was  a delegate  to  the  convention  that  framed  the  federal  constitution,  and 
in  1787,  was  speaker  of  the  state  senate,  and  was  presiding  in  that  body  when  he  was 
stricken  with  fatal  paralysis.  He  was  a brig. gen.  in  the  patriot  armies,  and  shared  in 
the  battle  of  Camden,  and  other  conflicts. 

CAT  (Lat.  catus),  a name  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole  family  of  quadrupeds 
designated  by  zoologists/eZi^ZcB  (q.v.),  the  genus /eZfs  of  Linnseus;  and  sometimes  more 
restrictedly  applied  to  a section  of  that  family,  containing  a number  of  its  smallest  spe- 
cies, the  domestic  C.  and  species  most  nearly  allied  to  it.  These  form  the  subject  of 
the  present  article.  They  all  pursue  their  prey  on  the  branches  of  trees  more  than  on 


Cat. 

Catacombs. 


540 


the  ground,  and  are  most  expert  climbers,  in  which,  however,  they  are  rivaled  by  somo 
of  the  oihev  felidxB. 

The  origin  of  the  domestic  C.  is  by  no  means  well  ascertained;  and  by  some  natural- 
ists it  is  described  as  a distinct  species,  under  the  name  felis  domestica,  which  perhaps- 
may  be  regarded  as  at  least  a convenient  provisional  designation,  until  satisfactory  rea- 
sons can  be  adduced  for  referring  it  to  some  species  existing  in  a wild  state.  By  many, 
indeed,  the  domestic  C.  has  been  confidently  pronounced  to  be  a mere  domesticated 
variety  of  the  common  wild  C.  {felis  catus)  of  Euroue  and  the  n.  of  Asia;  but  to  this 
there  are  many  objections;  the  most  important  being  that  it  is  always  of  smaller  size, 
contrary  to  what  is  usually  observed  of  the  effects  of  domestication  in  animals;  and  that 
in  cats  of  the  domesticated  race  which  have  run  wild,  and  in  their  known  progeny,  there 
is  no  appearance  whatever  of  a tendency  to  return  to  the  type  of  the  true  wild  cat. — 
Another  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  domestic  C.  has  obtained  the  assent  of  a consid- 
erable number  of  naturalists;  that  it  is  derived  from  X\iq  felis  maniculata,  or  gloved  C.  of 
n.  Africa,  a species  discovered  by  the  celebrated  traveler  Riippell.  But  Mr.  Owen  has 
stated  a perfectly  conclusive  reason  against  identifying  the  domestic  C.  with  i\\Q  felis 
maniculata,  that  the  first  deciduous  molar  tooth  in  the  latter  has  a relatively  thicker  crown, 
and  is  supported  by  three  roots,  whilst  the  corresponding  tooth  both  of  the  domestic  C. 
and  of  the  wild  C.  of  Europe  has  a thinner  crown,  and  only  two  roots. 

The  certainty,  however  that  the  C.  existed  as  a domestic  animal  in  ancient  Egypt, 
makes  it  not  improbable  that  we  ought  to  look  for  its  origin  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
or  in  some  of  the  countries  from  which  the  ancient  Egyptians  might  most  readily  have 
obtained  it.  Of  its  rarity  in  Britain  in  former  times,  when  the  wild  C.  was  common  in 
all  the  woods  which  covered  so  much  of  the  island,  a curious  evidence  is  afforded  by  a 
Welsh  law  quoted  by  Pennant — a law  of  the  reign  of  Howel  the  good,  who  died  in  93S 
A.D. — fixing  the  prices  of  cats  according  to  their  age  and  qualities,  beginning  with  a 
price  for  a kitten  before  it  could  see,  and  enacting  that  if  any  one  stole  or  killed  the  C. 
that  guarded  the  prince's  granary,  he  was  to  forfeit  a milk  ewe,  its  fleece  and  lamb;  or 
as  much  wheat  as  when  poured  on  the  C.  suspended  by  its  tail,  the  head  touching  the 
floor,  would  form  a heap  high  enough  to  cover  the  tip  of  the  tail. 

It  is  needless  to  describe  an  animal  so  well  known  as  the  domestic  C.,  or  to  do  more 
than  allude  to  its  purring,  its  mewing,  and  the  other  sounds  which  it  makes,  its  aver- 
sion to  wet  its  feet  or  fur,  its  love  of  heat  and  comfort,  its  stealthy  manners  when  in 
quest  of  prey,  its  patient  watchfulness,  so  often  fatal  to  mice,  and  other  points  of  its 
natural  history  with  which  everybody  is  familiar. 

The  delight  which  a C.  takes  in  tormenting  a mouse  before  killing  it,  has  sometimes 
been  mentioned  as  an  apparent  exception  to  the  general  character  of  goodness  manifest 
in  the  instincts  of  animals.  It  is  an  interesting  circumstance,  however,  that  when  the 
prey  is  a bird  instead  of  a mouse,  a C.  immediately  inflicts  a mortal  wound,  as  if  aware 
of  its  greater  power  of  effecting  its  escape. 

The  eye  of  the  C.  is  capable  of  much  contraction  and  dilatation  of  its  pupil,  so  that 
the  animal  can  see  in  a very  feeble  light,  and  is  thus  adapted  for  those  nocturnal  habits 
to  which,  even  in  domestication,  it  shows  so  strong  a natural  tendency. 

The  fur  of  the  C.  is  very  free  from  any  oily  substance,  so  as  to  be  readily  injured  by 
water,  and  is  capable  of  being  rendered  highly  electric  by  friction,  particularly  in  very 
dry  or  frosty  weather.  An  electric  spark  is  readily  obtained  from  the  tip  of  the  ear. 

The  strong  statements  of  Buffon  gave  for  a time  great  currency  to  the  opinion,  that 
the  C.  is  incapable  of  affection,  and  retains,  even  in  a domesticated  state,  its  savage 
ferocity,  merely  restrained  by  selfishness,  and  disguised  by  cunning.  The  belief  is  very 
prevalent  that  the  C.  forms  an  attachment  to  places  only,  and  not  to  persons.  There  are, 
however,  well-authenticated  stories  which  prove  the  C.  to  be  capable  of  strong  attach 
ment  to  its  master  or  mistress,  although  this  quality  is  less  frequently  and  remarkably 
displayed  than  by  the  dog.  The  instances  which  have,  on  the  other  hand,  been  recorded 
to  show  the  attachment  of  the  C.  to  places,  are  well  worthy  of  attention  in  connection 
with  the  subject  of  instinct  in  animals.  Some  of  these  instances  of  cast  finding  thei 
way  back  from  great  distances  to  their  former  home,  are  very  wonderful,  ana  indeeu 
cannot  be  explained  on  any  grounds  or  principles  known.  The  same  instinct  and  power, 
however,  are  displayed  by  other  animals. 

The  varieties  of  the  domestic  C.  are  neither  numerous  nor  very  different.  The  tor- 
toise-shell G.  differs  from  the  most  common  variety  chiefly  in  color,  although  it  is  also 
particularly  elegant  and  delicate  in  form.  It  is  much  more  common  in  the  s.  of  Europe 
than  in  Britain. — The  Angora  G.  is  a beautiful  variety,  remarkable  for  its  long  silky 
hair. — The  Ghinese  G.  has  a fine  glossy  fur,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  pendulous  ears. — 
The  uhartreuse  is  of  a bluish  color. — It  is  supposed  that  the  tahhy  may  have  undergone 
less  change  by  domestication  than  any  other  variety. 

The  wild  C.  is  still  to  be  found  in  a few  of  the  woods  of  the  n.  of  England,  in  the 
mountains  of  Wales,  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  some  parts  of  Ireland.  It  has 
entirely  disappeared  from  districts  where  it  was  once  common.  It  is  tlie  only  beast  of 
prey  remaining  in  Britain  the  strength  and  fierceness  of  which  make  it  at  all  dangerous  to 
man ; but  an  encounter  with  a wild  C.  is  safe  only  to  a man  well  armed.  Fortunately,  the 
instances  of  its  attacking  when  unmolested  are  rare,  but  such  instances  have  occurred. 
The  wild  C.  is  an  inhabitant  of  deep  thickets  and  recesses  of  woods,  and  of  the  rocky  and 


541 


Cat. 

Catacombs. 


bushy  ravines  of  mountainous  districts.  Its  fur  is  held  inconsiderable  estimation.  The 
fur  is  soft,  long,  and  thick.  The  color  of  the  face  is  yellowish-gray,  with  a band  of 
biack  spots  towards  the  muzzle;  the  forehead  is  brown;  the  head  is  gray,  with  two  black 
stripes  passing  from  the  eyes,  over  and  behind  the  ears;  the  back,  sides,  and  limbs  are 
gray,  darker  on  the  back,  paler  on  the  sides,  with  a blackish  longitudinal  stripe  along- 
the  middle  of  the  back,  and  numerous  paler  curved  ones  on  the  sides;  the  tail  is 
ringed  with  light-gray  and  black,  the  tip  being  black.  The  length  of  a medium-sized 
male  wild  C.  is  almost  2 ft,,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  but  this  length  is  sometimes  ver}'-  con- 
siderably exceeded. — We  know  no  record  of  any  attempt  to  domesticate  the  wild  cat. 

The  animal  often  called  wild  C.  in  America  is  the  bay  lynx.  See  Lynx. 

Superstitions  regarding  Cats. — Cats  have  been  objects  of  superstition  from  the  earliest 
ages.  In  Egypt,  they  were  held  in  the  highest  reverence;  temples  were  erected  in  their 
honor;  sacrifices  and  devotions  were  offered  up  to  them;  and  it  was  customary  for  the 
family  in  whose  house  a C.  died  to  shave  their  eyebrows.  In  the  middle  ages,  they  were 
regarded  as  the  familiars  of  witches.  The  favorite  shape  of  Satan  was  said  to  be  that  of 
a black  C. ; and  the  animal  was  an  object  of  dread  instead  of  veneration.  There  is  or 
was  a belief  among  sailors,  that  the  frolics  of  a C.  at  sea  portended  a storm.  Many  peo- 
ple still  prophesy  rainy  weather  from  a C.  washing  its  face ; and  a cat-call  on  the  house- 
top was  formerly  held  to  signify  death.  Their  superstitious  connection  with  witches, 
and  the  foolish  belief  that  a C.  has  nine  lives,  have  led  to  the  perpetration  of  great 
cruelties  upon  this  harmless  and  very  useful  domestic  animal.  See  Brand’s  Popular 
Antiquities,  Ellis’s  revised  edition. 

CAT,  on  shipboard,  is  a name  for  many  of  the  ropes  or  lines  employed.  A cat-fall  is. 
a rope  for  heaving  up  the  anchor  from  the  water’s  level  to  the  bow ; it  works  through 
cat-blocks,  and  is  connected  with  the  cat-head.  Cat-harpings  are  small  ropes  for  tightening: 
the  shrouds.  The  cat-Jieads,  just  named,  are  two  strong  short  timbers  projecting  from 
the  bow,  on  each  side  of  the  bowsprit.  A cat-hook  fastens  the  ring  of  the  anchor  to  the 
cat-block. 

CAT,  or  Cat-Castle,  in  the  military  engineering  of  the  middle  ages,  was  a kind  of 
movable  tower  to  cover  the  sappers  as  they  advanced  to  a besieged  place.  The  garri- 
son sometimes  poured  down  burning  pitch  and  boiling  oil  from  the  walls  upon  the  C.* 
but  occasionally  this  stratagem  was  disastrous,  for  the  besiegers  availed  themselves  of  the: 
blazing  tower  to  burn  the  wooden  gates  of  the  town  or  fortress. 

CATABBO'SA  (Gr.  catabrosis,  a gnawing),  a genus  of  grasses  formerly  included  in  airc^ 
(see  Hair-grass),  but  distinguished  by  the  leathery  paleoe,  which  are  ribbed,  truncated, 
erose  (as  if  gnawed  at  the  points),  awnless,  and  nearly  equal.  The  glumes  are  much 
shorter  than  the  spikelets,  membranaceous,  and  very  obtuse.  The  general  appearance 
is  different  from  that  of  the  genus  aira. — C.  Aquatica  is  a pretty  common  British  grass. 
It  is  of  very  wide  geographic  and  climatic  range,  being  found  throughout  Europe,  from 
Lapland  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  also  in  the  torrid  regions  of  South  America.  It 
grows  only  in  very  moist  situations,  as  the  muddy  margins  of  lakes  and  rivers,  ditches, 
etc.,  and  is  only  cultivated  in  irrigated  meadows,  or  on  the  banks  of  rivers  subject  to  b& 
overflowed  by  high  tides,  where  the  ground  is  always  wet  and  muddy.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  grasses  for  such  situations,  its  foliage  being  peculiarly  sweet,  and  much 
relished  by  cattle.  Both  its  foliage  and  its  seeds,  also,  afford  much  food  to  water -fowl, 
and  to  some  kinds  of  fish,  particularly  carp.  Its  leaves  often  float,  and  its  stalks  seldom 
rise  more  than  a foot  or  15  in.  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  has  a stiff  branching: 
panicle,  with  whorled  spreading  branches,  and  its  seeds  are  small.  When  its  artificial 
propagation  is  attempted,  it  is  more  frequently  by  dropping  freshly  gathered  stems  into- 
still  waters,  or  scattering  them  on  the  mud,  than  by  sowing  the  seeds.  It  is  sometimes, 
called  Whorl  Grass,  and  sometimes  Sweet  Water  Grass. 

CATACOMBS  (Gr.  kata,  and  kumbos,  a hollow),  subterraneous  chambers  and  passages 
formed  generally  in  a rock,  which  is  soft  and  easily  excavated,  such  as  tufa.  C.  are  to 
be  found  in  almost  every  country  in  which  such  rocks  exist,  and,  in  most  cases,  proba- 
bly originated  in  mere  quarries,  which  afterwards  came  to  be  used  either  as  places  of 
sepulture  for  the  dead  or  as  hiding-places  for  the  living.  The  most  celebrated  cata- 
combs in  existence,  and  those  which  are  generally  understood  when  C.  are  spoken  of, 
are  those  on  the  Via  Appia,  at  a short  distance  from  Rome.  To  these  dreary  crypts 
it  is  believed  that  the  early  Christians  were  in  the  habit  of  retiring,  in  order  to  celebrate 
their  new  worship,  in  times  of  persecution,  and  in  them  were  buried  many  of  the  saints 
and  martyrs  of  the  primitive  church.  They  consist  of  long  narrow  galleries,  usually 
about  8 ft.  high  and  5 wide,  which  twist  and  turn  in  all  directions  very  much  resembling^ 
mines;  and  at  irregular  intervals,  expand  into  wide  and  lofty  vaulted  chambers.  The 
graves  were  constructed  by  hollowing  out  a portion  of  the  rock,  at  the  side  of  the  gallery, 
large  enough  to  contain  the  body.  The  entrance  was  then  built  up  with  stones,  on 
which  usually  the  letters  D.  M.  (Deo  Maximo),  or  xp.,  the  first  two  letters  of  the  Greek 
name  of  Christ,  were  inscribed.  Other  inscriptions  and  marks,  such  as  the  cross,  are 
also  found.  The  original  extent  of  the  C.  is  uncertain,  the  guides  maintaining- 
that  they  have  a length  of  20  m.,  whereas  about  6 only  can  now  be  ascertained  to  exist, 
and  of  these,  many  portions  have  either  fallen  in  or  become  dangerous.  When  Rome 
was  besieged  by  the  Lombards  in  the  8th  c.,  many  of  the  C.  were  destroyed,  and  the 


Catafalco. 

Catalpa. 


542 


popes  afterwards  caused  the  remains  of  many  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  to  be  removed 
and  buried  in  the  churches.  Art  found  its  way  into  the  C.  at  an  early  period,  and 
many  remains  of  frescoes  are  still  found  in  them.  After  being  neglected  for  centuries 
they  were  again  brought  to  notice  by  father  Bosio,  who  spent  thirty  years  in  their 
exploration.  His  investigations  were  published  in  1632,  two  years  after  his  death;  but 
the  most  exhaustive  treatise  on  the  subject  in  all  its  aspects  is  the  Roma  Sotterranea  of 
De’  Rossi  (1864-67),  of  which  an  abridgment  is  published  in  English  by  Dr.  Northcote. 
The  C.  at  Naples,  cut  into  the  Capo  di  Monte,  resemble  those  at  Rome,  and  evidently 
were  used  for  the  same  purposes,  being  in  many  parts  literally  covered  with  Christian 
symbols.  In  one  of  the  large  vaulted  chambers  there  are  paintings,  which  have  retained 
a freshness  which  is  wonderful,  considering  the  time  and  the  dampness  of  the  situation. 
The  palm-tree,  as  a memorial  of  Judea,  is  a prominent  object  in  these  pictures.  At 
Palermo  and  Syracuse  there  are  similar  C. , the  latter  being  of  considerable  extent.  They 
are  also  found  in  Greece,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt.  See  Necropolis. 
At  Milo,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  there  is  a hill  which  is  honey-combed  with  a labyrinth  of 
tombs  running  in  every  direction.  In  these  bassi-rilievi  and  figures  in  terra-cotta  have 
been  found,  which  prove  them  to  be  long  anterior  to  the  Christian  era.  In  Peru  and 
other  parts  of  South  America,  C.  have  been  discovered.  The  C.  in  Paris  are  a species 
of  charnel-houses,  into  which  the  contents  of  such  burying-places  as  were  found  to  be 
pestilential,  and  the  bodies  of  some  of  the  victims  of  1792,  were  cast. 

CATAFALCO  (Ital.  a scaffold),  or  Catafalque,  a temporary  structure  of  carpentry, 
intended  to  represent  a tomb  or  cenotaph,  and  adorned  with  sculpture  and  painting.  It  . 
was  employed  in  funeral  ceremonies.  The  most  magnificent  C.  ever  made,  perhaps, 
was  that  used  at  the  interment  of  Michael  Angelo,  at  Florence. 

CATAHOU'LA,  a parish  in  Louisiana,  on  the  Tensas,  Black,  and  Saline  rivers;  1770 
sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  10,287 — 4558 colored.  The  soil  is  fertile,  producing  corn,  cotton,  etc. 
Seat  of  justice,  Harrisonburg. 

CATALA'NI,  Angelica,  a highly  celebrated  Italian  singer,  b.  at  Sinigaglia,  in  cen- 
tral Italy,  some  say  in  1780,  others  in  1784,  educated  in  the  convent  of  St.  Lucien,  near 
Rome,  where,  in  her  seventh  year,  she  displayed  such  wonderful  vocal  powers  that 
strangers  flocked  from  all  quarters  to  hear  her.  She  made  her  first  public  appearance 
at  Venice  in  her  16th  year,  and  experienced  a succession  of  triumphs  in  every  country 
in  Europe  for  more  than  30  years,  amassing  immense  sums  of  money.  The  Italian  opera 
in  Paris  was  twice  under  her  direction;  but  her  husband’s  interference  and  extravagance 
brought  her  into  much  trouble.  Her  large  queenly  person  and  fine  countenance,  the 
immense  volume,  range,  and  flexibility  of  her  voice,  her  power  of  sustaining  her  notes, 
in  constrast  with  the  lightness  and  facility  of  her  unerring  execution,  everywhere  took 
her  audience  by  storm.  Her  expression,  although  fine,  and  her  whole  style,  surprised 
rather  than  touched  the  heart.  In  concert  singing,  her  great  triumphs  were  in  Rhode’s 
air  with  variations,  and  God  Save  the  King — which  she  would  call  shave;  and  in  ora- 
torios, Luther’s  hymn,  her  delivery  of  which,  especially  when  her  marvelous  voice 
alternated  with  the  trumpet’s  sound,  was  so  sublimely  awful,  that  the  audience  were 
hushed  and  pale,  and  some  were  borne  away  fainting.  The  throat  from  which  these 
wondrous  sounds  proceeded  was  physically  of  such  dimensions,  that  a physician,  when 
called  to  look  into  it,  declared  he  could  have  passed  down  a penny-loaf!  In  1830, 
Madame  C.  purchased  a villa  near  Florence,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Medici  family, 
where  she  gave  free  instructions  to  girls  who  had  a talent  for  singing,  on  condition  of 
their  taking  the  name  of  Catalani.  In  the  spring  of  1849,  when  political  disturbances 
broke  out  in  Tuscany,  she  repaired  with  her  daughters  to  Paris,  where  she  died  of 
cholera  on  the  13th  of  June. 

CATALATJN'IAN  PLAIN  {Campi  Catalaunici),  the  ancient  name  of  the  wide  plain  sur- 
rounding Chalons-sur-Marne,  in  the  old  province  of  Champagne,  France,  celebrated  as 
the  field  of  battle  where  the  west  Goths,  and  the  forces  under  the  Roman  gen.  A^tius, 
gained  a great  victory  over  Attila  in  451  a.d.  A wild  tradition  (made  the  subject  of  a 
striking  picture  by  Kaulback,  “Die  Hunnenschlacht,”  or  “The  Battle  of  the  Huns”) 
tells  that  three  days  after  the  great  fight,  the  ghosts  of  the  fallen  myriads  appeared  on 
the  plain,  and  renewed  the  conflict. 

CATAL'DO,  San,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta,  and  5 m.  w.  of  the 
town  of  that  name.  There  are  productive  sulphur-mines  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.  12,800. 

CATALEPSY  (katalepsis,  a taking  possession  of),  a state  of  more  or  less  complete 
insensibility,  with  absence  of  the  power  of  voluntary  motion,  and  statue-like  fixedness 
of  the  body  and  limbs  in  the  attitude  immediately  preceding  the  attack,  a like  position 
being  also  retained,  unless  altered  by  force,  until  the  return  of  consciousness.  Such  is 
the  abridged  description  of  C.,  as  commonly  given  in  works  of  authority.  The  patient 
is  usually  in  good  health  at  the  time  of  seizure,  or  subject  only  to  nervous  affections, 
such  as  hysteria  (q.v.);  sometimes  the  attack  is  preceded  by  disappointment,  fear,  violent 
exciting  or  depressing  passions,  or  even  religious  emotions,  being  in  such  cases  only  an 
extreme  form  of  what  is  otherwise  called  trance,  reverie,  or  ecstasy  (q.v.);  on  other  occa- 
sions, the  apparent  cause  is  more  purely  physical,  as  in  some  of  the  hysterical  cases, 
depending  on  suppressed  menstruation.  In  all  cases  of  cataleptic  rigidity  and  insensi- 


543 


Catafalco» 

Catalpa. 


bility,  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  brain,  as  the  organ  of  consciousness,  is  disturbed 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  in  any  considerable  proportion  there  is  structural  disease. 
Patients  rarely  die  during  the  attack,  which  may,  however,  be  protracted  for  an  indefi- 
nite period,  and  may  even  endanger  life  indirectly  by  the  debility  consequent  on  imper- 
fect nourishment.  The  circulation  and  respiration  are,  in  most  instances,  little  affected ; 
caseg,  however,  have  been  recorded  in  which,  in  consequence  of  their  failure,  the  patient 
has  been  supposed  to  be  dead.  See  Death.  Many  of  the  recorded  cases  of  C.  are  little 
worthy  of  credit,  and  it  has  even  been  doubted  whether  this  curious  disease  can  ever  be 
said  to  exist  exempt  from  some  degree  of  deception,  or  at  least  voluntary  and  conscioua 
regulation  of  the  muscles  on  the  part  of  the  person  affected.  The  combination  of  C.  with 
hysteria,  and  its  frequent  association  with  what  are  called  the  higher  phenomena  of 
mesmerism  (see  Animal  Magnetism),  are  undoubtedly  circumstances  of  great  suspicion  j 
but  it  would  certainly  be  wrong  to  suppose  that  all  the  cases  described  were  fictitious, 
and  not  less  so  to  classify  them  all  under  the  head  of  pure  imposture.  Epidemic  C.  has 
been  described,  and  in  such  cases  it  would  appear  plain  that  the  principle  of  imitation, 
so  powerful  in  producing  nervous  disease,  must  have  been  at  work.  The  remedies  of 
C.  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  states  to  which  it  is  so  nearly  allied,  and  of  which  it  may 
be  said  to  form  a part.  Moral  means  form  a large  part  of  the  treatment,  as  in  hysteria. 
In  some  cases,  it  may  become  necessary  to  adminster  food  by  means  of  the  stomach- 
pump,  and  this  even  for  weeks  or  months.  We  have  seen  such  a case  end  in  complete 
recovery. 

CATALOGUE  (Gr.  a list).  See  Bibliogkaphy,  British  Museum,  Library,  Stars. 

CATALO'NIA  (Spanish,  Catalwfla),  an  old  province  and  principality  of  Spain,  now 
divided  into  the  provinces  of  Barcelona,  Tarragona,  Lerida,  and  Gerona,  the  total  area 
being  12,180  m.,  and  the  pop.  ’70,  1,768,408.  C.  occupies  the  north-eastern  corner  of 
Spain,  having  Prance  on  the  n.,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  e.  and  s.e.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Llobregat  and  the  Ter,  and  by  some  of  the  atfluents  of  the  Ebro,  the  last-men- 
tioned river  having  its  embouchure  in  Catalonia.  The  coast  is  rugged,  its  boldest  pro- 
montories being  capes  Creus  and  San  Sebastian,  and  its  deepest  indentations  the  bays  of 
Rosas  and  Tarragona.  With  the  exception  of  a few  low  plains  of  limited  extent,  the 
soil  of  C.  is  that  of  a wild  mountainous  region  formed  by  numerous  offsets  or  terraces 
of  the  Pyrenees,  one  great  ridge  or  series  of  ridges  extending  through  the  center  of  the 
province. 

The  terraces,  sloping  abruptly  down  to  the  coast,  or  to  the  narrow  coast  plains,  are 
divided  by  the  valley  of  Llobregat  into  the  lower  and  the  upper  Catalonian  mountains. 

The  climate  of  C.,*though  fog  and  rain  are  frequent,  and  extreme  and  rapid  changes 
of  temperature  prevail,  is  on  the  whole  healthy  and  favorable  to  vegetation,  Kear  Bar- 
celona, oranges  flourish  in  the  open  air;  the  fields  in  some  parts  are  bounded  by  aloe- 
hedges,  and  olives  grow  on  Montserrat.  Cork-trees  grow  on  the  mountains,  and  thickets 
of  thorn-apple,  laurel,  myrtle,  pomegranate,  box,  rosemary,  etc.,  extend  where  the  cork 
has  its  limits.  Northern  upper  C.  has  a more  severe  winter  than  the  s. ; but  everywhere 
vineyards  and  olive-gardens  cover  the  slopes,  and  cornfields  extend  in  the  valleys.  Among 
the  other  products  are  hemp,  flax,  madder,  barilla,  and  saffron.  Hazel-nuts,  a variety 
called  Barcelona  nuts,  are  extensively  grown.  Meadow-lands  and  pastures  are  compara- 
tively rare,  and  horned  cattle  are,  therefore,  mostly  confined  to  the  districts  bordering 
on  the  Pyrenees ; while  few  horses  and  mules  are  kept ; but  sheep,  goats,  and  swine  are 
bred  in  considerable  numbers.  Silk- worms  and  bees  are  also  reared.  The  coasts  abound 
with  fish,  and  game  is  plentiful.  The  minerals  are  coal,  copper,  manganese,  zinc, 
lead,  cobalt,  salt,  sulphur,  and  many  varieties  of  marble. 

C.  is  the  principal  manufacturing  province  of  the  kingdom — is,  in  fact,  “the  Lanca- 
shire of  Spain.  ” The  inhabitants  are  neither  French  nor  Spaniards,  their  language,  cos- 
tume, and  habits  being  quite  distinct  from  those  of  either;  they  have  also  local  coins, 
weights,  and  measures.  In  energy,  industry,  and  intelligence,  they  greatly  surpass  the 
rest  of  the  Spaniards. 

C.,  under  the  name  of  Hispania  larmconenm,  was  one  of  the  earliest,  and  remained 
among  the  last  of  the  Roman  provinces.  It  was  invaded  and  captured  by  the  Alans, 
who  were  followed  by  the  Goths,  hence  its  name  Oothalania,  changed  into  Gothalunia 
or  Catalonia.  In  the  8th  c.,  the  Arabs  gained  possession  of  the  southern  part.  When 
Charlemagne,  in  788,  subjugated  Spain  as  far  as  the  Ebro,  C.  formed  the  central  portion 
of  the  Spanish  mark,  governed  by  French  counts,  having  Barcelona  as  their  residence. 
They  soon  made  themselves  independent  of  France.  In  1137,  earl  Raymund  Berengar, 
by  his  marriage,  united  C.  with  Aragon;  and  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
(1469)  united  both  with  Castile,  and  so  C.  became  a portion  of  the  Spanish  monarchy, 
but  never  a very  peaceable  one.  In  modern  times  it  has  repeatedly  taken  a prominent 
share  in  Carlist  or  other  insurrections. 

CATAL'PA,  a genus  of  trees  of  the  order  Mgnoniacece.  The  catalpa  synngifolia  is  a 
native  of  the  s.  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  is  cultivated  there  and  in  the  cities 
of  the  northern  states  as  an  ornamental  shade-tree.  It  may  be  known  by  silver-gray 
bark,  wide-spreading  but  few  branches,  and  the  fine  pale  green  of  its  large  heart-shaped 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  white,  tinged  with  violet  or  purple,  and  dotted  with  the  same 
colors.  The  flowers  are  succeeded  by  long  bean-like  pods,  that  sometimes  hang  on  the 


Catalysis. 

Cataract. 


544 


otherwise  hare  limbs  all  winter.  wood  is  light  and  of  flne  texture,  and  useful  in 
cabinet  work.  There  is  a catalpa  in  London  said  to  have  been  planted  by  lord  Bacon. 

CATAL'YSIS  (Gr.  dissolution)  is  a term  applied  in  chemical  physics  to  a force  sup- 
posed to  be  exerted  by  one  substance  upon  a second,  whereby  the  latter  is  subjected  to 
change  or  decomposition,  whilst  the  former,  or  acting  substance,  remains  comparatively 
unaltered,  and  does  not  combine  with  it.  The  force,  indeed,  has  been  ascribed  to  the 
mere  “action  of  contact.”  Fermentation  is  an  example  of  this  force  (see  Beer),  when 
one  part  of  yeast  acting  upon  the  sugar  of  the  sweet  worts,  without  entering  into  com- 
bination with  it,  compels  100  parts  of  sugar  to  pass  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid. 
Germination,  or  the  sprouting  of  grain  when  placed  in  the  ground,  is  another  example 
where  one  part  of  diastase  changes  1000  parts  of  starch  into  sugar.  No  plausible  theory 
has  been  brought  forward  to  account  for  these  changes,  or  to  define  what  the  force  of 
C.  is.  Liebig  has  suggested,  as  an  explanation,  “that  a body  in  the  act  of  combination 
or  decomposition  enables  another  body  with  which  it  is  in  contact  to  enter  into  the 
same  state;”  but  this  view  does  not  explain  C.,  as  that  force  does  not  act  in  the  majority 
of  cases  where  changes  are  proceeding,  and,  moreover,  the  acting  substance,  while 
changing  itself,  never  throws  the  body  acted  upon  into  the  same  state  of  change,  but 
causes  it  to  assume  a new  series  of  changes  different  from  those  pursued  by  itself. 

CATALYSOTYPE,  a name  given  by  its  inventor.  Dr.  Wood,  to  a modification  of  the 
calotype  process,  upon  the  assumption  that  light  set  up  a catalytic  action  (see  Cataly- 
sis) among  the  ingredients  employed.  The  paper  is  first  washed  with  very  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  yellow  patches  of  insensitiveness,  and 
then  treated  with  sirup  of  iodide  of  iron  containing  a trace  of  free  iodine;  it  is  then 
partially  dried  between  folds  of  blotting-paper,  and  sensitized  by  brushing  over  it  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  of  ten  grains  to  the  ounce.  Immediate  exposure  in  the 
camera  follows;  after  which,  though  no  picture  be  visible  at  first,  if  it  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  dark  for  a period  which  varies  with  the  length  of  time  it  was  exposed, 
and  the  amount  of  light,  a negative  picture  of  great  perfection  is  gradually  developed. 
It  is  not  necessary,  however,  for  the  explanation  of  this  phenomenon,  to  assume,  that 
a catalytic  action  is  set  up,  inasmuch  as  the  ordinary  chemical  reactions  are  quite  suffi- 
cient to  account  for  it.  As  soon  as  nitrate  of  silver  comes  in  contact  with  the  moist 
iodide  of  iron  viiiXi  the  paper  is  first  imbued,  an  interchange  of  elements  takes 

place,  iodide  of  silver  is  precipitated  in  the  pores  of  the  paper,  and  protonitrate  of  iron  is 
diffused  over  the  surface;  and  this  latter  salt  is  even  a more  energetic  developing  agent 
than  the  ordinary  gallic  acid,  hence  the  seemingly  spontaneous  appearance  of  the  pic- 
ture. This  process  is  so  uncertain  in  its  results,  that  it  is  seldom  practiced. 

CATAMAEAN'  is  a raft  formed  of  three  planks  lashed  together,  the  middle  one  serv- 
ing as  a keel,  and  the  other  two  for  the  sides.  The  rower  stands  or  kneels  on  the  middle 
plank,  and  works  a paddle.  These  simple  vessels  are  used  by  the  natives  of  Madras,  to 
maintain  communication  between  ships  and  the  shore,  ordinary  boats  being  rendered 
unsafe  by  the  surf.  By  the  adoption  of  a similar  construction  on  a larger  scale,  some 
of  the  catamarans  are  made  large  and  strong  enough  to  carry  goods,  and  even  artillery. 
Catamarans  used  in  Brazil  consist  simply  of  three  logs  of  wood  tapered  at  the  end  and 
lashed  together;  they  carry  a sail. 

CATAMAR'CA,  a province  in  the  Argentine  republic,  between  25®  and  29°  s.,  and 
€6°  and  69°  w.,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes;  35,500  sq.m.;  pop.  ’69,  79,962;  the 
greater  portion  being  of  pure  Indian  blood.  The  province  is  intersected  by  several 
mountain-chains;  and  by  many  small  streams,  most  of  them  dry  in  the  summer,  but  in 
winter  subject  to  destructive  floods.  Some  of  the  plains  are  sandy  deserts,  while  others 
are  periodically  inundated;  and  when  the  water  dries  away,  it  leaves  a coating  of  salt, 
which  is  gathered  for  home  use  and  for  trade.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  found,  the 
latter  in  abundance;  and  nearly  all  the  fruits  and  grains  of  tropical  and  temperate 
regions  are  grown.  The  cotton  of  C.  is  especially  esteemed.  Among  the  animals  are 
large  herds  of  alpaca,  llama,  and  vicuna,  and  also  horned  cattle,  asses,  and  mules.  The 
main  exports  are  wines,  brandy,  raisins,  hides,  leather,  tobacco,  cochineal,  and  copper 
The  people  are  occupied  in  agriculture,  and  in  manufactures  of  earthenware,  and 
fabrics  made  from  the  wool  of  the  alpaca  and  kindred  animals.  The  chief  town  and 
capital  is  the  city  of  the  same  name. 

CATAMAR'CA,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Catamarca,  in  the  Argentine  republic, 
28°  20' s.,  66°  25'  west.  It  is  a regular  and  moderately  well-built  town  of  about  6000 
inhabitants.  Of  public  buildings,  there  are  a town-house,  a Franciscan  monastery,  and 
n convent.  There  is  considerable  import-trade  of  European  goods,  and  the  place  is  a 
center  of  distribution  for  a flourishing  district.  Dried  figs,  wines,  brandy,  and  cotton 
are  the  principal  articles  of  export. 

CATAME'NIA.  See  Menstruation,  ante. 

CATAMOUNT.  See  Puma,  ante. 

CATA'NIA,  or  Catanea,  a city  and  seaport  of  Sicily,  situated  on  the  e.  coast,  near 
the  foot  of  Mt.  Etna,  31  m.  n.n.w.  of  Syracuse.  The  fertile  and  well-cultivated  neigh- 
borhood of  C.,  extending  along  the  s.e.  base  of  Mt.  Etna,  is  styled  “the  granary  of 
Sicily,”  and  has  given  to  C.  the  title,  “La  Bella  Catania.”  By  eruptions  of  the  great 


545 


Catalysis. 

Cataract. 


▼olcano  and  attendant  earthquakes,  the  city  has  been  several  times  almost  entirely 
destroyed,  especially  in  the  year  1693;  but  out  of  its  ruins  it  has  alwi^s  risen  witli 
increased  beauty,  and  it  is  now  the  finest  city  in  Sicily,  being  built  throughout  on  a 
beautiful  and  consistent  plan,  from  which  no  deviation  is  allowed.  The  harbor  of  C., 
formerly  good,  was  choked  by  a stream  of  lava  in  1693,  and  the  mole  was  partly ' 
destroyed,  so  that  now  it  has  only  a roadstead,  which  is  guarded  by  a fort,  and  serves  as 
a landing-place.  It  has  several  squares,  the  finest  of  which,  in  front  of  the  cathedral, 
has  a statue  of  an  elephant  sculptured  in  lava.  Among  its  chief  public  buildings  an 
the  Benedictine  convent  and  church  of  San  Nicolo,  with  one  exception  the  grandest 
structure  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  the  town-hall;  the  cathedral,  with  its  noble  granite 
columns;  and  the  university,  founded  in  1445.  It  has  besides  many  handsome  churches 
ana  convents,  and  several  educational  and  charitable  institutions,  and  is  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  three  high  courts  in  the  island.  The  inhabitants,  formerly  much  more  numerous, 
amounted  in  1872  to  84,397,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  commercial  spirit  and 
industry.  C.  has  manufactures  of  silk  and  linen  goods,  and  of  articles  in  amber,  lava, 
wood,  etc.  Among  the  remains  of  ancient  times,  that  earthquakes  have  spared,  are 
those  of  a theater,  an  odeium,  a temple  of  Ceres,  Roman  baths,  and  an  aqueduct.  C., 
anciently  known  by  the  name  of  Gatana,  was  founded  by  a Greek  colony  of  Chalcidic 
origin,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  8th  c.  b.c.;  and  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  5th  c.  b.c., 
it  was  esteemed  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  in  Sicily.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Athenians  under  Nicias,  and  was  desolated  by  Dionysius  I. ; but  again  rose  under  the 
Roman  sway  into  its  former  importance.  Augustus  here  founded  a Roman  colony.  It 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Goths,  but  once  more,  under  the  Byzantine  empire,  became 
one  of  the  principal  cities  in  the  island.  C.  gives  name  to  the  province  of  which  it  is 
the  capital,  and  which  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Sicily,  with  an  area  of  1743  sq.  miles,  and 
a pop.,  in  1872,  of  479,850. 

CATA'NIA,  Gulp  op,  an  inlet  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  e.  coast  of  Sicily^ 
extends  in  the  form  of  a semicircle  from  La  Trezza  bay  to  cape  Santa  Croce,  a distance 
of  18  miles.  It  is  about  10  m.  deep,  and  receives  the  river  Giaretta. 

CATANZA'BO,  a city  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  declivity  of  a rocky  hill,  near  the  gulf  of  Squillace,  and  in  the  midst  of  a 
very  fertile  district.  On  account  of  its  agreeable  climate,  many  wealthy  families  have 
made  it  their  residence.  It  has  a cathedral,  an  old  castle  of  the  Norman  period,  a college, 
one  of  the  largest,  as  it  is  one  of  the  best  conducted  in  the  country,  and  is  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  four  great  civil  courts  of  the  kingdom.  C.  suffered  very  severely  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1783.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk-velvet  and  woolen  fabrics,  and  an  active 
trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Pop.  ’71,  18,781. 

CATAPLASM  (a  Greek  term  for  a poultice),  an  application  to  diseased  or  painful  parts, 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  suppuration,  relieving  pain,  and  stimulating  or  soothing  the 
skin,  according  to  circumstances.  A C.  may  be  composed  of  any  moist  pulpy  substance  of 
sufficient  consistence  to  retain  the  water  without  dripping  or  soaking  through  the  thin 
muslin  covering  in  which  it  is  generally  wrapped.  The  making  of  a poultice  well  is  a 
matter  of  some  nicety, and  unless  the  proper  consistence  is  given  to  the  mass, the  application 
is  apt  to  do  more  harm  than  good.  The  linseed-meal  poultice  is  the  most  easily  made,  and 
most  satisfactory  of  all  soothing  applications.  The  meal  is  stirred  gradually  into  a suffi- 
cient quantity  of  boiling  water,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a small  basin  or  teacup,  until  a 
perfectly  smooth  pulp  is  formed  of  the  proper  consistence,  and  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
cover  completely,  to  the  thickness  of  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  the  whole  pained  part. 
The  pulp  is  then  folded  up  in  muslin  or  thin  calico,  and  applied  as  soon  as  the  heat  will 
permit  it  to  be  borne.  The  bread  and  milk,  or  even  bread  and  water  poultice,  is  also 
very  good;  as  is  also  the  oatmeal-porridge  poultice,  to  which  a little  butter  may  be  added 
with  advantage.  A spoonful  or  two  of  yeast  may  be  added,  if  there  are  foul  discharges, 
or  peat  charcoal  may  be  sprinkled  on  the  surface  of  the  poultice  before  it  is  applied. 
Carrot  poultices  are  in  great  favor  with  the  people  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  Hem 
lock  poultices,  made  of  the  fresh  leaves,  or  of  the  dried  leaves,  with  the  aid  of  some 
powder  of  the  leaves,  form  a valuable  sedative  application  in  painful  diseases;  and  poppy- 
heads,  or  even  opium,  are  sometimes  infused  in  the  water  of  which  a poultice  is  made, 
for  the  same  purpose.  A stimulating  C.  or  poultice  may  be  made  by  sprinkling  oil  of 
turpentine,  or  chloroform,  or  mustard  in  moderate  quantity  on  the  surface  of  any 
ordinary  poultice.  When  considerable  irritation  of  the  skin  in  a short  time  is  desira- 
ble, a mustard  C.  or  sinapism  (sinapi,  mustard)  is  used. 

CATAPUL'TA,  an  engine  of  war  used  by  the  ancients,  somewhat  resembling  the 
crossbow.  In  the  C.,  a string  or  rope,  suddenly  freed  from  great  tension,  gave  a power 
ful  impulse  to  an  arrow  placed  in  a groove.  There  were  great  catapultas  fixed  upon  a- 
scaffold  with  wheels,  which  were  used  in  sieges,  and  small  ones,  carried  in  the  hand, 
which  were  employed  in  the  field.  For  a description  of  similar  engines  of  ancient  War- 
fare, see  articles  Balista  and  Arbalest. 

CATABACT,  an  opaque  condition  of  the  lens  of  the  eye.  It  is  readily  distinguished 
from  opacities  of  the  cornea,  or  clear  front  part  of  the  eye,  by  its  position  just  behind 
the  pupil — that  round  and  varying  aperture  in  the  iris  through  which  light  is  admitted 
U.  K.  III.— 35 


Cataracts. 

Catawbas. 


546 


into  the  back  of  the  eye.  C,  may  affect  the  lens  alone  (lenticular  C.),  or  the  front  of 
back  of  the  capsule  of  the  lens  (capsular  C.),  or  both  lens  and  capsule  (capsuk)-lenticular 
cataract).  Its  whiteness  varies  from  that  of  half-boiled  white  of  egg  to  that  of  snow. 
Heat  will  produce  a like  change  on  the  lens  out  of  the  body,  just  as  it  changes  white  of 
egg  from  transparent  to  opaque.  The  rounded  lens  of  the  tish  is  seen  at  table  in  thia 
opaque  condition. 

C.  is  painless,  and  unaccompanied  by  inflammation.  It  occasions  blindness  simply 
by  obstructing  the  passage  of  the  light;  but  C.  alone  does  not  produce  so  complete  blina- 
ness  but  that  the  patient  can  tell  light  from  darkness.  It  may  occur  at  any  age,  but  is 
most  common  in  elderly  persons,  and  is  not  unfrequent  in  cliildren,  who  may  be  even 
born  with  it.  The  catoptric  test,  as  it  is  called,  is  an  ingenious  method  of  distinguishing 
incipient  C.  from  certain  other  deep  affections  of  the  eye.  When  a lighted  candle  is 
held  before  the  eye  of  a person  whose  back  is  to  the  window,  three  candles  are  seen  in 
the  healthy  eye.  Two  are  erect — the  large  front  one  caused  by  the  convex  cornea,  the 
smaller  and  fainter  one  behind  by  the  convex  front  of  the  lens.  The  third,  occasioned 
by  the  concave  back  of  the  lens,  is  in  the  middle;  is  small,  bright,  and  turned  upside 
down;  and,  when  the  candle  is  moved,  goes  in  the  opposite  direction,  while  the  two 
erect  images  move  with  the  candle.  When  the  back  of  the  lens  becomes  opaque,  the 
inverted  image  is  obscured  or  disappears;  and  when  the  front  of  the  lens  is  affected, 
only  the  great  front  image,  caused  by  the  cornea,  remains.  This  curious  experiment 
may  be  tried  on  a large  scale,  by  holding  a common  bi-convex  lens  a little  way  behind  a 
watch-glass.  Then,  on  greasing  the  back  of  the  lens,  to  imitate  C.,  the  inverted  image 
disappears,  and  on  turning  the  lens  round,  all  but  the  image  in  the  watch-glass  disap- 
pears. 

No  medical  or  other  treatment  has  any  influence  in  arresting  the  progress  of  C.,  nor 
can  it  be  cured  but  by  a surgical  operation.  A clever  imposture  used  to  be  practiced  by 
quacks.  By  applying  belladonna  to  the  eye — as  the  surgeon  does  when  he  wishes  to  dilate 
the  pupil  for  an  examination  or  operation — some  little  light  was  temporarily  admitted 
through  the  less  opaque  edge  of  the  lens.  The  patient  beginning  to  see  somewhat  better, 
after  long  and  increasing  dimness  of  vision,  began  to  congratulate  himself  on  a cure; 
the  quack,  of  course,  hastened  to  get  his  mo'ney  without  waiting  for  the  further  result, 
which  was  sure  to  be  blank  disappointment.  So  long  as  there  is  fair  vision  with  one 
eye,  the  operation  on  the  other  may  be  delayed.  It  is  a mistake  to  delay  the  operation 
in  children  on  account  of  their  tender  age.  The  sooner  it  is  done  the  better,  both  for 
the  eye  and  the  education  of  the  child. 

Three  methods  of  operation  are  practiced.  1.  For  aUorption  or  solution.  This  is 
suitable  for  children,  in  whom  the  C.,  like  the  natural  lens,  is  soft,  and  in  all  other  cases 
in  which  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  C.  is  soft.  An  appropriate  needle  is  passed 
through  the  cornea;  made  to  open  and  lacerate  the  front  of  the  capsule,  the  rags  of 
which  curl  out  of  the  way  behind  the  iris,  so  that  their  subsequent  opacity  does  not 
obstruct  the  light ; then  the  soft  cataractous  lens  is  punctured  and  picked  so  as  more 
effectually  to  admit  the  aqueous  humor,  which  naturally  fills  the  space  between  the  lens 
and  the  cornea,  and  which  has  the  remarkable  property  of  absorbing  or  dissolving  the 
lens  or  cataract  when  admitted  within  the  capsule.  This  operation  may  require  to  be 
repeated  several  times,  at  intervals  of  a few  weeks,  before  the  whole  C.  is  dissolved. 
2.  Displacement.  A needle  is  passed  through  the  fore  part  of  the  white  of  the  eye,  until 
it  is  seen  through  the  upper  part  of  the  pupil,  lying  across  the  front  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  lens.  This  is  now  pressed  back,  so  as  to  make  the  lens  sink  down  and  back 
into  the  vitreous  humor,  when  it  is  either  slowly  absorbed,  or  may  in  part  permanently 
remain.  The  older  method  of  displacement,  termed  couching,  in  which  the  lens  w^as 
pushed  more  directly  downwards,  is  now  abandoned,  as  more  likely  to  press  on  the 
retina,  and  cause  subsequent  evil  to  the  eye.  3.  Extraction.  Half  the  cornea,  through 
nearly  its  whole  breadth,  is  divided  with  Beer’s  knife,  an  operation  requiring  great  skid ; 
the  front  of  the  capsule  is  opened,  and  disposed  of  with  a needle;  and  the  lens  is  gently 
assisted  out  of  its  place,  through  the  pupil,  and  out  of  the  opening  in  the  cornea,  great 
care  being  taken  not  to  allow  the  vitreous  humor  to  follow.  Displacement  and  extrac- 
tion are  both  applicable  to  hard  cataracts,  the  form  it  generally  takes  in  old  age,  as  the 
lens  itself  becomes  naturally  harder  with  age,  as  well  as  more  flat  and  amber-tinted. 
Displacement  is  more  likely  to  be  followed  by  bad  consequences,  some  time  after,  from 
the  presence  of  the  displaced  lens,  while  the  risk  of  extraction  is  greater  at  the  opera- 
tion. The  surgeon  must  decide  which  is  best  for  each  case.  Though  not  so  simple  and 
successful  as  the  operation  for  absorption  through  the  cornea  for  soft  C.,  displacement 
and  extraction  are  generally  very  successful  in  restoring  vision.  The  place  of  the  lens 
is  supplied  by  fluid  humor,  the  refracting  power  of  which  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
lens,  and  the  restoration  of  vision  may  be  perfect,  All  of  these  operations  require  minute 
anatomical  knowledge  (see  Eye),  and  great  nicety  and  skill  in  the  use  of  the  instruments 

CATARACTS  and  RAPIDS.  See  Waterfalls,  ante. 

CATARRH  (Gr.  katarreo,  I flow  down),  a disease  of  great  frequency  in  temperate  lati. 
tudes,  especially  in  changeable  moist  climates  in  the  winter  season.  From  its  well- 
known  connection  with  sudden  falls  of  temperature,  and  other  epidemic  or  atmospheric 
causes  (see  Influenza),  as  also  from  the  chill  often  experienced  at  the  commencement 


547 


Cataract*. 

Catawba*. 


of  tljc  ciseasc,  it  is  popularly  called  a cold — a term,  however,  perhaps  somewhat  less 
definite  in  its  meaning  than  C.,  which  word  is  usually  restricted  to  the  case  of  a cold 
affecting  the  chest,  and  attended  witli  discharge  of  mucus  by  coughing.  A “cold  in 
the  head  ” is  termed,  in  strict  scientific  language,  coryza;  we  shall,  however,  keep  both 
forms  in  view  in  the  present  article.  C.,  or  cold,  commonly  begins  with  a feeling  of 
chilliness,  which  may  or  may  not  be  attributable  to  external  causes.  Sometimes  this  is 
absent,  there  being  only  a sense  of  languor  and  indisposition;  not  unfrequently  there  is 
no  sensation  of  an  unusual  kind,  until  a stuffing  is  experienced  in  the  nostrils,  or  severe 
headache,  or  hoarseness  with  cough,  or  oppression  of  the  breathing.  The  regular  form 
of  a cold  is  to  attack  the  nostrils  first,  and  afterwards  the  air-passages  leading  to  the 
chest.  When  it  habitually  attacks  the  chest,  without  running  through  its  ordinary 
course  as  indicated  above,  there  is  often  some  special  cause  of  delicacy  in  the  lungs,  or 
some  constitutional  tendency  towards  consumption  (q.v.).  The  discharge  is  in  the 
beginning  watery,  becoming  afterwards  more  abundant,  glairy,  and  of  yellowish  color  j 
the  carly'stages  of  the  disease  are  attended  by  considerable  irritation  of  the  surfaces 
affected,  and  probably  no  one  of  the  little  miseries  of  life  is  more  prostrating  and  dis- 
couraging for  the  time  than  a bad  cold  in  the  head.  The  tendency  of  C.  to  attack  the 
chest,  and  thus  to  pass  into  bronchitis  or  pneumonia  (q.v.),  or  to  lay  the  foundation  of 
tubercular  disease,  constitutes  almost  its  only  danger.  See  Chest. 

The  treatment  of  a cold  is  commonly  a simple  matter,  so  far  as  the  particular  attack 
is  concerned.  Confinement  to  the  house,  and,  in  severe  cases,  to  bed,  or  to  the  sofa,  for 
a day  or  two;  a warm  hip  or  foot  bath,  to  remove  the  chill;  light  farinaceous  diet,  and, 
if  the  stomach  and  bowels  are  at  all  loaded,  a dose  or  two  of  some  gentle  laxative,  are 
commonly  sufficient  to  subdue  the  disease.  Some  persons  cure  their  colds  by  entire 
abstinence  from  food,  and  as  much  as  possible  from  drink;  others  by  a large  opiate,  or 
by  a succession  of  doses  of  Dover’s  powder;  others  by  spirit  of  mindererus  and  pare- 
goric; some  even  profess  to  carry  out  the  popular  maxim,  “stuff  a cold,  and  starve  a 
fever,”  and  maintain  that  a good  dinner,  and  a tumbler  of  whisky  or  brandy  toddy,  are 
the  best  specifics.  That  colds  get  well  under  all  these  methods,  needs  not  be  denied;  but 
that  any  violently  perturbative  or  specific  practice  assists  the  cure,  or  shortens  the  dis- 
ease, has  yet  to  be  proved;  and  multiplied  experience  has  shown,  that  “ stuffing  a cold 
is  by  no  means  to  be  commended.  In  the  later  stages,  however,  a more  liberal  diet 
than  at  first,  and  in  some  cases  even  a moderate  allowance  of  stimulants,  affords  consid- 
erable relief  from  the  feeling  of  depression  that  remains  for  a time  on  the  subsidence  of 
a catarrh.  The  tendency  to  this  disease,  when  habitual,  and  when  not  dependent  on 
any  form  of  constitutional  disbrder  requiring  special  means  for  its  cure,  is  best  met  by^ 
the  daily  use  of  the  cold  bath,  with  frequent  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  proper  venti- 
lation of  the  sleeping-apartment ; also  by  friction  of  the  skin,  and  by  clothing,  which,  • 
without  being  oppressive,  is  comfortably  warm.  Exposure  to  draughts  or  sudden  chills, 
when  the  surface  is  perspiring,  is  to  be  avoided;  but  a close  confined  air  habitually 
breathed  in  a workshop  or  bedroom,  is  a fruitful  predisposing  cause  of  the  disease. 

CATASAU'QUA,  a t.  in  Lehigh  co.,  Penn.,  on  Lehigh  river,  3 m.  above  Allentown; 
pop.  ’70,  2,853.  The  Lehigh  Valley  and  the  Lehigh  and  Susquehanna  railroads  unite 
here. 

CATAW'BA,  a light  sparkling  wine,  of  rich  muscadine  flavor,  produced  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  U.  S.  It  is  made  from  a grape  called  the  Catawba  grape, 
“first  found  growing  on  the  banks  of  the  Catawba  river,  in  Carolina.”  This  wine,  which 
is  scarcely  known  in  England,  is  now  in  extensive  use  in  North  America,  where  it  is 
gradually  superseding  the  importation  of  the  Rhenish  and  French  sparkling  wines,  to 
which,  in  general  character,  it  bears  a resemblance.  The  vineyards  where  the  C.  is  pro- 
duced are  situated  on  the  steep  and  beautiful  slopes  with  a southern  exposure  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ohio  river,  under  the  shelter  of  high  hills  on  the  north.  The  first  great 
grower  of  the  C.  was  Mr.  Longworth,  an  esteemed  and  wealthy  proprietor  in  this  quar- 
ter, wdio,  embarking  in  the  pursuit  less  on  business  considerations  than  as  an  enthusiast, 
succeeded,  after  much  patient  care  and  expense,  in  producing  a wine  that  throughout 
the  states  finds  more  favor,  and  commands  a higher  price,  than  the  choicest  wines  im- 
ported. Some  of  the  finer  kinds  of  C.  rival  the  best  champagne  in  delicacy  and  purity, 
and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  inferior  American  imitations. 

CATAW'BA,  a co.  in  w.  North  Carolina,  on  the  Catawba  river,  crossed  by  the  West- 
ern North  Carolina  railroad;  250  sq.m. ; pop.  TO,  14,946 — ^2474  colored.  It  has  a varied 
surface  and  fertile  soil,  producing  wheat,  cc  m,  oats,  etc.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  abun 
dance.  Co.  seat,  Newton. 

CATAW'BA,  or  Great  Catawba,  a river  rising  in  the  Blue  Ridge  in  n.w.  North 
Carolina,  and  flowing  e.  and  s.  through  the  gold  region  of  that  state  into  South  Caro- 
lina, where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  Wateree  and  joins  the  Congaree,  the  two  forming 
the  Santee.  The  C.  is  about  250  m.  long. 

CATAW'BAS,  Indians  of  North  Carolina,  once  a large  tribe  in  the  region  of 
Catawba  river,  but  now  a mere  remnant.  At  the  time  of  the  early  white  settlements, 
they  could  muster  many  thousands  of  wairiors,  and  as  late  as  tlie  revolution  were  able 
to  furnish  a valuable  contingent  to  the  Carolina  troops.  They  occupied  several  towna 


Catbalogan. 

Catechism. 


548 


along  the  river  that  still  bears  their  name;  but  at  last  leased  the  lands  to  the  vvhites,  and 
removed  into  the  territory  of  the  Cherokees,  with  whom  they  had  been  at  war.  After 
a short  residence  they  returned  to  a reservation  in  their  original  district.  Their  lan- 
guage is  closely  allied  to  that  of  the  Waccoes  and  the  Caroline  tribe.  Peter  Harris,  a 
revolutionary  soldier,  was  said  to  be  the  last  full-blooded  survivor  of  the  Catawba  tribe. 

CATBALO'GAN,  or  Cadvalonga,  a t.  of  the  Philippines,  capital  of  the  island  of 
Samar,  on  a small  bay  on  the  w.  coast.  The  houses  are  mostly  constructed  of  nipapalm, 
but  there  are  some  of  stone.  Pop.  about  7,000. 

CAT-BIRD,  Turdus  felivox,  an  American  thrush,  of  the  same  group  with  the  mock- 
ing-bird, which  it  resembles  in  its  vocal  powers.  It  is  a bird  of  passage,  making  its 
way  northward  in  spring  through  Georgia  and  Carolina  as  far  as  Massachusetts.  It 
feeds  on  fruit  and  berries  of  all  kinds,  worms,  and  insects;  builds  a large  nest  of  dry 
twigs,  weeds,  etc. , without  any  attempt  at  concealment,  in  a bush  or  tree,  often  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  human  habitations,  and  shows  extraordinary  boldness  in  the 
defense  of  its  young.  It  has  its  name  from  a mewing  cry  which  it  utters  when  annoyed 
by  an  intruder  approaching  too  near  its  nest. 

CATCH,  a species  of  musical  composition  peculiar  to  England,  and  in  the  canon  style. 
The  words  of  the  C.  are  generally  humorous,  and  intended  to  be  sung  in  social  parties 
over  a glass.  The  music  is  generally  for  three  voices,  of  which  there  exist  hundreds  of 
specimens  from  the  time  of  Purcell  to  the  present  day.  As  in  the  canon,  each  voice 
takes  up  the  subject  at  a certain  distance  after  the  first  has  begun.  One  of  the  best 
specimens  of  a 0.  is  by  Calcott,  on  Hawkins’  and  Burney’s  histories  of  music,  where 
the  humor  lies  in  one  of  the  parts  repeating  “ Burney’s  history” — sounding  like  “burn 
his  history” — while  the  others  are  advocating  Hawkins. 

CATCH-DRAINS,  open  drains,  and  sometimes  covered  drains,  along  a declivity  to 
intercept  and  carry  off  surface  water. 

CATCHFLY,  the  common  English  name  of  several  plants  of  the  natural  order  caryo- 
phyllacece — as  silene  armeria,  S.  Anglica,  lychnis  viscaria,  etc. — which  being  clammy,  in 
consequence  of  a peculiar  exudation,  on  the  calyx,  on  the  joints  of  the  stem,  etc.,  often 
prove  fatal  to  insects  settling  upon  them.  See  Lychnis  and  Silene. — Tlie  name  is 
sometimes  employed  by  botanists  as  a sort  of  popular  equivalent  to  silene. — Diomm 
muscipula  is  also  sometimes  called  the  Carolina  catechism.  See  Dion^a. 

CATCHPOLL,  a sheriff’s  officer,  or  bailiff,  is  so  called  in  England,  probably  because 
he  was  in  use  lO  catch  his  victim  by  the  poll,  or  head. 

CATEAU,  Le,  or  Cateau-Cambresis,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Nord, 
situated  on  the  Selle,  14  m.  e.s.e.  of  Cambrai.  C.  has  manufactures  of  shawls,  merinoes, 
calicoes,  and  leather;  it  has  also  breweries  and  distilleries.  Pop.  76,  9,444.  It  is  cele- 
brated as  the  place  where,  in  1559,  the  treaty  known  as  that  of  Cateau-Cambresis  was 
concluded  between  Henri  II.  of  France  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  by  which  the 
former  monarch  ceded  to  the  latter.  Savoy,  Corsica,  and  nearly  200  forts  in  Italy  and 
the  low  countries. 

CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS,  the  name  given  to  the  ancient  Christian  schools  of 
theology,  of  which  the  chief  were  those  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria.  Clement  and 
Origen  were  the  most  famous  of  the  teachers. 

CATECHISM,  from  a Greek  word,  kateched,  which  means  to  resound,  or  sound  into 
one’s  ears;  hence  to  instruct  by  word  of  mouth.  Pesons  undergoing  instruction  in  the 
principles  of  Christianity  were  hence  called  catechumens  {katechoumenoi),  and  the  teacher 
appointed  for  this  purpose  was  called  a catechist.  Hence  an}’-  system  of  teaching  by 
question  and  answer  is  called  a catechism. 

Catechisms  have  long  formed  one  of  the  princij  jl  means  employed  for  popular 
instruction  in  the  truths  and  duties  of  the  Christian  religion.  The  composition  of  the 
first  catechisms  was,  in  all  probability,  suggested  by  the  ordinary  oral  instruction  of 
catechumens,  and  was  intended  for  the  help  both  of  teachers  and  pupils.  It  appears  to 
have  been  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries  that  the  first  regular  catechisms  were  compiled, 
of  which  that  by  Kero,  a monk  of  St.  Gall,  and  that  ascribed  to  Otfried  of  Weissenburg, 
are  among  the  most  noted.  At  later  periods,  the  use  of  catechisms  prevailed  chiefly 
among  the  opponents  of  the  hierarchy,  as  among  the  Waldenses,  the  Albigenses,  the 
Wickliffites,  and,  above  all,  among  the  Bohemian  brethren.  The  term  C.  appears  to 
have  been  first  employed  in  its  present  sense  among  the  latter.  At  an  early  period  in  the 
history  of  the  reformation,  the  reformers  began  to  avail  themselves  of  this  method  of  popu- 
, lar  instruction,  and  their  catechisms  became  important  instruments  in  that  great  religious 
movement.  In  1520,  Luther  published  his  first  short  catechism.  In  1525,  Justus  Jonas 
and  John  Agricola  were  intrusted  with  the  preparation  of  a catechism.  In  1529,  Luther 
published  his  larger  and  smaller  catechisms,  which  found  a place  among  the  symbolical 
books  or  standards  of  the  Lutheran  churches.  A number  of  catechisms  were  published 
also  by  the  Swiss  reformers,  and  by  those  of  England  and  other  countries.  The  Geneva 
catechisms,  larger  and  smaller,  were  the  work  of  Calvin.  They  were  published  in  1536. 
were  speedily  translated  into  various  languages,  and  became  acknowledged  standards  of 
the  reformed  churches,  not  only  in  Switzerland  but  in  the  low  countries,  in  France,  and 


549 


Catbalog:an. 

Catechinm. 


in  Iliingmy.  The  church  of  Geneva  has  set  aside  tlie  authority  of  these  catechisms. — 
The  Zurich  C.  is  received  as  a standard  in  the  church  of  Zurich. — The  Heidelberg  or 
palatinate  C.  is  of  greater  importance,  however,  than  any  other  as  a standard  of  the 
Swiss  reformed  churches.  It  was  compiled  by  the  Heidelberg  theologians,  Caspar 
Olevian  and  Zacharias  Ursinus,  at  the  request  of  the  elector  Frederic  III.  of  the  palati- 
nate; it  was  published  in  1563,  was  approved  by  several  synods,  and  was  subjected  to  a 
revision  by  the  synod  of  Dort. — In  the  church  of  Rome,  the  Romish  or  Tridentine  C.  is 
of  high  authority.  It  was  prepared  in  accordance  with  the  decrees  of  the  council  of 
Trent,  by  archbishop  Leon.  Marino,  bishop  ^gidius  Foscorari,  and  the  Portuguese 
dominican,  Francis  Fureiro;  revised  by  cardinals  Borromeo,  Siiiet,  and  Antonian,  and 
sanctioned  by  pope  Pius  V.  It  was  published  at  Rome  in  1566 — The  C.  of  the  Orthodox 
Greek  church  was  prepared  by  Peter  Mogilas,  metropolitan  in  Kiew,  and  published  in 
1642.  It  received  authority  as  a standard  or  symbolical  book  from  a synod  at  Jerusalem 
in  1672.  It  is  often  called  the  larger  Russian  C.,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  smaller  C., 
prepared  by  order  of  Peter  the  great. — Besides  these  catechisms,  which  have  a historic 
interest,  or  are  of  importance  from  their  symbolical  character,  there  have  appeared  at  all 
periods,  ,unce  the  reformation,  many  others,  both  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic,  some 
doctrinal,  some  controversial,  some  devoted  to  particular  subjects,  as  the  sacraments, 
or  to  particular  purposes,  as  the  preparation  of  candidates  for  admission  to  the  Lord’s 
supper,  some  adapted  to  the  mental  capacity  of  very  young  children,  etc.  The  opinion, 
however,  has  become  prevalent,  that  doctrinal  abstracts  are  not  the  best  form  in  which 
religion  can  be  presented  to  the  young,  and  the  use  of  catechisms  has  accordingly  been 
in  some  measure  relinquished  in  favor  of  other  methods  of  instruction. 

The  C.  of  the  church  of  England,  with  which  we  are  most  familiar,  is  the  smaller 
one  published  in  the  book  of  Common  Prayer.  It  is  in  two  parts;  the  first  contains  and 
explains  the  baptismal  covenant,  the  creed,  the  ten  commandments,  and  the  Lord’s 
prayer;  the  second  explains  the  two  sacraments,  baptism,  and  the  Lord’s  supper.  It 
is  not  known  with  absolute  certainty  who  was  the  author  of  the  first  part;  probably 
Oranmer  and  Ridley  had  the  principal  hand  in  framing  the  questions  and  answers. 
It  was  originally  put  forth  with  the  42  articles  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  and 
condemned  as  heretical  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  Cran- 
mer’s  C.,  vhich  was  a larger  work,  differently  arranged,  and  translated  chiefly  from  the 
German  C.  used  in  Nuremberg.  This  first  part  of  the  church  C.  is  spoken  of  as  the 
shorter  catechism. 

There  was  a larger  church  C.  compiled  also  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  by  Ponet, 
as  is  supposed,  and  it  corresponds  in  some  degree  with  the  smaller  work  above  described. 
It  was  afterwards  revised  and  enlarged  by  Noel,  dean  of  St.  Paul’s,  and  published  in 
1570;  and  though  never  officially  promulgated  by  the  church,  it  has  some  authority 
from  having  been  approved  by  the  lower  house  of  convocation.  At  the  Hampton  court 
conference,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  the  shorter  Q.  was  considered  too  short,  and  the 
larger  one  of  Noel’s  too  long;  and  accordingly,  at  the  king’s  suggestion,  an  addition  was 
made  to  the  former  of  that  explanation  of  the  two  sacraments  which  now  forms  the 
second  part  of  the  church  catechism.  This  was  drawn  up  by  Dr.  Overall.  The  whole 
is  a work  much  esteemed  by  all  sections  of  the  church,  as  remarkable  for  its  simplicity, 
truth,  and  catholicity.  It,  however,  states  the  baptismal  theory  in  a way  that  is  not 
very  acceptable  to  the  extreme  low  church  party.  The  rubrics  in  the  Common  Prayer 
book  enjoin  the  teaching  of  the  C.  in  the  church  on  Sum  lays  and  holidays  after  the  2d 
lesson  at  evening  prayer;  and  the  59th  canon  contains  a like  injunction,  imposing  pen- 
alties on  the  clergy  wdio  neglect  this.  The  custom  of  catechizing  in  the  church  had 
fallen  into  almost  universal  disuse,  but  in  many  parishes  it  has  been  revived  with  excel- 
lent results. 

The  larger  and  shorter  catechisms,  which,  with  the  Westminster  confession  of  faith, 
constitute  the  standards  or  symbolical  books  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  throughout 
the  British  empire  and  the  United  States  of  America,  were  compiled  by  the  assembly  of 
divines  at  Westminster  (q.v.):  the  shorter  C.  “ to  be  a directory  for  catechizing  such  as 
are  of  weaker  capacity ;”  the  larger,  ‘‘  for  catechizing  such  as  have  made  some  profi- 
ciency in  the  knowledge  of  the  Christian  religion.”  The  shorter  C.  was  presented  to 
the  English  house  of  commons  on  5th  Nov.,  1647;  the  larger  on  the  14th  April,  1648; 
and  in  July,  1648,  both  received  the  sanction  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  church  of 
Scotland — the  general  assembly,  in  the  act  approving  of  the  larger  C.,  declaring  it  to  be 
a rich  treasure  for  increasing  knowledge  among  the  people  of  God,”  and  that  “ they 
bless  the  Lord  that  so  excellent  a catechism  has  been  prepared.”  The  shorter  C.  has, 
however,  been  far  more  generally  used  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  than  the  larger, 
which  has  been  generally  felt  to  be  too  minute  in  its  statements,  and  too  burdensome  to 
the  memory  to  be  employed  as  a catechism.  Even  the  shorter  C.  is  regarded  by  many, 
who  substantially  adhere  to  its  doctrine,  as  carrying  the  statement  of  dogmatic  theology 
beyond  what  is  proper  for  elementary  instruction,  whilst  it  has  been  long  felt  to  be 
unsuitable  for  the  very  young  and  the  very  ignorant,  and  its  use  is  now  almost  always 
preceded  by  that  of  catechisms  more  adapted  to  their  capacity.  Its  influence,  however, 
has  been  very  great  in  forming  the  religious  opinions,  and  in  exercising  and  training  the 
intellectual  faculties,  wherever  Presbyterianism  has  prevailed ; for  it  has  been,  and  still 


Catechu. 

Catel. 


550 


is,  in  almost  universal  use  among  Presbyterians  speaking  the  English  language,  and  to  » 
considerable  extent  among  Independents  or  Congregationalists  both  in  Britain  and 
America.  In  Holland  also,  a translation  of  it  has  been  much  used.  It  is  very  generally 
regarded,  by  those  whose  doctrinal  views  are  in  accordance  with  it,  as  an  admirable 
compend  of  Christian  doctrine  and  duty. — The  authorship  of  the  Westminster  assem- 
bly’s catechisms  has  been  the  subject  of  much  debate,  or  at  least  the  authorship  of 
the  first  drafts  of  them;  it  being  admitted  that  they  were  prepared  with  great  care 
by  committees  of  the  assembly.  But  the  probability  appears  to  be,  that  their  author- 
ship is  to  be  ascribed  entirely  to  these  committees;  and  that,  like  the  Westminster 
confession  of  faith,  they  are  thus  the  result  of  the  joint  labors  of  many.  From  dis-- 
ooveries  made  by  the  late  Dr.  M‘Crie,  it  seems  probable  that  at  least  the  ']^an  or 
scheme  of  the  shorter  C.  is  to  be  ascribed  to  Mr.  Palmer. 

CAT'ECHTT,  a substance  employed  bo'th  as  a coloring  matter  and  medicinally  as  an 
astringert.  The  C.  of  commerce  is  obtained  chiefly  from  East  Indian  trees,  such  as 
the  C.  cree  {acacia  catechu),  betel-nut,  etc. ; but  the  greater  part  of  that  which  is 
expor'.ed  from  India  is  made  from  the  C.  tree.  It  is  known  in  India  by  the  name 
kutt;  and  C.  is  said  to  be  a name  compounded  of  two  words  signifying  the  juice  of  a tree 
{ca*e,  a tree,  and  chu,  juice).  Cutch  is  another  form  of  one  or  other  of  these  names,  and 
is  a common  commercial  name.  The  heart-wood  alone  of  the  tree  yields  C.,  which 
\ obtained  by  cutting  it  into  small  chips,  and  boiling  it  in  water,  straining  the  liquid 
'rom  time  to  time,  and  adding  fresh  supplies  of  chips,  till  the  extract  is  of  sutficient  con- 
iistence  to  be  poured  into  clay  molds,  which  are  usually  of  a square  shape;  or  when  of 
the  thickness  of  tar,  it  is  allowed  to  harden  for  two  days,  so  that  it  will  not  run,  and  is 
formed  into  balls  about  the  size  of  oranges,  which  are  placed  on  husks  of  rice  or  on 
leaves,  and  appear  in  commerce  enveloped  in  them.  The  C,  manufacturers  in  Northern 
India  move  to  different  parts  of  the  country  at  different  seasons,  and  erect  tem- 
porary huts  in  the  jungles,  where  they  carry  on  their  operations.  The  C.  tree  abounds 
chiefly  in  the  Bombay  and  Bengal  presidencies;  it  is  a small,  erect,  thorny  tree,  with  a 
roundish  head  of  (generally)  prickly  branches.  Its  sapwood  is  yellow,  tne  heart-wood 
dark  red.  C.  is  brittle,  and  can  readily  be  broken  into  fragments;  is  soluble  in  water, 
and  possesses  an  astringent  taste,  but  no  odor.  It  is  a very  permanent  color,  and  is 
employed  in  the  dyeing  of  blacks,  browns,  fawns,  drabs,  and  greens.  It  contains  much 
tannin,  and  an  acid  called  catechuic  acid,  which  can  be  isolated  in  white  silky  crystals. 
It  is  often  adulterated  with  earthy  substances,  but  its  ready  solubility  in  water  and  alco- 
hol, should  at  once  show  the  presence  of  such,  by  leaving  them  behind  in  an  insoluble 
state. — The  C.  of  the  betel-nut  is  obtained  by  boiling  first  the  nuts,  and  then  the  extract 
to  a proper  consistency.  A first  boiling  of  the  nuts  for  some  hours  is  said  to  yield  a 
black  kind  of  C.,  called  kassu;  and  a second  boiling,  after  the  nuts  are  dried,  a yellowish- 
brown  kind,  called  coury,  which  is  considered  the  best,  and  is  sold  for  the  highest  price. 
The  former  appears  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  Colombo  C.  or  Ceylon  C.  (or  cutch) 
in  the  form  of  circular  flat  cakes,  covered  on  one  side  with  husks  of  rice.  The  latter 
does  not  seem  to  reach  Europe. — Gambir  (q.v.)  may  be  regarded  as  a kind  of  catechu. 
Kino  (q.v.)  is  sometimes  confounded  with  catechu.  Terra  Japonica,  or  Japan  earth,  is 
an  old  name  for  C.,  not  quite  disused,  which  was  given  to  it  on  the  supposition  of  its 
being  an  earthy  substance  brought  from  Japan. 

CATECHU'MENS  (Gr.  persons  undergoing  a course  of  instruction ; see  Catechism), 
the  appellation  given,  in  the  early  Christian  church,  to  those  converted  Jews  and 
heathens  who  had  not  yet  received  baptism,  but  were  undergoing  a course  of  training 
and  instruction  preparatory  to  it.  They  had  a place  assigned  them  in  the  congregation, 
but  were  not  permitted  to  be  present  at  the  dispensation  of  the  Lord’s  supper.  In  the 
apostolic  age,  converts  appear  to  have  been  at  once  admitted  to  the  sacraments;  but 
afterwards  this  ceased  to  be  the  case,  and  a period  of  probation  was  required.  The  C. 
were  divided  into  different  classes  or  grades,  according  to  their  proficiency — those  of  the 
lowest  grade  were  not  permitted  to  be  present  during  the  prayers  of  the  congregation; 
and  those  only  of  the  highest,  and  who  had  been  declared  fit  to  be  baptized  at  the  next 
administration  of  the  ordinance,  were  permitted  to  wdtness  the  dispensation  of  the 
Lord’s  supper. — The  term  C.  was  afterwards  employed  to  designate  young  members  of 
the  Christian  church  who  were  receiving  instruction  to  prepare  them  for  confirmation 
or  for  the  Lord’s  supper,  and  it  is  still  often  used  in  this  sense. 

CATEGORIES.  This  designation  has  come  down  to  us  from  Aristotle.  One  of  the 
books  of  his  Organon  or  Logical  System  is  so  named.  The  C.,  or  predicaments,  as  the 
schoolmen  called  them,  are  to  be  understood  as  an  attempt  at  a comprehensive  classifica- 
tion of  all  that  exists,  for  the  purposes  of  logical  affirmation,  proof,  or  disproof.  The 
entire  universe  may  be  classified  in  various  ways — as  into  things  celestial  and  terrestrial; 
into  matter  and  spirit;  into  organized  and  unorganized;  into  minerals,  plants,  animals, 
etc.  But  the  classification  contemplated  under  the  C.  proceeds  on  the  very  general 
properties  or  attributes  that  most  extensively  pervade  all  existing  things,  although  in 
unequal  degrees.  A good  example  is  quantity,  which  pertains  to  every  thing  that  we 
know  or  can  think  of.  We  give  the  Aristotelian  enumeration — the  first  column  is  thi» 


551 


Catechu. 

Catel. 


original  Greek ; the  second,  the  Latin  rendering  of  the  schoolmen ; the  third,  the  nearest 
corresponding  English  words; 


0v6ia, 

Substantia, 

Substance 

Hodov, 

Quantitas, 

Quantity. 

Hoidv, 

Qualitas, 

Quality. 

Hpoi  Tt, 

Relatio, 

Relation. 

HoiEiv, 

Actio, 

Action. 

Hccdxetv, 

Passio, 

Passivity. 

Hov, 

Ubi, 

Position  in  space 

Hors, 

Quando, 

Position  in  time. 

KeidOat, 

Situs, 

Situation. 

Exeiv, 

Habitus, 

Possession. 

Mr.  J.  S.  Mill  has  the  following  remarks  on  the  above  scheme:  “ The  imperfections  of 
this  classitication  are  too  obvious  to  require,  and  its  merits  are  not  sufficient  to  reward, 
a minute  examination.  It  is  a mere  catalogue  of  the  distinctions  rudely  marked  out  by 
the  language  of  familiar  life,  with  little  or  no  attempt  to  penetrate,  by  philosophical 
analysis,  to  the  rationale  even  of  these  common  distinctions.  Such  an  analysis,  how- 
ever superficially  conducted,  would  have  shown  the  enumeration  to  be  both  redundant 
and  defective.  Some  objects  are  admitted,  and  others  repeated  several  times  under 
different  heads.  It  is  like  a division  of  animals  into  men,  quadrupeds,  horses,  asses, 
and  ponies.  That,  for  instance,  could  not  be  a very  comprehensive  view  of  the  nature 
of  Relation,  which  could  exclude  action,  passivity,  and  local  situation  from  that  cate- 
gory. The  same  observation  applies  to  position  in  time  and  position  in  space;  while  the 
distinction  between  the  latter  and  situation  is  merely  verbal.” — Logic,  book  i.,  chap.  lii. 
§ 1.  Some  writers  have  endeavored  to  save  the  C.  from  these  objections,  by  declaring 
that  the  fourth.  Relation,  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a general  head,  comprehending  the 
remaining  six  under  it.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that  Aristotle  had  this  view  in  his 
mind;  on  the  contrary,  it  appears  almost  certain  that  his  idea  of  Relation  was  too  nar- 
row and  limited  to  admit  of  his  giving  it  so  great  a comprehension. 

Mr.  Mill  gives  us  the  result  of  his  own  analysis,  the  following  enumeration  and 
classification  of  existences  or  describable  things: 

1.  Feelings,  or  states  of  consciousness;  which  are  the  most  comprehensive  experience 
that  the  human  mind  can  attain  to,  since  even  the  external  world  is  only  known  as  con- 
ceived by  our  minds. 

2.  The  minds  which  experience  those  feelings. 

3.  The  bodies,  or  external  objects,  which  are  supposed  to  excite  all  that  class  of 
feelings  that  we  denominate  sensations. 

4.  The  successions,  and  coexistences,  the  likenesses  and  unlikenesses,  between  feel- 
ings or  states  of  consciousness.  Although  the  relations  are  considered  by  us  to  subsist 
between  the  bodies,  or  things,  external  to  our  minds,  we  are  driven  in  the  last  resort  to 
consider  them  as  really  subsisting  between  the  states  of  each  one’s  own  individual  mind. 

Mr.  Mill  shows  that  all  possible  propositions — and  it  is  with  the  truth  or  falsehood  of 
propositions  that  the  science  of  logic  has  chiefly  to  do — affirm  or  deny  one  or  other  of 
the  following  properties  or  facts:  Existence— the  most  general  attribute  of  all — Co-ex- 
istence, sequence  or  succession,  causation — a peculiar  case  of  succession — and  resem- 
blance. It  is  to  arrive  at  this  classification  of  propositions,  for  the  purposes  of  logic,  that 
the  foregoing  analysis,  corresponding  to  the  Aristotelian  C.,  was  made.  The  properties 
affirmed  of  any  thing  or  things,  or  the  things  of  which  any  properties  are  affirmed,  come 
under  some  one  or  other  of  the  four  heads  above  given. 

The  C.  of  Kant,  which  are  sometimes  brought  into  comparison  with  those  of  Aristo- 
tle, are  conceived  under  a totally  different  point  of  view.  See  sir  W.  Hamilton’s  Dis- 
missions on  Philosophy,  2d  edit.,  p.  26.  They  refer  to  certain  forms  supposed  to  be 
inherent  in  the  understanding  itself,  under  which  the  mind  embraces  the  objects  of 
actual  experience.  The  Kantian  philosophy  supposes  that  human  knowledge  is  partly 
made  up  of  the  sensations  of  outward  things — color,  sound,  touch,  etc. — and  partly  of 
intuitions  existing  in  the  mind  prior  to  all  experience  of  the  actual  world.  This  is  the 
point  of  difference  between  the  school  of  Locke — who  rejected  all  innate  ideas,  concep- 
tions, or  forms — and  the  school  of  Kant.  No  such  question  was  raised  under  the  Aris- 
totelian categories.  Kant’s  enumeration  of  his  innate  forms  is  as  follows:  1.  Quantity, 
including  unity,  multitude,  totality;  2.  Quality,  including  reality,  negation,  limitation; 
3.  Relation,  including  substance  and  accident,  cause  and  effect,  action  and  reaction;  4. 
Modality,  which  includes  possibility,  existence,  necessity.  These  indicate  the  elements 
of  our  knowledge  a priori;  it  being  the  opinion  of  the  author,  that  such  notions,  as  cau 
sation,  necessity,  etc.,  cannot  be  obtained  from  the  exercise  of  our  senses  and  intelligence 
upon  the  world  of  realities,  but  must  have  been  somehow  or  other  imprinted  upon  the 
mind  originally. 

CA'TEL,  Fkanz,  1778-1856;  a German  artist  who  first  gained  reputation  by  his  illus- 
trations of  Goethe’s  Hermann  and  Dorothea.  He  labored  in  Paris  and  Rome,  and  his 
works  found  their  way  all  over  the  continent.  He  left  all  his  fortune  for  the  benefit  of 
poor  artists. 


Catenary. 

Catharine. 


552 


CAT  ENARY.  The  C.  is  the  curve  formed  by  a flexible  homogeneous  cord  hanging 
freely  between  two  points  of  support,  and  acted  on  by  no  other  force  than  gravity.  If 
the  cord  is  not  homogeneous,  and  the  density  varies  in  any  regular  way,  the  cord  hangs  in 
a curve  slightly  different  in  shape  from  that  of  the  ordinary  catenary.  The  C.  possesses 
several  remarkable  properties,  one  of  which  is,  that  its  center  of  gravity  (q.v.)  is  lower 
than  that  of  any  curve  of  equal  perimeter,  and  with  the  same  fixed  points  for  its 
extremities.  Where  the  cord  is  such  that  the  weight  of  any  part  of  it  is  proportioned  to 
its  horizontal  projection,  the  curve  is  a parabola  (q.v.).  The  latter  curve  and  the  ordi- 
nary C.  are  of  importance  chiefiy  in  the  theory  of  suspension  bridges  (q.v.).  The 
properties  of  the  C.  will  be  found  fully  analyzed  in  all  the  leading  works  on  mechanics. 

CATENIPORA,  a genus  of  fossil  lamelliferous  corals  peculiar  to  paleozoic  strata,  con- 
fined in  Britain  to  the  Silurian  measures.  The  genus  is  easily  recognized.  The  cells 
are  terminal  and  oval,  arranged  like  a loose  net-work  of  chains,  hence  called  “chain 
coral.”  Vertical  anastomosing  lamellae  united  the  cells  together,  and  formed  a hemis- 
pherical polypidom,  sometimes  of  great  size. 

CATE’RINA,  Santa,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta,  and  7.  m.  n.n.w. 
of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  is  situated  on  a hill  near  the  river  Salso,  is  fortified,  has 
manufactures  of  fine  earthenware;  and  in  the  neighborhood  are  found  jaspers  and 
agates  of  good  quality.  Pop.  5,800. 

CATERPILLAR,  the  name  given  to  the  larvae  of  lepidopterous  insects — butterflies, 
moths,  and  hawk-moths.  Caterpillars  exhibit  as  great  differences  as  subsist  among  the 
perfect  insects  into  which  they  change,  and  the  family,  genus,  and  species  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  characters  of  the  C.,  as  well  as  of  the  perfect  insect.  Their  body  is  gen- 
erall}^  long,  nearly  cylindrical,  soft,  and  consisting  of  12  rings  or  segments  besides  the 
head,  with  nine  spiracles  or  small  openings  for  respiration  on  each  side.  The  head  is 
much  harder  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  of  a sort  of  almost  horny  substance,  and  has  S 
small  shining  points  on  each  side,  which  are  regarded  as  simple  or  stemmatic  eyes,  and 
is  also  furnished  with  two  very  short  rudimentary  antennae.  The  mouth  is  adapted  for 
tearing,  cutting,  and  masticating  the  substances  on  which  the  C.  is  destined  to  feed,  which 
are  very  various  in  the  different  species,  although  in  all  extremely  different  from  the 
food  of  the  perfect  insect;  it  is  provided  with  two  strong  mandibles,  or  upper  jaws;  tw*o 
maxilla,,  or  lower  jaws;  a labium,  or  lower  lip;  and  ioxxv palpi,  or  feelers.  In  the  mouth 
also  is  situated  the  spineret  of  those  species  which,  when  they  change  into  the  chrysalis 
or  pupa  state,  envelop  themselves  in  silken  cocoons.  See  Silk-worm.  The  first  three 
segments  of  the  body  are  each  furnished  with  a pair  of  feet,  which  are  hard  and  scaly, 
and  represent  the  6 feet  of  the  perfect  insect;  some  of  the  remaining  segments  are  also 
furnished  with  feet,  varying  in  all  from  4 to  10  in  number,  the  last  pair  situated  at  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  body;  but  these  feet  are  soft  and  membranous  or  fleshy,  and 
armed  at  their  extremity  with  a sort  of  circlet  of  minute  hooks.  All  the  feet  or  legs  are 
very  short.  Those  caterpillars  in  which  the  pro-legs,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  or 
supplementary  soft  feet,  are  pretty  equally  distributed  along  the  body,  move  by  a sort  of 
regular  crawling  motion;  but  those  which  have  only  four  such  feet  situated  near  the 
posterior  extremity,  move  by  alternately  taking  hold  by  what  may  be  called  their  fore- 
feet and  their  hind-feet,  now  stretching  the  body  out  to  its  full  length,  and  now  bending 
it  into  an  arch,  whilst  the  hinder  part  is  brought  forward  almost  into  contact  with  the 
forepart.  Caterpillars  which  move  in  this  way  are  called  geometers  or  loopers.  Some  cater- 
pillars have  the  power  of  fixing  themselves  by  the  two  hind  feet  to  a twig,  and  stretching 
themselves  out  as  straight  as  a rod,  so  that  being  in  color  very  like  a twig  of  the  tree  on 
the  leaves  of  which  they  feed,  they  are  not  readily  observed.  The  muscular  power 
required  for  this  position  of  rest  is  very  great,  and  Lyonnet  found  the  number  of  mus- 
cles in  a C.  to  be  more  than  4,000.  The  skin  of  some  caterpillars  is  naked,  that  of 
others  is  covered  with  hairs,  spines,  or  tubercles.  Some  make  for  themselves  nests  or 
tents  of  silk,  under  w hich  they  dwell  in  societies,  protected  from  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather.  Many  canstiuct  cases  or  sheaths  by  agglutinating  various  substances  together, 
as  the  C.  of  the  common  clothes-moth.  Some  roll  together  leaves,  and  fix  them  by 
threads,,  so  forming  a dwelling  for  themselves;  and  a few  burrow  and  excavate  galleries 
in  the  substance  of  leaves.  Many  feed  on  leaves;  many  being  limited  to  a particular 
kind  of  plant,  or  to  a few  nearly  allied  plants.  Some  feed  on  flowers,  some  on  seeds, 
some  on  roots,  and  some  even  on  the  woody  portions  of  stems;  some  on  wool,  hides, 
furs,  and  other  animal  substances;  a few  on  lard,  and  other  kinds  of  fat.  Among  the 
admirable  arrangements  which  make  all  nature  harmonious,  is  the  adjustment  of  the 
time  of  each  kind  of  C.’s  appearance  to  that  of  the  leaf  or  flower  on  which  it  is  to  feed. 

CATERPILLAR  FUNGUS,  or  Fungoid  Parasites,  a species  of  fungus  that  attacks 
insects,  particularly  the  larvae  of  moths  and  beetles,  filling  their  bodies  and  sending 
shoots  beyond  the  skin  so  that  the  creature  takes  the  appearance  of  a vegetable  growth. 
These  growths  vary  in  length  from  a slight  projection  to  nearly  a foot,  and  in  diameter 
from  a hair  to  a quarter  of  an  inch.  The  fungi  attacking  insects  also  infest  all  organic 
and  decaying  matter. 

CATES'BY,  Mark,  1680-1749;  an  English  naturalist  who  was  seven  years  in  the 
American  colonies,  returning  to  England  in  1719  with  a fine  collection  of  plants.  He 


553 


Catenary. 

Catharine. 


made  another  journey  in  1723,  exploring  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  and  the 
Bahamas.  He  published  Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Bahama  Islands, 
in  which  the  figures  were  etched  by  himself  from  his  own  paintings.  He  also  wrote 
Hortus  Europece  Americanus  and  a paper  on  Birds  of  Passage. 

CAT-FISH,  a name  given  to  several  species  of  the  family  Silundoe,  dwelling  in 
American  rivers  and  lakes.  The  common  cat-fish,  or  horned  pout,  of  the  Atlantic  slope, 
is  preferred  above  most  river  fish  for  food.  They  are  from  7 to  9 in.  long,  dusky  brown 
in  color  on  the  back  and  sides,  and  white  underneath.  The  upper  jaw  is  the  longest; 
the  tail  is  rounded;  skin  without  scales  and  commonly  covered  with  a slimy  secretion. 
It  has  two  fleshy  barbels  (long  beard  like  spines)  on  the  top  of  the  nose,  and  others  at 
the  angles  of  the  jaws.  Its  mouth  is  very  large.  Immense  cat-fish  are  found  in  the 
great  lakes  and  western  rivers,  more  than  4 ft.  long  and  weighing  60  to  150  lbs. 

CATGUT  is  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  the  strings  of  violins,  harps,  guitars,  and 
other  musical  instruments;  as  also  in  the  cords  used  by  clockmakers,  in  the  bows  of 
archers,  and  in  whip  cord.  It  is  generally  prepared  from  the  intestines  of  the  sheep, 
rarely  from  those  of  the  horse,  ass,  or  mule,  and  not  those  of  the  cat.  The  first  stage  in 
the  operation  is  the  thorough  cleansing  of  the  intestines  from  adherent  feculent  and 
fatty  matters;  after  which  they  are  steeped  in  water  for  several  days,  so  as  to  loosen  the 
external  membrane,  which  can  then  be  removed  by  scraping  with  a bluut  knife.  The 
material  which  is  thus  scraped  off  is  employed  for  the  cords  of  battle-doors  and  rackets, 
-and  also  as  thread  in  sewing  the  ends  of  intestines  together.  The  scraped  intestines  are 
then  steeped  in  water,  and  scraped  again,  when  the  large  intestines  are  cut  and  placed 
in  tubs  with  salt,  to  preserve  them  for  the  sausage-maker;  and  the  smaller  intestines  are 
steeped  in  water,  thereafter  treated  with  a dilute  solution  of  alkali  (4  oz.  potash,  4 oz. 
carbonate  of  potash,  and  3 to  4 gallons  of  water,  with  occasionally  a little  alum),  and 
are  lastly  drawn  through  a perforated  brass  thimble,  and  assorted  into  their  respective 
sizes.  In  order  to  destroy  any  adherent  animal  matter,  which  would  lead  to  putrefac- 
tion and  the  consequent  development  of  offensive  odors,  it  is  customary  to  subject  the 
€.  t©  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur — sulphurous  acid,  which  acts  as  an  antiseptic  (q.v.), 
and  arrests  decomposition.  The  best  strings  are  used  for  musical  instruments;  and 
those  which  come  from  Italy,  and  are  known  as  Boman  strings,  are  the  strongest.  They 
are  remarkable  for  their  clearness  and  transparency.  Cord  for  clockmakers  is  made 
from  the  smallest  of  the  intestines,  and  occasionally  from  larger  ones,  which  have  been 
aplit  longitudinally  into  several  lengths.  Whip-cord  is  fabricated  from  C.  which  has  been 
twisted  in  a manner  somewhat  similar  to  single-corded  ropes.  The  C.  obtained  from 
the  intestines  of  horses,  asses,  and  mules  is  principally  made  in  France,  and  is  employed 
instead  of  leather-belts  for  driving  machinery. 

CA'THA,  a genus  of  the  natural  order  celastracece.  The  fruit  is  a three-cornered  cap- 
sule.— G.  edulis,  sometimes  called  Arabian  Tea,  the  Khat  of  the  Arabians,  is  a shrub 
with  erect  smooth  branches,  elliptical  obtusely  serrated  leaves,  and  small  flowers  in 
axillary  cymes.  It  is  a native  of  Arabia,  and  the  Arabs  ascribe  to  its  leaves,  even  carried 
about  the'person,  extraordinary  virtues  as  a preventive  of  plague,  with  probably  about 
as  much  reason  as  our  forefathers  had  for  esteeming  the  rowan  tree  formidable  to 
witches.  When  fresh,  they  are  stimulant,  narcotic,  and  intoxicating,  and  are  eaten  with 
greediness  by  the  Arabs.  They  are  very  antisoporific,  so  that  a man,  after  using  them, 
may  keep  v/atch  for  a whole  night  without  drowsiness. 

CATHABI,  or  Catharists  (Gr.  pure),  a name  very  generally  given  to  various  sects 
which  appeared  in  the  church  during  the  middle  ages.  It  appears  to  have  been  some- 
times assumed  in  profession  of  a purity  of  doctrine  and  morals  superior  to  that  which 
generally  prevailed  in  the  church,  sometimes  bestowed  ironically  in  ridicule  of  such  a 
profession,  and  perhaps  was  first  used  as  a designation  of  the  Paulicians  (q.v.).  It 
became  a common  appellation  of  sects  which  appeared  in  Lombardy  in  the  beginning  of 
the  11th  c.,  and  afterwards  in  France  and  the  w.  of  Germany.  Having- some  connec- 
tion with  the  Bulgarian  Paulicians,  they  were  sometimes  called  Bulgarians;  sometimes 
also  Patarenes  or  Patarines,  Publicans  or  Popelitans,  and  in  the  Low  Countries, 

Pvphles.  The  names  Albigenses  and  C.  are  often  used  as  equivalent  to  one  another;  but 
we  are  under  the  disadvantage  of  having  to  depend  entirely  on  the  writings  of  very 
bigoted  adversaries  for  our  knowledge  of  their  doctrines  and  practices,  and  considerable 
obscurity  rests  on  all  this  interesting  part  of  ecclesiastical  history.  Manicheism,  (Gnos- 
ticism, and  Montanism  are  ascribed  to  the  C. ; but  there  is  much  reason  to  think  that 
the  errors  of  a few  were  often  indiscriminately  charged  upon  all,  and  that  such  charges 
indeed  sometimes  rested  on  ignorant  or  willful  misconstruction.  It  appears  quite  certain, 
that  the  C.  differed  considerably  in  their  doctrines  and  in  the  degree  of  their  opposition 
to  the  dominant  church.  Some  of  them  advocated  and  practiced  a rigid  asceticism. 
There  is  no  good  evidence  that  any  of  them  nearly  approached  to  the  doctrines  of  the 
reforniation ; although  in  their  rejection  of  tradition,  of  the  authority  of  Rome,  of  the 
worship  of  saints  and  images,  etc.,  there  are  notable  points  of  agreement  with  the  views 
•of  the  reformers. 

CATHARINE  is  the  name  of  several  saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  simple 
designation  of  Saint  G.,  however,  is  given  to  a virgin,  said  to  have  been  of  royal  descent 


Ctitharine. 


554 


in  Alexandria,  who,  publicly  confessing  the  gospel  at  a sacrificial  feast  appointed  by  th» 
emperor  Maximiuus,  was  put  to  death  in307  A.D.,  after  being  tortured  on  awheel. 
Hence  the  name  of  “ St.  Catharine’s  wheel.”  Very  extraordinary  legends  exist  as  ta 
her  converting  50  philosophers  sent  by  the  emperor  to  convert  her  in  prison,  besides  a 
multitude  of  other  persons;  the  conveyance  of  lier  head  by  the  angels  to  Mt.  Sinai, 
etc.  She  is  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  girls’  schools. — Saint  G.  of  Siena,  one  of  the 
most  famous  saints  of  Italy,  was  the  daughter  of  a dyer  in  Siena,  and  was  born  tliere  in 
1347  A.r. ; practiced  extraordinary  mortifications;  and  was  said  to  be  favored  with 
extraordinaiy  tokens  of  favor  by  Christ,  whose  wounds  were  impressed  upon  her  body, 
etc.  She  became  a Dominican,  and  therefore  afterwards  a patron  saint  of  the 
Dominicans.  She  wrote  devotional  pieces,  letters,  and  poems,  which  have  been  more 
than  once  printed : the  best  edition  appeared  at  Siena  and  Lucca,  in  1707-13,  in  4 vols. 
4to,  under  the  title  of  Opere  della  serafica  Santa  Catarina. — St.  G.  of  Bologna  and  St.  (7, 
of  Sweden  are  of  less  note. 

CATHARINE  I.,  Empress  of  Russia,  was  originally  by  name  Martha  Rabe,  and  was 
the  posthumous  daughter  of  John  Rabe,  a Swedish  quarter-master  in  Livonia.  Her 
mother  died  in  1685,  when  she  w;is  but  three  years  old.  Left  hopeless  and  destitute,  a 
parish-clerk  took  compassion  on  her,  and  supported  her,  and  a Lutheran  clergyman  in 
Marienburg,  afterwards  received  her  into  his  house  as  an  attendant  on  his  children.  In 
1701,  she  married  a Swedish  dragoon,  who  next  year  was  called  to  active  service;  and 
Marienburg  being  taken  b)’’  the  Russians,  she  became  for  some  time  the  mistress  of  gen. 
Bauer;  and  afterwards  entering  the  service  of  the  princess  Menschikoff,  she  attracted  the 
notice  of  Peter  the  great.  In  1703,  she  went  over  to  the  Greek  church,  and  took  the 
name  of  Catharina  Alexiewna.  After  being  for  some  years  the  emperor’s  mistress,  she 
was  privately  married  to  him  in  1711;  the  marriage  was  publicly  avowed  in  1712;  she 
was  proclaimed  empress  in  1718,  and  was  crowned  at  Moscow  in  1724.  She  bore  eight 
children  to  the  emperor,  all  of  whom  died  in  childhood,  except  two  daughters,  Anne  and 
Elizabeth,  the  latter  of  whom  was  afterwards  empress  of  Russia,  and  the  former  married 
the  duke  of  Holstein,  and  was  the  mother  of  the  emperor  Peter  HI.  When  Peter  the 
great  and  his  army  seemed  entirely  in  the  power  of  the  Turkish  army  on  the  Pruth  in 
1717,  C.,  who  was  with  him,  sought  an  interview  with  the  grand  vizier,  and,  by  employ- 
ing her  jewels  to  bribe  his  attendants,  succeeded  in  procuring  the  deliverance  of  the 
Russians.  Her  conduct  on  this  occasion  excited  so  much  admiration  and  gratitude  in 
the  emperor,  that  he  resolved  to  appoint  her  his  successor.  Yet.  in  the  end  of  the  year 
1724,  she  became  the  object  of  his  displeasure  and  suspicion,  on  account  of  an  alleged 
intimacy  with  a chamberlain,  whom  he  caused  to  be  beheaded.  Menschikoff,  who  had 
always  been  attached  to  her  interests,  was  at  this  time  in  disgrace.  But  she  had  con- 
trived in  a great  measure  to  recover  her  position,  when,  on  28th  Jan.,  1725,  Peter  the  great 
died.  His  death  was  kept  secret  as  long  as  possible,  that  everything  might  be  arranged 
for  her  taking  possession  of  the  throne;  and  the  archbishop  of  Pleskow  came  forward 
and  declared  before  the  troops  and  people,  that  the  emperor,  on  his  death-bed,  had 
declared  her  alone  worthy  to  be  his  successor.  The  hostility  and  hesitation  of  the  nobles 
were  at  once  overcome,  and  C.  was  acknowledged  as  empress  and  sole  ruler  of  all  the 
Russias.  Under  Menschikoff’s  directions,  the  affairs  of  government  went  on  well 
enough  for  a time;  but  the  empre.ss  ere  long  began  to  yield  to  the  influence  of  a number 
of  favorites,  addicted  herself  to  drunkenness,  and  lived  such  a life  as  could  not  fail  to 
hurry  her  to  the  grave.  She  died,  however,  unexpectedly,  17th  May,  1727. 

CATHARINE  II.,  empress  of  Russia,  was  b.  at  Stettin  on  25th  April,  1729.  Her 
father,  the  prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  was  a Prussian  field-marshal,  and  governor  of  Stet- 
tin. She  received  the  name  of  Sophia  Augusta;  but  the  empress  Elizabeth  of  Russia 
having  selected  her  for  the  wife  of  her  nephew  and  intended  successor,  Peter,  she 
passed  from  the  Lutheran  to  the  Greek  church,  and  took  the  name  of  Catharina  Alex- 
iewna. In  1745,  her  marriage  took  place.  She  soon  quarreled  with  her  husband,  and  each 
of  them  lived  a life  of  unrestrained  vice.  Among  his  attendants  was  a count  Soltikow, 
with  whom  her  intimacy  soon  became  scandalous;  and  Soltikow  was  sent  on  an 
embassy  abroad.  But  the  young  Polish  count,  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  almost  imme- 
diately supplied  his  place.  After  the  death  of  the  empress  Elizabeth  in  1761.  Peter  III. 
ascended  the  Russian  throne;  but  the  conjugal  difference  became  continually  wider. 
C.  was  banished  to  a separate  abode;  and  the  emperor  seemed  to  entertain  the  design 
of  divorcing  her,  declaring  her  only  son,  Paul,  illegitimate,  and  marrying  his  mistress, 
Elizabeth  Woronzow.  The  popular  dislike  to  Peter,  however,  rapidly  increased ; and 
at  length,  he  being  dethroned  by  a conspiracy,  C.  was  made  empress.  A few  days 
afterwards  Peter  was  murdered  (July,  1762).  What  participation  his  wife  had  in  his 
murder,  has  never  been  well  ascertained. 

, C.  now  exerted  herself  to  please  the  people,  and  among  other  things,  made  a ^eat 
show  of  regard  for  the  outward  forms  of  the  Greek  church,  although  her  principles 
were,  in  reality,  those  of  the  infidelity  then  prevalent  among  the  French  philosophers. 
The  government  of  the  country  was  carried  on  with  great  energy;  and  her  reign  was 
remarkable  for  the  rapid  increase  of  the  extent  and  power  of  Russia.  Not  long  after  her 
accession  to  the  throne,  her  influence  secured  the  election  of  her  former  favorite,  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski,  to  the  throne  of  Poland.  In  her  own  empire,  however,  discontentment 


555 


Catliarine*' 

was  seriously  manifested,  the  hopes  of  the  disaffected  being  centered  in  the  young 
prince  Ivan,  who  was  forthwith  murdered  in  the  castle  of  Schlusselburg.  From  that 
time,  the  internal  politics  of  Russia  long  consisted  in  great  part  of  intrigues  for 
the  humiliation  of  one  favorite  and  the  exaltation  of  another.  The  first  partition  of 
Poland  in  1772,  and  the  Turkish  war,  which  terminated  in  the  peace  of  Kainardji  in 
1774,  vastly  increased  the  empire.  The  Turkish  war  which  terminated  in  the  peace 
of  Jassy  in  1792,  had  similar  results,  and  also  the  war  with  Sweden,  which  terminated 
in  1790.  The  second  and  third  partitions  of  Poland,  and  the  incorporation  of  Cour- 
land  with  Russia,  completed  the  triumphs  of  C.’s  reign.  She  began  a war  with  Persia, 
however,  and  cherished  a scheme  for  the  overthrow  of  the  British  power  in  India;  but 
a stroke  of  apoplexy  cut  her  off  on  Nov.  9,  1796.  She  was  a woman  of  great  ability; 
but,  utterly  devoid  of  principle,  she  shrunk  from  no  crime;  and  sensuality  and  ambition 
governed  all  her  actions.  She  was  shameless  in  vice;  and  always  had  a paromour,  who 
dwelt  in  her  palace,  and  might  be  regarded  as  filling  an  acknowledged  office  of  state, 
with  large  revenues  and  determinate  privileges.  Yet  distinguished  authors  flattered  her; 
and  she  invited  to  her  court  some  of  the  literati  and  philosophers  of  France.  She  was 
ever  ready  to  commence  great  undertakings,  but  most  of  them  were  left  unfinished; 
and  little  was  really  accomplished  in  her  reign  for  the  improvement  of  the  country,  or 
the  progress  of  civilization.  On  a visit  to  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire  in 
1787,  she  was  gratified  by  a perpetual  display  of  fictitious  wealth  and  prosperity  along 
the  whole  route.  This  imperial  progress  was  also  a triumphal  procession  of  her  vile 
favorite  Potemkin  (q.v.). 

CATHABINE  of  ARAGON,  Queen  of  England,  the  first  wife  of  Henry  VIII. , and 
fourth  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  king  and  queen  of  Castile  and  Aragon,  was 
b.  Dec.,  1485.  She  occupies  a prominent  place  in  English  history,  not  for  what  she 
herself  was,  but  for  what  she  was  the  occasion  of — the  reformation.  Married  when 
scarcely  16,  to  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Henry  VII.,  she  was  left  a widow 
within  a year;  and  in  the  course  of  a few  months  more  a second  marriage  was  pro- 
jected for  her  by  her  father-in-law,  with  his  second  son  Henry,  as  yet  a boy  of  only 
12  years  old.  The  pope’s  dispensation  enabling  such  near  relatives  to  marry  was 
obtained  in  1503,  and  the  marriage  took  place  in  June,  1509,  immediately  after  Henry’s 
accession  to  the  crown  as  Henry  VIII.  Although  Henry  was  very  far  from  being  a model 
husband,  he  appears  to  have  treated  queen  C.,  who  had  borne  him  several  children,  with 
all  due  respect,  until  about  1527,  when  he  conceived  a passion  for  Anne  Boleyn  (q.v.). 
He  now  expressed  doubts  as  to  the  legality  of  his  marriage,  and  set  about  obtaining  a 
divorce.  Pope  Clement  VII.  would  readily  have  annulled  the  marriage  permitted  by 
his  predecessor,  had  he  not  feared  queen  C.’s  powerful  nephew,  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
He,  however,  granted  a commission  to  Compeggio  and  Wolsey,  to  inquire  into  the 
validity  of  the  marriage ; but  before  these  prelates  queen  C.  refused  to  ‘plead,  adn 
appealed  to  the  pope.  The  king  craved  judgment.  The  legates  cited  the  queen,  and 
declaring  her  contumacious  when  she  appeared  not,  went  on  with  the  cause ; but  the 
wily  Campeggio,  anxious  only  for  time  for  his  master  when  the  king  expected  an  answer, 
prorogued  the  court  until  a future  day.  The  king  consulted  the  universities  of  Europe, 
many  of  which  declared  the  marriage  invalid.  The  pope  now  summoned  the  king  to 
Rome,  but  Henry  haughtily  refused  to  appear  either  himself,  or  by  deputy,  which  he 
maintained  would  be  to  sacrifice  the  prerogatives  of  his  crown;  and  setting  the  pope 
at  defiance,  married  Anne  Boleyn.  Cranmer,  shortly  afterwards  (1533),  declared  the  first 
marriage  void,  and  pope  Clement  annulled  Cranmer’s  sentence,  making  the  separation 
from  Rome  complete.  Queen  C.  did  not  quit  the  kingdom,  but  took  up  her  residence  first 
at  Ampthill,  in  Bedfordshire,  and  aftewards  at  Kimbolton  castle,  Huntingdonshire, 
where  she  led  an  austere  religious  life  until  her  decease  in  Jan.,  1536.  Queen  C.’s  per- 
sonal character  was  unimpeachable,  and  her  disposition  sweet  and  gentle. 

CATHARINE  DE’  MEDICI,  the  queen  of  Henri  II.  of  France,  was  the  daughter  of 
Lorenzo  de’  Medici,  duke  of  Urbino,  and  was  b.  at  Florence  in  1519.  In  her  14th  year 
she  was  brought  to  France,  and  married  to  Henri,  the  second  son  of  Francis  I.  The 
marriage  was  a part  of  the  political  schemes  of  her  uncle,  pope  Clement  VII.,  but  as 
he  died  soon  after,  she  found  herself  friendless  and  neglected  at  the  French  court.  In 
these  circumstances,  she  conducted  herself  with  a submission  which  seemed  even  to 
indicate  a want  of  proper  spirit,  but  which  gained  her  the  favor  of  the  old  king,  and  in 
some  measure  also  of  her  husband.  It  was  not  till  the  accession  of  her  eldest  son, 
Francis  II.,  in  1559,  that  her  love  of  power  began  to  display  itself.  The  Guises  at  this 
time  possessed  a power  which  seemed  dangerous  to  that  of  the  throne,  and  C.  entered 
into  a secret  alliance  with  the  Huguenots  to  oppose  them.  On  the  death  of  Francis  II. 
in  1560,  and  accession  of  Charles  IX.,  the  government  fell  entirely  into  her  hands. 
Caring  little  for  religion  in  itself,  although  she  was  very  prone  to  superstition,  she  dis- 
liked the  Protestants,  chiefly  because  their  principles  were  opposed  to  the  absolute 
despotism  which  she  desired  to  maintain.  Yet  she  sought  to  rally  the  Protestant 
leaders  around  the  throne,  in  order  to  remove  the  Guises.  This  attempt  having  failed, 
and  the  civil  war  which  ensued  having  ended  in  the  peace  of  Amboise,  highly  favorable 
to  the  Protestants,  she  became  alarmed  at  the  increase  of  their  power,  and  entered  into 
a secret  treaty  with  Spain  for  the  extirpation  of  heretics;  and  subsequently  into  a plot 


Catharine. 

Cathedral. 


556 


with  the  Guises,  in  which  at  first  only  the  murder  of  the  Protestant  leaders  was  coo 
templated,  but  which  resulted  in  the  fearful  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew’s  day.  Thia 
‘jvent  brought  the  whole  power  of  the  state  into  the  hands  of  the  queen-mother,  who 
boasted  of  llie  deed  to  Roman  Catholic  governments,  and  excused  it  to  Protestant  ones, 
for  she  now  managed  all  the  correspondence  of  the  court.  About  this  time  she  suc- 
ceeded, by  gold  and  intrigues,  in  getting  her  third  vSon,  afterwards  Henri  III.,  elected, 
to  the  Polish  throne.  But  her  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  administration  roused  the  oppo- 
sition of  a Roman  Catholic  party,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  her  own  fourth  son,  the 
duke  of  Alenyon,  who  allied  themselves  with  the  Protestants.  It  was  very  generally 
believed  that  she  was  privy  to  the  machinations  that  led  to  his  death.  When,  after  the 
death  of  Charles  IX.,  Henri  HI.  returned  from  Poland  to  be  king  of  France,  his  mother 
still  ruled  the  court,  and  had  the  principal  share  in  all  the  intrigues, treacheries,  and  political 
transactions  of  that  woful  period.  Having  betrayed  all  who  trusted  them,  she  and  her 
son  found  themselves  at  last  forsaken  and  abhorred  by  all.  The  league  and  the  Guises  had 
no  more  confidence  in  them,  than  had  the  Protestants  and  Henri  of  Navarre.  Vexation 
on  this  account  prayed  on  the  proud  heart  of  the  queen-mother  in  her  last  days;  and, 
amidst  the  confusion  and  strife  of  parties,  she  died  at  Blois,  on  5th  Jan.,  1589,  unheeded 
and  unlamented.  Her  ruling  passion  was  ambition,  and  to  this  she  was  ready  to  sacri- 
fice everything.  Her  unprincipled  policy  had  almost  subverted  the  French  monarchy; 
her  extravagance  and  luxury  exhausted  the  finances  of  the  country.  Her  influence  was 
powerful  in  increasing  the  demoralization  of  the  court  and  of  society.  She  unscrupu- 
lously employed  beauties  of  her  train  to  corrupt  men  from  whose  power  she  apprehended 
danger. 

CATHAltINE  FABB,  the  sixth  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  the  daughter  of  sir  Thomas 
Parr,  and  was  b.  in  1513.  Married  first  to  lord  Burgh,  and  afterwards  to  lord  Latimer, 
she,  in  July  12,  1543,  became  queen  of  England  by  marriage  with  Henry  VIII.  She 
was  distinguished  for  her  learning  and  her  knowledge  of  religious  subjects,  her  discus- 
sion of  which  with  the  king  had  well-nigh  brought  her  to  the  block,  like  so  many  of  her 
predecessors.  Her  tact,  however,  saved  her,  and  brought  rebuke  on  her  enemies;  for 
she  made  it  appear  to  the  king’s  vanity,  that  she  had  only  engaged  him  in  discourse 
about  the  reformation,  in  order  to  derive  profit  from  his  majesty’s  speech.  She  per- 
suaded Henry  to  restore  the  right  of  succession  to  his  daughters,  and  interested  herself 
on  behalf  of  the  universities.  After  Henry’s  death,  she  married,  1547,  sir  Thomas 
Seymour,  and  died  the  following  year,  not  without  suspicion  of  poison. 

CATHABINE’S,  ST.,  COLLEGE,  or  Hall,  Cambridge,  was  founded  by  Robert  Wode- 
larke,  provost  of  King’s  college,  1473,  for  a master  and  three  or  more  fellows.  The 
visitors  sent  down  to  the  university  % Edward  VI.  ordered  that  there  should  be  then 
six  fellows,  and  in  future  a greater  or  less  number  as  the  revenues  permitted.  The 
statutes  confirmed  in  May,  1860,  provide  that  there  shall  be  a master  and  nine  fellows. 
There  are  twenty-five  scholars.  Edwyn  Sandys,  archbishop  of  York,  bishop  Overall, 
and  bishop  Sherlock,  were  of  this  college. 

CATHAR'TES  AURA,  a vulture  known  as  the  turkey-buzzard,  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  domestic  turkey.  Its  home  is  in  the  southern  Atlantie  and  gulf  states,  though  it 
is  sometimes  found  in  the  West  Indies.  The  full-grown  bird  is  30  in.  long,  with  a spread 
of  wings  of  6 ft.,  and  the  color  black  and  brown.  This  greedy  bird  acts  as  the  scavenger 
for  southern  cities,  devouring  refuse  matter  that  might  otherwise  be  injurious  to  the 
public  health.  For  this  purpose  they  are  deemed  so  valuable  that  in  some  places  their 
destruction  is  forbidden.  There  is  a small  species  known  locally  as  the  carrion-crow. 

CATHABTICS  (Gr.  kathaird,  I purify),  a name  originally  for  all  medicines  supposed 
to  purify  the  system  from  the  matter  of  disease  {materies  morbi),  which  was  generally 
presumed  by  the  ancients  to  exist  in  all  cases  of  fever  and  acute  disease  (see  Crisis),  and 
to  require  to  be  separated  or  thrown  off  by  the  different  excretions  of  the  body.  Ulti- 
mately, the  term  C.  became  limited  in  its  signification  to  remedies  acting  on  the  bowels, 
which  are  popularly  called  purgatives — a mere  translation  of  the  Greek  word.  The  prin- 
cipal C.  are  aloes,  gamboge,  colocynth,  rhubarb,  scammony,  jalap,  senna,  Epsom,  and 
other  salts,  and  castor  oil.  Sulphur  and  cream  of  tartar  forms  a well-known  mild  laxa- 
tive; magnesia  is  also  useful  in  many  cases  of  indigestion  with  acidity.  Croton  oil  and 
elaterium  belong  to  a more  dangerous  class  of  C.,  as  also  does  the  favorite  remedy  of 
the  ancients — tlie  black  hellebore.  The  doses  and  use  of  the  more  ordinary  remedies 
of  this  class  are  explained  in  all  works  on  medicine.  See  Constipation. 

CATHABTINE,  or  Bitter  op  Senna,  is  the  essential  principle  in  senna  which  pos- 
sesses laxative  or  purgative  properties.  It  can  be  isolated  as  a yellowish-red  uncrystal- 
lizable  solid,  whieh  is  deliquescent,  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  insoluble  in  ether, 
has  a very  bitter  nauseous  taste,  a characteristic  odor,  and  possesses  great  purging  pow- 
ers, accompanied  by  nausea  and  griping.  Three  grains  of  C.  are  a full  dose. 

CATHAY.  See  China,  ante. 

CATHCABT,  Sir  George,  son  of  William,  Earl  Cathcart,  was  b.  in  London,  1794. 
Educated  at  Eton  and  Edinburgh,  he,  in  1810,  joined  the  2d  life  guards,  and  fought 
with  the  grand  army  in  the  campaigns  of  1812  and  1813;  and  as  aid-de-camp  to  the  duke 
of  Wellington,  was  present  at  Quartre  Bras  and  Waterloo.  In  1828,  he  was  made  lieut. 


Catharine. 

Cathedral. 


557 

col.,  and  served  in  British  America  and  the  West  Indies  for  about  8 years;  and  in  1837 
he  proved  himself  an  energetic  and  efficient  officer  in  quelling  the  outbreak  in  Canada, 
where  he  remained  for  more  than  6 years.  In  1852,  having  held  the  appointment  of  dep- 
uty lieut.  of  the  tower  for  some  years,  lie  was  made  governor  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
with  command  of  the  forces,  and  in  this  capacity  succeeded  in  bringing  to  a successful 
end  the  harassing  Kaffer  war.  He  returned  to  England  in  time  to  be  sent  out  to  the 
Crimea  as  general  of  division.  His  bravery  here  was  conspicuous,  especially  in  the 
battle  of  Inkermann,  where  the  odds  were  so  terribly  against  the  British  forees,  and 
where  he  was  slain.  He  was  buried  on  the  spot  where  he  fell,  and  which,  in  his  honor, 
was  named  Cathcart’s  hill.  C.  was  the  author  of  a very  valuable  work,  entitled  Com- 
mentaries on  the  War  in  Russia  and  Germany  in  1812  and  1813  (Lond.  1850).  . 

CATHCAET,  William  Shaw,  Earl,  a British  gen.  and  diplomatist,  son  of  baron 
Cathcart  of  Cathcart,  co.  of  Renfrew,  was  b.  Sept.  17,  1755.  Having  studied  at  Glas- 
gow, he  entered  the  army,  took  a prominent  part  in  the  American  war,  and  fought  with 
distinction  in  Flanders  and  n.  Germany.  In  1801,  he  was  made  lieut. gen.,  and  in  1803, 
commander-in-chief  for  Ireland.  In  1805,  he  was  engaged  on  a diplomatic  mission  to 
the  czar  Alexander.  In  July,  1807,  he  received  the  command  of  the  land  forces 
employed  to  co-operate  with  the  fleet  in  the  attack  on  Copenhagen,  and,  for  his  services 
in  this  capacity,  was  made  a British  peer,  with  the  title  of  viscount,  and  received  a vote 
of  thanks  from  both  houses  of  parliament,  Jan.  28,  1808.  In  1812,  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  St.  Petersburg,  accompanied  the  czar  Alexander  in  the  campaigns  of 
1813  and  1814,  and  was  present  at  the  congresses  of  Chatillon  and  Vienna,  He  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  earl,  June  18,  1814.  The  latter  years  of  his  life  were  chiefly  spent 
at  his  country  residence,  Cartside,  near  Glasgow,  where  he  died  June  17,  1843. — His 
eldest  son,  Charles  Murray,  Earl  Cathcart  (formerly  known  as  lord  Greenock), 
was  born  1783;  served  in  Spain  and  at  Waterloo  under  Wellington;  afterwards  acted 
in  Canada;  and  was  made  a general  and  colonel  of  the  1st  dragoon  guards.  He  died 
July,  1859.  • 

CATHE'DBAL,  from  a Greek  word  cathedra,  signifying  a seat.  Thus,  “ to  speak  ex 
cathedra,"  is  to  speak  as  from  a seat  of  authority.  The  C.  city  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  and  his  throne  is  placed  in  the  C.  church,  which  is  the  parish  church  of 
the  whole  diocese.  The  diocese  was,  in  fact,  anciently  called  parochia,  until  the  appli- 
cation of  this  name  to  the  smaller  portions  into  which  it  was  derived.  A C.  town  has 
generally  been  understood  to  be  entitled  to  the  honors  of  a city,  even  although  the  town 
be  not  a borough  incorporate;  but  in  the  case  of  Manchester,  the  claim  was  disallowed 
by  a court  of  law.  The  distinction  between  C.  and  collegiate  churches  consists  princi- 
pally in  the  see  of  the  bishop  being  at  the  former.  The  governing  body  of  a C.  is  called 
the  dean  and  chapter — i.e.,  the  dean  and  canons  who  meet  for  corporate  purposes  in  the 
chapter-house  of  the  cathedral.  The  property  of  the  C.  vests  in  this  body.  They  elect 
the  bishop  of  the  diocese  on  the  issue  of  a conge  d'elire  from  the  crown,  but  as  the  person 
to  be  elected  is  always  named,  and  they  may  be  compelled  by  a mandamus  to  elect  that 
person  and  no  other,  the  election  is  merely  a form. 

The  bishop  is  “ visitor”  of  the  dean  and  chapter.  In  England,  by  the  act  of  1840, 
all  members  of  cathedrals,  except  the  dean,  are  styled  canons.  Their  seat  in  the  C.  is 
called  their  stall.  They  are  no  longer  called  prebends.  Canons  must  reside  3 months 
in  each  year.  The  act  allows  to  the  canons  of  Durham,  Manchester,  St.  Paul’s,  and 
Westminster,,  an  income  of  £1000  per  annum;  to  those  of  every  other  G.  in  England, 
£500.  The  bishop  was  always  considered  of  common  right  to  have  the  patronage  of 
canonries,  but  formerly  there  were  exceptions.  Now,  the  appointment  to  all  canonries 
is  vested  either  in  the  bishop,  or  in  the  crown.  Where  the  bishop  is  patron,  he  “col- 
lates,” and  the  dean  and  chapter  “ induct,”  by  placing  the  new  canon  in  a stall  in  the 
church.  The  crown  appoints  by  letters-patent,  and  the  canon  is  installed  without  colla- 
tion. Honorary  canons  have  no  emoluments,  but  rank  after  the  canons.  Minor  canons, 
of  whom  there  are  from  2 to  6 in  each  C. , perform  the  daily  choral  services.  The  C. 
service  is  the  usual  church  of  England  service  intoned,  with  an  anthem  and  the  Psalms 
chanted.  For  the  general  plan  of  C.  buildings,  see  Church.  The  more  remarkable 
cathedrals  will  be  noticed  under  the  names  of  the  towns  in  which  they  are  situated. 
In  England,  the  number  of  cathedrals  is  29. 

CATHEDRAL  (sinte).  As  Christianity  was  at  first  established  chiefly  in  cities,  the 
churches  that  grew  up  adjacent  to  them  were,  either  originally  or  eventually,  included 
in  the  diocese  of  the  city  bishop.  Throughout  the  Roman  empire  the  ecclesiastical 
divisions  were  the  same  as  the  civil,  and  the  bishop’s  seat  was  placed  in  the  same  city 
with  the  governor’s  chair  of  state.  From  this  point  the  transition  was  easy  to  the  formal 
decree  requiring  that  a C.  as  the  seat  of  a bishop  should  be  established  in  cities 
only.  In  Britain,  however,  where  in  the  early  days  of  Christianity  cities  were  few  and 
small,  this  rule  could  not  be  enforced.  The  bishop  was  over  a district  or  tribe  rather  than 
a city,  and  naturally  placed  his  seat  where  he  found  it  most  convenient  and  safe.  Often 
he  was  compelled  to  remove  it  from  one  place  to  another.  As  the  country  became  more 
settled  this  necessity  ceased  to  exist,  and  at  the  close  of  the  11th  century  a law  was  passed 
requiring  that  the  sees  of  bishops  should  be  removed  from  villages  to  walled  cities.  In 
fhe  early  missionary  work,  especially  of  Britain,  instead  of  beginning  with  a bishop. 


C.ithelineau. 

Catheter. 


558 


companies  of  priests  were  organized,  with  the  church  as  their  center  of  work  and  the 
monastery  as  their  home.  After  sulficient  progress  had  been  made,  a bishop  was 
appointed  over  them,  and  tlie  church  became  a catliedral.  The  revival  of  missionary 
work  by  the  churcli  of  England,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  led  to  a renewal 
of  this  system.  The  bishop  followed  the  missionaries,  and  placed  his  seat  in  a church  not 
originally  designed  for  the  honor.  In  colonial  and  foreign  missionary  work,  Muthin  the 
last  25  years,  there  has  been  a return  to  the  earlier  plan.  In  the  dioceses  of  Africa,  New 
Zealand,  and  elsewhere,  the  bishop  takes  the  lead  in  the  date  of  his  appointment  as  well 
as  in  rank,  and  his  cathedral  church  is  at  once  erected  and  manned.  In  this  way  the 
original  design  of  such  an  establishment  as  described  by  bishop  Stillingfleet  is  accom- 
plished. “Every  0.,  in  its  first  institution,  was  as  a temple  to  the  whole  diocese,  where 
the  worship  was  to  be  performed  in  the  most  decent  and  constant  manner;  for  which 
end  it  was  necessary  to  have  such  a number  of  ecclesiastical  persons  there  attending  as 
might  still  be  ready  to  do  all  the  offices  which  did  belong  to  the  Christian  church — 
such  as  constant  offering  of  prayer,  singing,  preaching,  and  administering  sacraments — 
which  were  to  be  kept  up  in  such  a church  as  the  daily  sacrifice  was  in  the  temple.” 
The  bishop  in  his  church  was  surrounded  by  his  college  of  presbyters,  of  which  he  was 
the  head,  and  the  design  of  which  was:  1.  To  strengthen  him  by  wise  counsel.  2.  To 
maintain  public  worship  with  reverence  and  dignity.  3.  To  go  forth  at  his  command, 
as  evangelists,  whithersoever  he  might  send  them.  In  this  way  the  chapter  of  the  C.  was 
established,  originally  in  closest  connection  with  the  bishop,  and  having  no  corporate 
existence  separate  from  him.  It  sometimes  consisted  of  “secular  clergy,”  who  were  not 
•bound  by  monastic  vows,  and  had  separate  homes  of  their  own;  and  sometimes  of 
“regulars,”  who  were  under  monastic  rule  and  lived  in  buildings  common  to  all.  Of 
both  kinds  of  chapters  the  bishop  was  the  head:  of  the  latter,  as  the  abbot  of  the  mon- 
astery to  which  his  cathedral  church  belonged;  and  of  the  former,  as  having  sole  authority 
over  it.  In  early  times,  there  was  an  arch-presbyter,  who  had  chief  authority  among 
the  cathedral  clergy,  always  in  strict  subordination  to  the  bishop.  He  was  gradually 
supplanted  by  the  archdeacon,  who  was  followed  in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries  by  the 
“ praepositus”  or  provost.  The  “ dean,”  the  present  head  of  all  English  cathedral  chap- 
ters, first  appears  in  the  10th  or  11th  century.  Gradually,  as  the  bishop’s  diocesan 
duties  increased  and  important  political  functions  also  were  assigned  him,  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  affairs  of  his  C.  to  the  head  of  the  chapter,  who  consequently,  in  time,  became 
the  actual  chief;  and  when  the  chapter  was  organized  as  an  independent  corporation,  the 
bishop,  seldom  present,  sank  into  a mere  “ visitor,  ” called  in  occasionally  to  correct 
abuses  or  settle  disputes.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  strange  anomaly,  witnessed  in 
modern  times,  that  in  his  own  cathedral  church,  of  which  he  is  the  titular  head,  and  which 
is  dignified  by  the  presence  of  his  seat,  the  bishop  has  less  authority  than  in  any  other 
church  of  his  diocese.  Under  the  bishop  as  its  nominal  head,  the  chapter  of  a fully 
organized  C.,  formed  of  secular  priests,  consisted  of  four  chief  dignitaries  and  a body  of 
canons.  I.  The  four  high  officers  were:  1,  the  “dean,”  as  the  general  head  of  the 
Chapter  charged  with  its  internal  discipline;  2,  the  precentor,  presiding  over  the  choir 
and  musical  arrangements;  3,  the  chancellor,  who  superintended  the  religious  and  liter- 
ary instruction  of  the  younger  members,  took  care  of  the  library,  and  wrote  the  letters; 
4,  the  treasurer,  to  whom  were  intrusted,  not  the  money  of  the  church  (as  might  appear 
from  the  modern  use  of  the  word),  but  its  sacred  vessels,  altar-furniture,  reliquaries,  and 
similar  treasures.  II.  In  addition  to  these  dignitaries,  a cathedral  chapter  consisted  of  a 
board  of  officers  called  canons,  because  they  were  inrolled  on  the  list  and  perhaps  because 
they  were  subjected  to  the  rules;  some  of  them  who  enjoyed  a separate  estate  (praebenda) 
an  addition  to  their  share  of  the  corporate  funds,  were  called  prebendaries.  A preben- 
dary was  always  a canon,  but  a canon  was  not  always  a prebendary.  Each  canon  had 
his  own  house  and  personal  establishment.  In  the  middle  ages  an  attempt  was  made  to 
impose  on  them,  in  part,  monastic  rules  with  dining-hall  and  lodging-rooms  in  common; 
but  the  restriction  was  never  acceptable,  and  was  gradually  given  up.  Monastic  cathe- 
drals closely  resembled  other  monasteries,  except  that  in  the  almost  constant  absence  of 
the  bishop — their  nominal  abbot — they  were  governed  by  a prior.  At  the  reformation 
the  distinction  between  secular  and  monastic  cathedrals  was  maintained  under  the  titles 
of  cathedrals  of  the  old  and  new  foundations.  And  when  the  monasteries  were  sup- 
pressed, the  cathedrals  connected  with  them  were  furnished  with  new  chapters  of  secular 
canons,  presided  over  by  a dean.  In  the  early  part  of  queen  Victoria’s  reign  all  the 
cathedrals  in  England  and  Wales  were  reduced  to  a uniform  constitution. 

In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  the  United  States,  there  is  in  recent  years  an 
evident  movement  in  some  dioceses  toward  the  establishment  of  the  cathedral  system 
of  England,  with  such  modifications  as  the  circumstances  may  require.  For  the  diocese 
of  Long  island,  noble  structures  are  now  in  process  of  erection  at  Garden  Cit}%  including 
schools  of  various  grades,  and  institutions  of  beneficence,  grouped  around  a magnificent 
cathedral  church.  The  funds  for  this  great  work  are  from  the  estate  of  the  late  Alex- 
ander T.  Stewart,  of  New  York. 

CATHELINEATJ,  Jacques,  general  of  the  army  in  La  Vendee,  in  the  w.  of  France, 
w^as  b.  Jan.  5,  1759,  in  very  humble  life,  at  Pin-en-Mauges,  in  lower  Anjou.  Horrified 
at  the  atrocities  and  despotic  acts  of  the  (‘onvention,  he  placed  himself  in  opposition  to 


• 559 


Cathelineaa. 

Catheter. 


It,  and  soon  collected  arouna  him  a body  of  loyal  peasantry,  whom  he  led  against  and 
defeated  the  republicans  in  several  conflicts.  After  the  victory  of  Sauraur  (q.v.),  the 
council  of  generals  appointed  him.  as  having  the  greatest  influence  over  his  countrymen, 
commander-in-chief.  He  immediately  determined  to  make  an  attack  upon  Nantes,  and 
managed  to  penetrate  into  the  town,  where  he  was  wounded  by  a musket-ball,  and  his 
troops  immediately  dispersed.  He  was  carried  to  St.  Florent,  where  he  died  July  11, 
1793.  He  was  a man  of  great  simplicity  and  honesty  of  character,  and  his  piety  was 
such,  that  he  was  called  the  saint  of  Anjou. 

CATHERINE  of  BRAGANZA,  1638-1705;  queen  of  Charles  II.  of  England,  daughter 
of  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne  of  Portugal,  then  under  Span- 
ish rule.  John  headed  the  revolt  of  1640,  and  after  years  of  fighting  succeeded  in  reaching 
his  throne.  The  mother  of  Catherine  was  a woman  of  ability,  and  governed  Portugal 
for  several  years  after  the  death  of  her  husband.  She  foresaw  the  coming  restoration 
in  England,  and  proposed  the  marriage  of  Catherine  with  Charles  mainly  to  gain  a 
powerful  ally  against  Spain.  The  latter  power  vainly  tried  to  prevent  the  marriage, 
and  when  it  was  agreed  upon,  Portugal  promised  a dowry  of  £500,000,  and  the  towns 
of  Tangier  and  Bombay  (the  latter  being  the  first  of  the  now  enormous  English  posses- 
sions in  the  east),  besides  many  privileges  of  trade.  On  the  marriage  at  Plymouth, 
May  13,  1663,  Charles  appeared  to  be  well  pleased  with  his  bride ; but  the  union  proved 
unhappy.  Catherine  had  been  brought  up  in  a convent,  and  had  none  of  the  manners 
required  by  the  most  fashionable  and  profligate  court  of  Europe.  The  chief  trouble, 
however,  was  the  heartless  and  shameless  profligacy  of  her  husband,  who  brought  his 
mistresses  into  the  court,  and,  when  the  queen  expressed  her  indignation  at  the  insult, 
lectured  her  upon  the  duty  of  submission.  After  repeated  humiliations  of  this  kind,  the 
queen’s  spirit  was  broken,  and  alienation  naturally  followed.  As  she  was  a Roman 
Catholic,  she  was  an  object  of  suspicion  outside  of  the  court,  and  her  name  was  subjected 
to  calumny.  The  only  satisfaction  she  could  experience  in  her  unfortunate  conneo- 
tion  was  the  great  aid  rendered  by  England  against  Spain  in  the  struggle  of  her  native 
power  with  that  kingdom.  After  a life  of  entire  seclusion  during  the  reign  of  James  II. 
and  the  first  years  of  William  III.,  she  returned  to  Portugal  in  1692,  where,  for  a time 
before  her  death,  she  acted  in  capacity  of  regent  to  her  brother,  Don  Pedro.  She  had 
no  children. 

CATHERINE  FIESCHI  ADORNO,  Saint,  1447-1510;  a daughter  of  the  viceroy 
of  Naples,  who,  at  the  age  of  13,  devoted  herself  to  a religious  life,  but  three  years  later, 
in  obedience  to  parental  desire,  married  Julian  Adorno,  a gay  young  nobleman  of  Genoa 
— a reckless  fellow,  who  spent  her  fortune  and  gave  her  a life  of  misery  for  many  years. 
After  his  death  she  became  mother-superior  in  the  hospital,  and  extended  her  care  to  the 
sick  throughout  the  city.  She  wrote  several  works,  two  of  which,  Purgatoi'y,  and  Dia- 
logue Between  the  Soul  and  the  Body,  are  evidently  records  of  her  own  experience.  She 
was  canonized  in  1737.  In  her,  a piety  contemplative,  mystical,  and  almost  ecstatic,  had 
an  accompaniment  not  always  found  of  active  beneficence. 

CATHERINE  OF  VALOIS,  or  of  France,  1401-37;  Queen  of  Henry  V.  of  Eng- 
land. She  was  unfortunate  in  her  childhood,  her  father,  Charles  VI.  of  France,  being 
subject  to  prolonged  fits  of  insanity,  while  her  mother — who  was  one  of  the  most  aban- 
doned women  of  the  time — neglected  her  children  to  such  an  extent  that  they  were  often 
without  suitable  food  or  clothing.  She  was  at  last  taken  away  from  her  mother  and 
educated  in  a convent.  When  she  was  only  12  years  old,  Henry  asked  her  hand  in  mar- 
riage, coupling  the  proposal  with  a demand  for  a large  dowry  in  money,  and  the  restitu- 
tion to  England  of  the  French  provinces  once  held  by  the  English  crown.  The  proposi- 
tion was  indignantly  rejected,  and  Henry  soon  afterwards  invaded  France  and  asserted 
his  claims  in  a manner  that  was  not  to  be  resisted.  All  his  claims  were  admitted,  and 
when  he  married  Catherine  at  Troyes  in  1420  he  received  immediate  possession  of  the 
provinces  claimed,  the  regency  of  France  during  the  life  of  the  father-in-law,  and  the 
reversion  of  the  sovereignty  after  the  death  of  Charles.  In  1421,  Catherine  was  crowned 
at  London,  and  in  Dec.  of  that  year  she  became  the  mother  of  Henry  VI.  The  next 
year  she  was  in  France,  where  her  husband  died,  and  she  returned  to  London  with  the 
funeral  cortege;  but  after  the  funeral  little  is  heard  of  her  history,  the  only  notable  event 
being  her  secret  marr/age  to  Owen  Tudor,  the  heir  of  a princely  house  in  Wales,  who  had 
distinguished  himself  for  bravery  at  Agincourt.  His  position  in  England,  however,  was 
low,  and  the  marriage  was  long  kept  secret — a necessity  that  caused  Catherine  much  vex- 
ation and  probably  hastened  her  death.  Her  son  by  Tudor  was  made  earl  of  Richmond, 
and  married  Margaret  Beaufort,  heiress  of  the  house  of  Somerset,  and  junior  representa- 
tive of  the  branch  of  John  of  (4aunt,  and  she  became  the  mother  of  Henry  VII.,  and 
consequently  the  ancestress  of  the  Tudor  line  of  English  kings. 

CATHERINE-WHEEL  (see  Catharine,  St.)  is  frequently  used  as  a charge  in  coats  of 
arms,  when  it  is  represented  with  teeth. 

CATHETER  (Gr.  kathiemi,  to  thrust  into),  was  a name  applied  indifferently  to  all 
instruments  used  for  passing  along  mucous  canals.  In  modern  times,  however,  it  has  gem 
crally  been  reserved  for  tubular  rods  through  which  fluids  or  air  may  pass,  and  which  may 
glTo  free  exit  to  the  accumulated  contents  of  such  organs  as  the  urinary  bladder.  Thi 


Cathode. 

Catholic. 


560 


C.  for  the  latter  purpose  is  a very  old  surgical  instrument.  The  ancients  made  theirs  of 
copper,  which  accumulated  verdigris.  In  the  9th  c.  silver  was  substituted  by  the  Arabian 
surgeons  as  a cleanlier  metal,  and  is  still  used  by  all  who  are  not  obliged,  for  economical 
reasons,  to  have  their  catheters  made  of  German  silver  or  pewter.  The  urinary  C.  for 
the  male  varies  in  length  from  10  to  11  in, ; the  female  C.  need  not  be  more  than  4 or  5 
inches.  The  form  is  a matter  of  indifference,  but  most  surgeons  prefer  an  instrument 
straight  to  within  the  last  few  inches  of  its  length;  the  latter  should  be  curved  into  the 
segment  of  a small  circle.  Others,  however,  use  a double  curve,  and,  indeed,  nearly 
every  surgeon  has  a peculiar  fancy  in  this  respect. 

* Flexible  catheters  are  made  of  gum  elastic,  which  may  be  used  either  alone  or  sup- 
ported on  a wire.  Many  other  materials  have  been  proposed.  Of  late  years,  gutta- 
percha has  been  used,  but  owing  to  some  awkward  accidents — such  as  portions  often 
breaking  off  in  the  bladder — it  has  not  been  generally  adopted  by  surgeons. 

CATHODE.  See  Anode. 

CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH.  See  Irvingites,  ante. 

CATHOLIC  CHUECH.  The  term  catholic  literally  signifies  universal.  The  phrase 
C.  C,  is  therefore  equivalent  to  “universal  church,”  and  cannot  properly  be  applied  to 
any  particular  sect  or  body,  such  as  the  Roman,  Anglican,  Genevan,  Reformed  Lutheran, 
or  Presbyterian,  all  of  wdiich  form  merely  portions  more  or  less  pure  of  the  “church 
universal.”  It  was  first  employed  to  distinguish  the  Christian  church  from  the  Jewish; 
the  latter  being  restricted  to  a single  nation,  whereas  the  former  was  intended  for  the 
world  in  general.  Afterwards,  it  served  to  mark  the  difference  between  the  orthodox 
Christian  church  and  the  various  sects  which  sprang  from  it,  such  as  the  Cerinthians, 
Uasilidians,  Arians,  Macedonians,  etc.  The  name  has  been  retained  by  the  church  of 
Rome,  which  was  the  visible  successor  of  the  primitive  one;  and  although  Protestant 
divines  have  been  careful  to  deny  its  applicability  to  a church  which  they  consider  buried 
under  the  corrupt  accretions  of  centuries,  yet  the  term  catholic  is  still  used  by  the  popu- 
lace of  almost  every  Protestant  country  as  synonymous  wuth  Roman  Catholic,  so  that 
from  their  minds  all  conception  of  the  literal  meaning  of  the  wmrd  has  vanished.  For 
an  account  of  the  church  of  Rome,  see  art.  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

CATHOLIC,  or  United,  COPTS,  a body  of  about  10,000  native  Egyptians  who 
acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  pope  of  Rome.  In  1855,  one  of  their  priests  was 
appointed  vicar  apostolic  and  bishop  in  partibus. 

CATHOLIC  CREDITOR,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  one  whose  debt  is  secured  over 
several  or  the  whole  subjects  belonging  to  the  debtor — e.g.,  over  two  or  more  heritable 
estates  for  the  same  debt.  The  C.  C.  is  bound  so  to  exercise  his  right  as  not  unneces- 
sarily to  injure  the  securities  of  the  other  creditors.  Thus,  if  he  draw  his  whole  debt 
from  one  of  the  subjects,  he  must  assign  his  security  over  the  others  to  the  postponed 
creditors. 

CATHOLIC  (Roman)  EMANCIPATION  ACT  (10  Geo.  IV.  c.  1).  To  render  this  famous 
measure  intelligible,  and  still  more  to  convey  a conception  of  its  importance  to  younger 
readers,  it  is  necessary  that  w’e  should  preface  our  account  of  it  by  a slight  sketch  of  the 
positirm  of  our  Roman  Catholic  fellow-subjects  before  it  was  passed.  From  first  to  last, 
the  sufferings  of  the  Roman  Catholics  were  the  fruit  of  political  tyranny  quite  as  much 
as  of  religious  rancour  or  fanaticism,  and  their  release  was  effected  by  a change  in  the 
political  rather  than  in  the  religious  views  or  feelings  of  the  dominant  part}^.  The  first 
occasion  on  which  even  a promise  of  a different  line  of  policy  from  that  wdiich  had  been 
originally  adopted  was  held  out  to  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland,  was  on  the  termina- 
tion of  the  revolutionary  war  in  1691;  and  had  king  William  been  able  to  carry  out  the 
views  which  his  personal  enlightenment  and  liberality  dictated,  it  is  probable  that  Catho- 
lic emancipation  would  have  been  hastened  by  more  than  a century.  But  the  English 
parliament,  which  was  intensely  anti-Roman  Catholic,  enacted,  on  the  22d  of  Oct.  1691, 
that  Irish  members  of  both  houses  should  take  the  oaths  of  supremacy;  and  three  years 
later,  a set  of  acts  were  passed,  which  placed  the  Roman  Catholics  in  a worse  position 
than  at  any  previous  period  of  their  history.  The  whole  population  was  disarmed,  and 
the  priests  banished  from  the  country.  But  what  must  have  been  still  more  intol- 
erable, was  the  interference  with  the  private  arrangements  of  their  families.  All  Roman 
Catholics  were  prohibited  from  acting  as  guardians  not  only  to  Protestant  but  to  Catho- 
lic children.  At  a somewhat  later  date  (1704),  it  w^as  enacted  that  if  a son  chose  to  turn 
Protestant,  he  should  be  entitled  to  dispossess  his  father,  and  at  once  to  take  possession 
of  the  family  estate.  Though  Catholics  were  not  directly  declared  incapable  of  holding 
land,  they  were  deprived  of  the  right  of  acquiring  it  by  purchase,  or  even  by  long  lease; 
and  if  a Catholic  chanced  to  occupy  a place  in  a line  of  entail,  he  w'as  passed  over  in  favor 
of  the  next  Protestant  heir.  No  office  of  trust,  civil  or  military,  was  now  open  to  a Cath- 
olic; he  was  forbidden  to  vote  at  elections,  to  intermarry  with  a Protestant,  or  even  to 
dwell  in  Limerick  or  Galway,  except  under  certain  conditions.  But  perhaps  the  most 
demoralizing  provision  of  all,  was  that  which  empowered  the  son  of  a Catholic  to  bring 
his  father  into  chancery,  to  force  him  to  declare  on  oath  the  value  of  his  property,  and 
to  settle  such  an  allowance  on  him  as  the  court  should  determine,  not  only  for  the 
father’s  life,  but  the  son’s. 


561 


Cathode. 

Catholic. 


Amongst  the  other  burdens  of  this  heavy  time,  may  be  mentioned  the  exclusion  Of 
Catholics  from  the  profession  of  the  law,  and  the  regulation  that  if  a Protestant  lawyer 
married  a Catholic,  he  should  be  held  to  have  gone  over  to  her  faith:  the  prohibition 
against  Catholics  acting  as  schoolmasters,  under  the  penalty  of  being  prosecuted  as  con- 
victs, by  which  the  whole  body  was  virtually  excluded  from  the  benefits  of  education: 
and  the  still  more  summary  enactment,  that  if  apriest  celebrated  marriage  between  a Prot- 
estant and  a Catholic,  he  should  be  hanged.  But  as  years  passed  away,  the  nieinory  of  the 
foul  deeds  of  the  inquisition  and  the  confessional,  and  of  the  other  enormities  of  which 
Roman  Catholics  had  been  guilty  in  their  days  of  power,  waxed  fainter;  milder  feelings 
began  to  prevail;  and  when  Grattan  appeared  as  the  champion  of  their  rights,  the  field 
was  already  in  some  degree  prepared  for  his  labors.  Favoied  by  such  influences,  of 
which  no  one  knew  better  how  to  avail  himself,  he  succeeded,  in  1780,  in  carrying,  in 
the  Irish  parliament,  the  famous  resolution,  “that  the  king’s  most  excellent  majesty, 
and  the  lords  and  commons  of  Ireland,  are  the  only  competent  pow'er  to  make  laws  to 
bind  Ireland.”  Many  of  the  disqualifying  statutes  were  now  repealed,  and  the  claim 
for  complete  equality  with  Englishmen  and  Protestants,  or  complete  separation  from 
the  sister-country,  was  now  formally  urged.  From  this  period  to  the  final  liberation 
was  achieved,  there  was  no  rest.  The  Irish  rebellion  of  1798  brought  home  to  the  Eng- 
lish nation  the  dangers  to  which  it  would  constantly  be  exposed  till  the  question  was 
finally  adjusted.  The  act  of  union  of  1800  was  the  immediate  consequence  of  that  out- 
break ; and  to  this  act  the  Irish  were  induced  to  consent  by  a virtual  pledge  entered  into 
by  Mr.  Pitt,  to  the  effect  that  the  Catholic  disabilities  should  be  at  once  removed.  But, 
like  William  of  Orange,  Pitt  had  pledged  himself  to  more  than  he  was  able  to  accomp- 
lish. The  king  was  seized  with  scruples  regarding  the  obligations  imposed  upon  him 
by  his  coronation  oath,  and  made  a vigorous  stand  against  the  proposals  of  his  minister. 

At  a subsequent  period,  efforts  were  made  in  the  direction  of  emancipation  by  Mr. 
Canning  and  lord  Castlereagh.  About  1824,  the  press  began  to  take  up  the  question 
warmly;  a Catholic  association  was  formed,  to  prepare  petitions  to  parliament;  the 
Irish  priests  stimulated  their  flocks  to  subscribe  for  the  purposes  of  agitation;  O’Connell 
rapidly  became  a power;  and  as  early  as  March,  1825,  the  importance  of  the  question 
was  so  deeply  felt,  that  sir  F.  Burdett  ventured  to  introduce  a relief  bill,  which  passed 
the  commons  by  a majority  of  268  to  241,  but  was  rejected  by  the  lords.  A slight  tem- 
porary reaction  now  took  place,  the  superstitious  fears  of  ignorant  Protestants  being 
excited  by  a “ no-popery”  cry,  and  in  consequence,  a new  relief  bill,  introduced  in  1827, 
though  supported  by  the  last  effort  of  Canning’s  eloquence,  was  lost  in  the  commons  by 
a majority  of  4.  But  the  liberal  view  of  the  Roman  Catholic  claims  was  essentially  the 
popular  one — at  least  among  the  enlightened  classes;  and  as  a proof  of  this,  under  the 
hostile  administration  of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  the  very  same  resolution  which  had 
lost  in  1827  by  a minority  of  4,  was  carried  in  1828  by  a majority  of  6.  The  duke  him- 
self now  began  to  waver  in  opinion,  so  that  the  beginning  of  the  end  w’as  manifestly 
near.  During  O’ConneU’s  famous  canvass  for  the  county  of  Clare,  the  duke  declared  in 
the  house  of  lords,  “ if  the  public  mind  were  now  suffered  to  be  tranquil,  if  the  agitators 
of  Ireland  would  only  leave  the  public  mind  at  rest,  the  people  would  become  more 
satisfied,  and  I certainly  think  it  would  then  be  possible  to  do  something.”  O’Connell’s 
return  for  Clare,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  the  oaths  which  precluded  him  from 
taking  his  seat  in  the  house,  and  the  events  which  now  foil  ) wed  in  quick  succession, 
made  it  clear  that  the  “something”  of  which  the  duke  had  spoken  must  be  the  passing 
of  the  emancipation  bill  in  the  ensuing  session.  The  king’s  speech,  which  w’as  read  on 
ihe  5th  Feb.  of  the  following  year,  accordingly  contained  a recommendation  to  parlia- 
ment, to  consider  whether  the  civil  disabilities  of  the  Catholics  could  not  be  removed, 
“consistently  with  the  full  and  permanent  security  of  our  establishments  in  church  and 
state.” 

On  the  5th  Mar.,  Mr.  Peel  brought  forward  the  great  measure.  The  majority  on  the 
motion  in  the  commons  for  going  into  committee  was  188,  in  a house  of  508  members; 
the  debate  on  the  second  reading  issued  in  a majority  of  180;  and  the  final  majority, 
after  the  bill  had  passed  through  committee,  in  which  not  one  of  the  many  amendments 
proposed  was  carried,  was  178  in  a house  of  462.  In  the  lords,  the  debate  lasted  three 
nights,  the  majority  being  106  in  favor  of  the  second  reading  of  a bill  which,  nine 
months  before,  the  same  house  had  refused,  by  a majority  of  45,  even  to  entertain — so 
rapid  and  threatening  had  been  the  progress  of  the  agitation.  On. the  13tli  April,  1829, 
this  famous  measure  became  the  law  of  the  land.  It  now  only  remains  that,  by  men- 
tioning the  provisions  of  the  act,  we  sum  up  the  results  of  one  of  the  most  important 
controversies  that  ever  agitated  the  inhabitants  of  this  country.  For  the  oath  of  supre- 
macy, another  oath  was  substituted,  by  which  all  Catholic  members  of  parliament 
bound  themselves  to  support  the  existing  institutions  of  the  state,  and  not  to  injure 
those  of  the  church  (see  Abjuration).  Catholics  were  admitted  to  all  corporate  offices, 
and  to  an  equal  enjoyment  of  all  municipal  rights.  The  army  and  navy  had  already 
been  opened  to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  they  were  excluded  from  the  offices  of  regent, 
of  chancellor  of  England  or  Ireland,  and  of  viceroy  of  Ireland ; from  all  offices  con- 
nected with  the  church,  its  universities  and  schools,  and  from  all  disposal  of  church 
patronage.  The  most  important  security  related  to  the  franchise,  in  which  a £10  was 
substituted  for  a 40.s.  qualification  in  Ireland.  The  clergy  of  the  R.  C.  chui’ch  were  left 
U.  K.  III.— 36 


Catholic. 

Cato. 


562 


in  the  position  of  other  dissenters,  the  government  having  declined  either  to  endow 
them,  or  to  introduce  any  machinery  for  prying  into  their  relations  to  tlie  pope.  But 
the  public  use  of  their  insignia  of  office,  and  of  episcopal  titles  and  names,  was  denied 
them;  the  extension  of  monachism  was  prohibited;  and  it  was  enacted  that  the  number 
of  Jesuits  should  not  be  increased,  and  that  they  should  henceforth  be  subject  to  regis- 
tration. For  further  information,  see  Miss  Martineau’s  History  of  England  during  the 
Peace  from  1815  to  1846.  W.  & R.  Chambers,  1858. 

CATHOLIC  EPISTLES,  the  name  given,  according  to  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  Ori 
gen,  to  certain  epistles,  addressed  not  to  particular  churches  or  individuals,  but  either 
to  the  church  universal  or  to  a large  and  indefinite  circle  of  readers.  Originally,  the 
C.  E.  comprised  only  the  first  epistle  of  John  and  the  first  of  Peter,  but,  at  least  as  early 
as  the  4th  c.  (as  evinced  by  the  testimony  of  Eusebius),  the  term  was  applied  to  all  the 
apostolic  writings  used  as  “lessons’'  in  the  orthodox  Christian  churches.  But  this 
included  the  epistle  of  James,  of  Jude,  the  2d  of  Peter,  and  the  2d  and  3d  of  John. 
These  seven  thus  constituted  the  C.  E.,  although  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  last-mentioned  five  were  not  universally  acknowledged;  but  this  very  incorporation 
with  epistles  whose  canonicity  w^as  not  questioned,  naturally  had  the  effect  of  confirm- 
ing their  authority,  so  that  in  a short  time  the  entire  seven  came  to  be  considered  a por- 
tion of  the  canon. 

CATHOL'ICOS,  the  title  of  the  patriarchs  or  chief  ecclesiastics  in  the  hierarchy  of  the 
Armenian  church,  and  of  the  Christians  of  Georgia  and  Mingrelia. 

CATILI'NA,  Lucius  Sergius,  descended  from  a patrician  but  impoverished  family, 
was  b.  about  the  year  108  b.c.  During  his  youth,  he  attached  himself  to  the  party  of 
Sulla.  His  bodily  constitution,  which  was  capable  of  enduring  any  amount  of  labor, 
fatigue,  and  hardship,  allied  to  a mind  which  could  stoop  to  every  baseness  and  feared 
no  crime,  fitted  him  to  take  the  lead  in  the  conspiracy  which  has  made  his  name  infa- 
mous to  all  ages.  In  the  year  68  b.c.,  he  was  elected  praetor;  in  67  b.c.,  governor  of  Africa; 
and  in  66  b.c.,  he  desired  to  stand  for  the  consulship,  but  was  disqualified  on  account 
of  the  accusations  brought  against  him  of  maladministration  in  his  province.  Disap- 
pointed thus  in  his  ambition,  and  burdened  with  many  and  heavy  debts,  he  saw  no  hope 
for  himself  but  in  the  chances  of  apolitical  revolution,  and  therefore  entered  into  a con- 
spiracy, including  many  other  young  Roman  nobles,  in  morals  and  circumstances  greatly 
like  himself.  The  plot,  however,  was  revealed  to  Cicero  by  Fulvia,  mistress  of  one  of 
the  conspirators.  Operations  were  to  commence  with  the  assassination  of  Cicero  in 
the  Campus  Martins,  but  the  latter  was  kept  aware  of  every  step  of  the  conspiracy,  and 
contrived  to  frustrate  the  whole  design.  In  the  night  of  Nov.  6 (63  b.c.),  Catiline  assembled 
his  confederates,  and  explained  to  them  a new  plan  for  assassinating  Cicero;  for  bring- 
ing up  the  Tuscan  army  (which  he  had  seduced  from  its  allegiance),  under  Manlius, 
from  the  encampment  at  Faesulae ; for  setting  fire  to  Rome,  and  putting  to  death  the  hostile 
senators  and  citizens.  In  the  course  of  a few  hours,  everything  was  made  known  to  Cicero. 
Accordingly,  when  the  chosen  assassins  came  to  the  house  of  the  consul,  on  pretense  of  a 
visit,  they  were  immediately  repulsed.  On  the  8th  of  Nov. , Catiline  audaciously  appeared 
in  the  senate,  when  Cicero — who  had  received  intelligence  that  the  insurrection  had  already 
broken  out  in  Etruria — commenced  the  celebrated  invective  beginning:  Quomqm  tandem 
ahutere,  Catilina,  patientia  nostra  f etc.  (“  How  long  now,  Catiline,  will  you  abuse  our 
patience?”)  The  scoundrel  was  abashed,  not  by  the  keenness  of  Cicero’s  attack,  but  by 
the  minute  knowledge  he  displayed  of  the  conspiracy.  His  attempt  at  a reply  was  mis- 
erable, and  was  drowned  in  cries  of  execration.  With  curses  on  his  lips,  he  abruptly 
left  the  senate,  and  escaped  from  Rome  during  the  night.  Catiline  and  Manlius  were  now 
denounced  as  traitors,  and  an  army  under  the  consul,  Antonius,  was  sent  against  them. 
The  conspirators  who  remained  in  Rome,  the  chief  of  whom  was  Lentulus,  were 
arrested,  tried,  condemned,  and  executed,  Dec.  5.  The  insurrections  in  several  parts  of 
Italy  were  meanwhile  suppressed;  many  who  had  resorted  to  Catiline’s  camp  in  Etruria, 
deserted  when  they  heard  what  had  taken  place  in  Rome,  and  his  intention  to  proceed 
into  Gaul  was  frustrated.  In  the  beginning  of  Jan.  (62),  he  returned  by  Pistoria  (now 
Pistoja)  into  Etruria,  where  he  encountered  the  forces  under  Antonius,  and,  after  a des- 
perate battle,  in  which  he  displayed  almost  superhuman  courage  and  enthusiasm,  was 
defeated  and  slain.  The  appearance  of  Catiline  was  in  harmony  with  his  character.  He 
had  a daring  and  reckless  look;  his  face  was  haggard  with  a sense  of  crime:  his  eyes 
were  wild  and  bloodshot,  and  his  step  unsteady,  from  nightly  debauchery.  The  history 
of  the  Catiline  conspiracy  is  given  by  Sallust  in  a remarkably  concise  and  nervous 
style. 

CATI'NEAU-LAROCHE,  Pierre  Marie  Sbbastien,  1772-1828;  a French  philolo- 
gist who  emigrated  to  San  Domingo,  where  his  antislavery  sentiments  were  so  obnoxious 
that  he  was  prosecuted  and  saved  from  death  only  by  the  interference  of  the  home 

fovernment.  He  went  to  Cape  Haytien,  where  in  the  great  massacre  he  alone  of  17 
'renchmen  was  saved.  He  returned  to  Paris  by  way  of  the  United  States,  set  up  a 
printing-office,  and  produced  several  dictionaries.  In  1819,  he  was  sent  by  the  govern- 
ment to  study  the  climate  of  French  Guiana,  and  three  years  later  his  notes  were  pub- 
lished. 


563 


Catholic. 

Cato. 


CA  TION.  See  Anode. 

CATKIN,  Amentum,  in  botany,  a spike  of  numerous,  small,  unisexual  flowers,  destitute 
of  calyx  and  corolla,  and  furnished  with  scale-like  bractese  instead,  the  whole  inflor- 
escence finally  falling  off  by  an  articulation  in  a single  piece.  Examples  are  found  in 
the  willow,  hazel,  oak,  birch,  alder,  and  other  trees  and  shrubs,  forming  the  natural 
order  amentaceae  (q.v.).  In  some,  as  in  the  oak  and  hazel,  the  male  flowers  only  are 
in  catkins. 

GATLIN,  George,  1796-1872;  b.  Penn. ; an  artist  celebrated  for  his  travels,  waitings, 
and  portraits  of  American  Indians.  He  was  bred  to  the  law  and  practiced  for  a year  or 
two  in  Philadelphia,  but  having  a taste  for  art  he  established  himself  in  New  York  as  a 
portrait-painter.  About  1832,  he  became  impressed  with  the  fact,  that  the  most 
remarkable  American  Indians  were  fast  disappearing,  and  resolved  to  rescue  at  least 
the  portraits  of  some  of  them  from  oblivion.  In  pursuit  of  this  object  he  traveled  and 
dwelt  among  the  aboriginal  tribes  in  North  and  South  America,  acquiring  their  languages, 
and  thoroughly  studying  their  manners  and  customs,  traditions,  history,  and  modes  of 
life.  After  collecting  many  portraits,  and  many  sketches  of  life  and  scenery,  he  pub- 
lished in  London,  in  1841,  a large  work  on  the  Manners,  Customs,  and  Condition  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  with  300  illustrations.  In  1844,  followed  the  Noi'th  American 
Portfolio  of  Hunting  Scenes;  in  1848,  Eight  Tears'  Travels  and  Residence  in  Europe,  in  which 
he  gives  the  stories  of  several  Indians  whom  he  had  introduced  to  various  European 
courts.  In  1864,  he  published  a little  monograph  which  created  much  interest  among 
medical  men,  entitled  The  Breath  of  Life,  in  v-hich  he  argued  the  importance  of  keeping 
one’s  mouth  closed  when  sleeping — an  idea  doubtless  suggested  by  the  fact  that  the 
Indians  use  special  care  in  this  respect.  His  last  work  was  Last  Rambles  among  the 
Indians  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Andes. 

CATMANDOO.  See  Khatmandu,  ante. 

CATMINT,  Nepeta  cataria,  a plant  of  the  natural  order  laUatan,  pretty  common  in 
England,  in  chal%  and  gravelly  soils,  but  rare  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  widely  diffused 
throughout  Europe  and  the  middle  latitudes  of  Asia,  and  of  North  America;  remark- 
able for  the  fondness  which  cats  display  for  it.  It  appears  to  act  upon  them  in  a similar 
way  to  valerian  root;  and  when  its  leaves  are  bruised  so  as  to  be  highly  odoriferous, 
they  are  at  once  attracted  to  it,  rub  themselves  on  it,  tear  at  it,  and  chew  it.  Its  odor 
has  been  described  as  intermediate  between  that  of  mint  and  that  of  pennyroyal.  It  has 
erect  stems,  2 to  3 ft.  high,  dense  whorls  of  many  whitish  flowers,  tinged  and  spotted  with 
rose-color,  and  stalked  heart  shaped  leaves  of  a velvety  softness,  whitish  and  downy 
beneath. — Other  species  are  numerous  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  middle  latitudes  of  Asia. 

CATNIP.  See  Catmint,  ante. 

CA'TO,  Dionysius,  is  the  name  prefixed  to  a little  volume  of  moral  precepts  in  verse, 
which  was  a great  favorite  during  the  middle  ages.  Whether  or  not  such  a person  ever 
existed,  is  a point  of  the  greatest  uncertainty.  The  title  which  the  book  itself  com- 
monly bears,  is  Bionysii  Catonis  Disticha  de  Moribus  ad  Filium.  Its  contents  have  been 
differently  estimated:  some  scholars  have  considered  the  precepts  admirable;  others, 
weak  and  vapid:  some  have  found  indications  of  a superior  scriptural  knowledge; 
others,  of  a deep-rooted  paganism.  The  style  has  been  pronounced  the  purest  Latin 
and  the  most  corrupt  jargon.  The  truth  would  seem  to  be,  that  on  a ground-work  of 
excellent  Latin  of  the  silver  age,  the  illiterate  monks  of  a later  period  have,  as  it  were, 
inwoven  a multitude  of  their  own  barbaric  errors,  which  preclude  us  from  determining 
precisely  the  period  when  the  volume  was  composed.  It  begins  with  a preface 
addressed  by  the  supposed  author  to  his  son,  after  which  come  56  injunctions  of  rather  a 
simple  character,  such  as  parentem  ama.  This  is  followed  by  the  substance  and  main 
portion  of  the  book — viz.,  144  moral  precepts,  each  of  which  is  expressed  in  two  dactylic 
hexameters.  During  the  middle  ages,  the  Disticha  \f2iS  used  as  a text-book  for  young 
scholars.  In  the  15th  c.,  more  than  30  editions  were  printed.  The  best  edition,  how- 
ever, is  that  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1754  by  Otto  Arntzenius.  Caxton  translated 
it  into  English.  ' 

CA'TO,  Marcus  Porcius,  surnamed  Censorius  and  Sapiens  (“the  wise”),  afterwards 
known  as  Cato  Prtscus  or  Cato  Major — to  distinguish  him  from  Cato  of  Utica — was 
b.  at  Tusculum  in  234  b.c.  He  inherited  from  his  plebeian  father  a small  farm  in  the 
country  of  the  Sabines,  where  he  busied  himself  in  agricultural  operations,  and  learned 
to  love  the  simple  and  severe  manners  of  his  Roman  forefathers,  which  still  lingered 
round  his  rural  home.  Induced  by  Lucius  Valerius  Flaccus  to  remove  to  Rome  when 
that  city  was  in  a transition  epoch,  from  the  old-fashioned  strictness  and  severe  frugalit}^ 
of  social  habits,  to  the  luxury  and  licentiousness  of  Grecian  manners,  C.  appeared  to 
protest  against  this,  to  denounce  the  degeneracy  of  the  Philo-hellenic  party,  and  to  set 
a pattern  of  sterner  and  purer  character.  He  soon  distinguished  himself  as  a pleader 
at  the  bar  of  justice,  and  after  passing  through  minor  offices,  was  elected  consul.  In 
his  province  of  Nearer  Spain,  where  an  insurrection  had  broken  out  after  the  departure 
of  the  elder  Scipio  (206  b.c.),  C.  was  so  successful  in  quelling  disturbances  and  restoring 
order,  that  in  the  following  year  he  was  honored  by  a triumph.  C.  exhibited  extraor- 
dinary military  genius  in  Spain;  his  stratagems  were  brilliant,  his  plans  of  battle  were 


Cato. 

Catoptrics. 


564 


marked  by  great  skill,  and  his  general  movements  were  ,apid,  bold,  and  unexpected. 
In  187  B.c.,.a  fine  opportunity  occurred  for  the  display  of  “ antique  Roman”  notions. 
M.  Fiilvius  Nobilior  had  just  returned  from  .^Etolia  victorious,  and  sought  the  honor 
of  a triumph.  C.  objected.  Fulvius  was  indulgent  to  his  soldiers,  a man  of  literary 
taste,  etc.,  and  C.  charges  him,  among  other  enormities,  with  “keeping  poets  in  his 
camp.”  These  rude  prejudices  of  C.  were  not  acceptable  to  the  senate,  and  C.’s  opposi- 
tion was  fruitless.  In  184  b.c.,  C.  was  elected  censor,  and  discharged  so  rigorously  the 
duties  of  his  office,  that  the  epithet  Censorius,  formerly  applied  to  all  persons  in  the  same 
station,  was  made  his  permanent  surname.  Many  of  his  acts  were  highly  commendable. 
He  repaired  the  water-courses,  paved  the  reservoirs,  cleansed  the  drains,  raised  the 
rents  paid  by  the  publicans  for  the  farming  of  the  taxes,  and  diminished  the  contract 
prices  paid  by  the  state  to  the  undertakers  of  public  works.  More  questionable  reforms 
were  those  in  regard  to  the  price  of  slaves,  dress,  furniture,  equipage,  etc.  His  despotism 
in  enforcing  his  oion  idea  of  decency  may  be  illustrated  from  the  fact,  that  he  degraded 
Mauilius,  a man  of  praetorian  rank,  for  having  kissed  his  wife  in  his  daughter’s  presence 
in  open  day.  C.  was  a thoroughly  dogmatic  moralist,  intolerant,  stoical,  but  great, 
because  he  manfully  contended  with  rapidly  swelling  evils;  yet  not  wise,  because  he 
opposed  the  bad  and  the  good  in  the  innovations  of  his  age  with  equal  animosity. 

In  the  year  175  b.c.,  C.  was  sent  to  Carthage  to  negotiate  on  the  differences  between 
the  Carthaginians  and  the  Numidian  king  Masinissa;  but  having  been  offended  by  the 
Carthaginians,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where,  ever  afterwards,  he  described  Carthage  as 
the  most  formidable  rival  of  the  empire,  and  concluded  all  his  addresses  in  the  senate- 
house — whatever  the  immediate  subject  might  be — with  the  well-known  words : “ Ceterum 
censeo,  Garthagimm  esse  delendam"  (“For  the  rest,  I vote  that  Carthage  must  be 
destroyed  ”). 

Though  C.  was  acquainted  with  the  Greek  language  and  its  literature,  his  severe 
principles  led  him  to  denounce  the  latter  as  injurious  to  national  morals.  He  died  149 

B. C.,  at  the  age  of  85.  C.  was  twice  married.  In  his  eightieth  year,  his  second  wife, 
Salonia,  bore  him  a son,  the  grandfather  of  Cato  of  Utica.  C.  treated  his  slaves  with 
shocking  harshness  and  cruelty.  In  his  old  age,  he  became  greedy  of  gain,  yet  never 
once  aliowed  his  avarice  to  interfere  with  his  honesty  as  a state-functionary.  He  also 
composed  various  literary  works,  such  as  De  Re  Rustica  (a  treatise  on  agriculture) — much 
corrupted,  however.  The  best  editions  are  by  Gesner  and  Schneider  in  their  Scriptores 
Rei  Rustiem.  His  greatest  historical  work,  Origines,  has,  unfortunately,  perished;  but 
some  few  fragments  are  given  in  Krause’s  Historicorum,  Romanorum  Fragrnenta  (Berlin, 
1833).  Fragments  of  C.’s  orations — of  which  as  many  as  150  were  read  by  Cicero — are 
given  in  Meyer’s  Oratovum  Romanorum  Fi’agmenta  (Zurich,  1842). 

CA  TO,  Marcus  Porcius,  named  Cato  the  Younger,  or  Cato  ITticensis  (from  the 
place  of  his  death),  was  born  95  b.c.  Having  lost,  during  childhood,  both  parents,  ho 
was  educated  in  the  house  of  his  uncle,  M.  Livius  Drusus,  and,  even  in  his  boyhood, 
gave  proofs  of  his  decision  and  strength  of  character.  In  the  year  72  b.c.,  he  served 
with  distinction  in  the  campaign  against  Spartacus,  but  without  finding  satisfaction  in 
military  life,  though  he  proved  himself  a good  soldier.  From  Macedonia,  where  he  was 
military  tribune  in  67,  he  went  to  Pergamus  in  search  of  the  Stoic  philosopher,  Athen- 
odorus,  whom  he  brought  back  to  his  camp,  and  whom  he  induced  to  proceed  with  him 
to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the  time  partly  in  philosophical  studies,  and  pai  tly  in  forensic 
discussions.  Desirous  of  honestly  qualifying  himself  for  the  quaestorship,  he" commenced 
to  study  all  the  financial  questions  connected  with  it.  Immediately  after  his  election, 
he  introduced,  in  spite  of  violent  opposition  from  those  interested,  a rigorous  reform 
into  the  treasury  offices.  He  quitted  the  quaestorship  at  the  appointed  time  amid  gen- 
eral applause.  In  63 b.c.,  he  was  elected  tribune,  and  also  delivered  his  famous  speech 
on  the  Catiline  conspiracy,  in  which  he  denounced  Caesar  as  an  accomplice  of  that 
political  desperado,  and  determined  the  sentence  of  the  senate.  Strongly  dreading  the 
influence  of  unbridled  greatness,  and  not  discerning  that  an  imperial  genius — like  that 
of  Caesar — was  the  only  thing  that  could  remedy  the  evils  of  that  overgrown  monster,  the 
Roman  republic,  he  commenced  a career  of  wiiat  seems  to  us  blind  pragmatical  opposi- 
tion to  the  three  most  powerful  men  in  Rome — Crassus,  Pompey,  and  Caesar.  C.  was  a 
noble  but  strait-laced  theorist,  who  lacked  the  intuition  into  circumstances  which 
belongs  to  men  like  Caesar  and  Cromwell.  His  first  opposition  to  Pompey  was  success- 
ful; but  his  opposition  to  Caesar’s  consulate  for  the  year  59  not  only  failed,  but  even 
served  to  hasten  the  formation  of  the  first  triumvirate  between  Caesar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus.  He  was  afterwards  forced  to  side  with  Pompey,  who  had  resiled  from  his 
connection  with  Caesar,  and  become  reconciled  to  the  aristocracy.  After  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  (48  b.c.),  C.  intended  to  join  Pompey,  but  hearing  the  news  of  his  death, 
escaped  into  Africa,  where  he  was  elected  commander  by  the  partisans  for  Pompey,  but 
resigned  the  post  in  favor  of  Metellus  Scipio,  and  undertook  the  defense  of  Utica.  Here, 
when  he  had  tidings  of  C{Esar’s  decisive  victory  over  Scipio  at  Thapsus  (April  6,  46  b.c.), 

C. ,  finding  that  his  troops  were  wholly  intimidated,  advised  the  Roman  senators  and 
knights  to  escape  from  Utica,  and  make  terms  with  the  victor,  but  prohibited  all  inter- 
cessions in  his  own  favor.  He  resolved  to  die  rather  than  surrender,  and,  after  spending 
the  night  in  reading  Plato’s  Pheedo,  committed  suicide  by  stabbing  himself  in  the  breasC 


565 


Cato. 

Catoptrios. 


CAT'ODON  and  Catodon'tid^.  See  Cacholot. 

CAT-O’-NINE-TAILS.  See  Flogging. 

CATOO  SA,  a co.  in  n.w,  Georgia,  watered  by  affluents  of  tne  Tennessee  river,  and 
crossed  by  the  Western  and  Atlantic  railroad;  175  sq.m.;  pop.  70,  4,409 — 616  colored. 
The  region  is  hilly,  with  much  woodland.  The  productions  are  chiefly  agricultural. 
Co.  seat,  llinggold. 


CATOP'TRICS.  The  divisions  of  the  science  of  optics  are  laid  out  and  explained  in 
the  article  Optics  (q.v.).  C.  is  that  subdivision  of  geometrical  optics  which  treats  of 
the  phenomena  of  light  incident  upon  the  surfaces  of  bodies,  and  reflected  therefrom. 
All  bodies  reflect  more  or  less  light,  even  those  through  which  it  is  most  readily  trans- 
missible; light  falling  on  such  media,  for  instance,  at  a certain  angle,  is  totally  reflected. 
Rough  surfaces  scatter  or  disperse  (see  Dispersion  op  Light)  a large  portion  of  what 
falls  on  them,  through  which  it  is  that  their  peculiarities  of  flgure,  color,  etc.,  are  seen 
by  eyes  in  a variety  of  positions;  they  are  not  said  to  reflect  light,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
they  do,  though  in  such  a way,  owing  to  their  inequalities,  as  never  to  present  the 
phenomena  of  reflection.  The  surfaces  with  which  C.,  accordingly,  deals,  are  the 
smooth  and  polished.  It  tracks  the  course  of  rays  and  pencils  of  light  after  reflection 
from  such  surfaces,  and  determines  the  positions,  and  traces  the  forms,  of  images  of 
objects  as  seen  in  mirrors  of  different  kinds. 

A ray  of  light  is  the  smallest  conceivable  portion  of  a stream  of  light,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  the  line  of  its  path,  which  is  always  a straight  line.  A pencil  of  light  is  an 
assemblage  of  rays  constituting  either  a cylindrical  or  conical  stream.  A stream  of  light 
is  called  a converging  pencil  when  the  rays  converge  to  the  vertex  of  the  cone,  called  a 
focus;  and  a diverging  pencil,  when  they  diverge  from  the  vertex.  The  axis  of  the 
cone  in  each  case  is  called  the  axis  of  the  pencil.  When  the  stream  consists  of  parallel 
rays,  the  pencil  is  called  cylindrical,  and  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  is  the  axis  of  the  pen- 
cil. In  nature,  all  pencils  of  light  are  primarily  diverging — every  point  of  a luminous 
body  throwing  olf  light  in  a conical  stream ; converging  rays,  however,  are  continually 
produced  in  optical  instruments,  and  when  light  diverges  from  a very  distant  body,  such 
as  a fixed  star,  the  rays  from  it  falling  on  any  small  body,  such  as  a reflector  in  a tele- 
scope, may,  wu'thout  error,  be  regarded  as  forming  a cylindrical  pencil.  When  a ray  falls 
upon  any  surface,  the  angle  which  it  makes  with  the  normal  to  the  surface  at  the  point 
of  incidence  is  called  the  angle  of  incidence;  and  that  which  the  reflected  ray  makes  with 
the  norm-al,  is  called  the  angle  of  reflection. 

Two  facts  of  observation  form  the  ground-work  of  catoptrics.  They  are  expressed 
in  what  are  called  the  laws  of  reflection  of  light:  1.  In  the  reflection  of  light,  the  inci- 
dent ray,  the  normal  to  the  surface  at  the  point  of  incidence,  and  the  reflected  ray, 
lie  all  in  one  plane.  2.  The  angle  of  reflection  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence. 
These  laws  are  simple  facts  of  observation  and  experiment,  and  they  are  easily  verified 
experimentally.  Rays  of  all  colors  and  qualities  follow  these  laws,  so  that  white  light, 
after  reflection,  remains  undecomposed.  The  laws,  too,  hold,  whatever  be  the  nature, 
geometrically,  of  the  surface.  If  the  surface  be  a plane,  the  normal  is  the  perpendic 
ular  to  the  plane  at  the  point  of  incidence;  if  it  be  curved,  then  the  normal  is  the 
perpendicular  to  the  tangent  plane  at  that  point.  From  these  laws  and  geometrical 
considerations  may  be  deduced  all  the  propositions  of  catoptrics.  In  the  present 
work,  only  those  can  be  noticed  whose  truth  can  in  a manner  be  exhibited  to  the  eye 
without  any  rigid  mathematical  proof.  They  are  arranged  under  the  heads  plane  sur- 
faces and  curve  surfaces. 

Plane  Surfaces. — 1.  When  a pencil  of  parallel  rays  falls  upon  a plane  mirror,  the 
reflected  pencil  consists  of  parallel  rays.  A glance  at  the  annexed  figure  (fig.  1), 


Fig.  3. 


where  PA  and  QB  are  two  of  the  incident  rays,  and  are  reflected  in  the  directions  AR 
and  BS  respectively,  will  make  the  truth  of  this  pretty  clear  to  the  eye.  The  propo- 
sition, however,  may  be  rigidly  demonstrated  by  aid  of  Euclid,  book  xi.,  with  which, 
however,  we  shall  not  presume  the  reader  to  be  acquainted.  The  reader  may  satisfy 
himself  of  its  truth  practically  by  taking  a number  of  rods  parallel  to  one  another  and 
inclined  to  the  floor,  and  then  turning  them  over  till  they  shall  again  be  equally  inclined 
to  the  floor,  when  lie  will  again  find  them  all  parallel. — 2.  If  a diverging  or  converg- 
ing pencil  is  incident  on  a plane  mirror,  the  focus  of  the  reflected  pencil  is  situated 
©n  the  opposite  side  of  the  mirror  to  that  of  the  incident  pencil,  and  at  an  equal 
distance  from  it.  Suppose  the  pencil  to  be  diverging  from  the  focus  Q (fig.  2),  on  the 


Catoptrics. 


566 


mirror  of  the  surface  of  which  CB  is  a section.  Draw  QNg  perpendicular  to  CB  and 
make  g'N=QN,  the  nq  is  the  focus  of  the  reflected  rays.  For  let  QA,  QB,  QC  be  any  of 
the  incident  rays  in  the  plane  of  the  figure;  draw  the  line  AM  perpendicular  to  CB,  and 
draw  AR.  making  the  angle  MAR  equal  to  the  angle  of  incidence,  MAQ.  Then  AR  is 
the  reflected  ray.  Join  qh..  Now  it  can  be  proved  geometrically,  and  indeed  is  appar- 
ent at  a glance,  that  qh.  and  AR  are  in  the  same  straight  line;  in  other  words,  the 
reflected  ray  AR  proceeds  as  if  from  q.  In  the  same  way,  it  may  be  shown  that  the 
direction  of  any  other  reflected  ray,  as  BS,  is  as  if  it  proceeded  from  q;  in  other  words,  q 
is  the  focus  of  reflected  rays;  it  is,  however,  only  their  virtual  focus.  See  art.  Focus. 
If  a pencil  of  rays  converged  to  q,  it  is  evident  that  they  would  be  reflected  to  Q as  their 
real  focus,  so  that  a separate  proof  for  the  case  of  a converging  pencil  is  unnecessary. 
The  reader  who  has  followed  the  above  will  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  how  the 
position  and  form  of  the  image  of  an  object  placed  before  a plane  mirror — as  in  fig.  3, 
where  the  object  is  the  arrow  AB,  in  the  plane  of  tlie  paper,  to  which  the  plane  of 
the  mirror  is  perpendicular — should  be  of  the  same  form  and  magnitude  as  the  object 
(as  ah  in  the  fig.),  and  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  mirror,  on  the  opposite  side  of  it, 
but  with  its  different  parts  inverted  with  regard  to  a given  direction.  The  highest 
a,  for  instance,  in  the  image,  corresponds  with  the  lowest  point.  A,  in  the  object.  He 
will  also  understand  how,  in  the  ordinary  use  of  a looking-glass,  the  right  hand  of  the 
image  corresponds  to  the  left  hand  of  the  object. 

When  two  plane  mirrors  are  placed  with  their  reflecting  surfaces  towards  each  other, 
and  paiallel,  they  form  the  experiment  called  the  endless  gallery.  Let  (in  fig.  4)  the 
arrow,  Q,  be  placed  vertically  between  the  parallel  mirrors,  CD,  BA,  with  their  sil- 
vered faces  turned  to  one  another,  Q will  produce  in  the  mirror  CD  the  image  gk 
This  image  will  act  as  a new  object  to  produce  with  the  mirror  BA  the  image  q"^, 
which,  again,  will  produce  with  the  mirror  CD  another  image,  and  so  on.  Another 
series  of  images,  such  as  q',  q\  etc.,  will  similarly  be  produced  at  the  same  time,  the 


first  of  the  series  being  q',  the  image  of  Q in  the  mirror  BA.  By  an  eye  placed  between 
the  mirrors,  the  succession  of  images  will  be  seen  as  described;  and  if  the  mirrors 
were  perfectly  plane  and  parallel,  and  reflected  all  the  light  incident  on  them,  the  num- 
ber of  the  images  of  both  series  would  be  infinite.  If,  instead  of  being  parallel,  the 
mirrors  are  inclined  at  an  angle,  the  form  and  position  of  the  image  of  an  object  may 
be  found  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  in  the  former  case,  the  image  formed  with  the 
first  mirror  being  regarded  as  a new  (virtual)  object,  whose  image,  with  regard  to  the 
second,  has  to  be  determined.  For  a curious  application  of  two  plane  mirrors  meeting 
and  inclined  at  an  angle  an  aliquot  part  of  180°,  see  art.  Kaleidoscope. — 3.  The  two 
propositions  already  established  are  of  extensive  application,  as  has  partly  been  showm. 
They  include  the  explanation  of  all  phenomena  of  light  related  to  plane  mirrors.  The 
third  proposition  is  one  also  of  considerable  utility,  though  not  fundamental.  It  is: 
When  a ray  of  light  has  been  reflected  at  each  of  two  mirrors  inclined  at  a given 
angle  to  each  other,  in  a plane  perpendicular  to  their  intersection,  the  reflected  ray 
will  deviate  from  its  original  course  by  an  angle  double  the  angle  of  inclination  of 
the  mirrors.  Let  A and  B (fig.  5)  be  sections  of  the  mirrors  in  a plane  perpendicular 
to  their  intersection,  and  let  their  directions  be  produced  till  they  meet  in  C.  Let  SA, 
in  the  plane  of  A and  B,  be  the  ray  incident  on  the  first  mirror  at  A,  and  let  AB  be 
the  line  in  which  it  is  thence  reflected  to  B.  After  reflection  at  B,  it  will  pass  in  the 
line  BD,  meeting  SA,  its  original  path,  produced  in  D.  The  angle  ADB  evidently 
measures  its  deviation  from  its  original  course,  and  this  angle  is  readily  shown  to  be 
double  of  the  angle  at  C,  which  is  that  of  the  inclination  of  the  mirrors.  It  is  on  this 
proposition  that  the  important  mathematical  instruments  called  the  quadrant  and  sex- 
tant (q.v.)  depend 

Curved  Surfaces. — As  when  a pencil  of  light  is  reflected  by  a curved  mirror,  each 
ray  follows  the  ordinary  law  of  reflection,  in  every  case  in  which  we  can  draw  the 
normals  for  the  different  points  of  the  surface,  we  can  determine  the  direction  in 
which  the  various  rays  of  the  pencil  are  reflected,  as  in  the  case  of  plane  mirrors.  It  so 
happens  that  normals  can  be  easily  drawn  only  in  the  case  of  the  sphere,  and  of  a few 


C 


A 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5 


567 


Catoptrics. 


“surfaces  of  revolution,”  as  they  are  called.  These  are  the  paraboloid,  the  ellipsoid, 
and  the  hyperboloid  of  revolution.  The  paraboloid  of  revolution  is  of  importance  in 
optics,  as  it  is  used  in  some  specula  for  telescopes.  See  arts.  Speculum  and  Tele- 
scope. The  tliree  surfaces  last  named  are,  however,  all  of  them  interesting,  as  being 
for  pencils  of  light  incident  in  certain  ways  what  are  called  surfaces  of  accurate  reflec- 
tion— i.e.,  they  reflect  all  the  rays  of  the  incident  pencil  to  a single  point  or  focus.  We 
shall  explain  to  what  this  property  is  owing  in  the  case  of  the  parabolic  reflector,  and 
state  generally  the  facts  regarding  the  other  two. 

1.  The  concave  parabolic  reflector  is  a surface  of  accurate  reflection  for  pencils  of 
rays  parallel  to  the  axis  or  central  line  of  figure  of  the  paraboloid.  This  results  from 
the  property  of  the  surface,  that  the  normal  at  any  point  of  it  passes  through  the  axis, 
and  bisects  the  angle  between  a line  through  that  point,  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  a 
line  joining  the  point  to  the  focus  of  the  generating  parabola.  Referring  to  fig.  6, 
suppose  a ray  incident  on  the  surface  at  P,  in  the  line  SP,  parallel  to  the  axis  AFG. 
Then  if  F be  the  focus  of  the  generating  parabola,  join  PF.  PF  is  the  direction  of 
the  reflected  ray.  For  PG,  the  normal  at  P,  by  the  property  of  the  surface,  bisects  the 
angle  FPS,  and  thereforo  Z (angle)  FPG=  ZGPS.  But  SPG  is  the  angle  of  incidence, 
and  SP,  PG,  and  FP  are  in  one  plane,  and,  therefore,  by  the  laws  of  reflection,  FP  is 
the  reflected  ray.  In  the  same  way,  all  rays  whatever,  parallel  to  the  axis,  must  pass 
through  F after  reflection.  If  F were  a luminous  point,  the  rays  from  it,  after  reflec- 
tion on  the  mirror,  would  all  proceed  in  a cylindrical  pencil  parallel  to  the  axis. 
This  reflector,  with  a bright  light  in  its  focus,  is  accordingly  of  common  use  in  light- 
houses. 

2.  In  the  concave  ellipsoid  mirror  there  are  two  points — viz.,  the  foci  of  the  gener- 
ating ellipse,  such  that  rays  diverging  from  either  will  be  accurately  reflected  to  the 
other.  This  results  from  the  property  of  the  figure,  that  the  normal  at  any  point  bisects 
the  angle  included  between  lines  drawn  to  that  point  from  the  foci. 

3.  Owing  to  a property  of  the  surface  similar  to  that  of  the  ellipsoid,  a pencil  of  rays 
converging  to  the  exterior  focus  of  a hyperbolic  reflector,  will  be  accurately  reflected  to 
the  focus  of  the  generating  hyperbola. 

The  converse  of  the  above  three  propositions  holds  in  the  case  of  the  mirrors  being 
convex. 

Though  the  sphere  is' not  a surface  of  accurate  reflection,  except  for  rays  diverging 
from  the  center,  and  which  on  reflection  are  returned  thereto,  the  spherical  reflector  is 
of  great  practical  importance,  because  it  can  be  made  with  greater  facility  and  at  less 
expense  than  the  parabolic  reflector.  See  art.  Telescope.  It  is  necessary,  then,  to 
investigate  the  phenomena  of  iight  reflected  from  it. 

4.  Spherical  Mirrors, — It  is  usual  to  treat  of  two  cases,  the  one  the  more  frequent  in 
practice,  the  other  the  more  general  and  comprehensive  in  theory.  First,  then,  to  find 
the  focus  of  reflected  rays  when  a small  pencil  of  parallel  rays  is  incident  directly  on 
a concave  spherical  mirror.  Let  BAB'  (fig.  7)  be  a section  of  the  mirror,  O its  center 
of  curvature,  and  A the  center  of  its  aperture.  AO  is  the  axis  of  the  mirror,  and  there- 
foiv,.*  of  the  incident  pencil,  because  it  is  incident  directly  on  the  mirror;  a pencil  being 


called  oblique  when  its  axis  is  at  an  angle  to  the  axis  of  the  mirror.  As  the  ray  inci- 
dent in  the  line  O A will  be  reflected  back  in  the  same  line — OA  being  the  normal  at  A — 
the  focus  of  reflected  rays  must  be  in  OA.  Let  SP  be  one  of  the  rays;  it  will  be  reflected 
so  that  Z gPO=  Z SPO.  But  Z POg'=  Z OPS  by  parallel  lines.  Therefore,  Z gPO= 
Z ^OP,  and  Pg'  and  O^-  are  equal.  If,  now,  the  incident  pencil  be  very  small — i.e,,  if  P 
be  very  near  xV— then  the  line  P^  will  very  nearly  coincide  with  the  line  OA,  and  P^and 
Oq  will  each  of  them  become  very  nearly  the  half  of  OA.  Let  F be  the  middle  point  of 
OA — the  point,  namely,  to  which  q tends  as  the  pencil  diminishes.  The  F is  called  the 
principal  focus  of  the  mirror,  and  AF  the  principal  focal  length,  which  is  thus  = ^ 
radius  of  the  mirror.  It  will  be  observed  that  when  AP  is  not  small,  q lies  between  A. 
and  F,  F$^  is  called  the  aberration  of  the  ray.  When  AP  is  large,  the  reflected  rays 
will  continually  intersect,  and  forma  luminous  curve  with  a cusp  at  F.  This  curve  is 
called  the  caustic  (q.  v.).  We  shall  now  proceed  to  the  more  general  case  of  a small  pen- 
cil of  diverging  rays,  incident  directly  on  a concave  spherical  mirror.  Let  PAP'  (fig. 
8)  be  a section  of  the  mirror,  A the  center  of  its  aperture,  O of  its  curvature,  and  let  F 
be  its  principal  focus.  Then,  if  Q be  the  focus  of  incident  rays  (as  if  proceeding  from 


Catoptromancy. 

Cattermole. 


568 


a candle  there  situated),  q,  the  focus  of  the  reflected  rays,  lies  on  QOA,  since  the  pencil 
is  incident  directly,  and  the  ray  QOA,  being  incident  in  the  line  of  the  normal  OA,  is 
reflected  back  in  the  same  line.  Let  PQ  be  any  other  ray  of  the  pencil.  It  will  be 

reflected  in  P^,  so  that  Z gPO=  ZOPQ;  and  on  the  supposition  that  PA  is  very  small, 

so  that  QP  becomes  nearly  equal  to  QA,  and  gP  to  gA,  it  can  be  shown,  by  Euclid,  vi.  3, 

that  very  nearly.  From  this  equation  is  deduced  the  formula  gA 

which  enables  us  to  find  gA,  when  QA  and  AF  are  known.  Thus,  let  the  radius  of  cur- 
vature be  12  in.,  and  the  distance  of  the  source  of  the. rays,  or  QA,  30  in.,  the  focal 

1 A 30  X 6 

length  gA  = r 


30—6 


= 7^  inches.  If  the  rays  had  diverged  upon  g,  it  is  clear  they 

would  have  been  reflected  to  Q.  The  points  Q and  g,  accord- 
ing^, are  called  conjugate  foci. 

If  the  mirror  be  convex,  as  in  fig.  9,  instead  of  concave, 
and  a pencil  of  diverging  rays  be  incident  directly  on  it  from 
Q,  we  should  find,  proceeding  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  in 

the  former  case,  the  equation  Ag  = y taking  the 


same  numbers  as  before ; gA  = 


QA  + AF 
30  X 6 


= 5 inches. 


30 -f  6 

For  information  regarding  the  formation  of  images  by 
spherical  mirrors,  the  reader  may  consult  Potter’s  Elements  of 
Optics.  See  also  the  arts.  Mirrors  and  Images. 

By  considering  fig.  8,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  relative  positions  of  the  two  con- 
jugate foci,  as  they  are  called,  Q and  g,  vary  as  the  distance,  AQ,  of  the  origin  of 
the  rays  is  changed.  As  Q is  advanced  towards  O,  g also  approaches  O,  since  the  angles 
QPO  and  gPO  always  remain  equal;  and  when  the  source  of  the  light  is  in  the  center, 
<),  of  the  sphere,  the  reflected  rays  are  all  returned  upon  the  source.  As  Q,  again, 
recedes  from  O,  g moves  towards  F,  which  it  does  not  quite  reach  until  the  distance  of 
Q is  infinite,  so  that  the  incident  rays  may  be  considered  as  parallel,  as  in  fig.  7.  If  Q 
is  placed  between  O and  F,  then  g will  be  to  the  right  of  O;  and  when  Q coincides  with 
F,  the  reflected  rays  will  have  no  focus,  but  will  be  parallel,  -If  Q is  between  F and  A, 
the  reflected  rays  will  diverge,  and  will  have  their  virtual  focus  to  the  left  of  A.  The 
correctness  of  these  deductions  may  easily  be  verified.  The  positions  of  the  conjugates 
are  traced  in  precisely  the  same  way  for  the  convex  mirror,  and  the  reader  who  is  inter- 
ested will  find  no  difficulty  in  tracing  them  for  himself. 

CATOP  TROMANCY,  divination  by  the  mirror  or  looking-glass.  At  Patras,  in  Greece, 
the  sick  foretold  their  death  or  recovery  by  means  of  a mirror  let  down  with  a thread 
until  its  base  touched  the  water  in  a fountain  before  the  temple  of  Ceres.  The  face  of 
the  sick  person  appearing  healthy  in  the  mirror,  betokened  recovery;  if  it  looked  ghastly, 
then  death  was  sure  to  ensue.  More  modern  superstitions  attach  ill-luck  to  the  breaking 
of  a looking-glass,  and  to  seeing  one’s  face  in  a glass  by  candle-light. 

CATS,  Jacob,  a Dutch  statesman  and  poet,  was  b.  at  Brouwershaven,  in  Zeeland,  in 
1577,  and  after  studying  law,  finally  settled  at  Middelburg.  He  rose  to  high  offices  in 
the  state,  and  was  twice  sent  as  ambassador  to  England,  first  in  1627,  and  again  in  1652, 
while  Cromwell  was  at  the  head  of  affairs.  He  died  1660.  As  a poet,  he  enjoyed  the 
highest  popularity.  His  poems  are  characterized  by  simplicity,  rich  fancjr,  clearness, 
and  purity  of  style,  and  excellent  moral  tendency.  The  most  highly  prized  of  his 
productions  were  the  Huwelyk,  Trouwringh  (a  series  of  romantic  stories  relating  to 
remarkable  marriages),  and  the  Spiegel  van  den  Ouden  in  Nieuwen  Tyd.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works  appeared  at  Amsterdam,  in  19  vols.,  1790-1800. 

CAT’S-EYE,  a beautiful  mineral,  a variety  of  quartz  receiving  its  name  from  the 
resemblance  which  the  reflection  of  light  from  it,  especially  when  cut  en  cabochon,  or  in 
a convex  form,  is  supposed  to  exhibit  to  the  light  which  seems  to  emanate  from  the 
interior  of  the  eye  of  a cat.  It  has  a sort  of  pearly  appearance,  and  is  chatoyant  or 
characterized  by  a fine  play  of  light,  which  results  from  the  parallel  arrangement  of  the 
minute  fibers  of  the  stone  itself,  or  from  an  intimate  mixture  of  some  foreign  substance, 
such  as  amianthus.  It  has  been  supposed  that  cat’s-eye  is  silicified  wood.  It  is  of  various 
colors,  and  is  obtained  chiefly  from  Malabar  and  Ceylon.  The  Singhalese  are  especially 
proud  of  it,  believing  it,  although  erroneously,  to  be  only  found  in  their  island.  It  is 
often  brought  from  that  island,  cut  to  resemble  a monkey’s  face,  from  the  idolatrous 
regard  entertained  for  the  monkey.  A chatoyant  variety  of  feldspar  has  been  sometimes 
confounded  with  cat’s-eye,  and  is  also  found  in  Ceylon. 

CATSKILL,  a village  on  the  Hudson  river,  in  e.  New  York,  the  capital  of  Greene  co., 
34  m.  s.  of  Albany;  pop.  ’75,  6,679.  C.  is  one  of  the  landing  places  for  the  thousands  of 
visitors  who  go  annually  to  the  Catskill  mountains,  a few  miles  westward.^  A ferry 
across  the  river  connects  with  the  Hudson  River  railroad.  There  are  several  important 
manufactories  in  the  village. 

CATSKILL  GROUP,  in  geology,  the  name  of  rocks  of  the  Devonian  system  seen  in 
the  northern  counties  of  Pennsylvania.  Thev  are  chiefly  red  sandstone  and  shale,  nrd 


569 


Catoptromancjr. 

Cattermole. 


contain  fossil  scales  of  the  earliest  fishes.  The  Catskill  mountains  were  formerly  sup- 
posed to  beloni;  in  this  group,  whence  the  name,  now  known  to  be  inappropriate. 

CATSKILL  MOUNTAINS,  a group  of  the  Alleghany  chain,  in  its  largest  sense,  situated 
near  the  right  bank  at  once  of  tlie  Hudson  and  of  the'Mohawk,  in  the  state  of  New  York. 
The  loftiest  points.  Round  Top  and  High  Peak,  are  respectively  3,800  ft.  and  3,720  above 
tide-water;  and,  on  a third  eminence,  a terrace  of  2,500  ft.  above  the  same  level  presents 
Catskill  Mountain  house,  a favorite  retreat  in  summer.  The  group  is  drained  chiefly  by 
Catskill  creek,  Avhich,  at  a village  of  its  own  name,  enters  the  Hudson  111  m.  above  its 
mouth,  and  34  below  the  confluence  of  the  Mohawk. 

CATSKILL  MOUNTAINS  {ante),  a part  of  the  Appalachian  system  w.  of  the  Hud- 
son, river  in  Greene  co.,  N.  Y.  The  group,  about  12  m.  long,  nearly  parallel  with  the 
river  about,  8 m.  distant,  turns  westward  in  spurs  extending  many  miles.  Besides  the 
Ulster  and  Delaware  railroad,  beginning  at  Kingston  and  leading  w,  into  the  moun- 
tains, there  is  a good  wagon  road  from  Catskill  village  to  the  “ Mountain  House,”  12  m, 
w,,  which  is  a favorite  summering  place.  The  house  stands  on  a terrace  2,231  ft.  above 
the  river,  and  almost  at  the  edge  of  a perpendicular  cliff  several  hundred  ft.  high. 
There  is  another  public  house  on  Overlook  mountain,  a few  miles  to  the  s.,  w'hich  is 
estimated  to  be  3,800  ft.  above  tide.  The  views  from  these  houses  and  from  the  neigh- 
boring peaks  are  wonderfully  varied  and  beautiful,  reaching  from  the  Green  mountains 
in  Vermont  to  the  highlands  at  West  Point,  and  taking  in  nearly  100  m.  of  the  Hudson 
I river  and  valley-  with  numerous  cities  and  villages,  and  a vast  expanse  of  highly  culti- 
vated farming  country.  An  immense  number  of  summer  boarders  are  accommodated 
through  all  this  region,  not  only  in  hotels,  but  also  in  countless  farm-houses  and  village 
homes.  One  of  the  highest  points  is  the  top  of  Overlook,  3,800  feet.  The  other  prom- 
inent elevations  are  Hunter  mountain.  High  peak,  and  Round  Top.  One  of  the  sights 
of  the  region  is  “The  Clove,”  or  ravine,  and  the  falls  therein.  The  ravine  is  about  5 m. 
long.  At  its  head  two  rivulets  unite  and  flow  rapidly  to  a point  where  the  mountain 
divides  and  forms  a deep  hollow  into  which  the  brook  rushes  over  a cascade  of  180  ft. ; 
and  further  down  are  other  falls,  one  of  80  and  another  of  40  feet.  The  ice  formation 
in  winter  around  the  highest  fall  is  particularly  grand  and  beautiful.  There  are  other 
ravines  and  water-falls  in  the  region,  but  none  equally  important.  The  mountains  are 
for  the  most  part  covered  with  thick  forests  of  oak,  hickory,  ash,  maple,  beech,  pine, 
etc. 

CAT’S-TAIL.  See  Typha. 

CAT’S-TAIL  GRASS.  See  Timothy  Grass. 

CATTACK.  See  Cuttack,  ante. 

CATTARAUGUS,  a co.  in  w.  New  York,  on  the  Pennsylvania  border,  watered  by 
the  Allegheny  and  other  rivers,  and  intersected  by  the  New  York  and  Erie  and  the 
Atlantic  and  Great  Western  railroads,  and  the  Genesee  Valley  canal;  1250  sq.m.;  pop. 
’80,  55,808.  The  surface  is  undulating  and  the  soil  fruitful.  The  chief  products  are 
wheat,  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  cheese,  butter,  wool,  hops,  and  maple  sugar.  Iron, 
manganese,  marl,  peat,  and  sulphur  are  found.  Co.  seat.  Little  Valley. 

CAT'TARO,  a t.  of  Austria,  in  the  crown-land  of  Dalmatia,  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
the  gulf  of  C'attaro,  about  36  m.  s.e.  of  Ragusa.  It  isstronglj^  fortified,  and  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  mountains.  The  castle,  a massive  and  almost  inaccessible  building, 
stands  on  a precipitous  rock  immediately  behind  the  town.  C.  has  a cathedral  several 
churches  and  hospitals,  and  a population  of  3,000.  C.,  which  was  at  one  time  the 

capital  of  a small  republic,  was  in  1807  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  but  was  handed 
over  to  Austria  in  1814  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna. — Cattaro,  Gulp  op,  or  Bocca  di 
Cattaro,  an  inlet  of  the  Adriatic,  near  the  s.  extremity  of  the  Dalmatian  coast.  It 
consists  of  three  basins  or  lakes,  connected  by  straits  of  about  half  a mile  in  breadth. 
The  outer  entrance  is  only  a mile  and  a half  wide,  and  the  total  length  of  the  gulf  is 
about  30  miles.  Mountains  protect  it  from  all  winds,  and  it  has  a depth  of  from  15  to 
20  fathoms. 

CAT'TEGAT,  or  Kattegat  (Sinus  Codanus),  the  bay  or  arm  of  the  sea  situated 
between  the  e.  coast  of  Jutland  and  the  w.  coast  of  Sweden,  to  the  n.  of  the  Danish 
islands.  It  is  connected  with  the  Baltic  sea  by  the  Great  and  Little  Belt  (q.v.),  and  by 
the  sound.  The  Skager  Rack  (q.v.)  connects  it  with  the  North  sea.  The  length  of  the 
C.  is  about  150  m , and  its  greatest  breadth  85  miles.  It  is  of  unequal  depth,  and  has 
dangerous  sand-banks.  The  principal  islands  are  Lasoe,  Samsbe,  and  Anhalt.  The 
Danish  shores  of  the  C.  are  low,  but  the  Swedish  shore  is  very  steep  and  rocky. 

CATTERMOLE,  George,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  English  painters  in  water- 
colors,  was  born  at  Dickleburgh,  Norfolk,  in  1800.  His  pictures,  which  embrace  a 
wide  range  of  subjects,  are  remarkable  for  their  striking  originality  of  conception, 
vigorous  execution,  and  fine  color  and  tone.  One  of  his  best  known  and  greatest  pic- 
tures is  “Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Spires,”  containing  33  portraits  of  the  principal  charac- 
ters, copied  from^  the  authentic  originals  by  the  old  masters.  He  also  designed  the 
engravings  for  his  brother’s  History  of  the  Civil  Wars,  and  illustrated  many  scenes  in 
Scott’s  novels  and  in  Shakespeare.  His  later  works  are  chiefly  oil-paintings.  He  d.  July 


Cattl. 

Cattle. 


570 


CATTI,  or  Chatti,  a Germv.a  people,  included  by  Csesar  under  the  name  Suevi  (q.v.), 
who  inhabited  a country  pretty  nearly  corresponding  to  the  present  Hesse.  The  south- 
western part  of  their  territory,  around  Mattiacum,  was  conquered  by  the  Homans  under 
Drusus.  The  C.  took  part  in  the  general  rising  of  the  Germans  under  Hermann. 
Tacitus  praises  them  as  excellent  foot-soldiers.  During  the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
in  the  end  of  the  2d  c.,  they  made  incursions  into  Roman  Germany  and  Rhaetia.  Cara- 
calla  failed  in  an  expedition  against  them  and  the  Alemanni  in  the  3d  century.  About 
the  middle  of  that  century,  their  name  began  to  give  place  to  that  of  the  Franks  (q.v.), 
and  is  last  mentioned  by  Claudian  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century. 

CATTLE.  See  Ox. 

CATTLE,  in  English  law.  See  Chattel. 

CATTLE-PLAGTJE,  Rinderpest  (Ger.),  or  Steppe  Murrain,  is  a contagious  eruptive 
fever,  or  exanthema,  of  the  bovine  species;  sheep,  goats,  deer,  and  other  allied  species 
occasionally,  however,  catch  it  from  cattle.  It  occurs  indigenously  on  the  plains  of 
western  Russia,  whence  it  has  at  various  times  overspread  most  parts  of  the  old  world. 
The  specific  virus  from  diseased  or  infected  animals  is  the  only  source  of  cattle-plague; 
no  filth,  overcrowding,  or  other  health-depressing  cause  has  hitherto  produced  it.  As  in 
small-pox,  scarlatina,  and  other  eruptive  fevers,  an  incubative  stage,  varying  between 
tw'o  and  twenty  days,  intervenes  between  the  introduction  of  the  virus  into  the  system, 
either  by  inoculation  or  contagion,  and  the  development  of  the  characteristic  symptoms. 
These  consist  essentially  of  congestion  of  the  mucous  and  cutaneous  surfaces,  with  a 
sort  of  aphthous  eruption,  and  thickening,  softening,  and  desquamation  of  the  super- 
ficial investing  membrane.  The  disease  runs  a tolerably  fixed  and  definite  course, 
which  is  not  materially  altered  by  any  known  remedial  measures.  It  seldom  attacks 
the  same  individual  a second  time. 

History. — The  cattle-plague  has  been  recognized  for  upwards  of  a thousand  years. 
It  appears  to  have  destroyed  the  herds  of  the  warlike  tribes  who  overran  the  Roman 
empire  during  the  4th  and  5th  sentiiries.  About  810,  it  traveled  with  the  armies  of 
Charlemagne  into  France,  and  about  the  same  period  is  also  supposed  to  have  visited 
England.  Several  times  throughout  the  course  of  every  century  it  spread  from  the 
plains  of  Russia  over  the  western  countries  of  Europe,  and  is  stated  to  have  again  visited 
England  about  1225.  Althougli  occasioning,  every  few  years,  great  lo.sses  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  the  plague  does  not  appear  to  have  again  shown  itself  in  England 
until  1714,  when  it  appeared  at  Islington  about  the  middle  of  July,  was  very  destruc- 
tive for  about  three  months,  but  was  again  got  rid  of  towards  Christmas.  In  1744, 
it  was  in  Holland,  de.stroying  there,  in  two  years,  200,000  cattle;  in  Denmark,  from 
1745-49,  it  killed  280,000;  in  some  provinces  of  Sweden  it  spared  only  2 per  cent  of 
the  horned  cattle.  It  made  terrible  havoc  throughout  Italy,  destroying  400,000  beasts 
in  Piedmont  alone.  In  April,  1745,  the  plague  was  again  imported  into  England, 
probably  by  some  white  calves  from  Holland,  where,  as  already  stated,  it  had  for  some 
time  prevailed.  It  continued  its  devastations  for  twelve  years,  but  it  is  now  impossible 
accurately  to  discover  the  losses  it  occasioned.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  its 
ravages,  80,000  cattle  were  slaughtered,  and  double  that  number  are  supposed  to  have 
died.  In  1747,  40,000  cattle  died  in  Nottingham  and  Lancashire  alone;  whilst,  so  late 
as  1757,  30,000  perished  in  Cheshire  in  six  months.  In  March,  1770,  the  disease  was 
brought  with  some  hay  from  Holland  to  Portsoy,  in  the  Moray  firth;  several  cattle 
died,  and  others,  to  the  value  of  £799,  12s.  2d.,  being  destroyed,  the  further  spread 
of  the  pest  was  prevented.  By  the  wars  which  wasted  Europe  towards  the  close  of 
the  last  and  first  eighteen  years  of  the  present  century,  cattle-plague  was  spread  widely 
over  the  continent,  and  occasioned,  wherever  it  occurred,  terrible  losses.  Since  then, 
at  short  intervals,  it  has  spread — always  being  traceable  to  its  source  on  the  Russian 
plains — over  Poland,  Hungary,  Austria,  Prussia,  portions  of  Germany  and  Italy,  and 
has  extended  to  Egypt,  It  has  also  reached  China  and  Japan. 

The  British  outbreak  of  1865-67,  like  its  predecessors,  undoubtedly  came  from 
Russia,  The  steamer  Tonning,  from  Revel,  brought  331  cattle  and  330  sheep  into  Hull 
on  29th  May,  1865.  A portion  of  the  cattle  had  come  from  the  interior  of  Russia, 
where  the  plague  then  was,  or  recently  had  been;  the  cargo  was  rapidly  landed,  and 
very  hurriedly  inspected.  Nearly  half  of  the  cattle  were  distributed  in  various  lots  to 
butchers  in  Leeds,  Derby,  and  Manchester,  but,  curiously,  these  do  not  appear  to  have 
left  any  contagion  in  their  trail.  One  hundred  and  seventy-five  came  to  London, 
remained  from  the  Monday  evening  until  Thursday’s  market  in  lairs  at  York  road, 
adjoining  the  cattle-market.  It  was  stated,  in  a leader  in  the  Times  of  15th  Au^.,  that 
rinderpest  was  seen  in  the  metropolitan  market  as  early  as  12th  June.  Certain  it  is 
that  more  than  one  lot  purchased  on  19th  June  carried  the  disease  to  several  dairies  in 
and  about  London.  The  first  cases  were  mistaken  for  cases  of  poisoning,  the  cows  they 
had  stood  beside  were  sent  into  market,  and  thus  the  subtle  disorder  in  a few  weeks 
spread  into  many  dairies  both  in  town  and  country.  Twenty-three  Dutch  cattle,  having 
stood  over  for  several  markets,  were  sent  back  to  Holland  on  2d  July,  carried  with  them 
the  contagion,  were  placed  in  a field  near  Schiedam,  but  soon  sickened  and  died,  thus 
spreading  the  disease  in  Holland.  During  the  next  six  months,  plague  was  repeatedly 
reimported  thence  into  England.  Until  11th  Aug.,  1865,  no  restrictions  whatever  were 


571 


Cattl. 

Cattle. 


put  upon  the  removal  of  cattle;  diseased  and  infected  animals  were  freely  taken  to  fairs 
and  markets,  were  openly  traveled  byroad  and  rail;  whilst  the  metropolitan  market 
continued  every  week  to  send  forth  infected  cases,  not  only  to  the  neighboring  counties, 
but  to  Southampton,  Birmingham,  Hereford,  Liverpool,  Edinburgh,  and  even  to  Aber- 
deenshire. As  early  as  18th  July,  the  pest  was  brought  from  London  to  Huntly  by 
four  calves;  subsequent  outbreaks  occurred  in  the  same  way.  The  stamping-out  system 
was,  however,  early  and  rigidly  enforced  in  Aberdeenshire,  and  eight  distinct  outbreaks 
were  promptly  got  rid  of. 

In  Edinburgh,  it  appeared  probably  about  9th  Aug.,  was  brought  from  London  by 
some  low-priced  foreign  cows;  in  six  weeks,  about  800,  or  one  half  the  dairy  cows  in 
Edinburgh,  had  died — 200  having  been  buried  in  one  trench.  By  the  end  of  Jan.,  four 
fifths  of  the  dairy  cows  Jiad  perished,  but  Edinburgh  was  reported  clear.  In  Glasgow, 
the  first  case  occurred  on  19th  Aug.,  in  a cow  sent  from  Edinburgh.  By  30th  Sept., 
432  cases  were  reported,  and  it  continued  to  spread.  By  the  middle  of  Oct.,  it  was  in 
Mr.  Harvey’s  valuable  stock  of  800,  of  which  25  died  in  one  night,  and  to  save  further 
loss,  50  healthy  animals  were  in  one  day  disposed  of  to  the  butcher.  From  Falkirk 
Trysts,  as  from  Barnet,  Norwich  Hill,  and  other  large  English  fairs,  the  disease  was 
transmitted  into  fresh  localities.  From  the  autumn  trysts,  it  was  carried  into  Perthshire, 
Forfarshire,  and  Fifeshire.  Diseased  cattle  passing  along  in  railway  trucks,  appear  to 
have  spread  the  contagion  over  the  fields  adjoining  the  line  at  Thornton,  Fifeshire. 
Into  West  Lothian  it  was  conveyed  in  early  Sept,  by  lambs  from  the  Edinburgh  market. 

The  rapid  spread  of  the  insidious  disorder  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that, 
whilst,  during  the  week  ending  24th  June,  1865,  there  was  only  one  outbreak  at  Mrs. 
Nicholl’s  dairy  at  Islington,  and  30  animals  affected,  by  30th  Sept,  there  were  1702 
farms,  sheds,  or  other  places  in  which  the  pest  had  appeared,  and  13,263  animals  had 
been  attacked.  Three  months  later,  8252  separate  places  had  been  visited,  and  62.743 
animals  attacked.  During  six  months,  the  aggregate  of  cattle  attacked  was  76,002. 
During  the  three  months  to  30th  Mar.,  13,443  farms  and  other  premises  had  been 
infected,  and  147,275  cattle  attacked.  In  Dec.,  1865,  the  fresh  cases  each  week  reached 
9000;  but  in  spite  of  remedial  and  preventive  measures,  of  orders  in  council,  and 
restrictions  on  the  movement  of  stock,  the  number  of  weekly  cases  steadily  increased  to 
15,706  in  the  third  week  of  Feb.  “ The  cattle  diseases  prevention  act”  passed  20th 
Feb.,  1866,  and  the  advantages  flowing  from  the  restrictions  thus  tardily  imposed  on 
the  trade  in  cattle,  and  the  slaughter  of  diseased  and  infected  animals,  were  speedily 
apparent.  In  four  weeks,  the  number  of  cases  was  reduced  by  one  half.  During  the 
three  months  ending  30th  June,  28,276  cases  were  reported;  during  the  next  three 
months  to  30th  Sept.,  the  numbers  fell  to  2108;  whilst,  to  29th  Dec.,  the  three  months’ 
cases  were  but  149;  to  30th  Mar.,  1867,  89  new  cases  were  noted.  Throughout  April 
and  May  the  number  of  cases  continued  steadily  to  decline;  but  during  the  week  ending 
25th  May  a fresh  outbreak  occurred  in  the  Finsbury  district  of  the  metropolis,  and  81 
animals  died,  or  were  slaughtered  to  prevent  the  further  spread  of  the  pest.  With  the 
exception  of  an  isolated  outbreak  in  Essex,  which  was  promptly  stayed  by  slaughter  of 
the  ailing  and  suspected  animals,  the  country  was  free  of  plague  daring  August.  The 
following  are  the  records  of  its  destructive  career  during  1865-67 ; 

Attacked.  Killed.  Died.  Recovered. 


England 223,672  102,740  90,450  21,589 

Wales 8,388  1,180  5,794  1,117 

Scotland 46,863  6,263  28,088  10,707 


Total 278,923  110,18S  124,332  33,413 


To  this  sad  total  must  be  added  11,000  cases  known  to  have  been  attacked  and  unac- 
counted for,  and  upward^  of  60,000  healthy  cattle  slaughtered  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  disease.  Plague  was  again  imported  into  Hull  in  Aug.,  1872;  it  was  brought  with 
cattle  from  Cronstadt;  it  spread  into  several  districts  of  the  East  Riding,  attacked  72 
animals,  51  of  which  were  killed,  and  21  died.  In  1877,  an  outbreak  took  place  in 
Germany,  but  by  energetic  measures  was  speedily  suppressed  without  extensive  losses. 

Causes. — The  development  of  cattle-plague  by  filth,  overcrowding,  miasmata,  hot 
weather,  or  other  such  causes,  is  untenable.  Faulty  hygiene,  by  lowering  vitality,  prob- 
ably renders  the  animal  more  prone  to  the  attack,  and  less  able  to  bear  up  against  it,  but 
it  cannot  originate  plague.  Like  hydrophobia,  small-pox*,  or  syphilis,  it  is  developed  only 
by  the  special  virus,  which  appears  to  have  its  habitat  on  the  Russian  steppes.  This  virus 
occurs  abundantly  in  the  blood  of  every  plague-stricken  beast,  j a the  discharges  from  its 
nostrils,  mouth,  or  eyes,  in  the  off-scourings  from  the  bowels,  probably  even  in  the 
breath.  It  may  be  transferred  to  healthy  beasts  by  inoculation.  A little  of  the  blood 
or  nasal  or  other  mucous  discharges  of  a plague  case,  if  introduced  underneath  the  skin 
of  a healthy  cow,  develops  the  disease  within  a few  days.  The  transference  of  the  virus 
or  contagion  from  the  sick  to  the  sound  animal,  is  not  always  so  direct  and  evident.  As 
with  other  catching  diseases,  the  virus  may  be  carried  considerable  distances  in  the  air; 
its  particles  are  minute,  but  they  have  powerful  vitality;  it  may  adhere  to  the  food  that 
has  lain  before  infected  beasts;  to  the  litter  from  the  stalls,  or  even  after  it  has  been 
heaped  for  weeks;  to  the  clothes  of  attendants;  to  the  floors,  walls,  or  stalling  of  build- 


Cattle. 


572 


ings;  to  imperfectly  cleansed  cattle-trucks.  So  subtile  and  potent  is  the  plague  poison, 
and  80  endowed  with  the  power  of  self-multiplication  and  growth,  that  a veiy  minute 
portion  of  it  finding  access  to  the  blood  of  a healthy  animal  of  the  bovine  race  increases 
so  rapidly,  that  to  use  the  words  of  the  commissioners’  report,  No.  III.  p.  4,  “the  whole 
mass  of  the  blood,  weighing  many  pounds,  is  infected;  and  every  small  particle  of  that 
blood  contains  enough  poison  to  give  the  disease  to  another  animal.”  It  may  gain  access 
to  the  blood  probably  through  the  air-passages,  perhaps  also  by  absorption  through  the 
mucous  surface  of  the  bowels,  or  even  through  the  skin. 

Symptoms<. — In  from  three  to  six  days  after  an  animal  has  been  exposed  to  the  virus 
of  cattle-plague,  or  about  36  to  48  hours  after  being  purposely  inoculated,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body  is  raised  by  several  degrees.  A delicate  thermometer  introduced  into 
the  vagina  or  rectum,  instead  of  marking  about  102°  F.,  indicates  104°  to  106°.  As  yet 
the  appetite,  secretion  of  milk,  breathing,  and  pulse  are  scarcely  if  at  all  affected,  and 
but  for  the  elevation  of  temperature,  accompanied  sometimes  by  dullness,  the  animal 
might  be  supposed  to  be  in  the  best  of  health.  Two  or  three  days  later,  or  usually 
within  six  or  eight  days  after  the  beast  has  taken  in  the  subtile  virus,  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth  is  generally  observed  to  be  slightly  reddened,  and  soon  a granular 
yellowish-white  eruption,  consisting  of  thickened  epithelium  cells  and  granules,  appears 
on  the  gums  round  the  incisor  teeth,  and  by  and  by  on  the  lips  and  dental  pad.  Some 
hours  later,  the  same  eruption  extends  to  the  cheeks,  tongue,  and  hard  palate.  Within 
48  hours,  or  about  the  sixth  day  of  attack,  a crust  of  epithelium  covers  the  gums,  lips, 
and  mouth,  and  when  wiped  away,  or  accidentally  rubbed  off,  leaves  the  abraded  mem- 
brane red  and  vascular,  and  exhibiting  patches  of  erosion.  The  membrane  lining  the 
vagina  indicates  very  similar  appearances;  it  is  reddened  and  vascular,  dotted  with 
grayish  translucent  elevations  about  the  size  of  rape-seeds,  covered  with  a whitish-yel- 
low, usually  sticky  discharge,  and  occasionally  marked  with  patches  of  excoriation. 
The  skin,  like  the  mucous  surfaces,  is  congested;  there  is  hence  a perverted  develop- 
ment of  scarf  skin,  and  of  the  oleaginous  secretion  of  the  irritated  sebaceous  glands.  The 
skin  is  thus  invested  with  a furfuraceous  desquamation ; whilst  on  its  thinner  portions 
about  the  lips,  between  the  thighs,  and  on  the  udder,  there  are  papular  eruptions  orele- 
vations.  About  two,  or  even  three  days  after  the  temperature  has  been  increased,  and 
usually  one,  or  even  two  days  after  the  appearance  of  the  characteristic  eruption  on  the 
gums„the  constitutional  symptoms  present  themselves.  The  animal  is  dull,  hangs  its 
head,  arches  its  back,  the  eyes  are  leaden  and  watery,  and  from  both  eyes  and  nose  there 
latterly  comes  a dirty  slimy  discharge.  Appetite  and  rumination  are  irregular,  and  in 
dairy  cows,  the  secretion  of  milk  rapidly  abates.  The  breathing,  especially  towards  the 
sixth  day,  is  oppressed,  expiration  is  prolonged,  and  accompanied  by  a peculiar  grunt. 
The  pulse  is  small  and  thready,  and  quickened  as  death  approaches.  The  bowxls.  usually 
at  first  confined,  become,  towards  the  sixth  or  seventh  day,  much  relaxed;  the  discharges 
passed,  often  with  pain  and  straining,  are  profuse  and  liquid,  offensive,  acrid,  pale  col- 
ored, and  occasionally  mixed  with  blood.  The  patient  loses  w'eight  and  strength,  totters 
if  it  attempt  to  walk,  and  prefers  to  lie  rather  than  to  stand.  Death  usually  occurs 
about  the  seventh  day,  and  is  preceded  by  muscular  twitchings,  a peculiar  sickly,  often 
offensive  smell,  a cold  clammy  state  of  body,  moaning,  grinding  of  the  teeth,  and  rapidly 
increasing  prostration. 

Pi'ognosis. — Cases  usually  terminate  unfavorably  when  about  the  fifth  or  sixth  day 
the  animal  temperature  falls  rapidly;  the  pulse  becomes  small,  quick,  and  weak;  the 
breathing  more  difficult,  distressed,  and  moaning;  the  diarrhea  increased;  and  the 
depression  more  notable.  A more  favorable  termination  may  be  anticipated  when,  after 
the  fifth  day,  the  heightened  temperature,  so  notable  even  from  the  earliest  stages,  abates 
gradually;  the  breathing  becomes  easier;  the  pulse  firmer;  the  visible  mucous  mem 
branes  appear  healthier;  and  patches  of  extravasation  or  erosion  speedily  disappear. 

Sheep  do  not  take  rinderpest  spontaneously,  and  even  when  kept  with  diseased  cattle, 
or  inoculated  with  cattle-plague  virus,  they  do  not  catch  the  disease  so  certainly  as  cattle 
do.  When  diseased,  they  exhibit,  however,  very  similar  symptoms,  but  professor  Roll, 
and  other  observers,  record  that  upwards  of  40  per  cent  recover.  Goats,  deer,  ante- 
lopes gazelles,  yaks,  and  indeed  all  animals  taking  rinderpest,  exhibit  with  tolerable 
uniformity  the  same  characteristic  symptoms. 

Post-mortem  Appearances. — The  mucous  membranes  are  generally  deeper  colored 
than  natural,  are  congested,  softened,  marked  in  places  with  the  same  granular  patches 
discoverable  during  life  within  the  mouth  and  the  vagina,  and  in  bad  cases  exhibit 
oedema,  haemorrhage,  and  sloughing.  The  first  three  stomachs  sometimes  contain  a 
good  deal  of  food,  but  show  less  declension  from  health  than  the  fourth  stomach,  of 
which  the  mucous  membrane  is  dotted  with  spots  of  congestion  and  extravasation.  The 
coats  of  the  bowels  are  thinned  and  easily  torn.  The  mucous  coat,  especially  towards 
the  middle  of  the  small  intestines,  the  opening  into  the  caecum,  and  posterior  half  of 
rectum,  is  much  congested,  bared  of  epithelium,  and  sometimes  ecchymo»ed,  but  never 
ulcerated.  Peyer’s  glands,  so  generally  infiamed  in  the  somewhat  analogous  typhoid 
fever  of  man,  are  perfectly  healthy.  The  liver,  spleen,  and  pancreas  seldom  present 
any  special  appearances.  The  respiratory  mucous  membrane,  like  the  digestive,  is 
vascular,  and  marked  with  submucous  hemorrhage;  the  lungs  are  generally  emphysem- 
atous, the  heart  often  marked  with  petechial  ^ots.  The  urino-genital,  like  the  other 


573 


mucous  membranes,  is  congested  in  females,  especially  towards  the  lower  part  of  the 
Tagina  and  vulva;  the  kidneys  are  sometimes  rather  softened,  the  serous  naembranes 
and  nervous  centers  are  perfectly  unchanged.  Dr.  Beale,  by  his  microscopical  obser- 
vations, discovers  in  the  capillaries  a great  increase  of  nuclear  or  germinal  matter,  and 
white  blood-corpuscles,  which  he  believes  may  account  for  the  local  congestion.  The 
blood  itself  is  dark  in  color;  in  the  later  stages  it  contains  less  water,  probably  owing  to 
the  draining  diarrhea,  and  about  double  its  usual  proportion  of  fibrine.  The  muscular 
tissues  are  softened,  easily  broken  down,  and  contain  an  abnormal  amount  of  soluble 
albumen.  The  urine  is  little  altered  in  quantity,  but  from  the  first  rise  in  the  animal 
temperature,  it  contains  an  increase  of  urea  varying  from  5 to  15  per  cent.  The  chief 
change  in  the  milk  is  its  rapid  diminution  in  quantity,  and  the  increase  of  its  fatty 
matters.  The  bile  is  watery,  offensive,  and  prone  to  decomposition. 

Treatment.— CMQ-^\2igMQ  is  proved  to  be  an  eruptive  fever.  When  the  specific 
poison,  on  which  such  disorders  depend,  has  entered  the  body  of  a susceptible  subject, 
no  remedy  has  yet  been  discovered  which  can  destroy  it,  or  even  materially  shorten  or 
mitigate  its  effects.  Until  such  an  antidote  is  found,  there  can  be  no  hope  of  certain 
cure.  The  cattle-plague  commissioners  have  collected  information  regarding  the  four 
following  methods  of  treatment— namely,  the  antiphlogistic,  the  tonic  and  stimulant, 
the  antiseptic,  and  the  special.  Diverse  as  are  these  systems,  the  percentages  of  recov- 
eries. varying  from  25.83  to  27.45,  were  so  nearly  alike,  that  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that 
no  one  of  the  systems  tried  exercised  any  notable  influence  in  checking  the  mortality. 
Partly,  perhaps,  from  the  varying  virulence  of  the  plague,  partly  from  differences  in 
the  nursing  and  care  bestowed  on  the  animals,  the  proportion  of  recoveries  has  varied 
greatly  in  different  localities.  Up  to  the  end  of  1865,  in  Huntingdon  they  were  only 
4.668  per  cent;  in  Norfolk  they  were  12.102;  in  Flint,  15.909;  in  Scotland,  19.889;  whilst 
in  Fifeshire  they  reached  24.552;  and  in  Yorkshire,  29.731  per  cent. 

Like  small-pox,  measles,  and  other  eruptive  fevers  in  man,  rinderpest  runs  a definite 
course  which  cannot  safely  be  interfered  with.  Rational  treatment  is  therefore  limited 
to  warding  off  untoward  symptoms,  to  careful  nursing,  and  husbanding  the  failing 
strength.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  throughout  the  progress  of  the  disease 
there  is  constantly  given  off  from  the  sick  body  minute  particles,  which  are  capable  of 
developing  the  disorder  in  healthy  cattle.  Hence  plague-subjects,  by  the  orders  in 
council,  are  very  properly  desired  to  be  immediately  destroyed.  Except,  therefore,  for 
purely  scientific  purposes,  and  with  careful  precautions  to  prevent  the  spread  hi  the 
poison,  it  is  unwise  to  attempt  remedial  treatment.  Where,  however,  a beast  is  to 
have  a chance  of  recovery,  so  soon  as  the  elevated  temperature  indicates  the  accession 
of  the  disease,  solid  indigestible  food  should  be  withheld,  and  the  patient  restricted  to 
mashes,  gruel,  boiled  linseed,  malt,  and  other  food,  which  can  be  digested  without  the 
necessity  for  rumination.  The  paramount  importance  of  such  a dietary  is  clearly 
demonstrated  in  the  returns  of  the  Edinburgh  cattle-plague  committee  to  the  govern- 
ment commissioners.  The  recoveries  amongst  310  cattle  “fed  with  dry  food,  and 
treated  medicinally  .with  drugs,”  were  13.6.  Amongst  303  cattle  treated  with  mixed 
food  and  hay,  22.2  recovered.  Where  mashes  were  given  during  sickness,  but  dry  food 
supplied  during  convalescence,  the  recoveries  reached  51.5;  whilst  in  95  cottagers’ cows, 
whose  chief  ordinary  dietary  consisted  of  mashed  food,  and  which  were  fed  in  the  same 
manner  throughout  both  sickness  and  convalescence,  and  were  besides  carefully  nursed 
but  not  doctored,  the  recoveries  reached  73.7.  Where  the  bowels  at  the  outset  are 
•costive,  a dose  of  oil,  or  a very  small  quantity  of  some  saline  purgative,  may  be  required.' 
Cold  water,  gruel,  mashes,  or  stale  bread  soaked  either  in  water  or  beer,  should  be 
offered  at^ short  intervals  throughout  the  attack.  The  animal,  kept  in  an  atmosphere  of 
about  60°,  should  be  comfortably  clothed,  and  have  its  legs  bandaged.  The  hot-air 
bath  and  wet-packing  has  been  repeatedly  tried,  but  although  probably  useful  in  the 
earlier  stages,  appear,  when  the  disease  is  fully  established,  to  harass  and  weaken  the 
patient.  Small  and  repeated  doses  of  sulphite  of  soda  have  in  some  cases  proved  useful, 
and  may  be  conjoined  with  carefully  regulated  moderate  doses  of  such  stimulants  as  ale, 
whisky  and  water,  sweet  spirit  of  niter,  spirit  of  ammonia,  or  strong  coffee.  It  is 
most  important,  however,  that  these  and  other  such  medicines  should  be  drunk  by  the 
animal  of  its  own  accord  in  its  gruel,  water,  or  mashes,  as  the  forcible  horning  over  of 
drenches  always  disturbs  the  patient.  The  inhalation  of  chloroform,  although  tem- 
porarily relieving  the  distressed  breathing,  does  not  appear  to  exert  any  permanent 
benefit. 

Prevention. — Froni  what  has  been  stated  regarding  the  nature  of  cattle-plague,  it 
must  be  evident  that  its  prevention  can  only  be  effected  by  the  destruction  of  the  specific 
virus,  or  by  removing  beyond  its  influence  all  animals  on  which  it  might  fasten.  Sparks 
fall  harmless  where  no  inflammable  materials  lie  within  reach,  and  there  are  many  such 
materials.  Neither  should  sheep,  fresh  hides,  hay,  nor  any  other  fodder  and  litter  from 
countries  where  this  ruinous  plague  exists,  or  has  recently  visited,  be  allowed  to  enter 
British  ports.  This  very  obvious  precaution  took  strong  hold  of  the  public  mind,  and 
the  practical  result  is,  that  importations  of  cattle-plague  are  guarded  against  by  the  pro- 
visions of  the  contagious  diseases  (animals)  acts,  1869  and  1878.  Neither  cattle,  sheep, 
-uor  pigs,  fodder,  litter,  or  hides,  can  be  landed  from  countries  where  the  plague  exists,  or 
from  places  in  direct  communication  with  such  infected  countries.  All  foreign  stock  is 


Cattolica. 

Caucasus. 


574 


inspected  at  the  ports  of  debarkation,  and  inspectors  hare  orders  for  the  immediate 
slaughter  and  disinfection  of  cattle-plague  subjects,  and  of  any  animals  with  which 
they  have  been  in  contact.  But  even  with  such  precautions,  foreign  cattle  frequently 
bring  with  them  catching  disorders,  notably  foot-and-mouth  disease.  Since  they  con- 
stitute, however,  less  than  5 per  cent  of  the  total  cattle  stock  of  the  country,  such  risks 
should  be  removed  by  converting  the  foreign  cattle  traffic  into  a dead-meat  trade. 

Rinderpest  being  found  to  resemble  smallpox  in  men  and  sheep,  it  was  thought  that 
its  propagation  and  virulence  might  be  abated  by  vaccination  with  cowpox  lymph;  but 
cattle,  even  when  effectually  vaccinated,  which  is  often  a difficult  task,  readily  take 
rinderpest,  often  in  its  most  mortal  forms.  Inoculation  with  the  discharges  from  mild 
cases  and  from  young  calves  has  been  tried  as  a palliative;  but  the  disease,  thus  artifi- 
cially developed,  loses  nothing  either  of  its  severity  or  of  its  dangerous  contagious 
character.  Cattle  in  Oxfordshire  receiving  for  several  weeks  daily  doses  of  sulphite  of 
soda  are  stated  to  have  had  the  plague  in  a mild  form. 

Where  an  outbreak  occurs,  the  diseased  animals  must  be  promptly  destroyed,  and 
all  cattle  in  immediate  contact  with  them  should  likewise  be  slaughtered.  This  “stamp- 
ing-out system  ” prevents  the  multiplication  and  diffusion  of  the  virus,  and  hence  saves 
still  further  losses.  It  is  rigidly  and  successfully  carried  out  in  many  continental  coun- 
tries. By  stamping  out  and  strict  isolation,  eight  or  ten  outbreaks  in  Aberdeenshire 
were  got  rid  of  without  serious  loss.  A French  outbreak  on  the  Belgian  frontier  in 
Sept.,  18G5,  was  stamped  out  with  the  sacrifice  of  forty-three  animals.  The  disease  was 
imported  to  Paris  in  Nov.  by  two  gazelles  purchased  in  London  by  the  French  Accli- 
matization society.  Before  it  was  stayed  by  slaughter  and  segregation,  thirty-four  ani- 
mals, including  yaks,  antelopes,  deer,  gazelles,  goats,  and  peccari,  died  or  were  destroyed. 
The  determined  slaughter  of  diseased  and  infected  animals,  and  the  restrictions  on  the 
movement  of  all  stock,  were  the  only  means  that  reduced  the  number  of  attacks  dur- 
ing the  British  outbreak  of  1865-66.  As  is  officially  recorded  in  the  commissioners' 
report.  No.  IV.,  p.  6,  “where  the  percentage  of  killed  is  high,  the  ratio  of  increase  of 
the  disease  is  low,  and  ‘loice  versa.  This  has  generally  been  noticed  under  each  county 
and  district.” 

When  plague  is  in  the  neighborhood,  it  is  desirable  daily  to  sprinkle  the  walls,  wood- 
work, and  floor  of  the  sheds  and  hovellings  with  carbolic  acid  solution,  and  to  keep  up 
throujghout  the  premises  a continual  pdor  of  this  useful  antiseptic,  and  with  a diluted 
solution  of  the  acid,  or  with  M’Dougall’s  disinfecting  soap,  to  w^ash  over  the  cattle 
daily.  The  animals  should  be  carefully  fed  on  digestible  soft  food;  receive  daily  about 
an  ounce  of  sulphite  of  soda  in  a mash;  and,  in  order  to  note  the  first  access  of  the 
disease,  should  have  their  temperature  examined  by  the  thermometer  every  night  and 
morning. 

The  recommendations  of  the  cattle-plague  commissioners  for  the  purifying  of  infected 
sheds,  litter,  and  manure  must  receive  careful  attention.  In  whatever  premises  infected 
beasts  have  stood,  the  walls  should  be  lime-washed,  a pint  of  carbolic  acid  being  added 
to  each  pailful  of  the  whitewash.  The  floors  and  wood-work,  after  being  washed  and 
scrubbed  with  boiling  water,  should  be  sprinkled  with  a strong  solution  of  carbolic 
acid.  The  sheds  being  emptied  of  their  living  inhabitants,  and  the  doors  and  windows 
closed,  sulphur  should  be  burned,  and  the  vapors  allowed  to  float  about  for  a couple  of 
hours  before  the  sheds  are  again  thrown  open  to  the  purifying  influences  of  abundance 
of  fresh  air.  A pound  of  sulphur  placed  on  a shovel  of  burning  coals  suffices  for  a 
* twelve-stalled  shed  or  byre.  Where  cattle  plague  has  raged,  this  cleaning  and  fumigation 
should  be  repeated,  and,  if  possible,  several  weeks  allowed  to  elapse  before  the  premises 
are  again  occupied  by  sound  animals.  All  shovels,  forks,  buckets,  or  brooms,  that  have 
either  directly  or  indirectly  come  in  contact  with  diseased  or  infected  animals,  should 
be  washed  with  carbolic  acid  solution.  The  clothes  and  boots  of  attendants,  inspectors, 
and  others  coming  in  contact  with  plague-stricken  animals  must  be  similarly  cleansed. 
The  manure  should  be  sprinkled  with  carbolic  acid  at  intervals  of  a few  days,  and  then 
covered  over  with  a foot  of  earth,  freely  mixed  with  soil,  or  carted  away  and  plowed 
in.  It  IS  safer  thus  to  put  the  manure  on  the  arable  land  than  to  use  it  as  a top-dressing 
for  the  pastures. 

Authorities. — Official  reports  of  commissioners.  Nos.  I.,  II.,  III.,  and  IV.;  The  Cat- 
tle Plague,  by  prof.  Gamgee;  Die  Rinderpest,  by  Roloff  (2d  ed.,  1877);  and  numerous 
monographs  by  German  authorities. 

CATTO'LICA,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Girgenti,  and  14  m.  n.w.  of  the  city 
of  that  name.  It  has  extensive  sulphur-works,  and  a pop.  of  7,200. 

CATTY  (Malayan,  kati\  Japanese,  kin),  the  unit  of  weight  used  throughout 
Chinese  and  Malayan  Asia,  and  by  the  Chinese  all  over  the  world.  American  scales 
exported  to  Asia  are  graduated  into  catties.  A catty  is  1^  pounds  avoirdupois. 

CATTY  WAR.  See  Kattywar,  ante. 

CATUL'LTTS,  Vale'rius,  a celebrated  Roman  l\Tist,  was  b.  at  Verona,  87  b.C.  His 
father  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  young  poet  must  have  frequently 
met  the  great  warrior  at  the  paternal  residence,  when  the  latter  was  on  his  w'ay  to  Gaul. 
In  early  life,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  his  career  was  that  of  an  Epicurean,  and  the 
expense  of  this  kind  of  living  soon  involved  him  in  pecuniary  difficulties.  To  release 


575 


Cattolioa. 

Caucasus. 


himself  from  these,  he  followed  the  praetor  Memmius  to  Eithynia,  with  the  intention, 
like  his  superior,  of  wringing  a fortune  out  of  the  provincials.  This  fashionable  but 
felonious  method  of  acquiring  money  did  not  succeed  in  C.’s  case,  mainly,  however, 
through  the  more  dexterous  cupidity  of  Memmius.  After  his  return,  C.  appears  to  hav« 
lived  mostly  in  Rome,  and  in  very  straitened  circumstances.  When  he  died  is  unknown. 
His  poems,  116  in  number,  chiefly  consisting  of  lyrics  and  epigrams — first  brought  to 
light  by  Benvenuto  Campesani  of  Verona  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c. — have  always 
been  justly  admired  for  their  exquisite  grace  and  beauty  of  style;  but  are,  in  many 
places,  grossly  indecent.  In  higher  styles  of  writing,  C.  was  equally  successful, 
'especially  in  his  odes,  of  which,  unfortunately,  only  four  have  been  preserved.  His 
heroic  or  narrative  poem  on  the  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis — consisting  of  more  than 
400  hexameter  lines — and  the  wild  enthusiastic  poem  entitled  Atys,  are  especially  worthy 
of  notice.  Most  of  the  earlier  editions  of  C.  include  the  works  of  Tilmllus  and  Proper- 
tius. The  best  modern  editions  are  by  Sillig  (1823),  Lachmann  (1829),  and  Ellis  (1867 
and  1878).  There  are  English  translations  by  Lamb  (1821),  Martin  (1861),  Cranstoun 
(1867),  etc.  See  Munro’s  Oriticisms  (1878). 

CAT'ULUS,  Quintus  Lutatius,  d.  87b.c.  ; consul  of  Rome  with  Caius  Marius. 
Catulus  was  beaten  by  the  invading  Cimbri  and  driven  across  the  Po,  but  Marius  came 
to  his  aid,  and  the  barbarians  were  defeated  at  Vercellse  in  July,  101  b.c.  In  the  civil 
war  Catulus  supported  Sulla  and  was  proscribed.  Preferring  death  to  capture,  he 
suffocated  himself  over  burning  charcoal. 

CAT'ULUS,  Quintus  Lutatius,  son  of  tire  consul;  made  consul  in  78,  and  censor  in 
65,  B.c.  He  put  down  a rebellion  incited  by  Lepidus  after  the  death  of  Sulla,  and 
assisted  Cicero  in  the  suppression  of  Catiline’s  conspiracy. 

CAUB,  a t.  of  Nassau,  n.  Germany,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  21  m.  w.n.w,  of 
Wiesbaden.  It  is  noteworthy  as  the  place  where  Blticher  crossed  the  Rhine  with  his 
army,  Jan.  1,  1814;  and  also  as  the  place  where,  till  1866,  toll  was  levied  by  the  duke  of 
Nassau — the  only  ruler  who  kept  up  this  feudal  privilege — from  vessels  navigating  the 
Rhine.  C.  has  underground  slate-quarries;  and  opposite,  on  an  island  in  the  river, 
where  Louis  le  Debonnaire  died,  840,  is  a castle  called  the  Pfalz,  built  in  1326,  and 
which  is  said  to  have  been  resorted  to  for  safety  by  the  countesses  Palatine  during  their 
confinement,  C.  is  threatened  with  destruction  by  the  disintegration  of  the  mountains 
behind,  and  in  Mar,,  1876,  a destructive  landslip  took  place.  Pop.  ’71,  2,098. 

CAU'CA,  a river  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  in  South  America,  which,  after 
flowing  500  m.  to  the  n.e.,  joins  the  Magdalena  on  the  w.,  150  m.  from  the  Caribbean 
sea.  It  gives  name  to  a department  of  260,000  sq.m.,  and  (1870)  445,000  inhabitants. 

CAU'CA,  one  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  occupying  the  wliole  w.  coast  of 
the  Caribbean  sea  to  Ecuador,  including  the  chain  of  the  Andes  and  the  valley  of  the 
RioCauca;  257,462  sq.m,  (more  than  half  of  the  republic);  pop.  ’71,  435,078.  The  region 
is  well  cultivated,  producing  cereals,  sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  cocoa,  cotton,  etc.,  and  vast 
herds  of  horned  cattle  and  mules.  The  capital  is  Popayan. 

CAUCAS'IAN  VARIETY  OF  MANKIND,  an  ethnological  division  adopted  by  Blumen- 
bach,  which  included  all  the  inhabitants,  ancient  and  modern,  of  Europe  (except  the 
Pinns);  in  Asia,  the  Hindus  (of  high  class  at  least),  Persians,  Assyrians,  Arabians,  Jews, 
Phoenicians,  inhabitants  of  Asia  Mi..or  .and  of  the  Caucasus,  etc, ; and  in  Africa,  the 
Egyptians,  Abyssinians,  and  Moors.  What  Blumenbach  had  called  Caucasians,  Dr. 
Prichard,  who  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  real  foundation  of  ethnology,  makes  to  con- 
sist of  two  independent  groups  or  varieties,  grounding  on  a radical  difference  of  lan- 

fuage.  One  of  these  is  the  Syro- Arabian  or  Semitic  (q.v.)  race,  and  the  other  the  Indo- 
luropean  or  Aryan  (q.v.)  race.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasus,  so  long  held  to  be 
types  of  the  European  variety,  are  now  by  some  excluded  from  it  altogether,  and  classed 
with  the  sallow  flat-faced  Mongols,  to  which  it  is  considered  the  nature  of  their  language 
and  other  facts  ally  them  more  closely  than  the  symmetry  of  their  shape  and  complexion 
do  to  the  European  variety.  The  narrow  basis  upon  which  the  theory  of  the  Caucasian 
type  was  first  formed  is  thus  stated  by  Dr.  Latham:  “Blumenbach  had  a solitary 
Georgian  skull;  and  that  skull  was  the  finest  in  his  collection — that  of  a Greek  being  the 
next.  Hence  it  was  taken  as  the  type  of  the  skull  of  the  more  organized  divisions  of 
our  species.  More  than  this,  it  gave  its  name  to  the  type,  and  introduced  the  term  Cau- 
casian. Never  has  a single  head  done  more  harm  to  science  than  was  done  in  the  way 
-of  posthumous  mischief  by  the  head  of  this  well-shaped  female  from  Georgia.”  See 
Ethnology 

CATJ'CASUS,  a mountain  range  of  great  geographical  and  ethnographical  importance, 
occupying  the  isthmus  between  the  Black  sea  and  the  Caspian,  its  general  direction  being 
from  w.n.w.  to  e.s.e. — from  the  peninsula  of  Taman  on  the  Black  sea,  in  lat.  45°10'n., 
long.  36°  45'  e.,  to  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron  on  the  Caspian,  in  lat.  40°  20'  n.,  long.  50° 
20' e. — a length  of  about  750  miles.  The  breadth,  including  the  secondary  ranges  and 
«purs,  may  be  stated  at  about  150  m.,  but  the  breadth  of  the  higher  C.  is  much  less,  not 
much  exceeding  60  or  70  miles.  This  range,  formerly  belonging  entirely  to  Asia,  now 
forms  part  of  the  boundary-line  between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  higher  and  central  part 
4>f  the  range  is  formed  of  parallel  chains,  not  separated  by  deep  and  wide  valleys,  but 


Caucasus. 

Caul. 


576 


remarkably  connected  by  elevated  plateaus,  which  are  traversed  by  narrow  fissures  of 
extreme  depth.  The  highest  peaks  are  in  the  most  central  ridge  or  chain — Mt.  Elburz, 
attaining  an  elevation  of  18,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  while  Mt.  Kasbeck  reaches  a height 
of  more  than  16,000  ft.,  and  several  others  rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  here 
between  10,000  and  11,000  ft.  high;  but  the  whole  amount  of  perpetual  snow  is  not 
great,  nor  are  the  glaciers  very  large  or  numerous.  This  central  chain  is  formed  of  tra- 
chyte. The  secondary  parallel  chains  are,  on  the  inner  side,  mostly  formed  of  argilla- 
ceous slate  and  plulonic  rocks;  on  the  outer  side  of  limestone.  The  spurs  and  outlying 
mountains  or  hills  are  of  less  extent  and  importance  than  those  of  almost  any  other 
mountain-range  of  similar  magnitude,  subsiding  as  they  do  until  they  are  only  about 
200  ft.  high  along  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea.  Some  parts  are  entirely  destitute  of 
wood,  but  other  parts  are  very  densely  wooded,  and  the  secondary  ranges,  near  the 
Black  sea,  exhibit  most  magnificent  forests  of  oak,  beech,  ash,  maple,  and  walnut;  grain 
is  cultivated  in  some  parts  to  a height  of  8,000  ft.,  while,  in  the  lower  valleys,  rice, 
tobacco,  cotton,  indigo,  etc.,  are  produced.  As  might  be  expected  from  the  geograph- 
ical situation  of  the  C. , the  climate,  though  it  is  generally  healthy,  is  very  different  on 
the  northern  and  southern  sides,  the  vine  growing  wild  in  great  abundance  on  the  s., 
which  is  not  the  case  on  the  north.  The  s.  declivity  of  the  mountains,  towards  Georgia,, 
presents  much  exceedingly  beautiful  and  romantic  scenery. 

There  are  no  active  volcanoes  in  Mt.  C.,  but  every  evidence  of  volcanic  action.  There 
are  mud-volcanoes  at  each  end  of  the  range,  and  there  are  also  famous  naphtha  springs 
in  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron.  See  Baku.  Mineral  springs  also  occur  in  many  places. 
The  bison,  or  aurochs,  is  found  in  the  mountains;  in  the  forests  are  many  fur-bearing 
animals;  and  game  abounds.  Bears,  wolves,  and  jackals  are  among  the  carnivorous  ani- 
mals. Lead,  iron,  sulphur,  coal,  and  copper  are  found. 

The  waters  of  the  C.  flow  into  four  principal  rivers — the  Kuban,  and  the  Rion  or  Faa 
(the  Phasis  of  the  ancients),  which  flow  into  the  Black  sea;  and  the  Kur  and  the  Terek, 
which  flow  into  the  Caspian.  The  Russians  have  carried  a military  load,  with  great 
labor  and  danger,  through  a valley  somewhat  wider  than  most  of  the  Caucasian  valleys, 
between  the  sources  of  the  Kuban  and  the  Terek.  This  road  passes  over  a height  of 
about  8,000  ft.,  and  is  protected  by  many  forts,  but  is  exposed  to  other  dangers  besides 
those  which  arise  from  the  hostility  of  the  mountain  tribes.  The  only  other  road  is  by 
the  pass  of  Derbend,  near  the  Caspian  sea. 

The  resistance  which  the  Caucasian  tribes,  for  more  than  half  a century,  offered  to 
the  arms  of  Russia,  attracted  to  them  the  attention  of  the  world.  But  with  the  capture 
(1859)  of  the  prophet-chief  of  the  Lesghians — Schamyl,  the  most  active  and  determined 
of  the  foes  of  Russia,  who  for  a quarter  of  a century  withstood  and  harassed  the  armies 
sent  against  him — the  power  of  the  Caucasians  was  greatly  shattered;  and  after  his  death 
in  1871  the  Russians  regarded  the  territory  as  virtually  subjugated.  A large  number  of 
the  Circassians  elected  to  migrate  to  Turkish  territory,  where  they  were  welcomed.  The 
general  name  Circassians  (q.v.)  is  often,  but  not  very  correctly,  applied  to  the  tribes 
which  inhabit  the  Caucasus,  and  whose  whole  number  is  not  above  1,300,000  or  1,500,- 
000.  From  the  situation  of  Mount  C.,  there  have  gathered  together  in  it  tribes  belong- 
ing to  a greater  number  of  distinct  races  than  can  perhaps  be  found  within  the  same 
space  anywhere  upon  the  earth.  There  are  more  than  100  different  languages  or  dialects 
spoken;  the  Turkish-Tartar  language,  however,  serving  for  a general  medium  of  com- 
munication. The  different  tribes  inhabiting  the  C.,  long  believed  to  be  the  purest  type 
of  the  Indo-Europi  m family,  are  now  considered  not  to  belong  to  it  at  all,  but  to  have 
more  affinity  with  the  Mongolian  races.  See  Caucasian  Variety  op  Mankind.  The 
principal  tribes  are  the  Tsherkesses  or  Circassians,  Ossetes,  Lesghians,  Abchasians, 
Georgians,  Suans,  and  Tchetches.  The  Georgians  and  Ossetes  are  at  least  nominally 
Christians;  the  Lesghians  are  fanatical  Mohammedans.  The  Byzantine  emperors  and 
kings  of  Georgia  planted  Christian  churches  throughout  this  region,  and  many  ruins  of 
them  remain,  some  of  which  are  very  beautiful.  But  the  present  Christianity  of  the 
nominally  Christian  tribes  is  more  akin  to  heathenism  than  to  true  Christianity.  In 
character,  they  are  distinguished  by  their  valor  and  love  of  freedom,  but  also  by  cruelty 
and  treachery.  They  carry  on  a little  agriculture,  but  live  more  by  the  care  of  theiV 
flocks,  and  by  hunting. — The  Russian  lieutenancy  of  the  C.,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the 
mountain  range,  has  an  area  of  172,170  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  (1871)  of  4,893,332. 

CAUCASUS,  INDIAN.  See  Hindu-Kush,  ante. 

CAUCHON',  Joseph,  b.  1820;  a Canadian  journalist  and  legislator,  who  has  been  in 
the  colonial  or  Dominion  parliament  since  1844.  From  1867  to  1872  he  was  speaker  of 
the  senate.  He  established  the  Quebec  Journal  in  1842,  and  has  conducted  it  ever  since. 

CAUCHY,  Augustin  Louis,  1789-1857;  a French  mathematician ; a member  of  the 
academy  in  1816,  and  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  polytechnic  school.  His  repu- 
tation rests  chiefly  upon  his  residuary  and  imaginary  calculus.  In  politics  he  was  a 
firm  legitimist,  steadily  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  from  time  to  time 
proffered,  and  on  that  account  resigning  his  chair  of  mathematics  in  the  new  univer- 
sity of  Paris  in  1852.  He  published  several  valuable  works  on  the  calculus,  on  analysis, 
and  other  mathematical  themes 


577 


Caucasus. 

Caul. 


CAUCUS,  a meeting,  private  or  public,  of  citizens  to  select  candidates  for  office;  or 
of  members  of  a legislative  body  for  a similar  purpose.  Recently  the  meaning  of  the 
term  has  been  extended  to  almost  any  conference  previous  to  final  action.  Thus  the 
people  may  hold  a C.  to  ask  or  instruct  their  representative  to  support  one  or  another 
measure;  or  the  members  of  a party  in  congress,  legislature,  common  council,  or  town- 
meeting may  hold  a C.  to  determine  their  course  upon  any  subject.  Legitimately, 
therefore,  the  term  C.  means  a preliminary  or  preparatory  meeting  to  arrange  methods 
for  some  designated  end.  Much  effort  and  ingenuity  have  been  spent  in  trying  to 
settle  the  origin  of  the  term,  but  the  most  probable  theory  is  that  it  came  from  Boston 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  originally  meant  “the  calkers’  meeting,”  that 
is,  the  private  gathering  of  the  ship-calkers.  The  term  was  applied  almost  indiscrimi- 
nately to  meetings  in  the  period  preceding  the  revolution,  and  when  the  federal  government 
was  instituted  it  w^as  accepted  as  the  official  term  for  what  are  now  called  ‘ ‘ nominating  con- 
ventions.”  Candidates  for  president  of  the  United  States  were  uniformly  selected  by  a 
C.  of  the  members  of  congress  of  the  several  parties,  from  1789  to  1823.  In  the  election 
of  1824,  the  regular  democratic  C.  candidate,  William  H.  Crawford,  ran  behind  both 
Jackson  and  Adams,  and  but  for  some  jugglery  in  New  York  would  have  run  even 
behind  Clay  and  come  out  the  lowest  of  the  four.  This  result  ended  the  congressional 
C.  system  of  presidential  elections,  and  since  that  time  candidates  have  been  nomi- 
nated by  national  conventions  or  political  parties.  Soon  afterwards  state  conventions 
supplanted  the  legislative  C.  for  the  nomination  of  state  officers,  and  now  the  C.  is  prac- 
tically confined  to  the  meetings  of  partisans  in  legislative  bodies  to  decide  upon  a policy, 
or  to  select  candidates  for  presiding  and  other  officers  of  the  particular  body,  or  (by 
joint  C.  of  senators  and  members  of  assembly)  to  settle  upon  nominees  for  U.  S, 
senators.  Outside  of  these  special  functions  partisan  work  is  now  usually  managed  by 
conventions  of  the  party  at  large,  or  by  smaller  conventions  of  delegates  chosen  by  the 
voters  of  the  party,  or  by  committees  appointed  by  such  conventions. 

CAUCUS.  See  Americanisms. 

CAUDEBEC-LES-ELBEUF,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Seine-Inferieure,  12  m.. 
s.  of  Rouen.  It  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  and  a pop.  of  (1876)  11,338. — Caudebec  is  also 
the  name  of  a t.  in  the  same  department,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  26 
m.  e.  of  Havre.  It  is  one  of  the  prettiest  and  most  picturesque  little  towns  on  the  Seine, 
with  its  old  wooden  houses  and  elm-shaded  quays.  It  has  a fine  Gothic  church  of  tho 
15th  c.,  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  sail-cloth,  leather,  and  soap.  Formerly  the  capital 
of  the  Pays  de  Caux,  C.  was  strongly  fortified ; and  in  1419,  so  obstinate  was  its  resist- 
ance, that  it  took  the  great  English  gen.,  Talbot,  6 months  to  capture  it.  Pop.  ’76, 1951.. 

CAUDE'TE,  a t.  of  Murcia,  Spain,  50  m.  e.s.e.  of  Albacete.  The  inhabitants,  5,506 
in  number,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits.  C.  is  also  the  name  of  a small 
place  in  New  Castile,  a few  miles  from  Teruel,  where  there  are  some  of  the  largest  bone- 
deposits,  fossilized  and  unfossilized,  in  Europe. 

CAU'DINE  FOBKS  {Furculm  Caudince),  two  high,  narrow,  and  wooded  mountaia 
gorges  near  the  town  of  Caiidium,  in  ancient  Samnium,  on  the  boundary  towards  Cam- 
pania. These  gorges  are  celebrated  on  account  of  the  defeat  here  suffered  by  the  Romans 
in  the  second  Samnite  war  (321  b.c.).  Four  Roman  legions  commanded  by  the  two  con- 
suls Titus  Veturius  and  Spurius  Postumius,  after  marching  through  a narrow  pass, 
found  themselves  locked  in  a spacious  valley,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  lofty  moun- 
tains, with  no  way  out  save  that  by  which  they  entered,  and  another  pass  on  the; 
opposite  side.  Attempting  to  defile  through  the  latter,  they  found  it  blocked  up  with 
trees  and  stones,  and  commanded  by  the  Samnites,  who  had  also  in  the  mean  time  made: 
themselves  masters  of  the  other  pass.  Consequently,  the  four  legions  were  compelled  ta 
encamp  in  the  valley.  After  some  days,  famine  compelled  them  to  surrender  uncondi- 
tionally. The  Samnite  gen.,  Caius  Pontius,  according  to  old  custom,  compelled  the 
Romans  to  pass  under  the  yoke,  and  then  permitted  them  to  march  back.  This  submis^ 
sion  was  regarded  as  too  ignominious  for  Rome,  and  consequently  the  two  consuls  aaodi 
the  other  commanders  were  delivered  again  into  the  hands  of  the  Samnites,  who,  how- 
ever, refused  to  have  them. 

CAUGHNAWA'GA  a village  in  Canada,  9 m.  w.  of  Montreal,  on  the  s.  bank®f  Ifhe 
St.  Lawrence,  at  the  head  of  the  Lachine  rapids.  It  is  inhabited  exclusively  by  Indians,, 
remnants  of  the  once  powerful  Iroquois.  They  are  about  500  in  number. 

CAUL  is  a thin  membrane  encompassing  the  heads  of  some  children  when  bom,,  andl 
is  mentioned  here  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  superstitions  connected  with  it  froirt. 
very  early  ages  down  to  the  present  day.  It  was  the  popular  belief  that  children  so  bom 
would  turn  out  very  fortunate,  and  that  the  C.  brought  fortune  to  those  purchasing  it„ 
This  superstition  was  so  common  in  the  primitive  church,  that  St.  Chrysostom  felt  it  his. 
duty  to  inveigh  against  it  in  many  of  his  homilies.  In  later  times,  midwifes  sold  the 
C.  to  advocates  at  enormous  prices,  “as  an  especial  means  of  making  them  eloquent,’” 
and  to  seamen,  as  an  infallible  preservative  against  drowning.  It  was  also  supposed 
that  the  health  of  the  person  born  with  it  could  be  told  by  the  C.,  which,  if  firm  and 
U.  K.  III.-37 


Caulaincourt. 

Cause. 


578 


crisp,  betokened  health,  but  if  relaxed  and  flaccid,  sickness  or  death.  During  last  century, 
it  was  common  to  find  advertisements  in  the  newspapers  of  cauls  to  be  sold — from  £10 
to  £30  being  the  prices  asked  for  them.  So  recently  as  8th  May,  1848,  there  was  an 
advertisement  in  the  Times  of  a C.  to  be  sold,  which  “ was  afloat  with  its  late  owner 
thirty  years  in  all  the  perils  of  a seaman’s  life,  and  the  owner  died  at  last  at  the  place  of 
his  birth.”  The  price  asked  was  six  guineas.  Sir  John  Offley,  of  Madeley  manor, 
Staffordshire,  by  his  will,  proved  at  Doctors’  Commons  1658,  devised  a C.  set  in  jewels, 
which  had  covered  him  when  he  was  born,  to  his  daughter,  thereafter  to  her  son,  and 
then  to  his  own  heirs-male.  The  C.  was  not  to  be  concealed  or  sold  out  of  the  family. 
See  Brand’s  Popular  Antiquities,  vol.  iii. ; Notes  and  (Queries,  1st  series,  vol.  vii. 

CAULAINCOURT,  Armand  Augustin  Louis  de,  duke  of  Vicenza,  a statesman  of  the 
French  empire,  was  b.  at  Caulaincourt,  a village  in  the  department  of  Somme,  Dec.  9, 
1772.  He  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  rapidly  attained  promotion,  and,  as 
col.  of  a regiment  of  carbineers,  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of  1800.  He 
was  made  a gen.  of  division  in  1805,  and  shortly  after  created  duke  of  Vicenza.  In 
1807,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  soon  gained  the  confi- 
dence of  the  czar,  who  often  made  use  of  his  advice.  Disputes  having  arisen  between 
Alexander  and  Napoleon,  C.  endeavored  to  restore  amity  and  prevent  war;  but  his  pro- 
posals being  rejected,  he,  in  1811,  asked  permission  to  resign  his  post,  and  received  an 
appointment  in  the  army  of  Spain.  During  the  events  of  1813,  he  was  frequently 
employed  as  plenipotentiary  in  diplomatic  affairs.  In  Nov.  of  1813,  he  was  made 
minister  for  foreign  affairs,  and  in  this  capacity  attended  the  congress  at  Chatillon, 
Jan.,  1814.  When  Napoleon  abdicated,  C.  endeavored  to  make  use  of  his  influence 
with  Alexander  to  obtain  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  fallen  emperor,  and, 
chiefly  through  his  intervention,  the  island  of  Elba  was  ceded  to  Napoleon.  During  the 
hundred  days,  C.  resumed  office  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  made  a peer. 
On  the  second  restoration,  he  retired  into  private  life.  He  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  19,  1827. 
— His  brother,  August  Jean  Gabriel,  count  of  Caulaincourt,  b.  1777,  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  all  the  campaigns  from  1792  to  1812,  when  he  fell  in  battle. 

CAULIER,  Madeleine,  a peasant  girl  of  France  who  aspired  to  the  military  fame 
of  the  maid  of  Orleans.  At  the  siege  of  Lille,  in  Sept.,  1708,  she  conveyed  into  the  city 
an  important  order  to  the  officer  in  'command,  for  which  the  duke  of  Burgundy  offered 
her  a large  reward.  This  she  declined,  but  received  permission  to  raise  a company  of 
dragoons.  She  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Denain,  July  24,  1712,  when  marshal  Villiers 
defeated  the  imperialists. 

CAULIFLOWER,  a variety  of  the  common  kale  or  cabbage,  affording  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  delicacies  of  the  table.  It  was  cultivated  as  a culinary  vegetable  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  Its  culture  was,  however,  little  attended  to  in  England  till  the  end  of 
the  17th  c. ; but  after  that  time  it  rapidly  increased,  and  prior  to  the  French  revolution, 
C.  formed  an  article  of  export  from  England  to  Holland,  whilst  English  C.  seed  is  still 
preferred  on  the  continent.  The  C.  is  entirely  the  product  of  cultivation.  The  leaves 
are  not  in  this,  as  in  other  varieties  of  the  same  species  generally,  the  part  used,  nor  are 
they  so  delicate  and  fit  for  use  as  those  of  most  of  the  others,  but  the  flower-buds  and 
their  stalks,  or,  properly  speaking,  the  inflorescence  of  the  plant  deformed  by  cultiva- 
tion, and  forming  a head  or  compact  mass  generally  of  a white  color.  There  are  many 
subvarieties,  but  all  of  them  are  rather  more  tender  than  the  ordinary  forms  of  the 
species,  and  in  Britain  generally  require  more  or  less  protection  during  winter,  whilst 
the  seed  is  sown  on  hotbeds,  that  the  plants  may  be  ready  for  planting  out  in  spring. 
Later  sowings  are  made  in  the  open  ground.  The  C.  requires  a moist  rich  loamy  soil, 
with  abundance  of  manure,  and  above  all,  very  careful  cultivation,  which  is  directed  to 
the  object  of  having  the  heads  not  merely  large,  but  as  compact  of  possible.  Great  care 
is  bestowed  on  the  selection  of  proper  plants  for  seed.  In  Scotland,  C.  plants  almost 
always  require  the  protection  of  the  frame  during  winter.  C.  may  be  preserved  for  some 
time  fit  for  use  by  pulling  the  plant  up  by  the  roots,  and  hanging  it  in  a cold  and  dry 
place. — Broccoli  (q.v.)  may  be  regarded  as  another  kind  of  cauliflower. 

CAULKING  is  the  operation  of  driving  oakum  or  untwisted  rope  into  the  seams  of  a 
ship,  to  render  them  water-tight.  The  quantity  thus  driven  in  depends  on  the  thickness 
of  the  planking;  it  varies  from  1 to  13  double  threads  of  oakum,  with  ! or  2 single 
threads  of  spun-yarn.  The  caulker  first  raims  or  reems  the  seam — that  is,  drives  a caulking 
iron  into  it,  to  widen  the  seam  as  much  as  possible,  and  close  any  rents  or  fissures_  in 
the  wood;  he  then  drives  in  a little  spun-yarn  or  white  oakum  with  a mallet  and  a kind 
of  chisel,  and  afterwards  a much  larger  quantity  of  black  or  coarse  oakum.  The  fibers 
are  driven  in  until  they  form  a densely  hard  mass,  which  not  only  keeps  out  water,  but 
strengthens  the  planking.  The  seam  is  finally  coated  with  hot  pitch  or  resin. 

CAULO'NIA,  an  ancient  Greek  city  in  Italy  near  the  gulf  of  Syllacium.  It  was  a 
town  of  importance  five  centuries  before  Christ.  In  389  b.c.  it  was  captured  by  Diony- 
sius the  elder  who  removed  its  people  to  Syracuse.  Porphyry  asserts  that  Pythagoras 
sought  refuge  in  Caulonia  after  his  expulsion  from  Crotena. 


579 


Caulaincourt. 

Cause. 


CAXJLOP'TERIS,  a generic  name  for  the  stems  of  fossil  tree-ferns  found  in  the  carb(> 
niferous  and  triassic  measures.  They  are  hollow,  aud  covered  with  the  markings  simi- 
lar to  the  leaf-scars  on  recent  tree-ferns.  Twelve  species  have  been  described. 

CAUS,  or  CAULX,  Salomon  de,  1576-1630;  a French  engineer  and  physicist  who 
resided  in  England  and  in  Heidelberg,  and  later  in  Paris.  Little  was  known  of  him 
until  Arago  exhumed  his  works,  from  which  he  considered  him  to  have  been  the  real 
inventor  of  the  steam  engine,  for  in  one  of  these  works  he  gave  the  plan  of  an  apparatus 
for  raising  water  by  the  power  of  steam.  Some  critics  believe  that  it  was  from  Caus 
that  the  marquis  of  Worcester  got  the  idea,  printed  in  his  Century  of  Inventions  in  1633, 
of  the  “ exact  and  true  deposition  of  the  most  stupendous  water-commanding  engine, 
invented  by  the  right  honorable  Edward  Somerset,  lord  marquis  of  Worcester.” 

CAUSE.  The  words  “ Cause,”  “ Causality,”  and  “ Causation,”  although  familiar  and 
intelligible  in  ordinary  speech,  have  given  rise  to  some  of  the  most  subtle  questions  in 
philosophy  and  theology.  We  shall  here  advert  briefly  to  the  chief  meanings  of  these 
terms,  and  in  so  doing,  we  shall  indicate  the  disputes  that  have  arisen  in  connection  with 
them. 

In  common  language,  we  are  accustomed  to  describe  as  the  C.  of  an  event,  the  one 
event  immediately  preceding  it,  and  but  for  which  it  would  not  have  happened.  A man 
slips  his  foot  on  a ladder,  falls,  and  is  killed : we  give  the  slipping  of  the  foot  as  the  C. 
of  the  fatality.  A legislative  assembly  decides  a question  of  great  moment  by  the  casting 
vote  of  the  president,  who  is  then  not  unfrequently  spoken  of  as  the  C.  of  all  the  good 
or  evil  that  followed  on  the  decision.  Now,  a slight  examination  shows  that  this  mode 
of  speaking  is  defective,  as  not  expressing  the  whole  fact,  or,  in  other  words,  presumes 
a great  deal  that  is  not  stated.  In  the  supposed  death  from  a fall,  there  are  many  con- 
ditions necessary  to  the  result  besides  the  slipping  of  the  foot:  the  weight  of  the  body, 
the  height  of  the  position,  the  hardness  of  the  ground,  the  fragility  of  the  human  frame, 
all  enter  into  the  C.  strictly  represented ; but  for  practical  purposes,  we  leave  out  of 
account  all  those  elements  that  are  not  at  the  moment  under  our  control,  and  allude  to 
the  one  that  is  so.  And  when  we  speak  of  the  decision  of  an  assembly  being  the  effect 
of  the  president’s  vote,  we  mean  that  his  share  in  the  responsibility  is  peculiarly  great, 
or  that,  in  order  to  turn  the  vote  in  one  way,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  secure  his  indi- 
vidual opinion.  If  we  do  not  enumerate  all  the  conditions  of  the  event,  it  is  because 
some  of  them  will,  in  most  cases,  be  understood  without  being  expressed,  or  because, 
for  the  purpose  in  view,  they  may  without  detriment  be  overlooked. 

When,  however,  we  aim  at  strict  accuracy,  as  in  the  investigations  of  science,  we 
must  not  be  content  with  singling  out  the  one  turning  event,  but  must  enumerate  every- 
thing that  is  necessary  to  the  result.  A scientific  G.  is  the  full  assemblage  of  conditions, 
failing  any  one  of  which,  the  effect  would  not  happen.  In  a full  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon  of  the  tides,  we  must  enumerate  all  the  circumstances  connected  with  their 
production — the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon,  the  motions  of  the  earth  and  the  moon 
in  their  orbits,  the  globular  form  and  rotation  of  the  earth,  the  liquidity  of  the  sea,  the 
mode  of  distribution  of  the  sea  over  the  earth — every  one  of  which  facts  is  an  essential 
in  the  full  causation.  The  effect  cannot  be  adequately  accounted  for  without  adverting 
to  every  one  of  those  conditions,  and  it  is  therefore  the  sum-total  of  them  that  is  rightly 
described  as  the  C.  of  the  tides.  Taking  this  complete  view  of  causation,  it  is  found 
that  every  event  that  happens  is  the  sequel  to  some  previous  event,  in  whose  absence  it 
would  not  have  been,  but  which  being  present  it  is  sure  to  occur.  Between  the  phe- 
nomena existing  at  any  instant,  and  th^e  phenomena  existing  at  the  succeeding  instant, 
there  is  an  invariable  order  of  succession ; to  certain  facts,  certain  facts  always  do,  and, 
as  we  believe,  will  continue  to  succeed.  The  invariable  antecedent  is  termed  the  C. ; 
the  invariable  consequent,  the  effect.  What  is  termed  the  law  of  universal  causation, 
consists  in  this,  “ that  every  consequent  is  connected  in  the  manner  now  described  with 
some  particular  antecedent,  or  set  of  antecedents.  — Mill’s  Logic,  book  iii.  chap.  5. 

The  physical  philosopher — the  chemist  or  physiologist — trusts  to  the  uniformity  with 
which  the  same  C.  yields  the  same  effect;  and  if  he  can  find  out  the  true  succession  in 
one  instance,  he  is  satisfied  that  the  same  succession  will  always  hold.  In  the  physical 
sciences,  therefore,  there  is  no  dispute  as  to  the  law  of  causation  itself ; the  controver- 
sies on  that  head  occur  only  in  metaphysics.  It  is  made  a serious  problem  by  mental 
philosophers,  and  also  by  theologians,  to  determine  how  we  come  by  the  irresistible 
belief  that  we  are  said  to  possess,  that  every  event  has  and  must  have  a cause.  There 
are  many  answers  to  this  question:  eight  are  enumerated  by  sir  William  Hamilton  {Dis- 
cussions on  Philosophy,  p.  611,  2d  edit.).  It  is  only  necessary,  however,  to  advert  to  the 
two  radically  opposite  points  of  view  from  which  the  subject  is  now  surveyed. 

The  one  view  is,  that  we  have  an  instinct  or  intuition  of  the  mind  by  which  we  are 
compelled  to  recognize  this  law,  so  that  to  us  it  is  a necessary  truth,  which  we  cannot 
escape  from  if  we  would.  Our  experience  of  the  outer  world,  doubtless,  shows  us  that 
things  follow  one  another  in  an  orderly  and  uniform  manner,  that  the  stone  that  sinks 
in  water  to-day  does  not  float  to-morrow,  but  no  experience  could  give  us  the  sense  of 
commanding  necessity  that  we  have  of  the  law  of  C.  and  effect.  “Causation  is  not 
the  mere  invariable  association  of  antecedent  and  consequent;  Mve  feel  that  it  implies 


Caustic. 


580 


something  more  than  this.”  The  philosophers  who  maintain  this  side  give  forth  two 
different  aflBrmations;  the  one,  that  we  actually  possess  an  intuitive  belief  of  necessary 
causation;  the  other,  that  our  possession  of  the  belief  is  a sufficient  proof  that  the  law 
actually  pervades  the  universe.  Experience  operates  to  confirm  us  in  those  instinctive 
tendencies,  but  no  amount  of  experience  would  have  been  able  to  create  them. 

The  latest  modification  of  the  theory  that  ascribes  our  belief  in  causation  to  an  intui- 
tion of  the  mind,  is  the  doctrine  promulgated  by  sir  W.  Hamilton,  to  the  effect  that  “ we 
are  unable  to  think  that  the  quantity  of  existence,  of  which  the  universe  is  the  con- 
ceived sum,  can  be  either  amplified  or  diminished.  We  are  able  to  conceive,  indeed, 
the  creation  of  a world;  this,  in  fact,  as  easily  as  the  creation  of  an  atom.  But  what 
is  our  thought  of  creation?  It  is  not  a thought  of  the  mere  springing  of  nothing  into 
something.  On  the  contrary,  creation  is  conceived,  and  is  by  us  conceivable,  only  as 
the  evolution  of  existence  from  possibility  into  actuality,  by  the  fiat  of  the  Deity.  And 
what  is  true  of  our  concept  of  creation,  holds  of  our  concept  of  annihilation.  We  can 
think  no  real  annihilation — no  absolute  sinking  of  something  into  nothing.” — Discus- 
sions, p.  619.  Thus,  every  effect  must  have  a C.,  and  every  C.  must  have  its  effect, 
because,  if  it  were  not  so,  there  would  be  either  a pure  creation  or  a pure  annihilation, 
neither  of  which,  according  to  sir  W.  Hamilton,  is  thinkable  or  conceivable  by  the 
human  mind.  This  doctrine,  however,  has  not  found  acceptance  even  by  those  who,  if 
not  actual  disciples  of  the  author,  are  most  disposed  to  receive  his  philosophy  generally, 
as  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  prof.  Fraser’s  Essays  in  Philosophy,  p.  170;  M‘Cosh  On 
the  Divine  Government,  p.  529,  4th  edition;  and  Mansel,  art.  metaphysics,  Encyclopmdia 
Britannica.  So  far  from  the  creation  or  annihilation  of  matter  or  force  being  incon- 
ceivable, it  may  be  said  with  truth  that  until  the  end  of  last  century  it  was  not  known 
as  a fact  that  the  materials  of  the  globe  are  absolutely  indestructible.  The  effects  of 
combustion  and  evaporation  could  hardly  suggest  anything  else  than  the  annihilation 
of  a certain  portion  of  material.  Combustion  merely  transformed  the  material  con- 
sumed into  other  shapes,  nothing  being  absolutely  lost.  So  much  for  ponderable  matter. 
As  regards  force,  or  moving  power,  the  demonstration  that  this  is  never  absolutely  lost, 
even  on  the  many  occasions  when  it  is  so  to  all  appearance,  is  a still  later  result  of  labo- 
rious scientific  inquiries,  being,  in  fact,  one  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  within  the  last 
few  years.  See  Force.  To  represent,  therefore,  one  of  the  latest  achievements  of 
experimental  science  as  a primitive  intuition  of  the  human  mind,  is  to  violate,  in  the 
strongest  manner,  our  sense  of  propriety  and  consistency. 

As  opposed  to  the  intuitional  doctrine  of  causation,  we  have  a variety  of  views  by 
Hume,  I)r.  Thomas  Brown,  and  others,  which  need  not  be  specified  in  detail.  One  may 
be  given  as  an  example.  It  has  been  seen  that  there  are  two  affirmations  in  the  theory 
just  discussed ; that  the  mind  possesses  an  intuitive  belief  of  causation,  and  that  the 
possession  of  this  belief  is  evidence  of  the  existence  of  the  law.  Now,  one  or  both  of 
these  affirmations  may  be  denied;  and  the  denial  of  either,  by  even  a small  minority  of 
the  human  race,  is  held  to  be  fatal  to  the  theory,  because  unanimity  is  essential  to  the 
establishment  of  a universal  instinct.  Now,  many  men  may  possess  an  instinctive  belief 
in  the  necessity  of  a cause  to  all  effects,  and  of  an  effect  to  all  causes;  some,  it  is 
affirmed,  do  not;  it  cannot,  therefore,  be  a universal  or  essential  part  of  human  nature. 

In  like  manner,  the  second  affirmation — namely,  that  the  possession  of  an  instinctive 
belief  is  a proof  of  the  truth  of  the  thing  believed — is  denied,  on  the  ground  that  our 
instincts  often  dispose  us  to  believe  things  that  experience  shows  to  be  untrue.  We  hare 
a strong  natural  tendency  to  believe  in  the  universality  and  continuance  of  the  exact 
order  of  things  that  we  are  ourselves  born  into,  and  are  only  put  right  by  seeing  the 
contrary.  “A  mere  disposition  to  believe,  even  if  supposed  instinctive,  is  no  guarantee 
for  the  truth  of  the  thing  believed.  If,  indeed,  the  belief  ever  amounted  to  an  irresistible 
necessity,  there  would  b^e  then  no  use  in  appealing  from  it,  because  there  would  be  no 
possibility  of  altering  it.  But  even  then  the  trutli  of  the  belief  would  not  follow:  it 
would  only  follow  that  mankind  were  under  a permanent  necessity  of  believing  what 
might  possibly  not  be  true-;  just  as  they  were  under  a temporary  necessity— quite  as 
irresistible  while  it  lasted — of  believing  that  the  heavens  moved,  and  the  earth  stood  still. 
But,  in  fact,  there  is  no  such  permanent  necessity.  Many  of  the  propositions  of  which 
this  is  most  confidently  stated,  great  numbers  of  human  beings  have  disbelieved.  The 
things  which  it  has  been  supposed  that  nobody  could  possibly  help  believing,  are  innumer- 
able; but  no  two  generations  would  make  out  the  same  catalogue  of  them.” — Mill’s  Logic, 
book  iii.  chap.  21.  Mr.  Mill  and  others  hold  that  the  proof  of  the  law  of  causation  rests 
exclusively  on  the  uniform  and  growing  experience  of  the  human  race.  This,  however, 
is  not  inconsistent  with  our  possessing  the  natural  instinct  above  alluded  to,  by  which 
we  are  led  to  suppose  that  what  is  will  continue,  and  what  has  been  will  be  repeated;  an 
instinct  that  coincides,  to  a certain  extent,  with  the  law  of  C.  and  effect,  and  is  therefore 
a predisposition  on  our  part  to  accept  what  experience  teaches  on  this  head.  It  is  only 
maintained  that  the  instinct  is  of  itself  no  proof,  although  useful  in  so  far  as  it  prepares 
us  for  what  there  is  real  evidence  for  believing.  By  yielding  to  the  instinct  in  its  crudest 
fihape,  the  inhabitant  of  the  tropics  scouts  the  idea  that  water  can  ever  be  solid ; the  Afri- 
can would  deny  the  existence  of  white  men;  and  even  an  intelligent  European  could  not 
be  persuaded  that  any  metal  would  float.  Experience  must  correct  the  instinctive  tend 


581 


Caastie. 


encies,  otherwise  no  reliance  can  ever  be  placed  upon  them;  by  which  we  acknowledge 
it  as  the  sole  test  of  truth,  while  intuitive  dispositions  are  no  test  whatever 

Even  those  who  maintain  the  instinctive  necessity  of  the  conviction  we  are  discuss- 
ing, admit  two  great  exceptions — viz.,  the  existence  of  a first  C.,  itself  uncaused,  and 
the  liberty  of  the  will,  or  the  exemption  of  human  actions  from  the  rule  that  applies  so 
strictly  to  physical  nature. 

It  is  further  contested  between  the  two  opposite  schools  of  philosophy,  whether  or 
not  MIND  be  the  sole  ultimate  C.  of  all  phenomena,  as  it  is  the  C.  most  familiar  to  us — 
namely,  the  source  of  our  voluntary  exertions.  On  one  side,  it  is  affirmed  to  be  “ incon- 
•ceivable  that  dead  force  could  continue  unsupported  for  a moment  beyond  its  creation. 
We  cannot  even  conceive  of  change  or  phenomena  without  the  energy  of  a mind.” 
“The  word  action  has  no  real  significance,  except  when  applied  to  the  doings  of  an 
intelligent  agent.”  “ Phenomena  may  have  the  semblance  of  being  produced  by  physi- 
cal causes,  but  they  are  in  reality  produced  by  the  immediate  agency  of  a mind;  if  they 
do  not  proceed  from  the  human,  they  are  the  result  of  the  divine  will.”  To  this  it  is 
replied,  that  we  are  here  taking  for  granted  that  every  kind  of  power  is  analogous  to 
that  which  we  happen  to  be  first  acquainted  with;  but  it  is  a pure  assumption  without 
proof  or  relevance,  to  suppose  that  all  modes  of  energy  must  conform  to  this  one  type. 
Mill,  book  iii.  chap.  5.  It  is  further  pointed  out  that  even  in  ourselves,  pure  mind,  or 
mind  acting  by  itself,  is  not  known  to  be  an  efficient  C. ; it  must  be  mind  together  with 
body.  The  laborer  cannot  sustain  a day’s  toil  merely  because  of  his  wish  to  do  so ; he 
must  be  fed,  and  rested,  and  have  all  his  bodily  organs  in  good  condition,  in  order  to  do 
his  work.  The  human  system,  when  employed  as  a prime  mover,  can  no  more  dispense 
with  the  material  conditions,  than  a steam-engine  can  work  without  coal,  or  when  out 
of  repair.  — Bain  On  the  Emotions  and  the  Will,  p.  472. 

The  subject  of  causation  was  very  particularly  studied  by  Aristotle.  He  enumerated 
four  different  kinds  of  causes,  which  have  ever  since  had  a place  in  philosophy.  These 
are  the  material,  the  formal,  the  efficient,  and  the  final.  The  first,  or  material,  is  what 
anything  is  made  of ; brass  or  marble  is  the  material  C.  of  a statue.  The  formal  is  the 
form,  type,  or  pattern  according  to  which  anything  is  made;  the  drawings  of  the  archi- 
tect would  be  the  formal  C.  of  a house.  The  efficient  is  the  power  acting  to  produce  the 
work,  the  manual  energy  and  skill  of  the  workmen,  or  the  mechanical  prime  mover, 
whether  that  be  human  or  any  other.  The  final  C.  is  the  end  or  motive  on  whose 
account  the  work  is  produced,  the  subsistence,  profit,  or  pleasure  of  the  workman. 
Aristot^  mentions  the  case  of  a physician  curing  himself,  as  exemplifying  all  the  causes 
in  one  and  the  same  subject.  It  is  obvious  that  these  are  what  we  should  now  term  the 
aggregate  of  conditions  necessary  to  the  production  of  any  work  of  man ; it  being  essen- 
tial that  there  should  be  a motive  for  the  work  (final),  a material  to  operate  upon  (mate- 
rial), a plan  to  proceed  by  (formal),  and  an  exertion  of  energy  to  do  what  is  wanted 
{efficient).  When  nature  is  viewed  as  the  result  of  a creative  mind,  these  causes  are 
considered  as  inhering  in  the  Divine  contriver. 

In  popular  language,  C.  is  held  as  identical  with  explanation.  In  other  words,  when 
a phenomenon  which  we  are  puzzled  to  account  for  is  explained  to  our  satisfaction,  we 
say  that  we  know  its  cause,  but  we  often  seek  for,  and  are  satisfied  with,  explanations 
that  have  no  value  jn  the  view  of  science ; and  on  the  other  hand,  refuse  to  rest  content 
with  such  as  are  scientifically  valid.  People  occasionally  insist  on  knowing  the  C.  of 
gravity  itself,  something  deeper  than  the  discovery  of  Newton,  and  whatever  explana 
tion  satisfies  the  mind,  would  be  accepted  as  the  cause.  Sometimes  a theological 
explanation  is  offered,  and  at  other  times,  a metaphysical  necessity  is  put  forth. 

CAUSTIC  (Gr.  burning),  in  medicine  and  m chemistry,  is  the  term  applied  to  such 
substances  as  exert  a corroding  or  disintegrating  action  on  the  skin  and  fiesh.  Lunar 
C.  is  nitrate  of  silver,  and  common  G.  is  potash.  When  used  as  a C.  in  medicine,  the 
substance  is  fused  and  cast  into  molds,  which  yield  the  C.  in  small  sticks  the  thickness 
of  an  ordinary  lead  pencil,  or  rather  less. — C.  is  also  used  in  chemistry  in  an  adjective 
sense — thus  C.  lime,  or  pure  lime  (CaO),  as  distinguished  from  mild  lime,  or  the  carbon 
Rte  of  lime  (CaO.COij),  C.  magnesia  (MgO),  and  mild  magnesia  (Mg0,C02),  etc. 

CAUSTIC,  Catacaustic,  and  Diacaustic.  In  optics,  C.  is  the  name  given  to  the 
curved  line  formed  by  the  ultimate  intersections  of  a system  of  rays  reflected  or  ref racted 
from  a reflecting  or  refracting  surface,  when  the  reflection  or  refraction  is  inaccurate. 
When  the  C.  curve  is  formed  by  reflection,  it  is  called  the  catacaustic — sometimes  simpl}" 
the  C. ; when  formed  by  refraction,  it  is  called  the  diacaustic  curve.  In  mathematical 
language,  a curve  formed  by  the  ultimate  intersections  of  a system  of  lines  drawn 
according  to  a given  law  is  called  the  envelope,  and  is  such  that  the  lines  are  all  tangents 
to  it.  As  in  a system  of  rays  reflected  or  refracted  by  the  same  surface  all  follow  the 
same  law,  it  follows  that  the  C.  is  the  envelope  of  reflected  or  refracted  rays. 

An  example  of  the  catacaustic  is  given  in  the  annexed  figure  for  the  case  of  rays 
falling  directly  on  a concave  spherical  mirror,  BAB',  from  a point  so  distant  as  to  be 
practically  parallel  The  curve  may  be  said  to  be  made  up  of  an  infinite  number  of 
points,  such  as  C,  where  twm  very  near  rays,  such  as  P,  Q,  intersect  after  reflection 
This  catacaustic  is  an  epicycloid.  The  curve  varies,  of  course,  with  the  nature  of  the 


Cauterets. 

Cavaignac. 


582 


reflecting  surface.  In  the  case  represented  in  the  figure,  the  cusp  point  is  at  F,  the 
principal  focus.  No  such  simple  example  can  be  given  of  the  diacaustic  curve  as  thaf 

above  given  of  the  catacaustic.  It  is  only  in  the  sim- 
plest cases  that  the  curve  takes  a recognizable  form. 
In  the  case  of  refraction  at  a plane  "surface,  it  is- 
shown  that  the  diacaustic  curve  is  the  evolute  either 
of  the  hyperbola  or  ellipse,  according  as  the  refractive 
index  of  the  medium  is  greater  or  less  than  unity. 

The  reader  may  see  a catacaustic  on  the  surface  of 
tea  in  a tea-cup  about  half  full,  by  holding  the  circu- 
lar rim  to  the  sun’s  light.  The  space  within  the 
caustic  curve  is  all  brighter  than  that  without,  as  it 
clearly  should  be,  as  all  the  light  reflected  affects 
that  space,  while  no  point  without  the  curve  is  affected 
by  more  than  the  light  reflected  from  half  of  the  surface. 
^ CAUTERETS',  a watering  place  in  Hautes-Pyrenees,  France,  26  m.  from  Tarbes. 
It  is  in  a basin  3,254  ft.  above  tide,  and  is  noted  for  its  many  hot  sulphur  springs  rang- 
ing from  102°  to  140°  F.  Pop.  1300. 

CAUTERY.  See  Bleeding,  and  Moxa,  ante. 


CAUTION,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  like  guaranty  (q.v.)  in  England,  is  an  obligation, 
undertaken  by  a second  party,  whereby  he  binds  himself,  failing  the  primary  obligant, 
to  fulfill  his  obligation,  whether  it  be  of  a pecuniary  nature  or  otherwise.  Cautionary 
obligations,  like  engagements  of  guaranty,  are  thus  essentially  of  a secondary  nature;, 
and,  previous  to  the  passing  of  the  mercantile  law  amendment  act  (19  and  20  Viet.  c. 
60),  it  was  customary  in  Scotland  to  distinguish  between  what  was  called  cautionary- 
proper,  where  the  cautioner  was  bound  avowedly  as  such,  and  improper  cautionary, 
where  both  cautioner  and  principal  were  bound  as  principals.  Since  this  period  (1856), 
however,  cautionary  proper  has  ceased  to  exist  otherwise  than  as  the  result  of  positive 
stipulation,  under  the  saving  clause  attached  to  the  eighth  section  of  the  statute  referred 
to,  which  enacts  that  “ nothing  herein  contained  shall  prevent  any  cautioner  from  stipu- 
lating, in  the  instrument  of  C.,  that  the  creditor  shall  be  bound,  before  proceeding 
against  him,  to  discuss  and  do  diligence  against  the  principal  debtor.”  Cautionary 
obligations  are  generally  gratuitous,  b^eing,  for  the  most  part,  undertaken  from  motives 
of  friendship;  but  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  for  them  to  be  entered  into  in  consider- 
ation of  a premium  paid  by  the  person  guaranteed,  or  by  those  interested  in  his  fortunes. 
The  existence  of  such  a consideration  has  always  been  optional  in  Scotland,  and  this 
rule  has  recently  been  adopted  in  England  (19  and  20  Viet.  c.  97,  § 3).  Where  a premium 
is  paid,  the  transaction  becomes  a mere  insurance  of  solvency,  honesty,  or  efficiency; 
and  associations  of  great  public  utility  (see  Guarantee  Association)  have  been  formed, 
both  in  England  and  Scotland,  for  the  purpose  of  undertaking,  as  a speculation,  to 
guarantee  the  good  conduct  of  persons  employed  either  in  public  or  private  offices  of 
trust.  The  tendency  of  judicial  decisions,  both  in  England  and  Scotland,  for  many 
years  past,  has  been  to  require  greater  strictness  than  formerly  in  the  constitution  of 
cautionary  obligations;  and  latterly,  the  legislature  itself  has  stepped  in  with  the  same 
object  in  view.  By  the  statute  which  we  have  already  quoted,  it  is  enacted  that  all 
such  engagements  shall  be  in  writing,  subscribed  by  the  person  undertaking  or  making 
them,  or  by  some  person  duly  authorized  by  him,  otherwise  they  shall  have  no  effect. 
If  a cautionary  obligation  is  dependent  on  a condition,  it  will,  of  course,  be  ineffectual 
unless  the  condition  be  complied  with.  The  cautioner  may,  in  general,  plead  every 
defence  which  was  competent  to  the  principal  debtor,  and  the  extinction  of  the  primary 
obligation  extinguishes  the  secondary  one.  The  discharge  of  one  cautioner,  moreover, 
unless  consented  to  by  the  rest,  is  a discharge  to  all.  Cautioners  bound  subsequent  to 
the  passing  of  the  act  mentioned,  have,  in  consequence  of  the  eighth  section  already 
referred  to,  no  right  to  what  in  Scotland  was  called  discussion  (q.v.);  but  those  bound 
prior  to  that  act  are  entitled,  as  formerly,  to  require  that  the  creditor  shall  first  call  on 
the  principal  debtor,  and  compel  him  to  pay  in  so  far  as  he  is  able,  or  m law  language, 
discuss  him.  The  cautioner  is  entitled,  on  payment  of  the  obligation,  to  an  assignation 
of  the  debt  and  diligence,  by  which  means  he  comes,  in  all  respects,  into  the  creditor’s 
place;  and,  moreover,  if  the  solvency  or  other  conditions  of  the  principal  debtor  should 
seem  precarious,  he  may  adopt  legal  measures  for  his  relief.  Co-cautioners,  or  persons 
bound  together,  whether  their  obligations  be  embodied  in  one  or  several  deeds,  are 
entitled  to  mutual  relief.  But,  where  a co-cautioner  obtains  relief  from  the  others,  he 
must  communicate  to  them  the  benefit  of  any  deduction  or  ease  which  may  have  been 
allowed  him  in  paying  the  debt. 

Cautionary  obligations  are  often  undertaken  in  behalf  of  persons  in  situations  iu 
which  the  engagements  and  liabilities  are  prospective.  In  order  that  such  obligations- 
may  be  binding,  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  liability  must  be  fairly  and  fully  disclosed 
to  the  cautioner.  But  while  the  cautioner  must  not  be  exposed  to  the  danger  arising 
from  any  transaction  not  in  his  view  in  entering  into  the  contract,  he  is  not  entitled  to 
withdraw  without  due  notice  and  a reasonable  time  being  given  for  entering  into  a new 
arrangement.  The  question  whether  the  effects  of  a bond  are  prospective,  or  retrospec. 


583 


Caateretfl. 

Cavaignac. 


tive  merely,  will  depend  on  its  terms;  the  presumption,  where  these  are  in  any  way 
doubtful,  being  always  in  favor  of  the  latter  alternative.  The  creditor  is  bound  to  exer- 
cise a certain  degree  of  vigilance  over  the  conduct  and  circumstances  of  the  person 
guaranteed,  and  not  to  permit  any  very  gross  departure  from  the  terms  of  the  contract, 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  cautioner.  Should  this  obligation  be  neglected,  the  cautioner 
will  be  freed  from  his  obligation. 

CAUTION,  for  a cash  credit.  See  Cash  Account. 

CAUTION,  Judicial,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  of  two  kinds — for  appearance,  and 
for  payment.  If  a creditor  makes  oath  before  a magistrate,  that  he  believes  his  debtor 
to  be  meditating  flight  {in  meditatione  fugce),  he  may  obtain  a warrant  for  his  apprehen- 
sion ; and  should  he  succeed  in  proving  the  alleged  intention  to  flee,  he  may  compel  him 
to  find  C.  to  abide  the  judgment  of  a court  {judicio  sisti).  The  second  kind  of  judicial 
C.  is  by  bond  of  presentation,  which  is  granted  when  the  creditor  is  about  to  execute  per- 
sonal diligence,  or  has  done  so,  and  the  cautioner,  on  condition  of  an  indulgence  to  the 
debtor,  binds  himself  that  the  debtor  shall  be  forthcoming  at  the  appointed  time,  other- 
wise he  himself  will  pay  the  debt.  The  object  of  this  form  of  C.  is  simply  to  protect 
the  debtor  from  imprisonment,  and  allow  him  time. 

CAUTION,  Juratory.  See  Poor’s  Roll,  and  13  and  14  Viet.  c.  36,  § 34. 

CAUVERIPU  RAM,  a t.,  of  the  district  of  Coimbatoor,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Cauvery,  in  lat.  11°  54'  n.,  and  long.  77°  48'  east.  It  takes  its  name 
from  the  neighboring  gorge  of  30  m.  in  length  through  the  eastern  Ghauts,  along  which 
the  Cauvery  finds  a passage.  Pop.  of  C.  (or  Kaveripuram)  in  1871,  6,533. 

CAU  VERY,  or  Kaveri,  a river  in  the  s.  of  Hindustan,  rising  in  Curg,  and  flowing 
through  Mysore  and  Madras,  with  a course  of  473  m.,  into  the  bay  of  Bengal  by  various 
mouths.  Its  delta,  with  a coast  of  80  m.,  and  a depth  of  70,  lies  almost  wholly  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Tanjore.  The  C.  is  peculiarly  available  for  irrigation;  and  for  improving  it  in 
this  respect,  a grant  of  £50,000  was  sanctioned  in  1841.  During  the  rainy  season,  the 
stream  is  navigable  for  small-craft. 

CA'VA,  La,  a t,  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Salerno,  3^  m.  n.w.  of  the  town  of 
Salerno.  It  is  a flourishing  place,  with  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  linen,  and  pottery. 
Pop.  6,397.  About  a mile  from  C.  is  the  celebrated  Benedictine  monastery  of  the  Trinity, 
with  its  magnificent  archives,  containing  60,000  MSS.  and  40,000  parchment  rolls.  Its 
library,  at  one  time  also  rich  in  MSS.  and  rare  printed  books,  has  been  dispersed.  In 
the  monastery  church  are  the  tombs  of  queen  Sibilla  and  of  various  anti-popes. 

CAVAIGNAC,  Eleonorb  Louis  Godefroy,  1801-45;  a journalist  of  Paris,  son  of 
Jean  Baptiste.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Louis  Philippe  and  one  of  the  prominent  found- 
urs  of  the  “ Societe  des  Amis  du  Peuple,”  and  of  the  “ Societe  des  Droits  de  THomme.” 
He  was  often  arrested  and  sometimes  imprisoned,  but  escaped  in  1835  and  went  to  Bel- 
gium. In  1841,  he  returned  to  Paris  and  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Beforme,  the 
ablest  of  the  opposition  newspapers. 

CAVAIGNAC,  Louis  Eugene,  was  b.  in  Paris,  1803,  and  was  educated  in  the  Polytech- 
nic school,  and  the  Ecole  d' Application  at  Metz.  He  first  served  in  the  Morea,  and  after- 
wards in  Africa  (whither  he  was  sent  in  1833  into  a kind  of  honorable  exile,  in  conse- 
quence of  a too  free  expression  of  opinion  in  favor  of  republican  institutions),  where  he 
acquired  great  distinction  by  his  energy,  coolness,  and  intrepidity.  He  was  made  chef 
de  bataillon  in  1837,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigade-gen.  in  1844.  In  1848,  he  was 
appointed  governor-general  of  Algeria,  but  in  view  of  the  impending  revolutionary  dan- 
gers, was  called  to  Paris,  he  having  also  been  elected  as  a delegate  to  the  national 
assembly  by  the  two  departments  of  Lot  and  Seine.  In  the  insurrection  of  June  which 
followed,  C.,  as  minister  of  war,  had  a most  difficult  task  to  play,  and  he  displayed, 
during  the  four  days  and  nights  of  the  contest,  remarkable  presence  of  mind,  firmness, 
and  activity.  His  plan  of  action  appeared  strange  and  almost  traitorous  at  the  time.  In 
opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the  national  assembly,  who  desired  that  the  troops  should  be 
dispersed  over  Paris,  he  divided  his  men  into  three  separate  bodies,  which  had  to  clear 
their  several  routes  from  obstacles  in  order  to  effect  a reunion,  streets  and  even  quarters 
of  the  city  being  left  for  some  time  without  military  protection.  Regarding  the  out- 
break more  as  the  beginning  of  a civil  war  than  a mere  insurrection,  he,  in  fact,  met  the 
Insurgents  in  true  order  of  battle.  His  operations  were  successful,  and  his  clemency 
was  as  remarkable  as  his  generalship.  When  he  had  the  power  of  assuming  the  dicta- 
torship, he  resigned  it  into  the  hands  of  the  national  assembly,  which  appointed  him 
president  of  the  council.  As  a candidate  for  the  presidency  of  the  republic,  when  Louis 
Napoleon  was  elected,  he  received  about  a million  and  a half  of  votes.  On  the  coup 
dietat  of  De«.,  1851,  C.  was  arrested,  but  released  after  a short  detention;  and  though 
he  consistently  refused  to  give  in  his  adhesion  to  the  empire,  he  was  permitted  to  reside 
in  France  without  molestation.  He  died  very  suddenly  of  heart  disease  in  Oct.,  1857,  at 
his  country-house  near  Tours,  and  was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  Montmartre,  Paris,  in 
presence  of  many  thousand  spectators,  including  several  republican  leaders.  In  debates, 
C,  was  remarkably  unlike  his  countrymen,  being  not  voluble  and  declamatory,  but  sober, 
ulear,  and  moderate. 


Cavaillon. 

Cavalry. 


584 


CAVAILLON,  a t.  and  important  railway  junction  in  Vaucluse,  France,  13  m.  s.e. 
of  Avignon.  It  is  a poorly  built  and  dirty  place,  but  has  a fine  town-house,  an  oldi 
church  of  the  12th  c.,  and  the  remains  of  a triumphal  arch  of  about  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine ; other  relics  of  the  Roman  period  are  found  in  the  neighborhood.  There  is  consid- 
erable  trade  in  dried  fruits,  madder,  and  the  agricultural  productions  of  the  fertile  region, 
around.  Pop.  72,  3,906. 

CAVALCANTI,  Guido,  d.  about  1300;  an  Italian  poet  and  philosopher,  the  son  of 
the  philosopher  whom  Dante  pictured  in  torment  among  the  Epicureans  and  Atheists — 
but  himself  a friend  of  the  great  poet.  By  marriage  C.  became  the  head  of  the  Ghibel- 
lines,  and,  after  some  years,  was  banished  with  the  other  leaders,  and  died  in  exile.  His. 
poems  are  chiefly  in  honor  of  a French  lady  by  him  called  Mandetta.  He  also  wrote  on 
philosophy  and  oratory. 

CAVALIER,  in  fortification,  is  a defense-work  constructed  on  the  terre-plein  or  level 
ground  of  a bastion.  It  rises  to  a height  varying  from  8 to  12  ft.  above  the  rampart, 
and  has  a parapet  about  6 ft.  high.  Its  uses  are  to  command  any  rising  ground  held  by 
the  enemy,  within  cannon-shot;  and  to  guard  the  curtain,  or  plain  wall  between  two- 
bastions,  from  being  enfiladed.  For  these  purposes,  it  mounts  heavy  ordnance.  It  may 
be  either  curved,  or  bounded  by  straight  sides. 

CAVALIER  (Fr.  chevalier;  Ital.  cavaliere;  ^x>^n..cdballero,  probably  from  the  Latin 
cdballus,  a horse),  originally  meant  any  horse-soldier,  but  in  English  history  is  the 
name  given  to  the  party  which  adhered  to  king  Charles  I.,  in  opposition  to  the  round- 
heads  (q.  V.)  or  friends  of  the  parliament. 

CAVALIER',  Jean,  1680-1740;  a native  of  lower  Languedoc,  in  southern  France;: 
the  famous  chief  of  the  Camisards  (who  in  some  particulars  seem  to  have  been  the  pre- 
cursors of  the  English  and  American  shakers).  He  was  a peasant’s  son,  and  was 
employed  in  sheep-keeping,  afterwards  as  apprentice  to  a baker,  and  within  that  period 
trained  by  a pious  Protestant  mother.  He  was  driven  from  his  native  place  by  the  piti  - 
less  persecution  of  Protestants  that  followed  upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
and  took  refuge  in  Geneva.  The  murderous  dragonnadesof  Louis  XIV.  drove  the  Prot- 
estants of  the  Cevennes  at  last  to  revolt,  and  C.,  inspired  with  the  hope  of  being  their 
deliverer,  returned  in  1702  to  his  own  country,  where  he  became  one  of  the  chosen  lead- 
ers of  the  insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  July  of  that  year.  It  was  Roland  who  was- 
put  in  chief  command,  but  C.  soon  rose  to  be  his  equal,  and,  though  untrained  in  arms, 
he  displayed  not  only  fiery  courage,  but  extraordinary  military  skill.  Although  these 
“ children  of  God,”  as  the  insurgents  were  called,  numbered  at  the  most  not  more  than 
3,000  men-at-arms,  they  coped  successfully  again  and  again  with  the  far  greater  forces  of 
the  king,  and  were  never  entirely  conquered.  After  several  conflicts,  C.  changed  the  seat, 
of  the  war  to  the  Vivarais;  and^Feb.  10,  1703,  defeated  the  royal  troops  at  Ardeche;  but 
only  a few  days  later  he  was  completely  defeated  on  the  same  ground,  and  was  sup- 
posed to  have  fallen.  He  reappeared,  however;  was  again  defeated  at  Tour-de-Bellot; 
and  again  recovered  himself,  recruits  gladly  flocking  to  his  standard  to  take  the  places  of 
the  slain.  By  a long  series  of  successes  he  raised  his  reputation  to  the  highest  pitch,  and 
gained  the  full  confidence  of  the  people.  The  harshest  measures  were  tried  in  vain  against 
the  Camisards;  their  mountain  retreat  was  invaded  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  their 
houses  sacked  and  burned;  but  C.  retaliated  in  kind,  invaded  the  region  of  the  plains, 
and  even  threatened  the  city  of  Nismes.  April  16,  1704,  he  encountered  marshal  Mon- 
trevel  at  the  bridge  of  Nages  with  1000  men  against  5,000,  and,  although  defeated,  rnan- 
aged  to  retreat  with  two  thirds  of  his  forces.  Marshal  Villiers  was  next  sent  against 
him,  but  proposed  to  negotiate  instead  of  fighting.  Roland  refused  to  listen,  but  C. 
agreed  to  treat,  and  did  so,  the  result  being  that  C.  received  for  himself  a commission 
and  a pension  of  1200  livres,  and  for  his  brother  a captain’s  commission.  C.  was 
authorized  to  raise  a regiment  of  Camisards  to  be  sent  to  Spain,  and  liberty  was  given 
to  his  father  and  other  Protestant  prisoners.  This  treaty,  which  did  not  include  any 
provision  for  general  liberty  of  conscience,  excited  great  indignation  among  the  com 
panions  of  C.,  who  called  him  coward  and  traitor,  and  deserted  him.  He  was  greatly 
disheartened  at  this  treatment,  and  soon  afterward  visited  the  king  in  Paris,  by  whom 
he  was  coldly  received.  These  disappointments  and  rebuffs,  together  with  stories  cur- 
rent of  probable  attempts  upon  his  life,  impelled  him  to  leave  France.  He  went  to 
Switzerland,  and  then  to  Holland,  where  he  married  a daughter  of  Mme.  Dionoyer,  a lady 
of  Nismes,  who  had  once  been  sought  in  marriage  by  Voltaire.  C.  then  went  to  Eng- 
land to  recruit  his  regiment  of  Camisards,  and  had  an  interview  with  queen  Anne,  who 
sent  him  with  his  regiment  to  Spain  under  the  earl  of  Peterborough  and  sir  Cloudsley 
Shovel,  in  May,  1705.  At  the  battle  of  Almanza  his  Camisards  encountered  a French 
regiment  which  they  had  met  in  the  Cevennes,  and,  without  firing,  both  bodies  rushed, 
upon  each  other  in  a fierce  hand  to  hand  fight,  and  made  a fearful  slaughter,  C.  being, 
severely  wounded,  but  saved  from  death  by  an  English  officer.  Long  after  his  return 
to  England  he  was  made  a maj.gen.,  and  governor  of  Jersey;  and  finally  governor  of  the- 
Isle  of  Wight.  He  died  at  Chelsea,  where  he  was  buried. 

CAVALLER-MAGGIO  RE,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  24  na.  n.e.  of  Coni. 
It  was  formerly  fortified  and  defended  by  two  castles,  but  of  these  there  is  now  hardly 
a vestige  remaining.  It  is  a busy  place,  with  a pop.  of  5,300. 


585 


Cavaillon, 

Cavalry. 


CAVALLI'NI,  Pietro,  1259-1344;  a Roman  artist  taught  hy  Giotto,  whom  it  is 
believed  he  assisted  in  the  mosaic  of  the  ship  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  porch  of  St.  Peter’s 
•church.  He  was  also  an  adept  at  painting,  and  his  grand  fresco  of  the  crucifixion  at 
Assisi  is  still  in  tolerable  preservation. 

CAVALRY  is  a general  name  for  horse-soldiers  or  troopers.  The  subdivisions  are 
very  numerous;  such  as  guards,  dragoons,  lancers,  hussars,  cuirassiers,  mounted  rifles, 
-etc.  The  C.  force  of  the  British  army  is  usually  divided  into  household  and  line.  The 
numbers  voted  for  1876-77  were: 


Officers  

Non-commissioned  officers 

Rank  and  file 

Household 

cavalry. 

81 

192 

1,029 

Line  cavalry, 
home  service. 
558 
1,178 
9,907 

Line  cavalry 
in  India. 

234 

424 

3,672 

1,202 

11,643 

4,330 

The  difference  between  the  household  C.  and  the  line  is  this:  The  former  belong  to  the 
guards,  a specially  favored  body  of  troops;  while  the  latter  comprise  all  who  are  not 
guards.  The  regiments  are  31  altogether.  During  more  than  half  a century,  the  num- 
ber was  26;  but  in  1858,  two  new  regiments  were  created — to  restore  the  5th  and  18th 
dragoons,  which  had  been  struck  out  of  the  army  list  in  1799  for  disloyalty  in  the  Irish 
rebellion ; and  in  1862,  3 regiments  were  taken  over  from  the  abolished  local  European 
-army  of  India.  The  list  comprises  2 regiments  of  life  guards  (red),  1 of  horse  guards 
(blue),  7 of  dragoon  guards,  and  21  of  dragoons.  Of  these  last-named  21  regiments,  the 
1st,  2d,  and  6th  are  simply  called  dragoons;  the  5th,  9th,  12th,  16th,  and  17th,  lancers; 
the  3d,  4th,  7th,  8th,  10th,  11th,  13th,  14th,  15th,  18th,  19th,  20th,  and  21st,  hussars.  A 
'distinction  is  often  made  between  heavy  and  light  C. ; and,  in  continental  armies,  this 
•distinction  is  very  marked;  but  in  England,  the  men  and  horses  are  not  selected  with 
much  reference  to  this  matter;  the  heavy  being  often  too  light,  and  the  light  too  heavy, 
to  correspond  with  their  designations.  In  so  far  as  the  distinction  holds  in  the  British 
army,  the  dragoon  guards,  horse  guards,  and  life  guards  are  classed  and  equipped  as 
heavy  C.,  the  dragoons  medium,  and  the  lancers  and  hussars  as  light  C.,  for  scouring  a 
•country.  It  was  in  the  capacity  of  light  C.  that  the  Prussian  Uhlans  played  so  import- 
ant a part  in  the  late  war  between  Prussia  and  France,  acting  as  wide-stretching  feelers 
to  the  main  bodies  to  which  they  were  attached. 

The  line  C.  regiments  in  the  British  service  have  generally  8 troops  of  55  rank  and 
file  each,  with  88  commissioned  and  non-commissioned  officers  to  the  regiment.  The 
officers  fora  full  C.  regiment  comprise  1 col.  (as  general  officer),  1 lieut.col.,  1 maj.,  8 
capts.,  18  subalterns  and  other  commissioned  officers,  and  59  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers. A lieut.col.  in  the  guards  C.  takes  rank  with  a full  col.  in  the  line  C. ; and 
a maj.  in  the  former  with  a lieut.col.  in  the  latter — an  arrangement  that  gives  rise 
to  some  favoritism  and  jealousy;  for  the  guards  are  in  no  sense  more  meritorious  sol- 
diers than  the  line. 

Nine  months  of  drilling  is  the  least  time  requisite  to  make  a recruit  fit  to  mount  on 
duty,  during  which  period  he  is  drilled  for  eight  hours  a day.  Londoners  and  agri- 
cultural laborers  are  mostly  sought  for;  provincial  mechanics  are  not  found  so  available. 
The  purchase  of  C.  horses  is  an  important  matter.  The  veterinary  surgeon  of  the  regi- 
ment is  sent  out  to  buy;  but  no  horse  is  paid  for  till  approved  by  the  commanding  officer. 
The  usual  maximum  of  price  fixed  is  £33  for  a horse  3 to  5 years  old ; but  the  horse 
-costs  the  nation  £50  or  £60  pounds  by  the  time  it  is  thoroughly  fit  for  service.  See 
Dragoons,  Guards,  Lancers,  etc. 

CAVALRY  {ante).  The  earliest  records  of  C.  as  a distinct  military  organization 
date  far  back  in  the  history  of  Egypt.  Diodorus  of  Sicily  states  that  Osymandias, 
who  lived  long  before  the  Trojan  war,  led  20,000  mounted  men  against  the  rebels  in 
Bactriana.  Josephus  states  that  the  host  of  Israelites  which  escaped  from  Egypt 
included  50,000  horsemen  and  600  chariots  of  war.  Herodotus  often  alludes  to  C. ; 
and  Xenophon  relates  that  in  the  first  Messenian  war,  743  b.c.,  Lycurgus  formed  his 
C.  in  divisions.  In  the  year  371  b.c.,  Epaminondas  had  a C.  force  of  5,000  men, 
and  we  know  that  C.  contributed  greatly  to  the  victories  of  Philip  and  Alexander 
of  Macedon.  It  had  an  important  part  in  the  battle  of  the  Granicus,  334  b.c.; 
and  at  the  battle  of  Arbela,  331  b.c.,  Alexander,  who  led  the  Macedonian  C.  of 
7,000  men,  dashed  into  a gap  of  the  Persian  army,  and  by  this  brilliant  feat  utterly 
routed  the  enemy.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  the  C.  of  Greece  and  Macedon 
greatly  degenerated.  The  Roman  cavalry  was  very  inferior  to  that  of  Hamilcar  and 
Hannibal,  and  most  of  the  victories  of  these  two  generals  were  won  by  cavalry  over 
the  splendid  infantry  of  the  Romans.  Publius  Scipio’s  defeat  at  the  Ticinus,  218  b.c., 
was  due  to  the  superiority  of  the  Carthaginian  horse ; and  the  bitter  experience  at  the 
Trebia  and  the  battle  of  Cannae,  216  b.c.,  taught  the  Romans  the  value  of  cavalry 
by  which  Scipio  finally  defeated  Hannibal  at  Zama,  202  b.c.  Yegetius  states  that  the 
Roman  C.  was  organized  into  ten  tit)ops  or  squadrons,  forming  a regiment  of  726 
horses,  generally  attached  to  some  special  legion.  It  is  a singular  fact  that  saddles  were 
not  in  use  until  the  time  of  Constantine,  and  stirrups  were  introduced  by  the  Franks 


Caval^. 

Cavatina. 


586 


in  the  5th  century.  During  the  middle  ages  C.  may  be  said  to  have  constituted 
almost  the  only  efficient  arm  of  battle.  This  was  owing  to  the  unwillingness  of  th§- 
nobility  in  all  countries  of  western  Europe  to  intrust  any  military  power  to  the  serfs;  the 
upper  classes  went  into  battle  mounted,  and  both  riders  and  horses  had  heavy  defensive 
armor.  The  feudal  cavalry  consisted  of  mail-clad  knights  with  their  men-at-arms.  Their 
weapons  were  lances,  battle-axes,  and  swords.  The  infantry  was  looked  down  upon 
during  the  middle  ages,  being  composed  principally  of  serfs  and  such  as  had  not  the 
means  to  keep  a horse;  but  with  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  the  introduction  of  mus- 
kets, and  the  use  of  field  artillery,  a complete  change  took  place;  the  infantry  gradually 
rose  in  reputation,  and  the  number  of  this  class  of  troops  was  augmented.  It  seems, 
that  light  C.  did  Jiot  exist  as  a distinct  body,  with  general  officers  and  a staff,  before 
the  time  of  Louis  XII.  Montluc,  however,  mentions  a general  of  12,000  light  horse  in 
the  time  of  that  monarch;  and  we  hear  of  Henry  II.,  in  1552,  taking  a troop  of  3,000’ 
cavalry  in  his  expedition  to  Germany.  In  1554,  marshal  De  Brissac  formed  a corps  of 
mounted  infantry,  called  dragoons,  trained  to  fight  either  on  horseback  or  on  foot. 
Maurice  of  Nassau,  who  saw  the  importance  of  giving  more  mobility  to  this  arm,  was 
the  first  to  organize  cavalry  regiments,  each  regiment  being  composed  of  four  squadrons, 
formed  in  five  ranks,  and  numbering  about  1000  horses.  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  a great 
C.  general,  and  used  his  cuirassiers  and  dragoons  to  good  advantage.  His  tactics  were 
much  admired,  and  were  adopted  by  many  European  nations.  The  French,  especially, 
distinguished  themselves  after  his  death  in  the  employment  of  C.  Turenne,  Conde, 
Montecuculi,  and  Marlborough  were  considered  excellent  C.  leaders  in  the  wars  of 
Louis  XIII.  and  Louis  XIV.  Cromwell  was  indebted  to  his  abilities  as  a C.  officer 
for  the  victories  of  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby.  Defensive  armor  for  C.  had  been 
abolished  in  his  time,  and  the  C.  troops  were  taught  to  use  the  carbine.  Charges  of 
cavalry  were  seldom  made  in  battle  except  by  the  French ; though  Charles  XII.  always 
made  use  of  cavalry  charges  at  full  speed  with  great  effect.  Marshal  Saxe  made  many 
improvements  in  this  arm,  and  used  guns  in  connection  with  cavalry  at  the  battle  of 
Fontenoy,  although  regular  horse  artillery  was  not  introduced  till  1762.  It  was  not 
until  the  wars  of  Frederick  the  great,  however,  that  the  full  importance  of  cavalry  was 
developed ; he  saw  the  necessity  of  training  these  troops  to  use  swords  instead  of  fire- 
arms, and  endeavored  to  make  them  perfect  riders.  No  firing  whatever  was  allowed  in 
the  battle  during  the  first  charge;  he  claimed  that  the  only  two  things  required  to  beat 
the  enemy  were  to  charge  him  with  the  greatest  possible  speed  and  force,  and  then  to 
outfiank  him.  The  brilliant  victories  he  obtained  from  the  adoption  of  these  tactics, 
under  the  able  leadership  of  Seydlitz  have  probably  never  been  excelled.  At  the  battle 
of  Hohenfriedberg  the  Prussian  cavalry  of  10  squadrons  broke  21  battalions,  routed  the 
entire  left  wing  of  the  Austrian  infantry,  and  captured  66  standards,  5 guns,  and  4,00ff 
prisoners.  At  the  battle  of  Zorndorf,  after  the  Russians  had  compelled  the  Prussian 
infantry  to  retreat,  Seydlitz  with  36  squadrons  rode  down  the  Russian  cavalry,  and  then, 
completely  routed  their  infantry.  Frederick  had  learned  to  appreciate  the  true  princi- 
ples of  mounted  warfare  through  long  experience  and  the  occasional  disasters  which  he 
had  met  in  the  first  and  second  Silesian  wars ; and  it  was  due  to  the  efficient  reforms: 
which  he  instituted  in  the  Prussian  cavalry  that  he  was  able  to  win  the  battles  of  Ross- 
bach,  Striegan,  Kesselsdorf,  Leutheu,  and  others.  One  of  the  first  improvements  made 
in  the  French  army  by  Napoleon  was  the  reorganization  of  the  cavalry.  He  increased 
the  cuirassiers  from  one  regiment  to  twelve,  and  reintroduced  the  use  of  the  lance  and 
defensive  armor.  Some  of  his  splendid  victories  were  due  to  this  force,  especially  at 
Marengo  and  Austerlitz;  and  it  was  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  French  cavalry  in  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812  that  some  of  his  finest  achievements  in  1813  proved  useless: 
he  was  well  aware  of  this,  and  made  the  statement  that  had  he  possessed  cavalry  at  the 
battles  of  Lutzen  and  Bautzen  the  war  would  then  have  been  brought  to  an  end.  In 
modern  warfare  it  may  be  mentioned  that  cavalry  was  conspicuous  at  the  battle  of  Sol- 
ferino;  but  in  1866,  the  first  great  European  war  since  Waterloo,  neither  the  Austrian 
nor  the  Prussian  cavalry  won  great  distinction,  although  the  manner  in  which  the  Aus- 
trian cavalry  covered  the  retreat  of  their  army  at  the  battle  of  Koniggratz  was  a noble 
example  of  courage  and  devotion.  In  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870,  however,  the- 
excellency  of  the  Prussian  cavalry  was  the  chief  means  of  Von  Moltke’s  ability  to  carry 
out  his  strategic  plans.  The  French  cavalry  were  more  remarkable  for  bravery  than  effi- 
ciency, Great  progress  was  made  in  the  C.  of  the  United  States  during  the  war  of 
the  rebellion ; a large  number  of  men  of  both  armies  were  good  riders,  and  understood 
the  management  of  horses.  They  were  at  first,  however,  quite  ignorant  of  military  tac- 
tics, and  were  used  as  scouts,  as  orderlies,  and  for  outpost  service.  Gen.  Sheridan,  act- 
ing under  instructions  from  gen.  Grant,  made  the  first  successful  organization  of  C,, 
which  was  called  the  cavalry  corps  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  comprising  three 
divisions  of  5,000  mounted  men  each.  Their  weapons  were  repeating  carbines  and 
sabers.  It  was  with  this  force  that  gen.  Sheridan  defeated  the  confederate  C.  at  Yellow 
Tavern,  near  Richmond;  and  it  contributed  largely  to  the  defeat  of  Early  at  the  battle 
of  the  Opequan,  near  Winchester;  and  later,  at  the  battles  near  Petersburg  and  at  Five- 
Forks,  the  C.  took  an  important  part,  Gen.  Wilson,  whom  gen.  Sherman  put  in  com- 
mand of  a force  called  the  C.  corps  of  the  militar}'-  division  of  the  IMississippi,  did  good 
work  in  the  way  of  organization  towards  the  close  of  the  war;  he  had  12,000  mounted 


KO>7  Cavalry. 

Cavatina. 

O.  and  3,000  who  fought  on  foot  at  the  battle  of  Nashville,  not  including  a detachment 
of  3,000  men  in  Kentucky. 

Our  C.  system  is  similar  to  that  of  European  countries ; a regiment  consists  of  10 
•companies  of  64  men  each;  2 companies  form  a squadron;  they  are  armed  with  sabers, 
pistols,  and  carbines.  According  to  the  army  regulations,  the  C.  in  battle  should  be  dis- 
tributed in  echelon  on  the  wings  and  at  the  center,  on  favorable  grounds;  it  should  be 
instructed  not  to  take  the  gallop  until  within  charging  distance;  never  to  receive  a 
•charge  at  a halt,  but  to  meet  it;  or,  if  not  strong  enough,  to  retire  maneuvering;  and  in 
■order  to  be  ready  for  the  pursuit,  and  prepared  against  a reverse,  or  the  attacks  of  the 
reserve,  not  to  engage  all  its  squadrops  at  once,  but  to  reserve  one  third,  in  column  or 
in  echelon,  abreast  of  or  in  the  rear  of  one  of  the  wings ; this  arrangement  is  better 
than  a second  line  with  intervals.  When  the  regular  army,  pursuant  to  the  act  of  con- 

gress  of  Aug.  15,  1876,  was  reduced  to  a maximum  of  25,000  men,  the  United  States 
consisting  of  10  regiments,  with  439  officers  and  7,911  enlisted  men,  was  left  intact. 

CAVALRY  TACTICS.  Authorities  differ  concerning  the  proportion  that  ought  to  be 
observed  between  cavalry  and  infantry  in  an  army.  In  France  and  Austria,  the  ratio  is 
about  1 to  5;  in  Prussia  and  Bavaria,  1 to  4;  in  Kussia,  1 to  6;  in  England,  1 to  8. 

So  far  as  concerns  actual  duties,  heavy  cavalry  charge  the  enemy’s  cavalry  and 
infantry,  attack  the  guns,  and  cover  a retreat;  while  the  light  cavalry  make  reconnais- 
sances, carry  dispatches  and  messages,  maintain  outposts,  supply  pickets,  scour  the 
country  for  forage,  aic  the  commissariat,  pursue  the  enemy,  and  strive  to  screen  the 
movements  of  the  infantry  by  their  rapid  maneuvers  on  the  front  and  flanks  of  their 
army.  At  the  battle  of  Balaklava,  the  heavy  cavalry  charge  was  within  the  reasonable 
duties  of  the  troops,  but  that  of  the  light  cavalry  was  not;  the  former  succeeded,  the 
latter  failed.  A cavalry  horse  will  walk  4 m.  in  an  hour  on  general  service,  trot  8 m.  in 
maneuvering,  and  gallop  11  m.  in  making  a charge.  The  cavalry  usually  attack  in  line 
^igainst  cavalry,  en  echelon  against  artillery,  and  in  column  against  infantry.  When  an 
attack  is  about  to  be  made,'"the  cavalry  usually  group  into  three  bodies — the  attacking, 
the  supporting,  and  the  reserve.  Close  combat  and  hand-to-hand  struggle  are  the  province 
of  cavalry;  infantry  and  artillery  may  fight  at  a distance,  but  cavalry  cannot.  It  is  rare 
that  two  bodies  of  cavalry  stand  to  fight  each  other;  the  weaker  of  the  two,  or  the  less 
resolute,  usually  turns  and  gallops  off.  The  work  to  be  done  by  the  horse  is  to  pursue, 
to  overwhelm,  to  cut  down.  They  cannot  wait  to  receive  an  attack  like  infantry;  they 
must  either  pursue  or  retreat;  and  on  this  account  it  has  been  said,  “rest  is  incompatible 
with  cavalry.”  The  infantry  and  artillery  more  frequently  win  the  victory;  but  the 
oavalry  prepare  the  way  for  doing  this,  capture  prisoners  and  trophies,  pursue  the 
flying  enemy,  rapidly  succor  a menaced  point,  and  cover  the  retreat  of  infantry  and 
artillery,  if  retreat  be  necessary.  Cavalry  is  necessary  to  finish  off  work  mainly  done 
by  others;  and,  without  its  aid,  signal  success  is  seldom  obtained  on  the  field.  Many 
of  the  brilliant  achievements  of  the  British  in  1857  and  the  following  year,  in  India, 
were  rendered  almost  nugatory  by  the  paucity  of  cavalry,  while,  as  a contrast,  the 
<4erman  victories  of  1870  were  enhanced  by  the  splendid  services  of  their  uhlans  and 
other  light  cavalry. 

CAVAN,  an  inland  co.  in  the  s.  of  Ulster,  Ireland.  It  lies  in  the  narrowest  part  of 
Ireland,  18  m.  from  the  Atlantic,  and  20  from  the  Irish  sea.  Area,  746  sq.m.  About 
three  fourths  is  arable.  Bogs  and  hills,  with  many  small  lakes,  are  found  in  the  n.w. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Erne,  the  Woodford,  and  the  Annalee.  The  e.  half  of  C.  rests 
on  clay-slate  and  grauwacke ; the  mountain-district  in  the  w.  is  carboniferous  formation. 
Of  minerals,  C.  affords  coal,  iron,  lead,  and  copper,  with  many  mineral  springs.  The 
olimate  is  cold  and  damp;  and  the  soil  is  poor,  wet,  and  clayey,  except  along  the  streams. 
In  1878,  of  466,261  acres,  153,114  were  in  crop,  the  chief  crops  being  oats,  potatoes, 
turnips,  and  flax.  The  farms  are  small.  The  population,  which  had  fallen  to  153,906 
in  1861,  was  in  1871  only  140,735,  of  whom  113,174  are  Homan  Catholics,  21,223 
Episcopalians,  and  the  rest  of  other  denominations.  Agriculture  forms  the  chief  in- 
dustry, but  linen  is  manufactured  to  a considerable  extent.  Chief  towns — Cavan,  Bailie- 
borough,  and  Belturbet.  C.  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  The  number  of  chil- 
dren attending  school  in  the  year  ending  March  31,  1876,  was  31,368. 

CAV'AN,  the  capital  of  Cavan  co. , Ireland,  is  situated  on  a branch  of  the  Annalee,  70 
m.  n.w.  of  Dublin,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Irish  N.  W.  railway.  The  suburbs 
are  chiefly  wretched  cabins.  The  principal  buildings  are  in  the  w.  outskirts.  The 
public  garden  was  bequeathed  by  a late  lady  Farnham,  and  the  beautiful  demesne  of 
lord  Farnham  lies  between  C.  and  Lough  Oughter,  which  is  about  5 m.  west.  Pop.  ’71, 
3,389.  Agriculture  forms  the  chief  industry  of  the  people. 

CAVARZE'RE,  a t.  of  Northern  Italy,  province  of  Venice,  22  m.  s.s.w.  of  Venice  city. 
Pop.  12,400.  It  is  situated  on  the  Adige,  which  divides  it  into  two  parts  called  C.  destro 
and  C.  sinistro.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  and  its  inhabitants  carry  on  an  active  trade  in  cattle, 
silk,  and  wood  for  fuel. 

CAVATI'NA,  a short  form  of  operatic  air,  of  a soft  character,  differing  from  the  ordi- 
nary aria  in  consisting  only  of  one  part,  and  that  spun  out  more  in  the  form  of  a song. 
Modern  composers  have,  however,  disregarded  this  difference.  Kossini  mixes  both 


Cave. 

Caves. 


588 


Weber,  in  his  operas,  adds  an  introduction  or  a recitative.  The  most  perfect  specimen 
of  the  C.  is  that  in  Meyerbeer’s  opera  of  Bobert  the  Devil. 

CAVE,  Edward,  deserves  mention  as  the  founder  of  the  Oentleman's  Magazine,  the 
first  literary  journal  of  the  kind  ever  established.  He  was  b.  at  Newton,  in  Warwick- 
shire, in  1691 ; obtained  a good  education  at  Rugby ; and,  after  many  vicissitudes, 
became  apprentice  to  a printer.  Obtaining  money  enough  to  set  up  a small  printing- 
office,  he  projected  the  Oentleman's  Magazine,  which  has  now  existed  more  than  a cen- 
tury and  a quarter.  He  was  the  friend  and  early  patron  of  Samuel  Johnson.  C.  died 
Jan.,  1754. 

CAVE,  William,  an  English  divine  and  scholar  of  distinction,  was  b.  at  Pickwell, 
Leicestershire,  Dec.,  1637.  He  studied  at  Cambridge;  was  appointed  to  the  vicarage  of 
Islington  in  1662;  afterwards  to  the  rectory  of  Allhallows  the  Great,  London;  and  in 
1690  to  the  vicarage  of  Isleworth,  Middlesex.  He  d.  at  Windsor,  Aug.  4,  1713.  He  was 
the  author  of  many  works  of  a religious  character,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
Lives  of  the  Apostles;  Lives  of  the  Fathers;  and  Primitive  Ghristianity , which  were  once 
standard  works. 

CAVEAT  (Lat.  caveo,  to  beware),  a judicial  warning  or  caution.  Caveats,  in  Eng- 
land, are  used  to  stop  the  enrollment  of  decrees  in  chancery,  the  issuing  of  lunacy  com- 
missions, etc.  It  consists  in  an  intimation  by  the  party  interested  to  the  proper  officer, 
to  prevent  him  from  taking  any  step  without  such  intimation  being  made  to  the  said, 
party  as  shall  enable  him  to  appear  and  object. 

CAVEAT  EMPTOR,  notice  to  a purchaser  of  property  to  beware  or  be  watchful  of 
his  rights.  In  a sale  of  real  estate  the  rights  of  the  purchaser  depend  entirely  upon  the 
covenants  of  title  which  he  receives;  but  personal  property  the  purchaser  takes  at 
his  own  risk,  unless  the  seller  gives  an  express  warranty,  or  the  law  should  imply  such 
warranty  from  the  circumstance  of  the  case  and  the  nature  of  the  thing  sold,  or  unless 
the  seller  should  be  guilty  of  fraudulent  misrepresentation  or  concealment  in  respect  to- 
a material  inducement  to  the  sale. 

CAVEAU,  a convivial  and  literary  association  in  Paris,  so  called  from  meeting  in  a. 
cavern  known  as  “the  cave.”  It  was  started  in  1729,  and  continued  about  ten  years. 
Dinners  were  given  on  the  first  Sunday  in  each  month,  which  were  attended  by  Helve- 
tius,  Crebillon,  and  other  celebrities.  The  Caveau  Moderne  was  started  in  1806,  and 
had  dinner  on  the  20th  of  each  month  at  the  Rocher  de  Cancale.  The  association 
declined,  but  was  reorganized  in  1834,  and  in  1866  Jules  Janin  was  received  as  a mem- 
ber. The  meetings  are  now  more  formal  and  academical  than  convivial. 

CAVEDO'NE,  Jacopo,  1577-1660;  an  Italian  painter,  educated  in  the  school  of 
Caracci,  and  workman  under  them  in  the  churches  of  Bologna.  His  chief  productions, 
are  “ The  Adoration  of  the  Magi;”  “ The  Four  Doctors;”  “The  Last  Supper;”  and  espe- 
cially “The  Virgin  and  Child  in  Glory,”  now  in  the  Bolognese  academy.  He  was  at 
one  time  an  assistant  to  Guido,  in  Rome.  In  his  declining  years  he  was  broken  down  by 
the  loss  of  a favorite  son,  and  finally  died  in  extreme  poverty  in  a stable  at  Bologna. 

CAVELIER',  Pierre  Jules,  b.  1814;  a French  sculptor,  who  studied  under  David 
d’ Angers  and  Delaroche.  He  first  gained  celebrity  about  1849  by  a statue  of  “ Penelope,” 
for  which  he  received  the  medal  of  honor  and  three  years’  pension.  A few  years  later 
he  became  a member  of  the  institute.  Among  his  other  works  are  “Truth,”  in  the 
Louvre,  a statue  of  Abelard,  and  busts  of  Napoleon,  Ary  Schaffer,  and  Horace  Vernet. 

CAVENDISH,  Henry,  a distinguished  philosopher  of  the  18th  c. , son  of  lo'rd  Charles 
Cavendish,  and  nephew  of  the  third  duke  of  Devonshire,  was  born  at  Nice,  Oct.  10, 
1731.  He  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  devoted  his  whole  life  to  scientific  investigations. 
The  large  fortune  which  was  bequeathed  to  him  by  an  uncle,  enabled  him  to  follow 
uninterruptedly  his  favorite  pursuits.  He  almost  secluded  himself  from  the  world,  and 
was  so  averse  to  meet  with  strangers,  that  he  had  his  library — a magnificent  one — built 
at  a distance  from  his  house,  so  that  he  might  not  encounter  persons  coming  to  consult 
it;  and  his  female  domestic  servants  had  orders  to  keep  out  of  his  sight,  on  pain  of  dis- 
missal. His  dinner  he  ordered  daily  by  a note  placed  on  the  hall-table.  He  died,  unmar- 
ried, Feb.,  1810,  leaving  considerably  more  than  a million  sterling  to  his  relatives.  As  a 
philosopher,  C.  is  entitled  to  the  highest  rank.  To  him  it  may  almost  be  said  we  owe 
the  foundation  of  pneumatic  chemistry,  for  prior  to  his  time  it  had  hardly  an  existence. 
In  1760,  he  discovered  the  extreme  levity  of  inflammable  air,  now  known  as  hydrogen 
gas — a discovery  which  led  to  balloon  experiments,  and  projects  for  aerial  navigation;, 
and  later,  he  ascertained  that  water  resulted  from  the  union  of  two  gases — a discovery, 
however,  to  which  Watt  (q.v.)  is  supposed  to  have  an  equal  claim.  The  accuracy  and 
completeness  of  C.’s  processes  are  remarkable.  So  high  an  authority  as  sir  Humphry 
Davy  declared,  that  they  “were  all  of  a finished  nature,  and  though  many  of  them  were 
performed  in  the  very  infancy  of  chemical  science,  yet  their  accuracy  and  their  beauty 
have  remained  unimpired  amidst  the  progress  of  discovery.”  C.  also  wrote  papers  on 
electricity,  astronomical  instruments,  etc. 

CAVENDISH,  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Newcastle,  second  wife  of  William,  b.  about 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  on 


589 


Care» 

Caves* 


record  of  a person  afflicted  with  the  cacoUlies  scribendi,  who  had  no  capacity  whatever 
for  writing.  She  produced  no  less  than  13  folio  volumes,  10  of  which  were  printed, 
treating,  indifferently,  on  all  subjects  in  prose  and  poetry,  and  careless  in  all,  both  as  to 
grammar  and  style.  Her  mania  for  scribbling  kept  up  her  maids  at  night,  so  that,  if 
she  chanced  to  wake  with  anything  on  her  mind,  they  might  be  ready  to  note  it  down 
at  once.  The  duchess  was  relieved,  but  a dead-weight  fell  upon  the  field  of  literature. 
She  died  in  1673. 

CAVENDISH,  Thomas,  1560-92;  the  third  circumnavigator  of  the  globe.  He  studied 
for  a brief  period  at  Cambridge,  but  left  without  a degree,  followed  the  court,  and  soon 
squandered  his  inheritance,  to  repair  which  he  turned  to  maritime  adventure,  and  fitted 
out  a ship  that  accompanied  sir  Richard  Grenville’s  expedition  to  Virginia  in  1585.  In 
July,  1586,  he  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  three  vessels  on  a predatory  expedition,  passed 
through  the  straits  of  Magellan,  cruised  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America  and  Mexico, 
and  burned  or  sunk  19  vessels,  among  which  was  the  Santa  Anna,  belonging  to  the  king 
of  Spain,  and  having  an  immensely  valuable  cargo,  which  he  seized  off  California.  He 
returned  to  Plymouth  Sept.  9,  1588,  with  his  plunder,  having  gone  around  the  globe  in 
2 years  and  50  days.  When  he  came  home  it  was  said  that  his  seamen  were  clothed  in 
silk,  his  sails  were  of  damask,  and  his  topmast  was  covered  with  cloth  of  gold.  Within 
three  years  he  wasted  his  wealth,  and  was  under  the  necessity  of  making  another  voy- 
age, which  was  disastrous,  his  crew  rebelling  after  leaving  the  straits  of  Magellan  and 
compelling  him  to  return  to  England.  This  so  dispirited  him  that  he  died  on  the  voyage. 

CAVENDISH,  Sir  William,  1505-57;  brought  up  in  the  family  of  cardinal  Wolsey, 
whom  he  served  as  gentleman-usher  of  the  chamber.  He  was  present  at  the  death  of 
the  cardinal,  and  delayed  his  attendance  at  court  to  see  the  remains  of  his  patron  properly 
cared  for.  The  act  so  pleased  Henry  VIII.  that  he  made  Cavendish  a member  of  his 
household,  treasurer  of  his  chamber,  and  a privy  councilor,  subsequently  adding  the  dig- 
nity of  knighthood.  He  filled  other  offices,  and  obtained  grants  of  valuable  lordships  in 
Hertfordshire.  His  great  property  became  the  foundation  of  the  immense  estates  of  the 
dukes  of  Devonshire.  He  seems  to  have  retained  favor  through  the  reigns  of  Edward 
VI.  and  Mary.  He  was  the  author  of  The  Life  and  Death  of  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

CAVENDISH,  William,  duke  of  Newcastle,  a distinguished  loyalist  of  the  17th  e., 
son  of  sir  Charles  Cavendish,  younger  brother  of  the  first  earl  of  Devonshire,  was  b. 
1592.  His  learning  and  winning  address  made  him  a favorite  at  the  court  of  James  I., 
who,  in  1610,  made  him  a knight  of  the  Bath.  Other  honors  rapidly  succeeded.  In 
1620,  he  was  made  a peer  of  the  realm.  Charles  I.,  about  1628,  gave  him  the  title  of 
earl  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  and  in  1638  intrusted  him  with  th^e  tuition  of  his  son, 
afterwards  Charles  II.  His  support  of  the  king  during  the  contest  with  the  parliament- 
ary forces  was  munificent.  He  contributed  £10,000  to  the  treasury,  and  raised  a troop 
of  200  knights  and  gentlemen,  who  served  at  their  own  cost.  As  general  of  all  the  forces 
raised  n.  of  the  Trent,  he  had  power  to  issue  declarations,  confer  knighthood,  coin 
money,  and  raise  men;  and  the  last  part  of  his  commission  he  executed  with  great  zeal. 
The  banquets  C.  gave  to  the  king  when  he  went  n.  were  magnificent  enough  to  find 
record  in  history;  one  of  them  cost  no  less  than  £15,000,  even  in  those  days  when  money 
was  more  valuable  than  it  now  is.  After  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  C.  retired  to  the 
continent,  where  he  resided,  at  times  in  great  poverty,  until  the  Restoration.  On  his 
return,  he  was  created  duke  of  Newcastle.  He  died  Dec.  25,  1676.  On  the  continent, 
he  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  wrote  a book  on  the  management  of  horses,  and 
several  plays,  not  of  a character  to  increase  any  man’s  reputation  for  intelligence. 

CAVENDISH’S  EXPERIMENT.  See  Earth,  ante. 

CA'VERY,  or  Cau'very,  a river  in  India,  rising  about  12°  25' n.,  and  75°  34'  e., 
and  fiowing  s.e.  to  the  bay  of  Bengal.  It  is  about  470  m.  long,  but  navigable  only  for 
small  boats. 

CAVES,  or  Caverns  (Lat.  earns,  hollow),  are  hollow  places  in  the  earth.  They  are 
either  natural  or  artificial.  Natural  C.  have  been  produced  by  the  fracture  and  disloca- 
tion consequent  on  the  upheaval  of  the  strata,  by  water,  or  by  both  causes  combined. 
The  denuding  or  eroding  power  of  water,  which  has  produced  the  materials  of  stratified 
rocks,  has  formed  caverns  in  the  courses  of  rivers  and  on  the  coast-line  of  the  sea.  The 
moving  waters,  carrying  with  them  gravel  and  sand,  enter  natural  cracks  and  crevices, 
and,  by  abrading  their  walls,  increase  their  size,  so  as  to  form  C. ; or  they  attack  less 
indurated  portions  of  the  solid  strata,  and  form  cavities  bounded  by  the  harder  rock. 
Such  caverns  are  of  frequent  occurrence  round  the  shores  of  Britain,  and  indicate, 
where  they  occur,  an  ancient  sea-margin  of  the  island.  In  limestone  rocks,  the  destroy- 
ing power  of  water  is  increased  when  it  contains  chemical  agents  which  have  the  power 
of  dissolving  the  substance  of  the  rock,  and  so  causing  it  to  be  carrried  off  in  solution 
by  the  water. 

C.  most  frequently  occur  in  limestone  rocks.  They  especially  abound  in  the  oolitic 
limestone,  which  on  this  account  was  called  by  the  earlier  continental  geologists  “cav- 
ern limestone.”  The  celebrated  C.  of  Franconia  in  Germany,  of  Kentucky  (q.v.)  in 
America,  that  of  Kirkdale  in  Yorkshire,  and  many  others,  occur  in  this  formation. 
Next  to  limestone,  the  triassic  measures,  containing  rock-salt,  a material  easily  removed 


Caviana. 

Cavy. 


590 


by  water,  most  abound  in  caverns.  They  are  also  frequently  met  with  in  igneous  rocks 
— the  picturesque  cave  of  Fingal,  in  Stalfa,  is  formed  in  basalt;  and  in  South  America 
and  Iceland  the  modern  lava  contains  large  caverns. 

Many  caverns  have  a calcareous  incrustation  lining  their  interior,  giving  them  a gor- 
geous appearance.  Sometimes  this  deposit  is  pure  white,  and  has,  when  the  cave  is 
lighted  up,  a richness  and  transparency  that  cannot  be  imagined.  It  is,  however,  more 
generally  colored  by  the  impurities  which  the  water  has  taken  up  from  the  superincum- 
bent strata.  To  the  incrustations  which  are  suspended  from  the  roof,  like  icicles,  the 
name  stalactite  is  given,  while  those  rising  from  the  floor  are  designated  stalagmites. 
Sometimes  the  pendent  stalactite  is  produced  so  as  to  meet  the  ascending  stalagmite, 
and  form  pillars,  as  if  to  support  the  roof,  as  in  the  “organ”  in  the  Blue  John  Mine, 
Derbyshire.  The  source  and  origin  of  this  deposit  has  been  satisfactorily  explained  by 
Liebig  as  follows:  The  mold  of  the  superficial  soil,  being  acted  upon  by  moisture  and 
air,  evolves  carbonic  acid,  which  is  dissolved  by  rain.  The  rain-water  thus  impregnated, 
"permeating  the  calcareous  strata,  has  the  power  of  taking  up  a portion  of  the  lime,  which 
it  retains  in  a liquid  condition,  until  from  evaporation  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  is 
parted  with,  when  the  lime  again  returns  to  its  solid  state,  and  forms  the  incrustation. 

C.  have  an  additional  interest  to  the  geologist,  from  the  occurrence  in  many  of  osseous 
remains  under  the  calcareous  incrustations  of  the  floor.  The  bones  are  imbedded  in 
mud,  and  frequently  concreted  into  a firm  calcareous  breccia.  They  belong  to  the  pleie- 
tocene  period,  when  the  C.  in  Europe  were  inhabited  by  large  hyenas  and  bears.  Por- 
tions of  other  animals  inhabiting  the  neighborhood  were  dragged  by  them  into  their 
dens,  to  serve  as  food.  In  this  way  the  bones  of  herbivorous  and  other  animals  are  found 
mixed  with  those  of  the  beasts  of  prey;  they  have  a broken  and  gnawed  appearance, 
similar  to  what  is  produced  on  recent  bones  by  the  teeth  of  a hyena.  No  less  than  33 
species  of  mammals  and  5 species  of  birds  have  been  discovered  in  the  C.  of  the  British 
islands,  of  which  about  the  half  still  survive  in  Europe,  while  the  remainder  are  extinct. 
The  mammals  are  species  of  ox,  deer,  horse,  wolf,  dog,  hare,  fox,  wehsel,  water-rat, 
mole,  bat,  hippopotamus,  and  rhinoceros,  besides  the  hyena  and  bear;  and  the  birds  are 
species  of  lark,  partridge,  pigeon,  goose,  and  crow. 

The  most  productive  ossiferous  cavern  in  Britain  is  that  of  Kirkdale,  25  m.  from 
York,  in  which  the  remains  of  about  300  hyenas  have  been  detected,  besides  innumer 
able  gnawed  bones  of  those  animals  on  which  they  preyed.  The  carboniferous  limestonei* 
of  Glamorganshire  abound  in  caves,  which  have  been  explored  by  Buckland,  and  more 
recently  and  thoroughly  by  Dr.  Falconer.  At  the  meeting  of  the  geological  society  in 
June,  1860,  Dr.  Falconer  thus  describes  the  contents  of  one  of  them,  called  Bacon 
hole.  On  the  limestone  floor  of  the  cave  are — (l.)  a few^  inches  of  marine  sand,  abound- 
ing with  Utorina  rudis,  L.  litoralis,  and  clausilia  nigricans,  with  bones  of  an  arvicola  and 
birds;  (2.)  a thin  layer  of  stalagmite;  (3.)  two  feet  of  blackish  sand,  containing  a mass 
of  bones  of  elephas  antiquus,  with  remains  of  meles  taxus  and  putorins  ; (4.)  two  feet  of 
ochreous  earth,  limestone  breccia,  and  sandy  layers,  with  remains  of  eleplias  antiquus, 
rhinoceros  hemitocchus,  hycena,  canis  lupus,  ursiis  spelceus,  bos,  and  cervus;  (5.)  irregular 
stalagmite;  (6.)  two  feet  of  limestone  breccia  and  stalagmite,  with  bone-,  of  ursus  a.ud 
bos;  (7.)  a foot  or  so  of  irregular  stalagmite,  with  ursus;  and  (8.)  dark-col ored  superficial 
earth,  kept  sloppy  by  abundant  drip,  with  bones  of  bos,  cervus,  canis  oulpes,  horns  of 
reindeer  and  roebuck,  together  with  shells  of  patella,  mytilus,  purj  ira,  and  Utorina 
(probably  brought  into  the  cavern  as  food  by  birds),  and  also  pieces  A ancient  British 
pottery.  After  a review  of  the  fauna  of  the  bone  caves  of  this  couLcry  and  of  Europe, 
Dr.  Falconer  concludes  that  the  caves  of  Glamorganshire  have  probably  been  filled  up 
with  their  mammalian  remains  since  the  deposition  of  the  bouldor-clay,  and  that  there 
exist  no  mammalian  remains  in  the  ossiferous  caves  of  Englanc^  and  Wales  referable  to 
a fauna  of  a more  ancient  geological  date.  See  Kent’s  Cavei  >. 

Ossiferous  C.  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  The  fossils  or  those  in  Australia  show 
that  the  fauna  of  the  pleistocene  period  had  a remarkable  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
present  day.  The  remains  consist  chiefly  of  kangaroos  and  Allied  genera  of  marsupials. 

CAVIA'NA,  an  island  of  Brazil,  in  the  mouth  of  the  river  Amazon,  about  35  m.  long 
by  20  wide;  fertile  and  well-stocked  with  cattle.  The  little  town  of  Robadello,  on  the 
s.e.  coast  of  the  island,  is  almost  exactly  under  the  equator. 

CAV'IAEE,  the  salted  roes  of  the  common  sturgeon  {accipenser  sturio)  and  other  fishes 
of  the  same  genus.  See  Sturgeon.  It  is  chiefly  prepared  in  Russia,  where  it  is  greatly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  also  used  to  a considerable  extent  in  Italy  and 
France.  The  species  of  sturgeon  from  the  roe  of  which  it  is  chiefly  prepared,  inhabit 
the  Caspian  and  Black  seas  and  their  tributary  rivers.  Among  them  are  the  bielaga. 
or  great  sturgeon  {accipenser  huso),  the  osseter  {A.  guldenstadtii),  the  scherg  or  sevruga 
{A.  stellatus),  and  the  sterlet  {A.  ruthenus).  The  C.  made  from  the  roe  of_  the  last, 
named  species  is  esteemed  particularly  delicious,  and  is  reserved  for  the  Russian  court. 
Astrakhan  is  a principal  seat  of  the  preparation  of  caviare.  More  than  400,000  lbs.  of 
C.  have  been  prepared  in  the  Caspian  fishery  in  a single  year. 

CAVITE,  a t.  of  considerable  importance  on  the  island  of  Luzon,  one  of  the  Philip- 
pines. It  is  situated  on  the  bay  of  Manila,  10  m.  s.s.w.  of  the  city  of  that  name,  of  which 


591 


CaTiana. 

Cavy. 


it  forms  the  quarantine  station.  It  has  a large  cigar  manufactory,  is  the  chief  naval 
depot  of  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  east,  and  gives  name  to  a province  -with  a pop. 
of  57,000.  The  population  of  the  town  itself  is  some  6,000  or  7,000. 

CAVOR,  or  Cavour',  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  7 m.  s.s.e.  of 
Pinerolo.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk-twist,  linens,  leather,  etc.,  and  marble  and  slate 
quarries.  Pop.  6,000  or  7,000. 

CAV0‘RILIE'V0  (Ital.).  In  this  peculiar  kind  of  rilievo,  which  was  extensively  em- 
ployed by  Egyptian  artists,  the  highest  surface  of  the  object  represented  is  only  on  a 
level  with  the  plane  of  the  original  stone,  the  rounded  sides  being  cut  into  it.  The 
effect  resembles  that  of  a concave  seal.  It  is  correctly  described  as  intaglio  riliemto.  A 
wood-cut  is  given  in  Fairholt’s  Dictionary  of  Terms  in  Art  of  the  Egyptian  king  Amu- 
noph  III.  in  hieroglyphics. 

CAVOTIR,  Count  Camilla  Benso  di,  a distinguished  Italian  statesman  of  the  19th 
c.,  the  descendant  of  a noble  and  wealthy  family  of  Piedmont,  was  b.  at  Turin,  Aug. 
10,  1810.  He  was  educated  for  a military  career,  but  his  liberal  tendencies  being  likely 
to  prove  an  insuperable  barrier  to  his  promotion,  he  retired  during  the  stirring  events 
of  1830-31,  and  devoted  himself  to  agriculture,  in  which  he  introduced  great  improve- 
ments. He  was  the  first  to  use  guano  in  Piedmont;  and,  at  his  instigation,  a national 
agricultural  society  was  formed.  During  a residence  in  England,  he  made  himself  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  political  organization  of  the  country,  and  also  with  its  indus- 
trial institutions ; knowledge  of  which  he  made  good  use  on  his  return  to  his  own  coun- 
try in  1842.  In  conjunction  with  Count  Cesare  Balbo,  he  in  1847  established  a political 
daily  journal,  in  which  he  advocated  the  interests  of  the  middle  classes — a representa- 
tive system,  somewhat  after  the  pattern  of  the  English  constitution,  as  opposed  alike  to 
absolutism  on  the  one  hand,  and  mob  rule  on  the  other.  On  his  suggestion,  the  king 
was  petitioned  for  a constitution,  which  was  granted  in  Feb.,  1848.  As  a member  of 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  during  the  stormy  period  which  succeeded  Charles  Albert’s 
declaration  of  war  against  Austria  in  Mar.,  C.  strenuously  opposed  the  ultra-democrats, 
and  counseled  an  alliance  with  England  as  the  surest  guarantee  for  the  success  of  the 
Italian  arms.  In  the  marquis  d’Azeglio’s  ministry,  formed  soon  after  the  fatal  battle  of 
Novara,  C.  was  successively  minister  of  agriculture  and  commerce,  minister  of  marine, 
and  minister  of  finance;  and  in  1852  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  d’Azeglio  as  premier. 
From  this  time  until  his  resignation  in  1859,  in  consequence  of  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace  of  Villafranca,  C.  was  the  originator  as  well  as  the  director  of  the  Sardinian  pol- 
icy. Taking  upon  himself  at  different  times,  in  addition  to  the  premiership,  the  duties 
of  the  ministers  of  finance,  commerce,  and  agriculture,  and  latterly  of  home  and  foreign 
affairs,  he  greatly  improved  the  financial  condition  of  the  country,  introduced  free- 
trade,  consolidated  constitutionalism,  weakened  clerical  influence,  and  made  Sardinia  a 
power  of  some  account  in  Europe,  by  bringing  her  into  alliance  with  England  and 
France  against  Russia.  The  dispatches  which  C.  penned  in  reply  to  those  of  Austria, 
prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Italian  war,  are  on  all  hands  acknowledged  as  master- 
pieces of  astute  diplomacy.  In  Jan.,  1860,  C.  was  again  called  upon  to  preside  over 
the  Sardinian  government,  the  duties  of  foreign  minister  likewise  devolving  upon  him, 
and  temporarily  those  of  the  minister  of  the  interior  also.  He  continued  to  direct  the 
Sardinian  policy  until  his  death,  June,  1861. 

CA'VY  {cavia),  a genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the  order  rodentia,  regarded  as  the  type  of  a 
family,  camdm,  differing  from  the  hare  family  {leporidce),  in  the  complete  want  of  clav- 
icles, in  the  want  of  growing  roots  to  the  molar  teeth,  and  in  having  the  incisors  situated 
as  in  other  quadrupeds  generally,  and  not  in  the  peculiar  manner  so  characteristic  of  the 
hares.  There  are  four  molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  in  the  genus  C.  these  are  compound; 
and  the  genus  is  further  characterized  by  four  toes  on  each  of  the  fore-feet,  and  three  on 
each  of  the  hind-feet,  by  the  feet  not  being  webbed,  by  the  females  having  only  two 
teats,  and  by  the  want  of  a tail.  One  species,  cama  cobaya,  has  been  long  well  known 
as  a domesticated  animal,  and  has  been  a common  pet  and  plaything  of  children  in 
Europe,  almost  from  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  America.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Common  C.  or  Restless  C.,  but  much  more  frequently  receives  the  name  of  Guinea- 
pig,  although  it  is  neither  nearly  related  to  pigs,  nor  a native  of  Guinea.  Perhaps  Guinea, 
in  this  name,  may  be  a corruption  of  Guiana,  the  cavies,  and  indeed  the  whole  family 
of  the,  cavidcB,  being  exclusively  South  American.  The  colors  which  the  domesticated 
C.  exhibits  have  never  been  seen  in  any  of  the  wild  cavies  of  South  America;  and  as  it 
is  known  to  have  exhibited  the  same  variations  of  color  from  about  the  time  of  its  intro- 
duction into  Europe,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  long  domesticated  by  some  of  the  South 
American  tribes.  The  Guinea-pig  multiplies  with  a rapidity  exceeding  that  of  any  other 
known  quadruped,  producing  young  ones  when  only  two  months  old,  and  afterwards  at 
intervals  of  two  months,  and  from  four  to  twelve  in  a litter.  This  extraordinary  fecun- 
dity is  probably  not  so  much  the  result  of  domestication,  as  a provision  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  race  in  a wild  state,  the  little  animal  being  very  defenseless  and  destitute  of 
means  of  escape,  the  ready  prey  of  every  carnivorous  beast  and  bird.— The  other  species 
of  C.  much  resemble  the  Guinea-pig.  Some  of  them  are  very  numerous  in  some  parts 
of  South  America,  and  are  sought  for  food,  although  no  such  use  is  made  of  the  domes- 
ticated cavy.  The  agouti  (q.v.)  and  the  capybara  (q.v.)  are  ranked  among  the  cavidoe. 


Cawdor. 

Cayuga. 


592 


CAWDOR,  or  Calder,  a parish  in  co.  Nairn,  Scotland,  noted  as  the  site  of  Cawdor 
castle  in  which  Shakespeare  places  the  murder  of  Duncan  by  Macbeth.  But  the  murder 
took  place  400  years  before  the  castle  was  built — which  may  prove  that  Shakespeare  was 
“not  fora  day  but  for  all  time.”  During  the  rebellion  of  1745,  lord  Lovat  was  for  a 
time  concealed  in  this  castle. 

CAWK,  a popular  name  for  a massive  variety  of  the  mineral  called  heavy  spar  or 
sulphate  of  baryta.  See  Baryta. 

CAWNPORE',  a city  of  the  Doab,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  about  140  m.  above 
Allahabad,  at  the  junction  of  the  Jumna,  being  separated  by  the  river  from  Oude,  whose 
capital,  Lucknow,  lies  53  m.  to  the  n.e.  The  lat.  is  26°  29'  n.,  and  the  long.  80°  25'  east. 
The  stream  in  front,  varying,  according  to  the  season,  from  500  yards  in  width  to  more 
than  a mile,  presents  a large  and  motley  assemblage  of  steam-vessels  and  native  craft. 
C.,  at  least  as  a place  of  note,  is  of  recent  origin,  being  indebted  for  its  growth,  besides 
its  commercial  facilities,  partly  to  military  and  political  considerations.  In  1777,  being 
then  an  appendage  of  Oude,  it  was  assigned  by  the  nawab  as  the  station  of  a subsidiary 
force;  and  in  1801  it  became,  in  name  as  well  as  in  fact,  British  property.  Its  canton- 
ments, having  accommodation  for  7,000  troops,  have  gradually  accumulated  about 

50.000  native  inhabitants;  while  the  city  itself  contains  a somewhat  larger  population  of 
similar  origin.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857,  C.  was  the  scene  of  Nana  Sahib’s  massacre 
of  his  English  captives.  Though  C.  is  only  379  ft.  above  the  sea,  yet,  during  winter, 
considerable  quantities  of  ice  are  made  for  preservation,  through  the  exposing|of  water  by 
night  in  shallow  vessels.  Pop.  ’72  of  C.  (spelt  also  Khanpur),  122,770. 

CAWNPORE,  the  district  of  the  above-described  city,  in  the  lieutenant-governorship 
of  the  n.w.  provinces.  Occupying  the  entire  breadth  of  the  Doab,  it  touches  at  once 
the  Jumna  and  the  Ganges;  while  to  the  eastward  it  has  Futtehpore,  and,  to  the  west- 
ward, Etawah  and  Furruckabad.  With  a pop.  in  ’71  of  1,155,439,  it  has  an  area  of 
2,353  sq.m.,  stretching  in  lat.  from  25°  55'  to  27°  n.,  and  in  long,  from  79°  34'  to  80°  37' 
east.  It  is  an  alluvial  plain  of  great  fertility.  The  vine  is  cultivated,  and  indigo  grows 
wild.  Besides  its  two  mighty  rivers  and  their  navigable  tributaries,  the  Ganges  canal 
traverses  the  country  for  about  60  miles. 

CAXAMAR'CA,  or  Cajamarca,  a province  in  the  n.w.  of  Peru,  with  a capital  of  its 
own  name.  It  is  on  the  e.  side  of  the  Andes,  forming  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Maranon. 
The  province  has  273,000  inhabitants,  and  the  city  about  20,000. 

CAXAMAR'CA,  or  Cajamarca,  a Peruvian  city,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  e.  side  of  the  Andes,  in  a fertile  valley  at  an  elevation  of  more  than 

9.000  ft.  above  tide,  7°  7' s.  and  78°  31'  w. ; 72  m.  n.n.e.  of  Truxillo.  The  streets  are  regu- 
lar, but  most  of  the  houses  are  of  clay.  There  are  two  or  three  fine  churches,  a 
monastery,  a nunnery,  and  the  remains  of  the  palace  of  Atahualpa,  the  last  of  the  Incas 
of  Peru,  who  was  murdered  there  by  the  Spaniards  in  1533.  Near  the  city  are  the 
sulphur  springs  of  Pultamarca,  called  “the  Inca’s  baths,”  which  have  a temperature  of 
156°  and  are  much  frequented.  There  are  manufactures  of  wool,  linen,  steel,  silver,  etc., 
and  a good  trade  with  Truxillo.  A railway  connects  C.  with  the  port  of  Pacasmayo. 
Pop.  12,000. 

CAXAMARQUIL'LA,  a t.  of  n.  Peru,  in  the  province  of  Libertad,  100  m.  e.n.e.  of 
Truxillo.  Pop.  about  8,000. 

CAXATAM'BO,  or  Cajatambo,  a t.  of  n.  Peru,  in  the  province  of  Ancachs,  120  m. 
n.n.e.  of  Lima,  with  a pop.  of  about  6,000.  There  are  silver-mines  in  the  neighborhood. 

CAXI'AS,  a t.  in  Brazil  on  the  river  Itapicuru,  about  300  m.  s.e.  of  Maranhao.  It  is 
a place  of  large  trade  in  rice,  cotton,  cattle,  etc. 

CAXTON,  William,  who  introduced  printing  into  England,  was  b.  in  the  Weald  of 
Kent,  about  1422.  The  particulars  of  the  life  of  this  great  benefactor  of  his  country  are 
scanty.  He  was  apprenticed  in  1439  to  Robert  Large,  a w^ealthy  London  mercer.  At 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  1441,  he  went  to  Bruges,  where  in  1462  or  1463  he  seems  to  have 
been  governor  of  a chartered  association  of  English  adventurers  trading  to  foreign  parts. 
In  1471,  C.  entered  the  service  of  Margaret,  the  duchess  of  Burgundy,  formerly  an 
English  princess;  and  apparently  towards  the  end  of  1476  he  set  up  his  wooden  printing- 
press  at  the  sign  of  the  red  pale  in  the  almonry  at  Westminster.  The  art  of  printing  he 
had  acquired  during  his  sojourn  in  Bruges,  doubtless  from  Colard  Mansion,  a well- 
known  printer  of  that  city;  and  in  1474  he  put  through  the  press  the  first  book  printed 
in  the  English  tongue,  the  Recuyell  of  the  Historyes  <?/  Troye,  a translation  of  Raoul  le 
Fevre’s  work.  The  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse  was  another  of  C.  ’s  earliest  publica- 
tions; but  the  Dictes  and  Notable  Wise  Sayings  of  the  Philosophers,  published  in  1477,  is 
the  first  book  which  can  with  certainty  be  maintained  to  have  been  printed  in  England. 
All  the  eight  founts  of  type  from  which  C.  printed  may  be  called  black  letter.  Of  the 
99  known  distinct  productions  of  C.’s  press,  no  less  than  38  survive  in  single  copies  or  in 
fragments  only.  C.,  who  was  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  translated  many  of  the 
works  that  issued  from  his  press,  was  diligent  in  the  exercise  of  his  craft  or  in  transla- 
tion till  within  a few  hours  of  his  death,  which  seems  to  have  happened  about  the  close 
of  the  year  1491.  In  1877,  the  printer  and  his  work  were  fittingly  commemorated  by  a 


593 


Cawdor, 

Cayuga. 


typographical  exhibition  in  London.  See  The  Old  Printer  and  the  New  Press,  by  Charles 
Knight  (1854);  Life  and  Typography  of  William  G.  (1861-63),  byW.  Blades;  and  the 
Biography  and  Typography  cf  C.  (1877),  by  the  same  author. 

CA.YAM'BE,  or  Cayambe-Urctj,  a peak  of  the  Andes,  45  m.  n.e.  of  Quito,  in  Ecuador. 
It  is  of  regular  conical  shape,  19,540  ft.  high,  and  always  capped  with  snow.  It  is  espe- 
cially notable  for  being  situated  almost  exactly  under  the  equator. 

CAYCOS,  or  Caicos,  or  The  Keys,  four  of  the  Bahama  islands,  in  the  Atlantic, 
between  21°  and  27°  n.,  and  about  72°  west.  Great  Key  is  30  m.  long.  Little  and  North 
Keys  and  Providence  island  are  smaller. 

CAYENNE,  a fortified  seaport,  capital  of  French  Guiana,  on  the  west  point  of  an 
island  of  the  same  name  at  the  inouth  of  the  river  Oyak.  The  roadstead  is  excellent, 
and  the  port  commodious  but  shallow.  C.,  though  it  is  the  entrepOt  of  all  the 
trade  of  the  colony,  is  chiefly  known  as  a great  French  penal  settlement.  The 
island,  32  miles  in  circumference,  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  ' narrow  channel; 
its  soil  is  fertile,  but  the  climate  is  extremely  unwholesome  for  Europeans,  large  num- 
bers of  the  convicts  having  been  carried  off  by  various  malignant  fevers.  C.  became  a 
French  colony  about  1635;  deportation  hither  began  during  the  first  French  revolution 
Pop.  about  8,000. 

CAYENNE  CHER'RY.  See  Eugenia. 

CAYENNE  PEPPER  consists  of  the  powder  of  the  dried  pods,  and  more  especially  of 
the  dried  seeds  of  different  species  of  Capsicum  (q.v.),  particularly  of  G.  frutescens. 

CAYLEY,  Sir  George,  1733-1857;  an  English  physicist  and  inventor,  whose 
experiments  on  the  steam  engine  resulted  in  the  invention  of  the  air  engine.  Among 
his  other  inventions  was  an  arrangement  for  applying  the  power  of  electricity  to 
machinery.  He  was  one  of  the  originators  of  the  London  polytechnic  institution,  and 
late  in  life  was  a member  of  parliament  for  Scarborough. 

CAYLUS,  Anne  Claude  Philippe  de  Tubieres,  Count  de.  Marquis  d’Esternay, 
Baron  de  Bransac,  1692-1765.  When  young  he  served  with  distinction  in  the  French 
army,  but  after  the  peace  of  Rastadt  (1714)  he  traveled  extensively  in  Europe  and  the 
«ast,"  studying  and  collecting  antiquities,  on  which  he  published  several  works.  He 
rediscovered  the  method  of  encaustic  painting  with  wax,  mentioned  by  Pliny.  He  was 
.also  an  engraver,  and  copied  many  of  the  famous  pictures  of  the  old  masters.  But  he  is 
best  known  as  the  author  of  several  romances,  humorous  pieces,  and  fairy  tales. 

CAYLUS,  Marthe  Marguerite  de  Villettb  de  Murcay,  Marquise  de, 
1673-1729;  a descendant  of  the  family  of  D’Aubigne,  but  converted  by  Mme.  Main- 
tenon  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith.  She  acquired  celebrity  as  one  of  the  leaders  of 
uourt  society.  Racine  so  admired  her  abilities  that  he  wrote  the  prologue  to  his  tragedy 
of  Esther  as  a compliment  to  her.  Her  first  husband,  the  marquis  de  Caylus,  was 
worthless  and  dissipated.  After  his  death,  she  became. the  mistress  of  the  duke  of 
Villeroi,  for  which  she  was  sent  away  from  the  court;  but  after  the  death  of  Mme. 
Maintenon  she  was  restored  to  favor.  Voltaire  edited  her  Souvenirs. 

CAYMAN,  a name  somewhat  variously  used,  either  as  the  distinctive  appellation  of 
some,  or  as  a common  name  for  all  the  crocodilidee  of  South  America.  See  Alligator, 
The  genus  alligator  is  by  some  naturalists  of  the  present  day  divided  into  three  genera, 
to  one  of  which  the  name  C,  {caiman)  is  appropriated,  and  of  which  the  type  is  the 
species  called  the  eye-browed  C.  {alligator  padpehrosus),  to  which  the  name  C.  is  dis- 
tinctively applied  in  Surinam  and  (4uiana,  a species  very  abundant  there,  but  not  one 
of  the  largest  or  more  dangerous  of  its  tribe.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  three  bony  plates, 
separated  by  sutures  only,  which  form  each  eyebrow  or  eyelid,  projecting  as  large 
knobs  like  a man’s  fist;  and  this,  and  the  scarcely  webbed-feet,  constitute  the  most 
important  characters  of  the  genus  or  subgenus  cayman.  To  this  subgenus  belong  also 
A.  trigonatus,  regarded  by  Cuvier  as  a mere  variety  of  the  same  species,  and  A.  gibhiceps. 

CAYMANS — in  English,  alligators — three  low  islets  of  the  Caribbean  sea,  which 
form  a dependency  of  Jamaica,  being  130  m.  to  the  n.w.  of  it.  Discovered  by  Col- 
umbus, they  were  by  him  called  Tortugas,  from  the  abundance  of  turtle — still  the 
staple  production  of  the  group.  On  an  area  of  about  2,000  acres,  the  population  does  not 
exceed  1500  or  1600.  The  soil  yields  corn  and  vegetables ; and  the  people  rear  hogs  and 
poultry. 

CAYUGA,  a co.  in  w.  central  New  York,  extending  from  lake  Ontario  half  way 
across  the  state,  intersected  by  the  New  York  Central  and  several  other  railroads;  752 
sq.m,;  pop.  ’80,  65,084,  It  is  a fine  agricultural  section,  with  undulating  surface. 
Gypsum,  salt,  and  limestone  are  among  the  minerals.  Near  the  center  of  the  co.  lies 
Owasco  lake,  about  10  m.  long,  and  on  the  w.  border  is  Cayuga  lake.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions are  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  hay,  butter,  wool,  and  tobacco.  Co. 
seat,  the  city  of  Auburn. 

CAYUGA  LAKE,  a fine  navigable  sheet  of  water  in  w.  central  New  York,  38  m. 
long,  and  from  1 to  3|  m.  wide.  At  the  n.  end  it  is  shallow,  but  in  some  places  it  is 
very  deep.  It  is  377  ft.  above  tide  water,  and  146  ft.  higher  than  lake  Ontaiio,  into 
U.  K.  III. -38 


Cayugas. 

Cecil. 


594 


which  it  empties  through  Seneca  river.  The  lake  is  much  frequented  by  tourists  and 
pleasure  seekers. 

CAYUGAS,  one  of  the  Indian  tribes  forming  the  Six  Nations  in  New  York.  They 
built  the  villages  around  Cayuga  lake  in  central  New  York,  and,  when  first  known  by 
the  French  explorers  from  Canada,  were  able  to  muster  several  hundred  warriors.  The- 
C.  were,  with  the  other  Iroquois,  against  the  French  in  the  wars  of  the  17th  century.  A 
few  of  their  chiefs  became  Christians;  and  one  who  was  taken  in  war  and  sent  to  th& 
galleys  in  France,  on  his  return  to  Canada  became  a friend  of  the  white  man.  In  the- 
American  revolution  they  were  on  the  English  side.  After  peace,  they  ceded  nearly  all 
their  lands  to  the  state  except  a small  reservation,  and  that  they  abandoned  about  1800 
when  some  of  them  went  to  the  Senecas,  some  to  Canada,  and  others  to  the  IndiarL 
country.  Scarcely  200  of  the  tribe  now  remain. 

GAZAL'LA  DE  LA  SIEE'EA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Seville,  39  m.  n.e.  of 
the  city  of  that  name.  It  is  situated  on  a declivity  of  the  Sierra  Morena;  the  district 
around  is  mountainous  and  well  wooded,  and  abounds  in  minerals  of  various  kinds, 
including  iron,  silver,  copper,  sulphur,  and  marble.  The  inhabitants,  numbering 
between  7,000  and  8,000,  are  chiefly  employed  in  smelting  metals,  manufacturing 
cannon,  machinery,  and  agricultural  implements.  Some  tanning,  weaving,  etc.,  are 
also  carried  on. 

CAZEMBE,  or  Kazembe,  an  important  country  of  Africa,  the  limits  of  which  have 
not  been  clearly  determined,  but  its  center  has  been  fixed  at  about  lat.  12°  s.,  and  long. 
31°  east.  The  king’s  rule  extends  over  a great  portion  of  the  established  route  across  the 
continent  of  Africa,  from  the  Congo,  up  the  valley  of  Luliia,  and  down  the  valley  of 
Luapula.  Vegetation  is  generally  luxuriant.  Its  chief  products  are  manioc,  maize,  salt, 
copper,  iron,  and  ivory.  The  people  are  called  Balonda  or  Baloi. 

CAZEM'BE  {ante),  the  hereditary  name  of  an  African  chief,  whose  territory  is  s.  of 
lake  Moero,  and  n.  of  Bangweolo,  between  11°  and  9°  s. ; 120,000  sq.m.;  pop.  500,000. 
The  country  forms  a hollowed  plain,  and  is  watered  by  numerous  rivers,  among  the^ 
most  important  of  which  is  the  Luapula,  which  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  head 
streams  of  the  Congo.  The  population  consists  of  two  races,  the  Messiras  and  the- 
Campololas,  of  whom  the  former  are  natives  subjugated,  and  the  latter  intruders  and 
rulers;  they  alone  being  eligible  to  office,  and  theirs  being  the  language  of  the  court. 
Some  attention  is  paid  to  agriculture,  and  millet,  maize,  manioc,  sugar-cane,  yams, 
gourds,  and  bananas  are  grown.  The  horse  and  the  ass  are  unknown  animals;  sheep- 
are  scarce,  but  cattle  are  abundant.  Salt  is  an  important  article  of  trade,  and  coarse 
cotton  cloth,  earthenware,  and  iron  goods  are  the  chief  manufactures.  The  exports  are 
slaves,  ivory  and  copper-ore.  The  chief,  or  cazembe,  has  despotic  power,  and  uses  it 
barbarously.  He  has  600  wives,  and  the  great  nobles  take  as  many  as  they  can  afford  to 
keep.  The  capital  is  moved  whenever  a new  ruler  is  put  in  power.  The  country  of  the- 
Cazembe  was  first  visited  by  white  men  in  1796.  It  has  not  yet  been  explored  to  any 
considerable  extent. 

CAZENO'VIA,  a village  and  township  in  Madison  co.,  N.  Y.;  pop.  ’75,  4,240.  The- 
village  is  on  Cazenovia  lake,  and  is  reached  by  the  Cazenovia  and  Canastota  railroad. 
There  is  a Methodist  seminary  in  the  place. 

CAZOE'LA,  a t.  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  40  m.  e.n.e.  of  Jaen.  C.,  which  is  a place  of 
considerable  antiquity,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a declivity,  and  is  well  watered  by  the- 
Vega;  has  two  old  castles — one  an  Arab  structure — manufactures  of  leather,  earthen- 
ware, soap,  and  bricks,  and  a trade  in  agricultural  produce.  Pop.  7,500. 

CAZOTTE,  Jacques,  1720-92;  a French  author,  educated  by  the  Jesuits.  He  pro- 
duced at  first  a mock  romance  and  a coarse  song  which  became  so  popular  that  hc- 
undertook  something  more  respectable  and  brought  out  his  Roman  d' Olivier.  This  was 
followed  with  Le  Diable  Amoureux,  and  another  sportive  creation.  He  also  continued 
Voltaire’s  Givil  War  in  Geneva  with  such  close  similarity  that  no  one  doubted  the  work 
to  be  that  of  Voltaire.  Cazotte  next  took  a wide  departure,  embraced  the  views  of  the 
Illuminati,  and  declared  that  he  possessed  the  power  of  prophecy.  He  adhered  to  the 
royal  cause,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  arrested  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal  and 
executed. 

CEANO'THUS.  See  Red  Root. 

# CEARA,  a province  of  Brazil,  on  the  n.  coast,  situated  in  lat.  2°  40'  to  7°  25' s.,  long. 
37°  40'  to  41°  30'  west.  It  has  an  area  of  42,600  sq.m.,  with,  ’72,  700,000  inhabitants. 
It  abounds  in  balsams,  gums,  resins,  and  fruits;  and  among  its  minerals  are  gold,  iron, 
copper,  and  salt.  The  port  of  C.  had  a trade  with  Great  Britain  in  1874  amounting  to- 
£969,584. 

CEBADIL'LA.  See  Sabadilla. 

CEBES,  a Greek  philosopher,  disciple  of  Socrates,  mentioned  by  Plato  and  by  Xeno- 
phon as  distinguished  for  virtue  and  love  of  truth.  'The  work  Tabula  CebeRs  attributed 
to  him  professes  to  be  an  explanation  of  an  allegorical  picture,  and  begins  with  the 
Platonic  doctrine  that  men  enter  the  earth  from  a pre-existent  state,  in  which  they  were 
taught  how  to  guide  their  course  in  this  world;  but  the  draught  of  oblivion,  which  all 


595 


Cayugas. 

Cecil. 


must  drink,  though  not  in  equal  quantities,  causes  them  to  forget  the  instructions.  Many 
allurements  entice  them  to  vice,  but  by  patience  and  endurance  they  may  attain  to  vir- 
tue and  happiness.  Sciences  are  declared  not  to  be  the  true  discipline,  but  yet  to  be 
useful,  especially  as  restraint  for  the  young. 

CEBU,  a city  on  the  island  of  Cebu,  one  of  the  Philippines,  400  m.  s.e.  of  Manila. 
Oebu  is  the  oldest  provincial  town  in  the  archipelago,  and  still  ranks  as  one  of  the  best 
built,  while  its  position  makes  it  the  chief  commercial  center  for  the  southern  Philip- 
pines. It  is  the  residence  of  a military  governor,  and  an  alcalde,  as  well  as  the  governor- 
general  of  the  Vissagas.  There  are  exports  of  sugar,  hemp,  tobacco,  Japan-wood,  etc. 
The  grave  of  Magellan,  the  navigator,  is  on  the  island  of  Matan,  opposite  the  town.  Pop., 
inclusive  of  the  suburb  of  St.  Nicholas,  about  34,000. 

CEBU,  or  Zebu,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands,  between  9°  35'  and  11°  n.,  and  123° 
and  123°  50' e. ; about  1200  sq.m.  The  surface  is  rough,  and  the  soil  not  suited  to 
agriculture,  though  there  are  fertile  valleys  producing  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  and 
•cocoa.  The  climate,  though  very  hot,  is  salubrious. 

CE'BTJS  (Gr.  an  ape  or  monkey),  a genus  of  American  monkeys,  characterized  by  a 
round  head  and  short  muzzle,  a facial  angle  of  about  60°,  long  thumbs,  and  a long  pre- 
hensile tail  entirely  covered  with  hair.  The  species  are  numerous,  all  of  very  lively  dis- 
position and  gregarious  habits,  living  in  trees.  They  feed  chiefly  on  fruits,  but  also  on 
insects,  worms,  and  mollusks.  They  are  included  under  the  popular  designation  Sapa- 
jou  in  its  wider  sense,  and  some  of  them  are  the  monkeys  to  which  this  name  is  some- 
times more  strictly  appropriated.  The  names  Sajou  and  Sai  are  also  given  to  some  of 
them,  and  some  are  called  Capuchin  (q.v.)  monkeys.  One  of  the  most  common  species 
in  Guiana  is  the  Weeper  Monkey,  or  Weeper  Sapajou  ((7.  apella). — The  name  capuchin 
is  perhaps  most  frequently  given  to  G.  capuchinus,  a brownish  species,  with  head,  feet, 
and  hands  generally  black,  and  front,  shoulders,  and  cheeks  whitish.  Some  of  the 
species  of  C.  are  adorned  with  beards. — The  name  cebidm  is  sometimes  given  to  the 
American  monkeys  collectively,  as  a family  or  tribe.  See  Monkey. 

CEC'CO  D’ASCOLI,  1257-1327;  the  popular  name  of  Francesco  degli  Stabili,  a 
mediaeval  poet  and  encyclopaedist.  He  studied  mathematics  and  astrology,  and  was 
professor  of  the  latter  science  in  the  university  of  Bologna.  Having  published  a com- 
mentary on  the  sphere  of  John  de  Sacrobosco,  in  which  he  propounded  bold  theories 
concerning  the  employment  and  agency  of  demons,  the  clerical  party  caused  him  to  be 
•condemned  to  certain  fasts,  prayers,  and  fines;  but  he  eluded  punishment  by  going  to 
Florence.  His  free-thinking  and  plain-speaking,  however,  raised  up  many  enemies;  he 
liad  attacked  Dante’s  Commedia  and  his  fate  was  sealed ; an  old  accusation  of  impiety 
vras  renewed,  and  he  was  tried,  sentenced,  and  burnt  at  the  stake  in  Florence,  in  the 
70th  year  of  his  age. 

CECIDOMY'IA  (Gr.  kekidion,  a gall-nut;  and  myia,  a fly  or  gnat),  a genus  of  dipterous 
<(two-winged)  insects  of  the  family  tipularice — the  gnat  and  mosquito  family ; having 
■downy  wings,  which  have  three  nervures,  and  are  horizontal  when  at  rest ; antennae  as 
long  as  the  body,  with  bead-like  joints  and  whirls  of  hairs  at  the  joints;  long  legs,  and 
the  first  joint  of  the  tarsi  very  short.  The  species  are  numerous ; nearly  thirty  are  Brit- 
ish. All  are  of  small  size,  but  some  of  them  are  very  important  on  account  of  the  rav- 
ages which  their  maggots  effect  in  grain-erops.  C.  cerealis,  sometimes  called  the  barley 
midge,  a brownish-red  fly  with  silvery  wings,  of  which  the  maggot  is  vermilion-colored, 
is  often  very  destructive  to  crops  of  barley  and  spelt  in  Germany.  The  little  maggots 
live  in  families  between  the  stalk  and  the  sheath  of  the  leaf,  abstracting  the  juice  of  the 
plant. — The  Wheat-fly  (q.v.  and  the  Hessian  Fly  (q.v.)  belong  to  this  genus. — Some 
of  the  species  of  C.  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  young  buds  of  trees,  which  the  larvae 
transform  into  galls. 

CECIL,  a CO.  in  n.e.  Maryland,  on  the  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  border,  inter- 
sected by  three  railroads;  300  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  27,108 — 4466  colored.  It  has  an  uneven 
surface  and  fertile  soil,  its  products  are  wheat,  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  butter,  and 
wool.  Of  stone  and  minerals  there  are  granite,  gneiss,  slate,  iron,  chrome,  and  sulph- 
ate of  magnesia.  There  are  flouring  mills,  and  several  other  manufactories.  Co.  seat 
Elkton. 

CECIL,  Richard,  1748-1810;  a minister  of  the  church  of  England,  celebrated  as  a 
pulpit  orator.  His  works  have  been  published  in  England  and  in  New  York.  They 
are  prized  for  deep  spiritual  fervor. 

CECIL,  Robert,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  son  of  William,  was  b.  about  1550.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  having  previously  held  important  state  offices,  he  succeeded  to  what 
would  now  be  called  the  premiership.  On  the  accession  of  James  I.,  C.,  who  had  car- 
ried on  a private  correspondence  with  that  monarch  before  Elizabeth’s  death,  was  con- 
firmed in  his  office  and  received  many  high  honors,  culminating  in  that  of  earl  of  Salis- 
bury, In  1608,  he  was  made  lord  high  treasurer,  and  the  exchequer  was  greatly  improved 
in  his  hands.  C.  was  a man  of  immense  energy  and  far-reaching  sagacity,  undoubtedly 
the  best  minister  the  country  had  in  his  time;  but  he  was  cold,  selfish,  and  unscrupu- 
lous as  to  the  means  he  took  to  gain  his  ends,  and  get  rid  of  his  rivals.  His  connection 
with  the  disgrace  of  Essex  and  Raleigh  laid  him  open  to  great  and  deserved  odium,  in 


Cecil. 

Cedar. 


596 


tlie  latter  case  especially.  Like  his  father,  however,  he  was  free  from  the  meanness  and? 
dishonesty  of  enriching  himself  out  of  the  public  money.  He  died  May  24,  1612. 

CECIL,  William,  Lord  Burleigh,  one  of  England’s  greatest  statesmen,  was  b.  at 
Bourne,  Lincolnshire,  Sept.  15,  1520.  Educated  at  the  grammar-schools  of  Grantham 
and  Stamford,  he  thence  passed  to  St.  John’s  college,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  remark- 
able alike  for  his  diligence  and  aptitude  in  learning.  Entering  Gray’s  inn  at  the  age  of 
21,  he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  the  study  of  law.  History,  genealogy,  and  the- 
ology also  formed  part  of  his  studies  at  this  time;  and  his  knowledge  of  the  last  recom- 
mended him  to  the  notice  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  presented  him  with  the  reversion  of  the 
custos  brevium,  an  office  of  value  in  the  common  pleas.  An  alliance  with  the  daughter 
of  sir  Anthony  Cook  procured  him  the  friendship  of  the  protector  Somerset,  who,  in 
1547,  appointed  him  master  of  requests;  and  in  the  following  year  his  great  talents  pro- 
cured for  him  the  office  of  secretary  of  state.  He  shared  in  the  disgrace  of  Somerset, 
even  to  imprisonment  for  three  mouths ; but  in  less  than  two  years  after  his  release,  his- 
pre-eminent  abilities  secured  for  him  a reappointment  to  the  siate  secretaryship  by  the 
duke  of  Northumberland,  his  former  patron’s  sworn  enemy.  During  his  second  secre- 
taryship, C.  effected  most  important  and  beneficial  changes  in  the  commercial  policy  of 
the  country.  With  a sagacity  far  beyond  the  spirit  of  his  age,  he  endeavored  to  throw 
trade  open,  and  did  succeed  in  abolishing  some  monopolies;  but  others  proved  too 
strong  for  him,  standing  as  he  did  alone,  at  a time  when  exclusive  privileges  were  con- 
sidered the  only  sureties  of  a profitable  trade.  When  queen  Mary  ascended  the  throne, 
C.,  being  a Protestant,  resigned  his  official  employment,  because  he  could  not  conscien- 
tiously serve  a Roman  Catholic  court;  but  as  a private  gentleman  he  maintained  good 
relations  with  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  and  was  one  of  the  few  eminent  Protestants 
who  escaped  in  purse  and  person  during  that  short  but  infamous  reign.  His  freedom 
from  persecution  has  given  rise  to  the  charge,  that  he  was  a “ trimmer” — ^^a  very  unjust 
accusation,  indeed.  C.  was  naturally  cautious  and  politic,  and  averse  to  extremes  in 
religion ; but  though  he  took  no  part  in  bitter  sectarian  discussions,  he  never  belied  his 
conscience,  and  to  him  is  mainly  owing  the  rejection  of  the  bill  which  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics had  introduced  into  parliament,  with  the  view  to  a wholesale  confiscation  of  the 
estates  of  Protestants.  Prior  to  Mary’s  death,  C.,  foreseeing  her  end,  had  entered  into 
correspondence  with  Elizabeth,  who,  on  her  accession  to  the  throne  (Nov.  16,  1558),  at 
once  recognizing  C.’s  capacity  for  government,  appointed  him  secretary  of  state.  A 
biography  of  C.  from  this  time  until  his  death  would  be  a forty  years’  history  of  Eng- 
land, for  he  was  alike  the  originator  and  director  of  that  policy  which,  hitherto,  ha& 
made  Elizabeth’s  reign  memorable  above  that  of  any  other  English  sovereign;  for 
although  Elizabeth  occasionally,  in  her  caprice,  favored  other  courtiers,  C.  was  th& 
statesman  whose  judgment  she  relied  on  in  all  matters  of  consequence.  His  policy  at 
home  and  abroad  was  at  once  shrewd  and  cautious,  and  also  liberal  and  comprehensive, 
while  he  displayed  a power  of  decision,  ready  and  stern,  when  necessity  demanded.  As 
a statesman,  C.  was  above  animosities  and  favoritism;  his  enemies  never  suffered,  and 
his  friends  profited  nothing,  by  his  power.  Capacity,  truth,  and  honor  were  what  he- 
sought  in  public  men.  Had  he  been  less  just,  history  might  have  been  more  generous, 
to  his  memory.  The  queen  created  him  baron  Burleigh  in  1571,  and  conferred  on  him 
the  order  of  the  garter  in  the  succeeding  year,  when  he  was  also  made  lord  high  treas- 
urer, an  office  he  held  until  his  death,  Aug.  15,  1598. 

CECILIA,  St.,  the  patroness  of  music,  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  230  a.d. 
Her  heathen  parents,  as  we  are  told,  belonged  to  a noble  Roman  family,  and  betrothed 
their  daughter,  who  had  been  converted  to  Christianity,  to  a heathen  youth  named 
Valerian.  This  youth  and  his  brother  Tiberius  became  Christian  converts,  and  suffered 
martyrdom.  C.,  when  commanded  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  firmly  refused,  and  was  con- 
demned to  death.  Her  persecutors,  it  is  said,  first  threw  her  into  a boiling  bath,  but 
on  the  following  day  they  found  her  unhurt.  The  executioner  next  attempted  to  cut 
off  her  head,  but  found  it  impossible.  Three  days  later,  she  died — rather  a lame  con- 
clusion to  such  miraculous  interference!  As  early  as  the  5th  c.,  there  is  mention  of  a 
church  dedicated  to  her  at  Rome;  and  in  821,  by  order  of  pope  Paschal,  her  bones  were 
deposited  there.  St.  C.  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  organ,  and  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  her  festival-day,  Nov.  22,  is  celebrated  with  splendid  music.  Chaucer, 
Drvden,  and  Pope  have  celebrated  St.  C.,  and  the  painters  Raphael,  Domenichino, 
Dolce,  and  others  have  represented  her  in  fine  pictures. — Another  St.  C.  was  born  in 
Africa,  and  suffered  martyrdom  by  starvation  under  Diocletian.  The  Roman  Catholic 
church  celebrates  her  festival  on  the  11th  of  Feb. 

CECRO'PIA,  a genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  artocarpacm.  C.  peltata,  a native 
of  the  West  Indies  and  of  South  America,  sometimes  called  trumpet-wood  and  snake- 
wood,  is  remarkable  for  its  hollow  stem  and  branches,  exhibiting  merely  membranous 
partitions  at  the  nodes.  The  small  branches,  these  partitions  being  removed,  are  made 
into  wind-instruments.  The  wood  is  very  light,  readily  takes  fire  by  friction  against  a 
harder  piece  of  wood,  and  is  much  used  by  the  Indians  for  procuring  fire  in  this  way. 
The  fruit  is  agreeable,  and  resembles  a raspberry.  Both  the  trunk  and  branches  yield 
a large  quantity  of  saline  matter,  which  is  employed  by  the  French  planters  in  the 


597 


Cecil, 

Cedar, 


purification  of  sugar.  The  bark  is  strong  and  fibrous,  and  is  much  used  for  cordage. 
It  is  also  astringent,  and  is  applied  in  diarrhea  and  other  diseases' 

CECRO'PIA  MOTH,  Platysamia  cecropia,  the  largest  moth  of  the  United  States; 
belonging  to  the  family  bembycidae,  it  is  akin  to  the  silk-worm.  Its  larva  grows  to  be 
between  3 and  4 in.  long,  and  is  a most  beautiful  object;  its  color  is  a tender  green, 
shading  into  blue  upon  its  sides;  on  its  head  it  wears  an  amber-colored  knob  raised 
upon  a short  stem,  and  armed  with  short  black  points;  rows  of  smaller  knobs  adorn  the 
back  and  sides,  those  along  the  sides  being  turquoise  blue ; the  foremost  four  on  the 
back  are  amber-colored.  The  larva  feeds  upon  nearly  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees,  the 
maple,  willow,  and  some  other  trees.  It  spins  a large  cocoon,  sometimes  attached  to 
the  under-side  of  a twig,  when  it  is  closely  woven  and  tapers  to  a point  at  each  end; 
sometimes  in  the  space  between  forking  limbs,  when  it  is  loosely  made,  and  is  often  as 
large  as  a goose-egg.  The  outer  and  inner  surfaces  of  the  cocoon  are  somewhat  con- 
densed, so  that  there  appear  to  be  two  cocoons  or  coverings.  In  the  earlier  stages  of 
the  spinning,  the  insect  often  thrusts  the  silk  in  loops  through  the  openings  between  the 
threads,  and  these  loops  make  it  difficult  to  reel  the  silk;  by  dissolving  in  an  alkali  the 
gum  which  the  insect  exudes  to  harden  the  cocoon,  and  by  using  great  care,  it  is  possi- 
ble to  reel  the  silk,  but  it  is  dark  and  coarse,  and  would  be  fit  for  only  coarse  and  strong 
fabrics.  It  has  been  carded  and  spun.  The  larva  does  not  thrive  in  confinement,  but 
might  be  cultivated  in  the  open  air  with  a little  pains.  The  moth  appears  in  June;  its 
wings  expand  from  5 to  7 in. ; its  general  colcfl  is  dark  brown  thickly  powdered  with 
gray;  the  borders  of  the  wings  are  clay- colored,  and  each  wing  bears  a light  gray  kid- 
ney-shaped spot,  bordered  with  lines  of  red  and  black.  The  antennae  of  the  males  aro 
particularly  large  and  fine,  the  main  stem  being  feathered  on  each  side  with  long 
branches  in  pairs.  Like  other  lepidopterous  larvae,  the  cecropia  is  preyed  upon  by 
various  parasites,  two  species  of  ichneumon  fiies  being  notable. 

CE'CROPS,  the  first  king  of  Attica,  figures  in  Greek  mythology  as  an  autochthou 
(q.  V.),  half-man  and  half-dragon.  Belonging,  as  he  does,  to  the  prehistoric  ages  of  Greece, 
his  real  character  can  only  be  guessed  at.  Tradition  declared  him  to  be  the  founder  of 
marriage,  the  author  of  the  political  division  of  Attica  into  twelve  states,  and  the  intro- 
ducer of  agriculture,  of  navigation,  and  commerce.  He  is  also  said  to  have  civilized  the 
religious  rites  of  the  people.  The  name  C.  is  given  to  various  towns  in  Greece,  and  the 
legends  in  general  seem  to  indicate  a Pelasgic  origin  for  the  hero.  The  later  accounts, 
that  he  came  from  Sais  in  Egypt,  have  no  historic  basis. 

CEDAR,  a co.  in  e.  Iowa,  watered  by  Cedar  and  Wapsipinicon  rivers,  and  intersected 
by  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific,  and  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroads; 
576  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  18,937.  The  surface  is  divided  between  woodland  and  prairie;  the 
productions  are  mostly  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Tipton. 

CEDAR,  a co.  in  s.w.  Missouri,  on  Sac  river;  435  sq.m.;  pop. ’80,  10,757 — 146  col- 
ored. The  surface  is  uneven,  but  the  soil  is  productive.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  busi- 
ness. Co.  seat,  Stockton. 

CEDAR,  a co.  in  n.e.  Nebraska,  on  the  Missouri  river,  watered  chiefly  by  Bow  creek ; 
650  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  2899.  It  is  an  agricultural  region,  but  as  yet  not  much  cultivated. 
Co.  seat,  St.  James. 

CEDAR,  Barbadoes,  Gedrela  odorata,  a tree  of  the  natural  order  cedrelacem  (q.v.),  and 
of  the  same  genus  with  the  toon  of  India,  a native  of  the  West  Indies  and  warm  parts 
of  America.  It  is  simply  called  C.  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is  often  upwards  of  80  ft. 
high,  with  a trunk  remarkable  for  thickness.  It  has  panicles  of  flowers  resembling  those 
of  the  hyacinth.  The  fruit,  bark,  and  leaves  have  the  smell  of  asafoetida,  but  the  wood 
has  an  agreeable  fragrance.  Being  soft  and  light,  it  is  used  for  canoes,  and  for  shingles. 
Havana  cigar-boxes  are  very  generally  made  of  it.  In  France,  it  is  used  in  making 
black-lead  pencils. 

CEDAR,  or  Cedar  or  Leb'anon,  a tree  much  celebrated  from  the  most  ancient  times 
for  its  beauty,  its  magnificence,  and  its  longevity,  as  well  as  for  the  excellence  and  dura- 
bility of  its  timber.  It  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture ; it  supplied  the  wood-work  of  Solo- 
mon’s temple ; and  in  the  poetry  of  the  Old  Testament  it  is  a frequent  emblem  of  pros- 
perity, strength,  and  stability.  It  belongs  to  the  natural  order  conifer ce,  and  is  ihepinus 
cedrus  of  the  older  botanists;  but  is  now  ranked  in  the  genus  (see  Fir),  in  the  genus 
larix  (see  Larch),  by  those  who  make  larix  a distinct  genus  from  abies,  or  is  made  the 
type  of  a genus,  cedrus,  distinguished  from  larix  by  evergreen  leaves  and  carpels  sepa- 
rating from  the  axis,  and  receives  the  name  of  G.  lihani. 

Of  the  celebrated  Cedars  op  Lebanon,  only  a few  now  remain.  They  consist  of  a 
grove  of  some  400  trees,  about  three  quarters  of  a mile  in  circumference,  partly  old  trees 
and  partly  young  ones.  Learned  travelers  think  that  most  of  the  trees  in  the  grove  may  be 
200  ;^ears  old,  and  several  between  the  ages  of  400  and  800  years.  There  are  12  trees  whose 
age  is  incalculable — seven  standing  very  near  each  other;  three  more  a little  further 
on,  nearly  in  a line  with  them ; and  two,  not  observed  by  any  recent  traveler  except  lord 
Lindsay,  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  grove.  The  largest  of  these  two  is  63  ft.  in  circum- 
ference— following  the  sinuosities  of  the  bark ; one  of  the  others  measures  49  feet.. 

These  trees  are  more  remarkable  for  girth  than  stature,  their  height  hardly  exceeding 


Cedar. 

Ceiling. 


598 


50  feet.  Their  age  is  variously  estimated ; the  rules  by  which  botanists  determine  the 
age  of  trees  are  not  applicable  to  them,  for  their  stems  have  ceased  to  grow  in  regulal 
concentric  rings;  they  owe  their  prolonged  existence  to  the  superior  vitality  of  a portion 
of  their  bark,  which  has  survived  the  decay  of  the  rest,  liusseger  is  inclined  to  admit 
that  these  trees  may  possibly  number  some  2,000  years. 

The  Arabs,  of  all  creeds,  have  a traditional  veneration  for  these  trees;  they  believe 
that  an  evil  fate  would  surely  overtake  any  one  who  shall  dare  to  lay  sacrilegious  hands 
on  the  saints,  as  they  fondly  call  them.  Every  year,  at  the  feast  of  the  transfiguration, 
the  Maronites,  Greeks,  and  Armenians  mount  to  the  cedars,  and  celebrate  mass  on  a 
homely  altar  of  stone  at  their  feet. 

The  C.  has  been  planted  in  parks  in  many  parts  of  Europe ; it  w^as  introduced  into 
England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  c.,  and  a tree  at  Sion  house,  London,  is  now  8 ft. 
in  diameter  at  3 ft.  above  the  ground.  Even  in  Inverness-shire  it  succeeds  so  w'ell,  that 
trees  at  Beaufort  castle,  the  seat  of  lord  Lovat,  planted  in  1783,  are  now  3 or  4 ft.  in 
diameter.  On  its  native  mountains,  the  C.  is  found  at  the  base  of  the  highest  peaks,  at 
an  altitude  of  about  8, 000  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  seems  to  delight  in  a dry  open  soil, 
where,  however,  its  roots  can  have  access  to  abundance  of  water.  Although  in  foliage 
and  some  other  particulars  the  C.  considerably  resembles  the  common  larch,  it  differs 
in  form  and  habit  very  widely  both  from  the  larch  and  from  the  pines  in  general.  Its 
stem  bears  almost  down  to  the  ground  irregularly  placed  branches,  often  of  prodigious 
size  and  expanse,  which  divide  irregularly^ into  branchlets.  The  leaves  are  dark  green, 
10  to  15  lines  long,  pointed,  united  in  clusters  of  20  to  30;  on  the  young  shoots  they  are 
very  numerous,  and  not  in  clusters;  the  small  branchlets  also  are  crowd^ed  together  and 
pensile.  The  cones  are  erect,  oval,  broadly  rounded  at  both  ends,  about  4 in.  long,  and 
3 in.  in  diameter;  their  scales  closely  crowded,  large,  and  broad.  The  cones  take  two 
years  to  come  to  maturity,  and  hang  on  the  tree  for  years  before  their  scales  come  off 
and  their  seeds  are  set  free.  The  wood  of  the  trunk  is  reddish,  and  full  of  a fragrant 
resin.  The  ancients  kept  their  writings  in  cabinets  or  boxes  of  cedar-wood.  Extraor- 
dinary indestructibility  and  other  virtues  were  ascribed  to  it.  It  is  not  nearly  so  much 
prized  at  the  present  day,  because  it  is  soft  and  light,  and  apt  to  crack  in  drying.  This 
inferiority  is,  however,  not  improbably  owing  to  the  inferior  age  of  the  trees  from  which 
the  timber  is  now  procured.  A resinous  substance,  called  c^ar  resin,  or  cedria,  flows 
spontaneously  from  the  trunk  of  the  C. , or  from  incisions ; it  resembles  mastic,  and  was 
anciently  used,  along  with  other  resins,  in  the  embalming  of  the  dead.  It  was  also  used 
as  a medicine.  In  very  ancient  times,  C.  Oil,  a kind  of  turpentine,  was  prepared  from 
the  wood,  and  was  spread  on  books  in  order  to  their  better  preservation.  At  the  present 
day,  the  oil  and  the  resin  are  scarcely  known.  The  branches  of  the  C.,  like  those  of 
the  larch  in  warm  countries,  exude  a sweet  substance,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of 
C.  Manna. — The  Deodar  or  Himalayan  C.  {cedrus  deodara),  a tree  held  in  great 
veneration  by  the  Hindus,  and  of  which  the  name  is  said  to  be  properly  devadara,  and 
to  signify  god-tree,  is  common  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  at  elevations  of  7,000  to 
12,000  ft.,  forming  magnificent  forests,  and  attaining  a great  size,  a height  sometimes  of 
150  ft.,  with  a trunk  30  ft.  or  more  in  circumference,  an  ample  head,  and  spreading 
branches.  It  is  described  as  having  cones  somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  C.  of 
Lebanon,  the  scales  of  the  cones  falling  off  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  ripe,  and  as  differing 
from  the  C.  of  Lebanon  also  in  more  pensile  branches  and  longer  leaves;  but  Dr.  Hooker 
expresses  a strong  opinion  that  they  will  prove  to  be  really  the  same  species,  as  well  as 
the  C.  of  Algiers  {G.  Atlantica  or  Africana),  which  is  found  in  the  mountainous  regions 
of  the  n.  of  Africa.  The  wood  of  the  deodar  is  resinous,  fragrant,  compact,  and  very 
durable.  It  is  susceptible  of  a high  polish,  and  in  its  polished  state  has  been  compared 
to  brown  agate.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  resin,  laths  of  it  burn  like  candles.  Its 
turpentine  is  very  fluid,  and  although  coarse,  is  much  used  in  India  for  medical  pur- 
poses ; and  tar  and  pitch  are  obtained  from  the  trunk.  The  deodar  has  now  become 
very  common  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  Britain,  although  few  specimens  have  yet  attained 
a very  considerable  size.  On  account  of  its  extreme  gracefulness  when  young,  it  is 
often  planted  in  situations  to  which  large  trees  are  unsuitable,  and  is  to  be  seen  in  many 
suburban  parterres. — The  name  C.  is  often  given  to  other  coniferous  trees  besides  the 
true  cedars.  Thus,  the  Siberian  stone  pine,  or  Cembra  pine,  is  called  the  Siberian  C. 
(see  Pine),  and  a species  of  fir  {abies  religiosa)  is  the  Red  C.  of  California  (see  Fir).  A 
species  of  cypress  (q.v.)  is  known  as  White  C.,  and  another  as  the  C.  of  Goa.  Several 
of  the  trees  which  bear  the  name  C.  are  species  of  juniper  (q.v.),  among  which  are  the 
Virginian  C.,  or  Red  C.  of  North  America,  and  the  Bermuda  C. — which  yield  the 
cedar- wood  used  for  pencils — the  Spanish  C.  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  etc.  The  name  C.  is 
even  given  to  trees  which  have  no  resemblance  to  the  true  cedars,  except  in  the  resinous 
quality  of  the  wood ; thus  the  cedar- wood  of  Guiana  is  produced  by  icica  altissima,  a 
tree  of  the  natural  order  amyridacecB  (q.v.);  the  C.  of  the  West  Indies  (see  next  article) 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  cedrelacem;  and  the  name  Bastard  C.  is  given  in  India  to 
a tree  of  the  natural  order  byttneriacece  (q.v.). 

CEDAR  BIRD.  See  Waxwing 

CEDAR  CREEK,  a stream  in  Shenandoah  co.,  Va.,  falling  into  the  Shenandoah 
river.  On  this  creek,  Oct.  19,  1864,  the  confederates,  under  gen.  Early,  surprised  Sherr 


599 


Cedar. 

Ceiling^. 


dan’s  (union)  camp,  during  that  officer’s  absence.  The  unionists  were  compelled  to> 
retreat.  Gen.  Sheridan,  who  was  at  Winchester  when  he  heard  of  the  disaster,  hastened 
to  the  front,  and,  rallying  his  forces,  in  turn  surprised  the  confederates  who  had  stopped 
to  plunder  the  union  camp,  recovered  nearly  all  that  had  been  lost,  took  2,000  prisoners, 
and  50  pieces  of  artillery,  and  the  next  day  cleared  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah  of  con- 
federate troops.  This  brilliant  achievement  was  the  theme  of  T.  Buchanan  Read’s  stir- 
ring poem,  Sheridan's  Bide. 

CEDAR  FALLS,  a city  in  Black  Hawk  co.,  Iowa,  on  Cedar  river  and  the  Iowa 
division  of  the  Illinois  Central,  at  the  intersection  of  the  Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids  and 
Minnesota  railroads,  98  m.  from  Dubuque.  It  is  a manufacturing  place  of  importance. 
Pop.  ’80,  3,035. 

CEDAR  MOUNTAIN,  a hill  in  Culpepper  co.,  Va.,  near  which,  Oct.  9,  1862,  there 
was  an  engagement  between  the  federal  forces  under  gen.  Banks  and  the  confederates 
led  by  gen.  Jackson.  The  confederates  had  the  advantage  and  held  the  field,  but  two 
days  later  fell  back  towards  Gordonville  to  join  gen.  Lee.  The  reported  losses  were- 
On  the  union  side,  1400  killed  and  wounded,  and  400  prisoners ; of  the  confederates,  1283' 
killed  and  wounded,  and  31  missing. 

CEDAR  MOUNTAINS,  a range  of  the  Cape  colony,  parallel  with  the  Atlantic,  and 
nearly  half  way  between  it  and  the  dividing  ridge  of  the  country.  They  form  the  height 
of  land  between  the  Oliphant  on  the  w.,  and  the  Great  Thorn,  its  principal  tributary,  on 
the  e.,  varying  in  altitude  from  1600  P '..o  5,000.  They  lie  about  lat.  32°  s.,  and  long  19° 
e.,  in  the  division  of  Clanwilliam,  and  supply  the  village  of  that  name  with  cedar  planks. 

CEDAR  RAPIDS,  a city  in  Linn  co.,  la.,  on  Red  Cedar  river,  and  the  Burlington, 
Cedar  Rapids,  and  Minnesota  railroad,  at  the  intersection  of  the  Iowa  division  of  the 
Chicago  and  Western  railroad,  and  the  junction  of  the  Dubuque  and  Northwestern  rail- 
road. There  are  many  important  manufactories  in  and  near  the  place.  Pop.  5,940. 

CEDAR,  or  Red  Cedar,  RIVER,  rises  in  s.e.  Minnesota,  and  flows  s.  and  s e.  through; 
more  than  three  quarters  of  the  breadth  of  Iowa,  falling  into  the  Iowa  river  about  20  m. 
e.  of  the  Mississippi.  The  entire  length  is  about  350  miles.  ^ 

CEDAR  SPRINGS,  a village  in  Spartanburg  co.,  S.  C.,  formerly  a popular  watering- 
place.  It  is  now  the  seat  of  a deaf  and  dumb  asylum.  The  village  is  on  the  Spartan- 
burg and  Union  railroad. 

CE'DBATE.  See  Citron. 

CEDRELA'CEJE,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  very  nearly  allied  to  meliaeecB 
(q.v.),  and  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  winged  seeds,  numerous  in  each  cell  of  the  fruit, 
which  is  a capsule.  The  known  species  are  few,  all  tropical  or  sub-tropical  trees  or 
shrubs,  with  pinnate  leaves,  most  of  them  trees  valuable  for  their  timber.  To  this  order 
belong  mahogany,  satin-wood,  toon,  Barbadoes  cedar,  the  yellow-wood  of  New  South 
Wales,  etc.  The  barks  of  some  species  are  febrifugal.  That  of  soumida  fehrifuga,  the- 
Rohuna  or  East  Indian  mahogany,  has  been  imported  into  Britain  as  a medicine. 

CEDRON,  an  extract  of  a bitter  nature  from  a small  tree  growing  in  Central  and 
South  America.  In  those  countries  the  bitter  is  thought  to  be  a remedy  for  the  bite  of 
serpents,  and  a prophylactic  against  hydrophobia.  In  medical  practice  it  is  used  as  a 
simple  bitter  principle. 

CEFALU',  a t.  of  Sicily,  on  the  n.  coast,  47  m.  e.s.e.  of  Palermo.  It  is  situated  at  the 
foot  of  a rock,  and  is  surrounded  by  old  walls.  It  has  a cathedral,  and  the  ruins  of  a 
Saracenic  castle  occupy  a neighboring  hill.  As  a seaport,  it  has  little  traffic.  The- 
inhabitants,  numbering  some  10,000,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  fishing. 

CEFALU',  a seaport  in  n.  Sicily,  39  m.  e.s.e.  of  Palermo;  pop.  10,200.  The  new 
town,  founded  in  1131  by  Roger  I.  of  Sicily,  is  at  the  base  of  a steep  promontory  which 
overlooks  the  magnificent  bay  of  Cefalu.  The  houses  are  well  built,  and  the  cathedral, 
begun  in  1132,  is  distinguished  for  the  beauty  of  its  fa9ade,  with  antique  pillars  and 
mosaics.  There  is  a small  but  good  harbor,  and  some  trade  in  manna,  oil,  and  sardines*,, 
but  most  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  the  sea-fishery. 

CEG'LIE,  a t.  in  southern  Italy,  province  of  Lecce,  18  m.  n.e.  of  Taranto.  Pop.  about 
12,580.  It  produces  much  grain,  and  has  fine  pastures. 

CEHEGIN',  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  37  m.  w.n.w.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  has  some  spacious  streets,  with  handsome  buildings,  and  manufactures  of 
paper,  cloth,  and  pottery.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

CEILING  (Fr.  del;  Lat.  ccelum,  heaven).  This  term  seems  to  have  been  suggested  by 
the  use  of  arched  coverings  for  churches,  and  even  for  rooms,  which  prevailed  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  was  not  unknown  to  the  Romans.  Whether  the  term  was  further  sug- 
gested by  the  habit  of  tinting  ceilings  of  a blue  color,  and  decorating  them  with  stars,  or 
whether  that  usage  arose  from  the  use  of  the  term  already  introduced,  is  more  doubtful. 
Arched  ceilings  among  the  Romans  were  known  by  the  name  camera  or  camera,  the 
Greek  origin  of  which  seems  to  furnish  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  view  that  the  arch 
was  known  to  the  latter  people.  The  camera  was  formed  by  semicircular  beams  of 
wood,  at  small  distances  from  each  other,  over  which  was  placed  a coating  of  lath  and 


Celandine. 

Celery. 


600 


plaster.  In  later  times,  tlie  camerae  were  frequently  lined  with  plates  of  glass;  whence 
they  were  termed  rntrece.  But  the  ceilings  most  commonly  in  use  amongst  the  Romans 
were  flat,  the  beams,  as  in  modern  times,  having  been  at  first  visible,  and  afterwards 
covered  with  planks  and  plaster.  Sometimes  hollow  spaces  were  left  between  the 
planks,  which  were  frequently  covered  with  gold  and  ivory,  or  paintings.  The  oldest 
flat  C.  in  existence  is  believed  to  be  that  of  Peterborough  cathedral.  Like  that  at 
St.  Alban’s  abbey,  it  is  made  of  wood,  and  plastered  over  like  a modern  ceiling.  Ceil- 
ings of  churches,  in  the  middle  ages,  were  generally  painted  and  gilded  in  the  most 
brilliant  manner;  and  many  existing  ceilings  still  exhibit  the  traces  of  early  decoration 
of  this  kind.  The  older  ceilings  generally  follow  the  line  of  the  timbers  of  the  roof, 
which,  in  the  early  English  and  decorated,  are  often  arranged  so  as  to  give  the  shape  of 
a barrel  vault.  In  ceilings  of  this  description  there  are  seldom  many  ribs,  often  only  a 
single  one  along  the  top.  In  the  perpendicular  style,  the  C.  often  consists  of  a series  of 
flat  surfaces  or  cants,  formed  on  the  timbers  of  the  roof.  Though  sometimes  altogether 
destitute  of  ornament,  they  are  more  frequently  enriched  with  ribs,  dividing  them  into 
square  panels,  with  bosses  (q.v.)  or  flowers  at  "the  intersections.  Wooden  ceilings  are 
sometimes  formed  in  imitation  of  stone-groining,  with  ribs  and  bosses,  examples  of 
which  will  be  found  at  York,  Winchester,  and  Lincoln.  In  the  Elizabethan  age,  ceil- 
ings were  generally  of  plaster,  but  they  were  ornamented  with  ribs  having  bosses  or 
small  pendants  at  the  intersections.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the  C.  immediately  over  the 
altar,  or  the  roodloft,  to  be  richly  ornamented,  whilst  the  rest  is  plain. 

CELANDINE,  Ghelidonium,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  papaveracem  (the 
poppy  family),  having  a corolla  of  four  petals,  and  a podlike  capsule.  The  common 
C.  ((7.  majus)  is  a perennial,  with  pinnate  leaves,  lobed  leaflets,  and  yellow  flowers  in 
simple  umbels,  frequent  under  hedges,  in  waste  places,  etc.,  in  Britain  and  most  parts 
of  Europe.  It  flowers  from  May  to  Sept.  The  root,  stem,  and  leaves,  when  fresh, 
have  a disagreeable  smell,  and  are  full  of  a yellow  juice,  which  is  very  acrid,  causing 
inflammation  when  applied  to  the  skin.  C.  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine:  it  is  a drastic 
purgative,  and  in  large  doses  an  active  poison;  in  small  doses  it  is  said  to  act  beneficially 
on  the  lymphatic  system  and  on  the  organs  of  secretion,  and  to  be  useful  in  scrofulous 
diseases,  disease  of  the  mesenteric  glands,  etc.  The  fresh  juice,  applied  externally  to 
warts,  corns,  etc. , removes  them  by  stimulating  them  beyond  what  their  languid  vital 
powers  can  bear.  Mixed  with  milk,  it  is  applied  to  the  eye  for  the  cure  of  opacities 
of  the  cornea,  but  is  a remedy  that  requires  great  caution  in  its  use. 

CELA'NO,  Lake  of.  See  Fucino,  Lake  of. 

€ELASTEA'CE.ffi,  See  Spindle-tree. 

CEL  EBES,  a large  island  in  the  Eastern  archipelago,  e.  of  Borneo,  between  5®  45' s. 
lat.,  1°  45'  n.  lat.,  and  118°,  126°  e.  longitude.  Area,  37,485  sq.  miles.  It  is  irregular 
in  shape,  and  four  peninsulas  springing  from  a common  root  form  the  large  bays  of  Go- 
routalo  and  Tolo,  and  the  gulf  of  Boni.  C.  is  covered  with  mountains  and  valleys:  a 
chain  running  throughout  it  sends  spurs  into  the  peninsulas.  Some  are  active  volcanoes, 
and  earthquakes  are  frequent.  The  peak  of  Bonthaim  is  9,788  ft.  high.  The  island 
has  a rich  soil  and  extensive  pastures.  The  vegetable  kingdom  gives  sago,  cocoa-nuts, 
bread-fruit,  coffee,  tamarinds,  bananas,  oranges,  pine-apples,  maize,  rice,  tobacco,  sugar- 
cane, indigo,  sandal-,  sapan-,  and  ebony-wood.  The  animals  include  excellent  horses, 
buffalo,  cattle,  wild  swine,  elands,  goats,  sheep,  parrots,  lories,  birds  of  paradise,  beautiful 
butterflies,  wild  bees,  etc.  The  minerals  are  gold,  iron,  coal,  and  salt.  The  people  spin 
and  weave  cottons.  Pop.,  of  various  races,  is  reckoned  at  3,000,000,  of  whom  (1874) 
568,338,  including  2,000  Europeans,  are  under  Dutch  rule.  'The  chief  t.  is  Macassar, 
which  names  the  strait  between  C.  and  Borneo.  In  Nov.,  1874,  a fire  destroyed  774 
houses  of  the  town. 

CEL'EBES  {ante),  was  first  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
c.,  the  exact  date  being  given  by  some  authors  as  1512.  At  that  time  the  Macassars 
were  the  most  powerful  people  in  the  island,  having  successfully  defended  themselves 
Rgainst  the  king  of  the  Moluccas  and  the  sultan  of  Ternate.  In  1609,  the  English  endea- 
vored to  gain  a foothold.  The  Dutch  arrived  near  the  end  of  the  16th  or  the  beginning  of 
the  17th  century.  In  1611,  the  Dutch  East  India  company  obtained  a monopoly  of  the 
trade  on  the  island  of  Buton,  and  in  1618,  an  insurrection  in  Macassar  gave  them  an 
opportunity  of  obtaining  a definite  settlement  in  Celebes.  In  1660,  the  nadve  kingdom 
was  forcibly  subjugated  by  the  Dutch,  with  33  ships,  and  2,700  men.  Six  years  later, 
the  war  began  again,  but  was  ended  in  1667,  and  a treaty  was  signed  by  which  the  Dutch 
were  recognized  as  protectors  and  mediators  of  the  different  states  who  were  parties  to 
the  treaty.  In  1683,  the  n.e.  part  of  the  island  was  conquered  and  put  under  the  command 
of  the  governor  of  the  Moluccas;  and  in  1824,  the  kingdom  of  Boni  was  reduced.  Since 
that  time  there  has  been  no  important  militaiy  event  except  the  speedily  suppressed 
insurrection  in  Boni  in  1859.  The  island  is  very  irregular  in  outline,  and  has  been  com- 
pared to  a star-fish  with  its  limbs  torn  away  from  the  w.  side.  There  are  few  rivers,  and 
none  are  navigable  for  any  considerable  distance;  but  the  lakes  are  numerous,  and  some 
of  them  large.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Tamp-arang-Labaya,  or  Tempe,  in 
the  s.e.  section  of  the  peninsula.  It  has  a depth  of  30  ft.,  and  is  richly  stocked  with  fish. 


601 


Celandine. 

Celery, 


The  scenery  throughout  the  island  is  varied  and  picturesque.  There  are  wonderful 
gorges,  chasms,  and  precipices,  many  of  the  latter  600  ft.  high,  and  yet  covered  with  a 
tapestry  of  vegetation.  Much  of  the  country  is  still  covered  with  the  primeval  forest, 
which  is  traversed  here  and  there  by  scarcely  perceptible  paths,  or  broken  by  occasional 
clearings  or  villages.  The  fauna  of  Celebes  exhibits  some  specimens  peculiar  to  the 
island.  Of  200  species  of  birds,  80  are  not  elsewhere  found.  There  are  only  14  species 
of  mammalia,  and  of  these  11  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  area.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  are  an  ape  found  in  but  one  other  country,  a small  ox-like  quad- 
ruped that  inhabits  the  mountainous  districts,  and  the  pig-deer  of  the  Malays,  Neither 
the  elephant,  the  tapir,  the  rhinoceros,  nor  any  large  beast  of  prey  is  represented.  Not 
much  attention  has  been  given  to  agriculture,  except  where  the  Dutch  influence  and 
example  are  strong;  and  manufactures  are  few  and  crude.  The  women  weave  a toler- 
able cotton  cloth.  The  houses  are  of  wood  and  bamboo,  and  are  usually  very  frail.  The 
whole  of  Celebes  is  practically  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  government,  though  but  a 
comparatively  small  portion  is  under  their  direct  administration,  and  many  of  the  petty 
princes  are  permitted  to  manage  their  internal  affairs  much  as  they  please.  For  admin- 
istrative purposes  there  are  three  “residences,”  Celebes,  Manado,  and  Ternate,  the  former 
two  belonging  solely  to  the  island,  while  the  third  includes  a large  part  of  the  Moluccas, 
The  most  important  and  interesting  people  in  the  island  are  those  in  the  department  of 
Macassar.  They  consist  mainly  of  Macassars  and  Malays  proper,  of  Endinese  from  the 
island  of  Flores,  and  immigrants  from  the  neighboring  kingdom  of  Wad  jo.  The  foreign 
colonies  are  each  under  the  management  of  a separate  captain,  and  the  Malays  are  under 
the  care  of  a head  priest.  The  Macassars  belong  to  the  Malay  race ; they  are  well  built 
and  muscular;  with  dark  brown  complexion,  a broad  and  expansive  face,  black  and 
sparkling  eyes,  high  forehead,  nose  rather  flat,  large  mouth,  and  black  soft  hair  which 
they  let  fall  over  their  shoulders.  The  women  are  sprightly,  clever  and  amiable,  and 
formerly  brought  large  prices  as  slaves.  The  men  are  brave,  ambitious,  jealous,  and 
revengeful,  but  not  treacherous.  Drunkenness  is  rare,  but  gambling  and  cock-fighting 
are  passionately  engaged  in.  Running  “amok”  was  once  so  common  that  the  Dutch 
dismissed  the  Macassar  soldiers  from  their  service  to  break  up  the  evil.  They  take 
great  pleasure  in  all  bodily  exercise.  In  religion  they  call  themselves  Mohammedans, 
but  their  worship  is  full  of  pagan  superstitions;  they  worship  animals  and  a divinity 
called  Kareng  Love,  who  has  power  over  their  fortune  and  health.  Their  language, 
which  belongs  to  the  Malayo- Javanese  group,  is  spoken  by  about  300,000;  but  it  has  a 
much  smaller  area  than  Buginese,  which  is  the  language  of  Boni.  Their  literature  is. 
poor,  and  consists  mainly  of  romantic  stories  from  the  Malay,  and  religious  treatises 
from  the  Arabic.  Of  their  few  original  works  the  most  important  are  the  early  histories 
of  Goa,  and  some  other  states  of  the  Celebes,  and  a collection  of  laws  and  maxims  of  the 
old  princes  and  sages.  In  no  part  of  their  possessions,  however,  have  the  Dutch  made 
more  important  transformations  than  in  Minahassa,  or  the  confederation  of  Manado. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  people  were  still  savages,  and  in  almost  continual 
warfare  among  themselves.  About  1822,  it  was  discovered  that  the  soil  of  the  mountain 
sides  was  very  favorable  for  growing  coffee ; the  cultivation  was  introduced,  and  a sys- 
tem established  by  which  the  native  chiefs  undertook  the  management  of  the  plantation. 
The  result  has  been  not  only  to  make  one  of  the  best  coffee  districts  in  the  archipelago, 
but  wonderfully  to  advance  the  civilization  of  the  inhabitants.  Missions  and  education 
have  been  successful ; villages  of  handsome  houses  have  gi-own  up ; the  country  is  tra- 
versed by  roads  shaded  by  trees,  and  rivers  have  been  bridged.  The  trade  of  the  dis- 
trict is  in  a flourishing  condition,  and  promises  to  become  still  more  important.  The 
coffee  plant  produces  a fine  kernel  of  transparent  greenish-blue  color,  and  brings  a much 
higher  price  than  that  from  Java.  Besides  other  large  district  divisions,  for  the  most 
part  physically  similar  to  those  described,  there  is  the  district  or  state  of  Toradja,  lying 
entirely  inland,  which  is  in  possession  of  a wild  pagan  race  who  shun  intercourse  with 
other  races,  and  are  generally  regarded  as  the  aborigines  of  the  island. 

CEL'ERES,  a body-guard  of  300  young  men  of  the  best  Roman  families,  organized, 
according  to  tradition,  by  Romulus.  Next  to  the  king,  their  leader  was  the  highest 
oflicer  of  the  state.  This  position  was  held  by  Brutus  when  he  expelled  the  Tarquins. 

CELERY,  Apium,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  umhelUferce,  distinguished  by 
a mere  rudimentary  calyx,  roundish  entire  petals,  very  short  styles,  and  roundish  fruit. 
The  common  C.  {A.  graveolens)  is  found  wild  in  Britain  and  most  parts  of  Europe,  in 
ditches,  brooks,  etc.,  especially  near  the  sea  and  in  saline  soils.  Its  leaves  are  dark 
green  and  smooth,  its  petals  involute  at  the  tip.  The  wild  plant,  also  called  Smallage, 
has  a stem  about  2 ft.  high,  a tapering  slender  root,  a penetrating  offensive  odor,  a 
bitterish  acrid  taste,  and  almost  poisonous  qualities.  By  cultivation,  it  is  so  much 
changed  that  its  taste  becomes  agreeably  sweetish  and  aromatic,  whilst  either  the  leaf- 
stalks much  increase  in  thickness,  or  the  root  swells  in  a turnip-like  manner.  These 
parts,  blanched,  are  much  used  as  a salad,  or  to  impart  flavor  to  soups,  etc, , and  some- 
times as  a boiled  vegetable.  They  contain  sugar,  mucilage,  starch,  and  a substance 
resembling  manna-sugar,  wtiich  acts  as  a stimulant,  particularly  on  the  urino-genital 
organs,  so  that  a very  free  and  frequent  indulgence  in  the  use  of  C.  cannot,  in  ordinary 
circumstances,  be  altogether  favorable  to  health.  Two  principal  varieties  of  C,  are  cul- 


Celeste. 

Celibacy. 


602 


tivated.  that  most  common  in  Britain  having  long  thick  leaf-stalks,  which  are  more  or 
less  tubular,  sometimes  almost  solid,  and,  after  blanching,  either  white  or  more  or  less 
tinged  with  red;  whilst  the  other,  called  Turnip-rooted  C.,  or  Celeriac,  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  its  swollen  turnip-like  root,  and  is  in  most  general  cultivation  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  The  “red”  varieties  of  0.  are  esteemed  rather  more  hardy  than 
the  “white,”  The  blanching  of  the  leaf-stalks  is  generally  accomplished  by  drawing 
up  earth  to  the  plants,  which  are  transplanted  from  the  seed-bed  into  richly  manured 
trenches;  and  as  they  grow,  the  trenches  are  filled  up,  and  the  earth  finally  raised  into 
ridges,  above  which  little  more  than  the  tops  of  the  leaves  appear.  C.  is  thus  obtained 
for  use  throughout  the  winter.  In  the  northern  parts  of  Britain,  the  seed  is  generally 
sown  on  a hot-bed.  C.  seed  is  often  used  for  flavoring,  when  the  leaf-stalks  cannot  be 
obtained. — Another  species  of  C.  {apiu7n  australe)  grows  abundantly  in  wet  places  on  the 
shore  about  cape  Horn  and  in  Staten  island.  It  is  a large,  hardy,  and  luxuriant  plant, 
and  is  described  as  wholesome  and  very  palatable,  nearly  equal  in  its  wild  state  to  our 
garden-celery.  It  seems  well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  horticulturists. 

C^ILESTE,  Madame,  b.  1814;  a dancer  and  melodramatic  actress  of  French  descent, 
;and  a pupil  of  the  Paris  conservatory.  She  came  to  the  United  States  about  1829,  and 
not  long  after  married  a man  named  Elliot.  After  his  death  she  went  to  England,  and 
in  1830  began  a career  of  remarkable  success  in  the  sensational  drama  of  The  French  Spy. 
She  made  two  other  American  tours,  1851  and  in  1865.  In  1866,  she  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  retired  from  the  stage. 

CEL'ESTINE,  a mineral  bearing  the  same  relation  to  strontia  (q.v.)  that  heavy  spar 
bears  to  baryta.  It  is  essentially  sulphate  of  strontia  StOSOs),  with  occasional  admix- 
ture of  sulphate  of  baryta,  carbonate  of  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  etc.,  in  small  proportions. 
It  much  resembles  heavy  spar,  but  is  not  quite  equal  to  it  in  specific  gravity;  is  usually 
blue,  often  of  a very  beautiful  indigo-blue;  sometimes  colorless,  more  rarely  reddish  or 
yellowish.  Its  crystallization  is  rhombic,  like  that  of  heavy  spar.  Most  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  crystallized  C.  are  found  in  Sicily.  C.  derives  its  name  from  its  color.  It  is 
used  as  a source  of  strontia. 

CEL'ESTINE,  the  name  of  five  popes.  1.  Saint  Celestine,  d.  432,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a near  relative  of  the  emperor  Valentinian.  He  held  the  council  of  Ephesus 
in  431,  at  which  the  Nestorians  were  condemned;  actively  persecuted  the  Pelagians; 
struggled  for  Roman  orthodoxy;  sent  Palladius  to  Scotland,  and  Patricius  (St.  Patrick) 
to  Ireland;  raged  against  the  Novatians  in  Rome,  imprisoning  their  bishop,  and  forbid 
cing  their  worship,  and  was  intolerant  of  the  least  innovation  of  the  constitutions  of  his 
predecessors.  His  papacy  lasted  nearly  8|  years.  2.  Guido  di  Gastello,  chosen  in 
1143;  d.  1144,  after  a reign  of  5 months  and  13  days.  He  gave  absolution  to  Louis  VII. 
-of  France,  on  the  king’s  humble  subjection,  and  removed  the  papal  interdict  from  that 
country.  3.  Giacinto  Bobone  Orsini,  elected  Mar.  30,  1191;  d.  1198,  after  ruling 
nearly  9 years,  and  was  buried  in  the  Lateran ; supposed  to  have  been  90  years  old  when 
chosen.  He  crowned  the  emperor  Henry  VI.  of  Germany,  and  subsequently  excommu- 
nicated him  for  keeping  Richard  I.  of  England  in  prison.  In  1192,  he  confirmed  the 
statutes  of  the  Teutonic  order  of  knights.  4.  Goffredo  Castiglione  of  Milan,  a 
nephew  of  Urban  HI.  He  was  elected  pope  by  only  seven  cardinals.  Sept.  22,  1241, 
and  occupied  the  chair  only  17  days,  dying  Oct.  8,  before  he  was  consecrated.  He  w^as 
the  author  of  a history  of  Scotland,  in  which  country  he  was  once  a monk.  5.  Pietro 
daMorone,  the  son  of  a peasant  of  Naples;  became  a Benedictine  monk,  and  lived 
many  years  in  caves  after  the  manner  of  John  the  Baptist.  Terrible  stories  are  told  of 
the  severity  of  his  penitential  discipline.  During  his  hermit  life  he  founded  the  order 
that  bears  his  name  (see  Celestines,  ante).  After  the  death  of  Nicholas  IV.  he  was 
elected  pope,  but  refused  to  accept  until  persuaded  by  a deputation  of  cardinals  rein- 
forced by  the  kings  of  Naples  and  Hungary.  He  was  chosen  July  7,  1294,  w^as  crowned 
Aug.  29.  He  issued  two  decrees;  one  confirming  that  of  Gregory  X.  ordering  the  shut- 
ting up  of  the  cardinals  when  in  conclave,  and  one  declaring  the  right  of  any  pope  to 
abdicate  at  pleasure — a right  which,  after  ruling  5 months  and  8 days,  he  exercised. 
Dec.  13,  1294.  In  his  document  of  renunciation  he  assigned  as  the  moving  causes  “ the 
desire  for  humility,  for  a purer  life,  for  a stainless  conscience;  the  deficiencies  ai  his 
own  physical  strength ; his  ignorance,  the  perverseness  of  the  people,  and  his  longing 
for  the  tranquillity  of  his  former  life.”  Having  divested  himself  of  every  outward  sym 
bol  of  dignity,  he  returned  to  his  old  solitude;  but  he  was  not  permitted  to  remain;  his 
successor,  Boniface  VIII.,  sent  for  him,  and,  despite  his  efforts  to  escape,  imprisoned 
him  in  a castle,  wdiere,  after  languishing  ten  months  in  the  infected  atmosphere,  he  died, 
May  19,  1296.  He,  like  the  first  of  the  name,  is  recognized  as  a saint  by  the  Roman 
church. 

CEL'ESTINES,  an  order  of  hermits  of  St.  Damianus,  founded  by  Peter  de  Morrone 
about  1264,  and  confirmed  as  a monkish  order  by  Urban  IV.  in  1264  and  1274.  They 
called  themselves  C.  when  their  founder  ascended  the  papal  chair  under  the  name  of 
Celestine  V.  They  are  regarded  as  a branch  of  the  great  order  of  St.  Benedict,  whose 
rule  they  follow;  they  wear  a white  garment  with  black  hood  and  scapulary,  and  live  a 
purely  contemplative  life.  In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  the  order  rapidly  spread 
-through  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  but  subsequently  decayed.  The  French  C.  were 


603 


Celeste. 

Celibacy. 


secularized  by  order  of  pope  Pius  VI.  in  1776-78;  so  also  were  the  Neapolitan  Celestines. 
In  the  present  day,  the  order  is  almost  extinct. 

CELIBACY,  from  Lat.  codehs,  unmarried.  Notwithstanding  the  divine  commendation 
of  marriage  given  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures  (Gen.  i.  28),  the  opinion  had  become  prevalent, 
even  before  the  time  of  Christ,  that  C.  was  favorable  to  an  intimate  union  with  God. 
This  notion  took  its  origin  in  the  wide-spread  philosophy  of  a good  and  an  evil  princi- 
ple. The  body,  consisting  of  matter,  the  seat  of  e^dl,  was  looked  upon  as  the  prison  of 
the  pure  soul,  which  was  thought  to  be  defiled  by  bodily  enjoyments.  Among  the  Jew- 
ish sect  of  theEssenes,  accordingly,  a life  of  C.  was  held  to  be  the  chief  road  to  sanctity. 
These  ascetic  views  naturally  led,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  disapproval  of  second  mar- 
riages. While,  therefore,  in  the  first  Christian  churches,  every  one  was  left  at  libertjr 
to  marry  or  not  as  he  thought  fit,  the  objection  to  those  who  married  a second  time  had 
become  so  generally  spread,  that  the  apostle  Paul  saw  occasion  to  counsel  such  Christian 
converts  as  were  in  widowhood  to  remain  so. 

By  the  2d  c.,  however,  the  unmarried  life  generally  had  begun  to  be  extolled,  and  to 
be  held  necessary  for  a life  of  sanctity,  although  several,  at  least,  of  the  apostles  them- 
selves had  been  married.  Two  passages  of  Scripture  (1  Cor.  vii.  and  Rev.  xiv.  4)  were 
specially  cited  as  proving  that  C.  was  the  genuine  condition  of  a Christian;  and  with  the 
platonizing  fathers  of  the  2d  and  3d  centuries,  the  unmarried  of  both  sexes  were  held  as 
standing  higher  than  the  married.  Accordingly,  although  there  was  no  express  law 
against  the  marriage  of  the  clerg5^  many,  especially  of  the  bishops,  remained  unmarried; 
a second  marriage  was,  in  their  case,  already  strictly  prohibited. 

As  the  bishops  of  Rome  rose  in  consideration,  and  gradually  developed  a firmer 
church  government,  they  called  upon  all  who  belonged  to  the  clerical  order  to  live  for 
the  church  alone,  and  not  marry.  This  requirement  met  with  constant  resistance;  still, 
it  became  more  and  more  the  custom,  in  the  4th  c.,  for  the  higher  clergy  to  refrain  from 
marriage,  and  from  them  it  went  over  to  the  lower  orders  and  to  the  monks.  Provincial 
synods  now  began  expressly  to  interdict  the  clergy  from  marrying.  The  council  of  Tour& 
(566)  suspended  for  a year  all  secular  priests  and  deacons  who  were  found  with  their 
wives;  and  the  emperor  Justinian  b}’’  an  edict  declared  all  children  born  to  a clergyman, 
after  ordination,  to  be  illegitimate,  and  incapable  of  inheritance.  There  were  still,  how- 
ever, many  married  priests  who  resisted  the  law,  and  found  encouragement  in  the  oppo- 
sition which  the  Greek  church  made  to  that  of  Rome  in  this  matter  of  celibacy.  The 
council  held  at  Constantinople  in  692,  declared,  in  opposition  to  the  church  of  Rome, 
that  priests  and  deacons  might  live  with  their  wives  as  the  laity  do,  according  to  the 
ancient  custom  and  ordinance  of  the  apostles.  The  orthodox  Greek  church  has  continued 
to  adhere  to  this  decision.  Priests  and  deacons  in  that  church  may  marry  before  ordina- 
tion, and  live  in  marriage  after  it ; but  they  are  not  allowed  to  marry  a second  time. 
However,  only  a priest  living  in  C.  can  be  chosen  as  bishop  or  patriarch. 

The  Church  of  Rome  continued  its  endeavors  to  enforce  the  law  of  C. ; though,  for 
several  centuries  they  were  attended  with  only  partial  success.  There  still  continued  to 
be  numbers  of  priests  with  wives,  although  the  councils  were  always  issuing  new  orders, 
against  them.  Popes  Leo  IX.  (1048-54)  and  Nicolas  II.  (1058-61)  interdicted  all  priests 
that  had  wives  or  concubines  from  the  exercise  of  any  spiritual  function,  on  pain  of 
excommunication.  Alexander  II.  (1061-73)  decreed  excommunication  against  all  who 
should  attend  a mass  celebrated  by  a priest  having  a wife  or  concubine.  This  decision 
was  renewed  by  Gregory  VII.  in  a council  held  at  Rome  in  1074,  and  a decretal  was 
issued  that  every  layman  who  should  receive  the  communion  from  the  hands  of  a mar- 
ried priest  should  be  excommunicated,  and  that  every  priest  who  married  or  lived  in 
concubinage,  should  be  deposed.  The  decree  met  with  the  most  violent  opposition  in 
all  countries;  but  Gregory  succeeded  in  carrying  it  out  with  the  greatest  rigor;  and 
though  individual  instances  of  married  priests  were  still  to  be  found  in  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries,  the  C.  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  was  established,  and  has  since  continued 
both  in  theory  and  practice. 

The  violence  thus  done  to  human  nature  did  not  fail  to  avenge  itself  in  those  rude 
times.  The  licentiousness  and  corruption  of  the  priests  and  monks  became  in  many 
cases  boundless,  and  it  was  in  vain  that  strict  individuals,  as  well  as  councils,  strove 
against  it.  The  immorality  and  debasement  of  the  clergy  became  a reproach  and  by- 
word in  the  mouth  of  the  people,  and  gave  a powerful  impulse  to  the  religious  movement 
that  began  in  the  16th  century.  The  leading  reformers  declared  against  the  C.  of  the 
clergy  as  unfounded  in  Scripture,  and  contrary  to  the  natural  ordinance  of  God,  and 
Luther  set  the  example  of  marrying.  This  was  not  without  effect  on  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy,  and  the  question  of  the  abolition  of  C.  was  raised  at  the  council  of  Trent  (1563).  But 
the  majority  of  voices  decided  that  God  would  not  withhold  the  gift  of  chastity  from  those 
that  rightly  prayed  for  it,  and  the  rule  of  C.  was  thus  finally  and  for  ever  imposed  on 
the  ministers  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  Those,  who  have  only  received  the  lower 
kinds  of  consecration  may  marry  on  resigning  their  office.  For  all  grades  above  a sub- 
deacon, a papal  dispensation  is  necessary.  A priest  that  marries  incurs  excommunica- 
tion, and  is  incapable  of  any  spiritual  function.  If  a married  man  wishes  to  become  a 
priest,  he  receives  consecration  only  on  condition  that  he  separate  from  his  wife,  and 
that  she  of  her  free  will  consent  to  the  separation  and  enter  a religious  order,  or  take  th© 


-Cell. 

Cells. 


604 


TOW  of  chastity.  The  priests  of  the  united  Graeco-Catholic  congregations  in  Rome  have 
received  permission  from  the  popes  to  continue  in  marriage,  if  entered  into  before  con- 
secration, but  on  condition  of  always  living  apart  from  their  wives  three  days  before 
they  celebrate  mass. 

Notwithstanding  these  decisions,  the  contest  against  clerical  C.  has  again  and 
■again  been  resumed,  in  recent  times,  both  within  and  without  the  Roman  Catholic 
church.  In  fact,  all  attempts  at  innovation  within  the  bosom  of  Catholicism,  connect 
themselves  with  the  attack  on  C.,  the  abolition  of  which  would  deeply  affect  the  con- 
stitution and  position  of  that  church.  So  far  back  as  1817,  the  Catholic  faculty  of 
Tubingen  expressed  the  opinion  that  compulsory  C.  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
■want  of  Catholic  ministers.  In  1826,  the  Catholic  clergy  of  Silesia  put  in  petitions  to 
the  bishop  for  the  abolition  of  C. ; and  unions  were  afterwards  formed  in  Baden,  Wilr- 
temberg,  Bavaria,  Silesia,  and  Rhenish  Prussia,  which,  along  with  alterations  in  the 
doctrines  and  ritual  of  the  Romish  church,  combined  attacks  on  the  prohibition  of  mar- 
riage to  the  clergy.  A work  was  also  published,  entitled  The  Introduction  of  Compul- 
sory Celibucy  among  the  Christian  Priesthood,  and  its  Consequences  (Altenb.  1828,  new  ed. 
1845),  which  excited  great  attention.  At  last  the  abolition  of  the  law  came  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  legislatures  of  Baden,  Saxony,  and  other  countries.  The  church  claimed 
this  subject  as  belonging  exclusively  to  her  jurisdiction,  and  not  to  that  of  the  state;  and 
in  Wiirtemberg  the  clergy  induced  the  government  to  suppress  the  anti-celibacy  society; 
but  this  only  made  their  opponents  in  the  press  the  more  zealous.  In  France,  also,  the 
question,  about  1829,  was  eagerly  discussed.  And  in  Spain,  the  academy  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal science  took  the  subject  into  consideration  in  a meeting  held  in  1842;  while  the  Por- 
tuguese chambers  had  previously,  in  1835,  discussed  it,  though  without  result.  The 
«ame  took  place  in  Brazil,  about  1827. 

During  the  commotions  of  1848,  the  subject  was  again  brought  into  prominence  in 
'Germany.  The  German  Catholics  (q.v.)  had  already  abolished  C. ; and  a general  meas- 
ure was  called  for  in  the  Frankfort  parliament,  in  the  Prussian  assembly,  and  in  the 
press.  In  Austria,  also,  voices  were  raised  against  it;  but  here  the  state  took  the  side 
of  the  pope,  who,  in  a bull  of  1847,  had  added  fresh  stringency  to  the  rule  of  C.,  and 
condemned  its  infringement.  See  Bachelor. 

CELL  (Lat.  cella,  from  celo,  to  conceal).  The  Latin  word  had  nearly  all  the  signifi- 
cations which  we  attach  to  the  English  one,  and  a good  many  besides  which  we  have 
not  borrowed.  For  example,  the  whole  space  between  the  walls  of  an  ancient  temple 
was  called  the  cella.  But  the  interior  was  frequently  divided  into  several  cellse,  in  which 
case  each  C.  took  the  name  of  the  deity  whose  statue  it  contained,  and  was  called  the 
C.  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  Minerva,  and  the  like.  In  these  cases,  the  word  approached  to  its 
general  meaning,  which,  with  the  Romans  as  with  us,  was  that  of  a store  room,  or  small 
.apartment  where  objects  of  any  kind  were  stowed  away.  In  modern  architecture,  the 
term  vaulting  C.  signifies  the  hollow  space  between  the  principal  ribs  of  a vaulted  roof. 

CEL'LARER,  a person  under  the  Roman  emperors  who  supervised  the  domestic 
affairs  of  the  household  and  examined  accounts.  The  same  title  was  given  in  later 
times  to  the  purveyors  for  monasteries  or  priests.  As  an  officer  of  a monastery  the  C. 
regulated  every  matter  affecting  provisions. 

CEL'LE,  or  Zell,  a t.  of  Hanover,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aller,  which  at  this  point 
becomes  navigable,  23  m.  n.e.  of  the  city  of  Hanover.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a 
sandy  plain,  well  built,  and  has  a palace  with  a garden,  in  which  Matilda,  sister  of 
George  HI.,  is  buried.  Pop.  ’75,  18,163.  The  inhabitants  are  very  industrious.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  linen,  hosiery,  tobacco,  wafers,  soap,  etc.  An  active  commerce 
is  also  carried  on  by  the  Aller,  and  by  railway. 

CELLI'NI,  Ben'venu'to,  a celebrated  Italian  gold-worker,  sculptor,  founder,  and 
medailleur,  remarkable  not  only  for  his  skill  as  an  artist,  but  also  for  his  checkered  life, 
was  b.  at  Florence  in  the  year  1500,  and  first  displayed  skill  as  a chaser  and  gold- 
worker.  His  autobiography  is  a remarkably  curious  and  interesting  work,  presenting 
us  with  a complete  picture  of  the  author’s  life  and  character;  his  activity,  his  extraordi- 
nary weaknesses,  the  impetuosity  of  his  passions,  the  perilous  circumstances  in  which 
his  quarrelsome  disposition  placed  him  (for  C.  thought  nothing  of  committing  man- 
slaughter in  a moment  of  rage),  and  the  ludicrous  vanity  and  credulity  which  are  never 
absent  from  him.  The  book  is  also  of  great  value  in  a historico-social  point  of  view, 
but  does  not  impress  us  favorably  in  regard  either  to  the  personal  or  social  morals  of 
the  time. 

At  an  early  period,  having  been  banished  from  Florence  in  consequence  of  an 
“affray,”  C.  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  employed  by  many  distinguished  patrons  of 
art,  but  afterwards  was  allow^ed  to  return  to  Florence.  Another  “ affray”  compelled 
him  to  fiee  to  Rome  a second  time,  where  he  secured  the  favor  of  Clement  VII.  . C.,  by 
his  own  account,  was  as  great  in  arms  as  in  art;  he  declares  that  it  was  himself  who 
killed  the  constable  Bourbon  and  the  prince  of  Orange  at  the  siege  of  Rome.  His  reck- 
less conduct  for  some  years  compelled  his  constant  shifting  between  Rome  and  Florence. 
Mantua,  and  Naples.  In  1537,  he  went  to  the  court  of  France,  where  he  was  very  hon- 
orably received.  Illness,  however,  induced  him  to  return  yet  once  more  to  Rome,  where 
lie  had  the  misfortune  to  be  imprisoned  on  a charge  of  plundering  the  treasures  in  the 


605 


Cell. 

Cells. 


castle  of  St.  Angelo  during  the  siege  of  Rome.  At  length  he  wan  liberated,  through  the 
ititeice.asioii  of  the  cardinal  of  Ferrara,  for  whom  he  executed,  out  of  gratitude,  a fine 
cup,  and  various  other  works.  He  now  accompanied  his  deliverer  to  France,  and 
entered  the  service  of  Francis  I. ; but  having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  ruling 
favorite,  Mme.  d’Estampes,  he  returned  to  Florence — not,  however,  until,  as  usual, 
he  had  settled  some  matters  with  his  “ sword” — where,  under  the  patronage  of  Cosmo 
de’  Medici,  he  executed  several  fine  works  in  metal  and  marble — among  them,  the  cele- 
brated bronze  group  of  “Perseus  with  the  Head  of  Medusa,”  now  in  the  market-place 
in  Florence.  Among  other  preserved  works  of  C.,  the  splendid  shield  in  Windsor  castle 
may  be  noticed.  In  his  58th  year  he  began  to  write  his  autobiography,  and  died  in 
1570  or  1572.  In  1876,  a number  of  C.  ’s  original  papers  were  found. 

CELLS,  in  Physiology. — I.  Animal  Cells. — On  examining,  under  a high  magnifying 
power,  any  of  the  constituents  of  the  animal  body,  we  perceive  that  the  smallest  parts 
which  appear  to  the  naked  eye  as  fibers,  tubes,  etc.,  are  not  ultimate  elements  in  respect  to 
form  (morphotic  elements),  but  that  they  contain  and  are  built  up  of  certain  'extremely 
minute  particles,  which  differ  in  different  organs,  but  always  have  a similar  appearance 
in  the  same  organs.  By  far  the  most  important  of  these  microscopic  forms,  which  are 
known  by  histologists  as  “simple  elementary  parts,”  are  the  C.,  which  not  only  form 
the  starting-point  of  every  animal  and  vegetable  organism  (the  ovum  in  either  kingdom 
of  nature  being  simply  a cell),  but  also — either  as  C.,  or  after  having  undergone  certain 
modifications  which  will  be  presently  described — make  up  the  tissues  and  organs  of  the 
perfect  animal.  Indeed,  some  of  the  lowest  plants  (red  snow,  gory  dew),  and  of  the 
simplest  forms  of  animal  life  (GregorinsB,  etc.,  q.v.),  appear  to  consist  of  a single  cell. 

While  in  plants  the  elementary  parts  generally  unite  directly  with  one  another,  in 
animals  they  are  usually  combined  by  an  interstitial  substance,  which  may  be  either 
solid  or  fluid,  and  is  always  derived  from  the  blood  or  general  nutrient  fluid.  If  this 
interstitial  substance  take  a part  in  the  formation  of  the  C.,  it  is  called  a cytoblastema 
or  a blastema,  from  kutos,  a cell  or  vesicle,  and  blastema,  germ  substance ; if  it  has  noth- 
ing to  do  with  their  maintenance,  it  is  called  the  matrix.  The  cytoblastema  is  usually 
fluid,  as  in  the  blood,  chyle,  etc. ; while  the  matrix  is  solid,  as  in  cartilage,  bone,  etc. 

In  every  cell,  we  can  distinguish,  if  we  use  sufficiently  high  magnifying  powers,  a 
membranous  envelope,  known  as  the  cell-wall  or  membrane,  and  certain  contents.  The 
latter  are  fluid  or  gelatinous,  and  besides  containing  particles  or  granules,  usually 
exhibit  a peculiar  rounded  body,  the  nucleus;  which,  again,  contains  in  its  interior  a 
fluid  and  a still  smaller  corpuscle,  the  nucleolus. 

The  fundamental  form  of  the  cell  is  spherical  or  lenticular;  it  is  such  in  all  young  C., 
and  is  persistent  in  those  which  occur  in  fluids,  as,  for  example,  the  blood-corpuscles. 
Amongst  other  well-known  forms  may  be  mentioned : the  polygonal,  as  in  pavement 
epithelium,  or  the  pigment  of  the  eye;  the  conical  or  pyramidal,  as  in  ciliated  epi- 
thelium; the  cylindrical,  as  in  cylinder  epithelium;  the  fusiform,  or  spindle-shaped,  as 
in  contractile  fiber-cells;  the  squamous,  as  epidermic  scales;  and  the  caudate,  polar,  or 
stellate,  as  the  C.  in  the  gray  nervous  tissue. 

With  regard  to  size,  the  largest  animal  C. — excepting  the  unicellular  organisms — 
are  the  yolk-cells  of  the  ova  of  birds  and  amphibia,  while  the  blood-cells  of  certain  ani- 
mals may  be  taken  as  representing  the  smallest  cells.  Average  C.  range  from  0.005  to 
0.01  of  a line  in  diameter. 

The  cell-membrane  is  usually  transparent  and  colorless,  mostly  smooth,  and  so  thin 
as  to  exhibit  only  a single  contour,  rarely  of  any  measurable  thickness.  No  traces  of 
structure  can  be  detected  in  it.  The  granular  appearance  which  the  membrane  occa- 
sionally presents,  is  due  to  projections  depending  on  granules  lying  on  the  inside;  and 
it  vanishes  on  the  addition  of  water,  which  causes  th^e  cell  to  be  distended  by  endos- 
mosis.  See  Osmotic  Action. 

C.  which  contain  only  fluid  are  rare  (fat-cell,  blood-cell) ; generally,  besides  fluid, 
they  contain  elementary  granules  and  vesicles,  and  sometimes  crystals.  As  a general  rule, 
the  number  of  these  morphotic  elements  increases  with  the  age  of  the  cell ; sometimes, 
however,  this  is  not  apparent,  in  consequence  of  their  being  grouped  in  a single  mass 
around  the  nucleus. 

The  nucleus  is  usually  spherical  or  lenticular,  transparent  and  either  colorless  or 
yellowish,  and  ranges  from  0.002  to  0.004  of  a line  in  diameter.  All  nuclei  are  vesicles, 
as  was  originally  maintained,  in  1841,  by  Schwann  {Microscopical  Researches  into  the 
Accordamce  in  the  Structure  and  Growth  of  Animals  and  Plants,  Sydenham  society’s 
translation,  1847,  p.  173),  who  must  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  cell-theory  in  its 
relation  to  animal  tissues,  and  as  has  since  been  confirmed  by  Kolliker  and  other  later 
observers.  The  contents  of  the  nucleus  usually  consist,  with  the  exception  of  the 
nucleolus,  of  a limpid  or  slightly  yellowish  fluid,  from  which  water  and  acetic  acid  pre- 
cipitate granular  matter.  In  general,  only  one  nucleus  exists  in  each  cell,  except  when 
it  is  multiplying  (a  process  which  we  shall  presently  explain) ; occasionally,  however, 
we  meet  with  several  nuclei — four,  ten,  or  even  twenty. 

The  nucleolus  is  round,  sharply  defined,  and  often  so  small  as  to  be  almost  immeas- 
urable. Nucleoli  are  found  in  most  nuclei  so  long  as  the  latter  are  still  young,  and  in 
many  during  their  whole  existence.  As,  however,  nuclei  exist  in  which  no  nucleolus 


Cells. 


606 


can  be  detected,  we  cannot  regard  the  nucleolus  as  so  essential  an  element  of  the  cell  a» 
the  nucleus.  Most  commonly  a nucleus  contains  only  one  nucleolus;  two  are  not  unfre- 
quently  seen ; more  are  rare. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  of  C.  is  very  imperfect.  That  the  cell- 
membrane  is  a protein  substance  (q.v.) — at  all  events  in  young  C. — is  obvious  from  its. 
solubility  in  acetic  acid  and  in  dilute  caustic  alkalies;  and  the  membrane  of  the  necleus 
seems  to  have  a similar  composition;  while  there  are  chemical  reasons  for  believing  that 
the  nucleolus  is  composed  of  fat.  In  the  contents  of  most  C.  we  usually  find  such  sub- 
stances as  occur  in  solution  in  the  cytoblastema — viz.,  water,  albumen,  fat,  extractive 
matters,  and  salts;  and  in  the  C.  of  secreting  organs,  as  for  instance,  the  liver  and  kid- 
neys, we  find  the  special  secretions  of  those  glands;  in  the  blood-cells,  we  find  hema- 
tocrystalline,  etc. 

There  are  two  perfectly  distinct  ways  in  which  C.  can  be  generated:  they  may  be 
developed  independently  of  other  C.  in  a plastic  fluid  (the  cytoblastema) ; or  they  may 
be  developed  from  pre-existing  C.  by  cell-multiplication,  the  existing  C.  either  produc- 
ing secondary  C.  within  themselves,  or  multiplying  by  division.  In  both  these  latter 
kinds  of  cell-development,  the  nucleus  seems  to  be  the  center  of  development  of  the 
young  cells. 

In  order  that  free  or  independent  cell-development  shall  take  place,  we  must  have 
a cytoblastema  containing  protein  substances  (probably  fibrin),  fat,  and  certain  salts 
(especially  phosphates)  in  solution;  and  very  possibly  the  presence  of  the  particles  of 
pre-existing  C.  may  also  be  necessary,  in  which  case  free  cell-development  ceases  to. 
exist.  The  chyle  and  lymph  corpuscles  may  be  mentioned  as  examples  of  this  mode  of 
cell-formation.  The  steps  of  the  process  are  not  very  clearly  made  out,  but  we  know 
that  the  nuclei  are  first  formed,  and  that  the  cell-membranes  are  developed  around  them. 
Free  cell-development  is  far  less  common  in  man  and  the  higher  animals  than  cell-mul- 
tiplication, and,  we  believe,  never  occurs  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  All  pathological 
cell-formations — the  C.  in  pus  (q.v.),  and  in  other  morbid  exudations — come,  however,, 
under  this  head. 

The  development  of  C.  within  other  C.  is  of  very  common  occurrence.  An  original 
or  parent  cell  produces  two  or  more  secondary  or  daughter  C. , and  the  process  of  forma- 
tion is  said  to  be  endogenous.  Cartilage-cells  afford  a good  example  of  this  process. 
The  nucleus  and  the  contents  of  each  parent  cell  undergo  division  into  two  parts,  so 
that  the  number  of  C,  is  successively  doubled.  The  mode  in  which  the  multiplication 
of  the  nucleus  takes  place  cannot  be  definitely  made  out  in  all  cases,  but  when  clear 
observation  is  possible,  the  nucleoli  first  divide  into  two,  and  then  separate. 

A multiplication  of  C.  by  division  has  been  proved  to  take  place  in  the  red  blood-cells 
of  the  embryos  of  birds  and  mammals,  and  in  the  first  colorless  blood-cell  of  the  tad- 
pole, and  very  probably  occurs  extensively  in  many  embryonic  and  adult  tissues,  in 
which  a self-multiplication  of  C.  is  certain,  but  where  no  parent  C.  with  secondary  C. 
can  be  detected.  In  this  and  similar  cases  we  have  an  elongation  of  the  cell,  and  the 
single  nucleus  becomes  divided  into  two;  the  cell  then  suffers  constriction  in  the  mid- 
dle, which  proceeds  till  it  finally  separates  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  contains  a 
nucleus.  This  variety  of  cell-formation  affords  a good  illustration  of  the  doubt  and 
difficulty  connected  with  this  class  of  investigations.  It  was  altogether  unknown  to. 
Schwann  when  he  published  his  great  work  in  1839,  and  was  first  noticed  and  described 
by  Remak  in  1841,  who,  however,  subsequently  retracted  his  published  view,  and 
did  not  again  advocate  it  till  Kblliker  confirmed  his  observation,  and  declared  it  to  be 
correct. 

No  satisfactory  theory  has  been  propounded  with  the  view  of  explaining  the  develop- 
ment of  cells.  Schwann  compares  the  formation  of  C.  with  that  of  crystals,  but  it  must 
be  recollected  that  the  molecular  attraction  concerned  in  the  formation  of  C.  is  so  far 
peculiar,  that — 1.  It  never  produces  geometrical  solids,  but  even  in  the  nucleus  and 
nucleolus  determines  a globular  form;  2.  That  it  aggregates  not  homogeneous,  but 
chemically  different  substances;  and  3.  That  the  final  result  of  its  action — namely,  the 
cell — is  extremely  limited  in  size,  while  a crystal  may  be  of  a comparatively  indefinite 
magnitude. 

The  growth  of  C.  requires  some  notice.  Growth  probably  occurs  in  all  C.,  although 
not  in  all  to  the  same  extent.  It  is  most  obvious  in  those  which  are  formed  directly 
round  a nucleus,  since  in  these  the  membranes  which  at  first  closely  invest  the  nucleus, 
in  time  become  distended  and  enlarged,  and  merely  remain  in  contact  with  the  nucleus 
at  one  point.  Growth  may  take  place  either  in  surface  or  in  thickness.  The  former  is 
most  commonly  general — viz.,  in  all  those  cases  where  C.  increase  without  altering  their 
form ; but  is  sometimes  partial — viz. , in  those  cases  in  which  the  gell  deviates  consider- 
ably h’om  the  primary  globular  form.  The  latter  occurs  to  a certain  degree  in  all  C. , 
but  in  some  kinds  to  a far  greater  extent  than  in  others.  The  nuclei  and  nucleoli  also 
take  part  to  a certain  extent  in  the  growth  of  the  cells.  Schwann  gives  the  following 
general  explanation  of  the  process  of  growth.  He  considers  that  the  molecules  of  the 
cell-membrane  exert  an  attractive  influence  on  the  fluid  which  surrounds  them,  and 
deposit  its  newly  formed  particles  amongst  themselves.  If  the  deposition  take  place 
between  the  molecules  already  present  in  the  substance  of  the  membrane,  the  cell 


Cells. 

becomes  distended;  if  it  take  place  only  in  one  or  more  definite  directions,  the  mem- 
brane becomes  thickened. 

Having  now  traced  the  cell  to  the  period  of  its  full  growth,  we  are  prepared  to  con- 
sider the  processes  which  occur  in  the  anterior  of  this  minute  organic  structure,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  physiology  of  cells.  To  enter  satisfactorily  into  this  subject,  we  ought 
to  have  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  contents  of  different 
cells.  All  that  we  know  of  the  contents  of  C.  generally  is,  as  we  have  already  stated, 
that  they  usually  consist  of  a moderately  concentrated  solution  of  protein  matters,  with 
alkaline  and  earthly  salts,  and  dissolved  or  suspended  fat- particles;  and  that  besides 
these  ingredients  rdany  C.  contain  either  a great  preponderance  of  one  of  these  constitu- 
ents, to  the  almost  entire  exclusion  of  others,  or  are  found  to  contain  altogether  new 
substances.  Thus,  there  are  C.  with  much  protein  matters,  as  the  nerve-cells,  and  with 
much  fat,  like  the  fat-cells;  while  there  are  other  cells  which  specially  contain  haematine 
<the  red  coloring  matter  of  the  blood),  pigment,  biliary  and  urinary  constituents,  mucus, 
milk,  sugar,  etc. 

The  main  cell-processes  occurring  in  these  variously  constituted  C.  are  absorption, 
secretion,  and  excretion.  These  depend  principally,  if  not  entirely,  upon  chemical  and 
physical  laws,  and  are  to  a great  extent  amenable  to  micro-chemical  observation. 

Absorption,  or  the  appropriation  of  matters  from  without,  is  most  manifest  to  those 
C.  which  at  first  have  little  or  no  contents  save  the  nucleus.  Although  endosmose  must 
be  taken  into  account  as  a condition  of  absorption,  C.  must  not  be  regarded  merely  as 
vesicles  provided  with  indifferent  porous  membranes;  for  the  filling  of  C.  does  not  take 
place  by  their  admitting  every  kind  of  matter  indiscriminately;  but  they  have  the 
power  of  taking  up  one  constituent,  and  rejecting  another,  and  thus  exhibit  a selective 
faculty. 

The  cell  having  thus  become  filled  from  without,  we  have  next  to  inquire  into  the  chan- 
ges which  take  place  in  the  membrane  and  in  the  contents.  As  regards  the  former,  the 
membranes  of  most  C.  not  only  become  denser  and  more  solid  with  age,  but  they  undergo 
changes  in  their  chemical  constitution.  Thus,  in  the  horny  tissues,  the  young  C.  are 
easily  soluble  in  alkalies  and  acids,  while  older  C.  of  the  same  nature  are  scarcely 
affected  by  these  re-agents;  again,  in  cartilage  C.,  the  membrane  not  only  becomes 
firmer  with  age,  and  thickens  as  ossification  proceeds,  but  is  changed  into  a tissue 
yielding  gelatine  or  glue  on  boiling,  which  subsequently  becomes  impregnated  with  salts 
of  lime  (phosphate  and  carbonate).  See  Bone. 

The  function  of  secretion  is  mainly  carried  on  by  changes  in  the  contents  of  the  C. 
Thus,  mucous  is  formed  in  the  epithelial  C.  of  the  mucous  membranes,  pepsin  in  those 
of  the  gastric  glands,  bile  in  the  C.  of  the  liver,  and  sepia  in  the  C.  of  the  ink-bag  of  the 
cuttle-fish.  In  these  cases,  the  C.  do  not  separate  mucus,  pepsin,  etc. , from  the  blood, 
but  merely  the  materials  from  which  they  elaborate  these  substances.  In  other  cases,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  C.  of  the  kidney,  the  function  of  these  minute  organisms  is  not  to 
manufacture  new  products,  but  merely  to  separate  certain  substances  (urea,  uric  acid, 
etc.)  from  the  blood,  which,  if  not  immediately  removed  from  the  general  circulation, 
would  speedily  accumulate,  and  act  as  a deadly  poison.  That  these  C.  merely  separate 
the  urea  from  the  blood,  and  do  not  form  it  in  their  interior,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that, 
if  the  kidneys  of  an  animal  are  extirpated,  the  urea  and  other  urinary  constituents  may 
«peedily  be  found  in  large  quantity  in  the  blood. 

Excretion  takes  place  by  the  bursting  or  solution  of  the  distended  secreting  cell, 
usually  into  the  duct  of  a secreting  gland.  The  reader  who  desires  further  information 
on  the  functions  of  the  C.  in  relation  to  secretion  and  excretion,  is  especially  referred  to 
an  admirable  memoir  by  prof.  Goodsir,  “On  Secreting  Structures,”  published  in  John 
and  Harry  D.  S.  Goodsir’s  Anatomical  and  Pathologic(d  Researches,  1845. 

In  conclusion,  we  must  notice  the  metamorphoses  of  C.  The  ovum  itself  is,  as  we 
have  already  mentioned,  merely  a nucleated  cell;  after  impregnation,  a number  of  sec- 
ondary C.  are  formed  within  it,  by  a process  of  cleavage  or  segmentation.  See  articles 
Generation  c.nd  Ovum.  Some  of  the  C.  which  occur  in  the  ovum  in  its  early  stages 
soon  coalesce  with  others  to  form  the  higher  elementary  parts,  which  we  shall  shortly 
enumerate;  others,  without  entering  into  combinations,  more  or  less  change  their  previ- 
ous nature,  as  the  horny  plates  of  the  epidermis  and  nails;  while  others,  again,  undergo 
no  change  of  form  throughout  the  period  of  their  existence. 

The  permanent  C.  are  arranged  by  Kolliker  {Manual  of  Human  Histology,  translated 
by  Busk  and  Huxley,  1853,  vol.  i.  p.  47)  under  the  following  heads: 

1.  True  Cells,  which  have  in  no  essential  respect  altered  their  cellular  character.  These 
occur  in  the  epidermis  and  the  epithelium;  in  the  blood,  chyle,  and  lymph;  in  the 
glandular  secretions,  in  the  fatty  tissue,  in  the  gray  nervous  substance,  in  the  glands 
(liver,  spleen,  etc.),  and  the  cartilages.  Their  varieties  of  form  and  contents  have  been 
already  noticed.  Regarding  their  modes  of  occurrence,  some  are  either  isolated  in  fiuida 
or  in  solid  tissues;  others  are  united  by  apposition,  without  any  intervening  structure, 
into  a cellular  parenchyma;  while  others,  again,  are  conjoined  by  an  intercellular  sub- 
stance of  some  kind. 

2.  Metamorphosed  Cells.  To  these  belong — the  horny  scales:  fiattened,  polygonal,  or 
fusiform ; their  membrane  being  fused  into  one  mass  with  their  contents.  They  occur 
in  the  epidermis,  the  laminated  pavement  epithelium,  and  the  hair  and  nails.  The  con- 


Oellulares. 

Celluloid. 


608 


tractile  fiber  C.:  fusiform,  slightly  flattened,  considerably  elongated  C.,  whose  membrane, 
with  its  soft,  solid  contents,  is  changed  into  a contractile  substance.  They  occur  in  the 
smooth  or  involuntary  muscles.  I'lie  tubules  of  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye:  very  elon- 
gated C. , with  viscid,  albuminous  contents.  2' he  prisms  of  the  enamel  of  the  teeth:  greatly 
elongated,  prismatic,  and  strongly  calcified  cells.  T he  bone  C.:  thickened  C.  (with 

canaliculi,  or  minute  branching  canals)  which  have  coalesced  with  the  matrix  of  the 
bones.  The  transversely  striated  muscular  G.:  large  polygonal  C.  whose  contents  have 
become  metamorphosed  into  a transversely  striated  or  striped  tissue,  such  as  is  found  ia 
voluntary  muscular  fiber.  From  these  C.  are  formed  all  the  different  fibers,  net-works, 
membranes,  tubes,  etc. ; in  short,  all  the  higher  elementary  parts  of  which  the  animal 
body  is  composed. 

For  further  information  on  C.  and  cell-development,  the  reader  is  referred,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  works  quoted  in  this  article,  to  Leydig,  Lehrbuch  der  Histologic  des  Menschen 
und  der  Thiere,  1857;  and  to  Frey,  Histologic  und  Histocheme  des  Menschen^  1859  (trans- 
lated by  Barker,  1874).  He  will  find  full  details  on  morbid  cell-development  (the  growth 
of  C.  in  tubercle,  cancer,  and  other  morbid  deposits)  in  Vogel’s  Pathological  Anatomy  of 
the  Human  Body,  translated  by  Day,  1847;  and  in  Wedl’s  Pathological  Histology,  trans- 
lated (for  the  Sydenham  society)  by  Busk,  1855. 

II.  Vegetable  Cells. — In  the  vegetable,  as  in  the  animal  kingdom,  the  primary 
form  of  the  cell  is  that  of  a sphere.  There  are,  however,  interfering  influences,  which 
usually  alter  or  modify  the  primary  form,  of  which  the  most  important  are,  (1.)  Special 
directions  assumed  in  the  development,  in  obedience  to  a law  regulating  the  structure 
of  the  tissue  in  which  the  cell  occurs;  and  (2.)  Obstructions  to  the  expansion  of  the  cell 
in  certain  directions  from  the  pressure  of  surrounding  cells. 

The  most  common  forms  referrable  to  the  law  of  development  are,  (1.)  The  spherical 
or  fundamental  form;  (2.)  The  cylindrical,  in  which  there  is  a tendency  to  elongation  m 
the  direction  of  a vertical  axis;  and  (3.)  The  tubular,  in  which  there  is  an  excess  of 
development  in  the  direction  of  the  two  transverse  axes. 

The  secondary  modifications  of  these  forms  are  numerous.  Thus,  in  lax  tissues,  the 
spherical  form  may  become  an  irregular  spheroid,  running  out  into  lobed,  and  even  stel- 
late forms,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  pith  of  rushes  and  the  stems  of  various  aquatic  plants. 
Again,  in  seeds,  the  hard  part  of  fruits,  etc.,  the  mutual  pressure  of  the  C.  converts  the 
spherical  into  polyhedral  forms,  of  which  the  dodecahedron — giving  a hexagonal  section, 
and  arising  from  equal  pressure  in  all  directions — is  the  most  common,  although  cubic 
and  many  other  forms  occasionally  occur. 

The  magnitude  of  the  vegetable  C.  is  very  varied.  In  flax,  the  liber-cells  have  been 
found  i,  or  even  f of  an  inch  in  length,  and  the  cylindrical  C.  of  some  of  the  confervse 
are  more  than  an  inch  long — although  their  transverse  diameter  is  very  minute — whilst, 
®n  the  other  hand,  the  spores  of  fungi  are  C.  of  a diameter  of  inch.  The 

average  diameter  of  the  C.  in  the  parenchymatous  tissues  is  about  of  an  inch. 

Both  the  cell-wall  and  the  contents  differ  from  the  corresponding  parts  in  animal 
cells.  In  all  young  C.  the  wall  is  membranous,  freely  permeable  by  water,  elastic,  and 
flexible.  In  many  cases  it  retains  these  properties,  -whilst  in  others  it  becomes  much 
modified,  as  the  cell  grows  older.  It  consists  mainly  of  cellulose  (q.v.).  As  the  vital  and 
chemical  phenomena  exhibited  by  plants  depend  primarily  upon  operations  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  cell,  the  careful  study  of  the  cell  contents  is  of  the  highest  importance.  Of 
these  contents,  the  most  important  are  the  primordial  utricle,  with  the  protoplasm,  th« 
nucleus,  chlorophyll  corpuscles,  and  starch  granules. 

The  primordial  utricle  is  a layer  of  substance  of  mucilaginous  consistence  (colored 
yellow  by  iodine),  lining  the  entire  wall  of  the  young  cell,  but  often  disappearing  at  a 
comparatively  early  period.  The  protoplasm  is  a tough  mucilaginous  and  frequently 
granular  fluid,  which  fills  up  the  space  in  the  interior  of  the  cell  not  occupied  by  the 
nucleus.  The  nucleus  or  cytoblast  is  a globular  or  lenticular  body,  identical  in  its  char- 
acter with  the  substance  of  the  primordial  utricle,  and  occurring  in  the  protoplasm  of 
most  young  cells.  Little  is  known  with  certainty  regarding  the  chlorophyll  corpuscles, 
except  that,  under  the  influence  of  solar  light,  green  coloring  matter  is  developed  from 
them.  Of  the  starch  granules,  which  are  very  commonly  found  in  the  cell  contents,  we 
need  not  speak,  as  they  are  sufficiently  described  in  the  article  Starch. 

In  addition  to  the  above  organized  structures,  we  must  mention  as  frequent  constit- 
uents of  the  cell-contents,  fluid  coloring  matters,  essential  and  fixed  oils,  resins,  sugar, 
dextrine,  gum,  alkaloids,  and  mineral  or  organic  salts,  which  are  not  unfrequently  found 
in  a crystalline  form,  when  they  are  termed  raphides. 

There  are  two  modes  of  cell-development  in  the  vegetable  kingdom — viz.,  (1)  Cell- 
division,  where  two  or  more  new  cells  fill  the  cavity  of  the  parent  cell,  and  adhere  to  its 
membranes,  appearing  to  divide  it  into  compartments;  and  (2)  Free  cell  formation — not  to 
be  confounded  with  a process  of  the  same  name  which  is  supposed  to  occur  m the  animal 
kingdom — in  which  the  whole  or  part  of  the  cell-contents  become  detached  from  the 
cell-wall  and  resolved  into  new  loose  C.,  which  ultimately  escape  from  the  parent  cell. 
The  former  mode  universally  occurs  in  the  formation  of  the  C.  by  which  growth  is 
effected;  the  latter  occurs  only  in  the  production  of  C.  connected  with  reproduction. 
For  further  information,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  Von  Mohl’s  Pnnciples  of  the  An«Lt- 
omy  and  Physiology  of  the  Vegetable  Cell,  translated  by  Henfrey,  London,  1852. 


609 


Cellularest 

Celluloid. 


CELLULA'RES,  in  botany,  a designation  applied  to  those  plants  which  consist  entirely 
cellular  tissue  (q.v.),  without  proper  vessels  of  any  kind.  C.,  thus  defined,  are  a sub- 
class of  acotyledonous  plants,  containing  the  orders  of  lichens,  fungi,  and  algm.  In  the 
system  of  De  Candolle,  however,  the  name  C.  was  given  to  the  second  grand  division  of 
plants,  the  first  being  called  vasculares,  and  the  distinction  between  them  being  the 
presence  or  absence  of  vessels,  the  C.  including  all  acotyledonous  or  cryptogamous 
plants.  But  ferns  and  mosses  are  not  destitute  of  vessels;  so  that  this  system  is  not 
strictly  accurate  with  regard  to  them;  whilst,  as  all  vessels  are  now  known  to  be 
formed  by  the  elongation  and  union  of  cells,  the  distinction  between  vascular  and  cel- 
lular tissue  is  not  generally  regarded  as  affording  a good  basis  for  primary  divisions  in 
the  classification  of  plants. 

CEL'LXrLAR  TIS  SUE.  This  is  the  old  term  for  a widely  diffused  animal  texture, 
which  has  also  received  the  names  of  areolar,  reticular,  filamentous,  and  connective 
tissue.  If  we  make  a cut  through  the  skin,  and  proceed  to  raise  it,  we  see  that  it  is 
loosely  connected  with  the  subjacent  parts  by  a soft,  filamentous,  elastic  substance, 
ivhich,  when  free  from  fat,  has  a white  fleecy  aspect.  This  is  the  tissue  in  question. 
It  is  also  found  underneath  the  serous  and  mucous  membranes  which  are  spread  over 
internal  surfaces,  and  serves  to  attach  these  membranes  to  the  parts  which  they  line. 
We  likewise  find  it  lying  between  the  muscles,  the  blood-vessels,  nerves,  etc.,  occupy- 
ing the  interspaces  between  the  different  organs,  and  often  investing  each  of  them  with 
a special  sheath.  While  it  thus  connects  and  insulates  entire  organs,  it  at  the  same 
time  performs  a similar  function  in  regard  to  the  minute  parts  of  which  each  organ  is 
made  up.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  muscular  tissue,  it  enters  between  the  fibers  of  the 
muscle,  uniting  them  into  bundles;  and  similarly,  it  enters  into  glands,  etc.  This  is 
termed  penetrating  or  parenchymal  cellular  tissue. 

It  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  general  and  most  entensively  distributed  of  the  tissues, 
but  it  is  continuous  through  the  whole  organism",  and  may  be  traced  without  inter- 
ruption from  any  one  region  of  the  body  to  any  other.  It  is  in  consequence  of  this 
continuity  that  dropsical  fluids,  air,  etc.,  effused  into  the  C.  T.,  tnay  spread  far  from 
the  spot  where  they  were  first  introduced. 

On  examining  a fragment  of  this  tissue,  when  stretched  out,  we  see  with  the  naked 
eye  that  it  presents  the  appearance  of  a multitude  of  fine,  soft,  colorless,  elastic  threads, 
like  spun  glass;  intermixed  with  these  are  delicate  films  or  laminae,  crossing  one  another 
in  all  directions,  and  leaving  open  spaces,  or  areolae ; hence  the  name  of  areolar  tissue. 

A small  quantity  of  colorless  transparent  fluid  is  always  present  in  this  tissue;  when 
abnormally  increased,  it  gives  rise  to  the  form  of  general  dropsy  known  as  anasarca. 
The  microscopic  characters  of  C.  T.  are  briefly  noticed  in  the  article  Tissues,  Animal. 

CELLULAR  TISSUE,  in  botany,  is  any  vegetable  tissue  formed  of  cohering  cells  alone, 
and  in  which  there  are  no  vessels.  It  is  often  called  parenchyma  (Gr.  something  spread 
out),  although  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  restrict  that  term  to  one  kind  of  it,  with 
cells  of  a particular  form,  and  terms  of  Greek  derivation  have  been  multiplied  for  other 
kinds.  The  cells  of  C.  T.  vary  much,  both  in  form  and  size  (see  Cells)  ; but  partic- 
ular forms  and  sizes  are  characteristic  of  particular  kinds  or  particular  parts  of  plants. 
The  products  of  the  vital  activity  of  plants  are  formed  in  the  interior  of  cells,  or  by 
secretion  from  the  inner  side  of  their  walls.  Vessels  being  formed  from  cells,  it  is  not 
easy  to  fix  the  limits  between  C.  T.  and  vascular  tissue  (q.v.).  Some  kinds  of  plants, 
however,  are  entirely  composed  of  C.  T.  (see  next  article);  all  consist  of  it  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  their  growth;  none  are  at  any  time  destitute  of  it.  Fluids  are  transmitted  from 
cell  to  cell,  through  the  mass  of  C.  T.,  passing  through  the  walls  of  the  cells  where  there 
are  no  openings  that  can  be  detected  by  the  microscope.  The  soft  and  succulent  parts 
of  plants,  which  it  is  the  care  of  the  gardener  to  cherish  and  increase,  consist  chiefly 
of  cellular  tissue. 

CEL'LULOID,  a remarkable  modern  invention,  apparently  capable  of  wide  useful- 
ness, wherever  India-rubber  and  various  kinds  of  cloth  are  now  employed.  Celluloid 
is  produced  by  mixing  gum  camphor  with  a pulp  of  gun-cotton,  and  subjecting  the  com- 
bination to  a high  degree  of  pressure  and  heat.  The  result  is  a hard  product  of  extra- 
ordinary toughness  and  elasticity.  It  can  be  made  plastic  again  and  molded  into  any 
required  form.  Any  color  can  be  given  to  it  by  the  use  of  coloring  matter  during  the 
process  of  manufacture.  It  is  extensively  used  as  a substitute  for  ivory,  which  it 
resembles  so  closely  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  detect  the  difference.  It  is  said  to 
■equal  ivory  in  strength  and  elasticity,  and  not  to  warp  or  discolor  with  time.  It  has 
proved  a good  material  for  piano  and  organ  keys,  billiard-balls,  backs  of  brushes,  look- 
ing-glass frames,  handles  for  knives,  forks,  umbrellas,  and  many  other  articles.  It  is 
much  cheaper  than  ivory,  and  is  claimed  to  be  better  for  decorative  purposes.  It 
is  also  used  with  much  success  to  imitate  tortoise-shell,  malachite,  amber,  pink  coral, 
and  other  costly  materials.  In  imitation  of  tortoise-shell,  it  is  made  into  combs,  nap- 
kin-rings, match-boxes,  card-cases,  etc.  Imitations  of  pink  coral  jewelry  are  made  and 
sold  at  prices  much  below  those  of  the  genuine.  The  same  is  true  of  imitations  of  mala- 
chite and  amber.  Mouth-pieces  for  pipes,  cigar-holders,  etc.,  are  common.  It  is  also 
used  as  a substitute  for  porcelain  in  making  dolls’  heads.  The  frames  of  eye-glasses, 
Dpera-glasses,  and  spectacles  are  made  of  it.  More  recently  it  has  come  into  use  in 
U.  K.  111.^39 


Cellulose. 

Celtic. 


610 


combination  with  linen,  cotton,  or  paper,  for  shirt  bosoms,  cuffs,  and  collars.  The 
material  has  a hard  glistening  surface,  like  that  of  newly  laundered  linen ; is  elastic  and> 
impervious  to  moisture,  and  when  soiled  can  be  renovated  with  a moistened  sponge. 
There  seems  to  be  some  danger  in  the  manufacture  of  C.  Though  there  have  been 
explosions  and  several  persons  killed  in  one  of  the  manufactories,  it  is  said  that  with 
due  care,  and  avoidance  of  unwarrantable  experiments,  the  manufacture  is  not  unsafe. 

CELLULOSE' is  the  term  applied  to  the  carbohydrate,  CiaHioOio,  which  forms  the 
mass  of  the  cell-membranes  of  all  plants.  It  is  one  of  a class  of  compounds  intimately 
connected  in  their  chemical  constitution,  but  presenting  remarkable  physical  differences. 
Without  entering  into  chemical  details,  we  may  mention  the  following  points  of  differ- 
ence between  it  and  the  chemically  allied  substances — sugar,  dextrine,  and  starch. 
Sugar  and  dextrine  are  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  occur  in  the  cell  sap  in  solution; 
starch  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  softens  into  a mucilage  in  boiling- water,  and  i» 
found  in  granules  in  the  cell-contents;  while  C.  is  insoluble  in  cold  or  boiling  water,, 
and,  as  far  as  is  at  present  known,  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  the  strong  mineral  acids, 
its  only  perfect  solvent  being  a solution  of  oxide  of  copper  in  ammonia. 

The  occurrence  of  C.  in  an  organism  was  formerly  regarded  as  a certain  proof  that 
the  latter  belonged  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  has,  however,  been  shown  to  be  a 
constituent  of  the  lower  animals. 

Although  C.  forms  a large  proportion  of  the  food  of  herbivorous  animals,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  pass  through  the  intestinal  canal  unchanged,  and  not  to  contribute  directly  to- 
nutrition. 

CELSIUS,  Anders,  1701-44;  a Swedish  astronomer,  b.  at  Upsala.  He  traveled  iu 
Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  1736  led  by  Maupertius  and 
others  to  measure  a degree  of  latitude  in  Lapland.  C.  was  a member  of  the  academies 
at  Stockholm  and  Berlin,  of  the  British  royal  society,  and  secretary  of  the  royal  society 
of  Upsala.  Among  his  works  are  Observations  on  the  Measurement  of  the  Earth,  and  A 
New  Method  of  Measuring  the  Distance  of  the  Sun  from  the  Earth,  in  which  he  endeavored 
to  show  that  the  waters  of  the  ocean  are  decreasing  in  volume. 

CELSUS,  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  but  tinged  with  Platonism,  lived  in  the  2d  c. 
after  Christ,  and  wrote,  after  150  a.d.,  under  the  title  Logos  Alethes  (the  True  Word)  the 
first  considerable  polemic  against  Christianity.  The  book  itself  has  perished ; but  con- 
siderable  fragments  have  been  preserved  as  quotations  given  by  Origen  in  his  answer. 
Contra  Celsum,  in  eight  books.  In  the  fragments — which  are  very  interesting,  as  show- 
ing the  views  of  a heathen  philosopher  in  regard  to  Christianity — C.,  with  wit  and 
acuteness,  but  without  depth  or  earnestness  of  thought,  prefers  against  the  new  religion 
charges  of  unphilos.ophicalness  and  blind  credulity;  and  especially  endeavors  to  con- 
vict Christians  of  self-contradiction  in  their  spiritual  doctrine  contrasted  with  their 
anthropomorphic  representations  of  Deity;  in  their  religious  arrogance  contrasted 
with  their  confession  of  sinfulness;  and  in  their  views  of  the  necessity  of  redemp- 
tion. He  also  reproaches  Christians  with  their  party  divisions  and  ever-varying 
opinion.  With  regard  to  his  own  positive  doctrines,  he  speaks  of  evil  as  necessary  and 
eternal,  as  an  essential  property  of  the  material  world  {hyle)\  sin  as  something  that  can 
never  be  entirely  removed,  and  least  of  all  through  a vicarious  sacrifice.  He  charges- 
Christians  with  having  willfully  altered  their  sacred  writings. 

CELSUS,  Aulus  Cornelius,  a Latin  physician  and  writer,  who  flourished  probably 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  He  was  called  the  Roman  Hippocrates,  because  he  generally 
follow'ed  the  great  “father  of  medicine,”  and  introduced  the  Hippocratic  system 
among  the  Romans.  C.  wrote  not  only  on  medicine,  but  also  on  rhetoric,  history, 
philosophy,  the  art  of  war,  and  agriculture.  His  style  is  succinct  and  clear,  but  full  of 
Graecisms.  The  only  great  work  of  his  which  survives,  is  the  De  Medicind,  w^hich  is 
divided  into  eight  books.  The  portions  relating  to  surgery  are  exceedingly  interesting 
and  valuable,  because  C.  has  there  given  an  account  of  the  opinions  and  observations  of 
the  Alexandrian  school  of  medicine.  The  first  edition  of  the  De  Medicind  appeared  at 
Florence  in  1478.  C.’s  works  have  been  translated  into  several  modern  languages.  A 
translation  into  English  was  made  by  Dr.  Grieve,  London,  1756.  Among  the  best 
editions  are  those  of  Krause  (Leip.  1766),  Dr.  Milligan’s  2d  edition  (Edin.  1831),  and  one 
at  Cologne.  1835. 

CELT  (Lat.  celtis,  a chisel),  the  name  hy  which  certain  weapons  or  implements  of  the 
early  inhabitants  of  western  Europe  are  known  among  archaeologists.  Celts  are  either 
of  stone  or  of  bronze. 

Stone  celts  vary  in  length  from  about  1 in.  to  22  in. ; but  the  most  common  size 
is  from  6 to  8 in.  in  length,  and  from  2 to  3^  in.  in  breadth.  They  are  made  of 
almost  every  kind  of  stone,  and  show  considerable  diversity  of  shape,  almost  all, 
however,  having  more  or  less  resemblance  to  the  muscle-shell.  The  ruder  celts  are 
generally  of  slate,  shale,  schist,  or  grit;  the  finer,  of  flint,  porphyry,  greenstone,  syenite, 
or  agate.  Many  of  the  finer  celts  are  beautifully  shaped  and  highly  polished.  A 
remarkable  example  of  this  class,  the  property  of  sir  Coutts  Lindsay,  found  near  St. 
Andrews,  in  Scotland,  is  described  by  sir  David  Brew’ster  in  the  Philosophical  Journal 
fcH*  1823.  Recently,  a class  of  celts  found  in  the  later  geological  strata  have  excited 


611 


Cellulose. 

Celtic. 


much  interest  as  well  among  archaeologists  as  among  geologists.  They  are  obviously  of 
the  same  type  with  the  more  common  celts,  but  of  ruder  construction,  as  if  fashioned  by 
a more  barbarous  people.  The  stone  C.  was  fastened  into  a handle  of  horn,  bone,  or 
wood.  A C,  of  -serpentine,  with  a handle  of  deerhorn,  was  found  in  one  of  the  Swiss  lakes 
in  July,  1859,  and  a stone  C.  with  a wooden  handle,  in  the  county  of  Tyrone,  in  Ireland, 

Bronze  celts  vary  in  length  from  about  1 in.  to  8 or  10  in.,  the  most  common 
length  being  about  0 inches.  They  are  sometimes  ornamented  with  rudely  incised  lines 
or  circles,  and  have  occasionally  been  found  wrapped  up  in  linen,  or  inclosed  in  bronze 
cases  or  sheaths.  They  show  much  greater  diversity  of  shape  than  the  stone  celt.  As 
many  as  four  classes  have  been  distinguished  by  archaeologists — 1st,  The  simple  wedge- 
shaped  C.,  most  nearly  resembling  the  common  form  of  the  stone  celt.  2d,  The  wedge- 
shaped  C.,  with  sides  more  or  less  overlapping,  and  a stop  ridge  or  elevation  between  the 
blade  and  the  part  which  received  the  handle.  3d,  The  wedge-shaped  C.,  with  sides 
greatly  overlapping,  with  or  without  the  stop-ridge,  but  with  a loop  or  ear  upon,  and 
parallel  to,  its  lower  surface.  4th,  The  socketed  C.,  or  the  C.  with  a hollow  to  receive 
the  handle,  and  generally  with  a loop  or  ear  upon  its  lower  surface. 

Both  stone  and  bronze  celts  were  probably  used  for  several  purposes,  serving  for 
chisels,  adzes,  and  axes,  as  well  as  for  weapons  of  war,  like  the  stone  hatchets  of  the 
South  Sea  islanders  and  other  savage  or  barbarous  tribes.  Examples  of  stone  and 
bronze  celts  of  all  classes  (together  with  the  molds  in  which  bronze  celts  were  cast) 
may  be  seen  in  the  British  museum  at  London,  in  the  national  museum  of  the  anti- 
quaries  of  Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  the  museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  academy  at 
Dublin.  The  last  collection  has  more  than  500  examples  of  stone  celts,  about  one  half 
of  which  were  found  in  deepening  the  bed  of  the  Shannon  or  its  tributaries,  between  the 
years  1843  and  1848.  A bushel  of  bronze  celts  has  more  than  once  been  discovered  at 
one  spot. 

CELTIBE'RI,  a powerful  people  of  ancient  Spain,  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  a 
blending  of  the  Iberians  or  Spanish  aborigines  with  Celtic  invaders  from  Gaul.  The  C. 
inhabited  a large  inland  district  of  the  peninsula,  corresponding  to  the  s.w.  half  of 
Aragon,  nearly  the  whole  of  Cuen9a  and  Soria,  and  a great  part  of  Burgos,  but  the 
name  Celtiberia  had  often  a wider,  signification,  including  the  country  as  far  s.  as 
the  sources  of  the  Guadalquivir.  The  C.  were  divided  into  four  tribes,  and  were 
unquestionably  one  of  the  bravest  and  noblest  peoples  in  the  peninsula.  Their  cavalry 
and  infantry  were  equally  excellent.  For  many  years,  they  withstood  the  efforts  of  the 
Romans  to  subdue  them,  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  campaigns  of  Sertorius  that  they 
began  to  adopt  the  Roman  language,  dress,  and  manners. 

CELTIC  NATIONS,  one  of  the  groups  of  the  great  Aryan  (q.v.)  family. 

Languages. — In  addition  to  the  English,  and  retreating  before  it,  there  are  at  present 
four  languages  spoken  in  the  British  isles — the  Irish,  the  Highland  Scotch  (or  Gaelic), 
the  Manx,  in  the  isle  of  Man — all  three  nearly  related  to  one  another,  and  constituting 
the  northern  (Erse,  Gadhelic)  branch  of  the  Celtic  languages;  whilst  the  fourth  language, 
the  Welsh,  constitutes,  together  with  the  Cornish  of  Cornwall  (extinct  since  1778)  and 
the  Bas  Breton  of  Brittany,  the  southern  (Briton,  Cymric,  Cambric)  branch.  The 
remains  of  the  language  of  the  Gauls  or  Celts,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  France,  closely 
resemble  the  British  and  Gadhelic  idioms;  hence  the  name  Celtic  languages  has  been 
applied  to  the  whole  of  them.  The  Celtic  idioms  belong  to  the  Indo-German  (Aryan) 
family,  as  their  numerals  show.  Compare 


Old  Irish. 

1.  oin 

2.  da 

3.  tri 

4.  cethir  (c=k) 

5.  coic 

6.  se 

7.  secht(n) 

8.  oct(n) 

9.  noi(n) 

10.  deich 
20.  fichet 

100.  cet 

The  Gaulish  was  nearer  to  the  Cymric  branch,  its  numerals  4 and  5 having  been  petor, 
pempe.  There  are  a few  Gaulish  inscriptions  which  show  a declension  with  full  inflec- 
tions; in  old  Irish,  five  cases  still  exist,  but  the  terminations  are  very  much  mutilated; 
in  Welsh,  they  have  disappeared.  Thus,  the  Gaulish  name  Segomaros  is  declined:  gen. 
-rf,  dat.  -ru,  acc.  -von;  the  old  Irish,  fer,  a man,  has  the  gen.  jir,  dat.  Jiur,  acc.  fer,  voc. 
jvr;  whilst  the  correspondent  Welsh  gwr  is  inflexible.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  pseudo- 
simplicity of  the  Welsh  is  the  result  of  grammatical  decay,  common  in  all  Aryan 
languages,  and  does  not  at  all  warrant  Latham’s  theory,  that  the  Celts  branched  off  from 
the  primitive  Indo-German  nation  before  the  development  of  case  inflections. 

Eutory. — Of  the  separation  of  the  Celts  from  the  other  Aryans  or  Indo-Germans,  and 


Old  Welsh. 

Sanscrit. 

un 

gka 

dou 

dvSu 

tri 

trayas 

pedwar 

chatvSras 

pimp 

pan chan 

chwech 

shash 

seith 

saptan 

wyth 

ashtan 

nau 

navan 

dec 

da^an 

ugeint 

vin9ati 

cant 

9ata 

Celtic. 


612 


their  early  migrations  to  western  Europe,  no  record  has  come  down,  the  stories  about 
Milesian  colonies  in  Ireland,  and  migrations  from  Troy  into  Wales,  being  simply  monk- 
ish fictions.  At  the  dawn  of  history,  we  find  the  Gauls  (Galli,  Celtte,  Gaiatai)  occupying 
France  (Gallia),  which  was  divided  into  Aquitania,  between  the  Pyrenees  and  Garonne ; 
Gallia  Celtica  proper,  between  Garonne  and  Seine;  and  Belgica,  from  the  Seine  to  the 
Rhine.  The  land  about  the  Rhone  being  more  early  conquered  by  the  Romans  than  the 
rest,  was  set  apart  by  them  under  the  name  of  Gallia  Narbonensis,  or  Gallia Lugdunensis 
(from  the  towns  Narbo  and  Lugdunum,  Narbonne  and  Lyon).  The  whole  of  the  four 
was  called  Gaul  beyond  the  Alps  {Gallia  Transalpina).  A great  many  tribes  of  Gauls  had 
settled  in  Lombardy,  where  they  founded  Mediolanum  (Milan),  and  which  therefore 
took  the  name  Gallia  Gisalpina  (d-aul  this  side  the  Alps).  Other  Gauls  had  penetrated 
into  Spain,  where  they  became  mixed  with  the  native  Iberians,  and  thus  gave  rise  to  the 
Geliiberians  about  the  river  Iberus  (Ebro).  Numerous  hosts  migrated  across  the  Rhine, 
occupied  southern  Germany  and  Bohemia,  and,  following  the  course  of  the  Danube, 
some  invaded  Thrace  and  Greece  (278  b c.);  but  being  repelled,  the  main  body  of  them 
settled  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  province  called  after  them  Galatia.  The  Romans  found 
the  Gauls  at  first  very  formidable  enemies;  Rome  itself  was  burned  by  them  (389  b.c.), 
but  gradually  the  Romans  conquered  first  Gallia  Cisalpina  (223),  then  Gallia  Narbonensis 
(112),  and  lastly,  Csesar  subjected  all  France  (53  b.c.),  after  which  the  Gauls  soon  became 
Romanized.  The  Gauls  of  Asia  Minor,  for  a long  time  the  terror  of  all  the  neighbor- 
hood, were  defeated  by  the  Romans  (187),  and  their  land  finally  made  a province  of  the 
empire  (35  b.c.). — The  Britons  (Britanni;  Welsh,  Brython)  were  little  known  before 
Cajsar’s  two  unsuccessful  expeditions  into  Britannia;  the  country  was  conquered  by  the 
Roman  gen.  Agricola  (78-84  a. d.),  who  secured  the  new  province  against  the  inroads 
of  the  Caledonians  of  Scotland  by  a fortification  across  the  Scotch  lowlands,  between, 
the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  afterwards  removed  by  the  emperor  Hadrian  further  south- 
ward, to  between  Solway  firth  and  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne.  The  Britons  were  so  much 
influenced  by  Roman  civilization — they  were  also  early  converted  to  Christianity — that 
the  heathen  Angles  and  Saxons,  who  conquered  them  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries, 
called  them  Welsh;  a name  which,  with  the  other  Teutons,  applies  to  all  nations  speak- 
ing languages  of  Latin  descent.  A few  of  the  Britons  maintained  their  independence  in 
Cornwall,  Cumberland,  and  in  the  mountains  of  Wales.  On  the  last,  the  name  Welsh 
was  ultimately  fixed  by  the  English;  they  themselves,  however,  called  their  nation 
Gymro,  pi.  Gymry  (a  compound  of  cyn,  with,  in  common,  and  bro,  land  = having  a 
common  country,  ^countrymen,  in  contradistinction  to  the  foreign  invader),  a name 
which  has  nothing'to  do  with  Cimbri  and  Cimmerii.  The  Welsh  remained  independent 
under  different  petty  princes  till  1382,  when  Edward  I.  conquered  them.  A part  of  the 
Britons  went  over  in  the  4th  c.  to  France,  where  they  took  possession  of  Brittany, 
which  maintained  a doubtful  independence  under  dukes  of  its  own  till  about  1500. — 
Whether  the  Galedonians,  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  Scotland,  were  Celts  of  the  Cymric  or 
Erse  branch,  is  unknown.  After  the  3d  c. , their  name  disappears,  and  we  hear,  instead,  of 
the  Scoti  and  Picti.  As  to  the  latter,  the  same  doubt  prevails;  but  the  Scoti  were  emi- 
grants from  Ireland,  both  Se<?tas  and  Gadhelus  being  common  national  names  of  the  old 
Irish.  From  Gadhel,^  the  modern  Gael,  Gaelic  is  derived,  w^hich  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  name  of  the  Galli. — Ireland  (Hibernia,  whence  the  modern  Eirinn  is  derived),  enters 
into  the  light  of  history  with  its  conversion  to  Christianity  by  St.  Patrick  (460).  The 
four  centuries  following  on  this  event  are  the  brightest  period  in  its  history.  Ireland 
was  then  the  seat  of  piety  and  learning,  and  sent  forth  numerous  missionaries,  by  whom 
many  monasteries,  centers  of  civilization,  were  founded — as  Iona,  in  Scotland,  by 
Columba  (563);  St.  Gall,  by  Gallus  (615);  Wurzburg,  by  Kilian  (687).  In  the  7th  c.,  we 
find  Irish  bishops  at  Ratisbon;  and  Yirgilius  (Feargal),  (died  784),  bishop  of  Salzburg, 
played  no  small  part  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Germany.  But  Ireland  remained 
politically  divided  among  many  princes,  and  so  became  an  easy  prey  of  those  “black 
heathens”  the  Scandinavians,  whose  invasions  began  795,  and  who  founded  Norse 
kingdoms  at  Dublin,  Waterford,  Limerick,  etc.  In  the  fierce  battles  between  the  two 
nations,  the  prosperity  of  Ireland  rapidly  declined,  and  the  English  conquest  (1171)  only 
completed  the  ruin. — The  isle  of  Man,  inhabited  by  a branch  of  the  Irish,  after  having 
been  subject  to  Welsh,  Scotch,  Norse  princes  in  turn,  acknowledged  England’s  sover- 
eignty in  1344. 

Religion  and  Mythology. — A few  notices  in  the  classics  and  the  Latin  inscriptions  of 
Gaul  are  our  rather  meager  sources  of  information  on  the  Celtic  paganism.  As  the  three 
chief  gods,  or  three  of  the  chief  gods,  Lucan  mentions  Teutates,  Hesus,  and  Taranis,  all 
of  them  worshiped  with  human  sacrifices.  Taranis  reappears  as  Jupiter  laranucnus  on 
an  inscription;  and  from  this  identification  with  Jupiter,  as  well  as  from  the  fact  that  hi 
Welsh  taran  means  thunder,  we  may  infer  that  he  was  the  god  of  the  thunderstorm. 
Other  gods  frequently  occurring  on  inscriptions  are  Apollo  Grannus,  Apollo  Belenus, 
Mars  Gamulus,  Minena  Belisama,  etc.,  all  of  them,  however,  empty  names  to  us.  A 
remarkable  feature  in  Gaulish  religion  was  the  worship  of  certain  Mother  Goddesses  (called 
on  the  inscriptions  Junones,  Matronge,  Deae  Matres,  Campestres,  Nymphae).  They  are 
frequently  connected  witli  special  localities,  as  in  the  inscriptions  dedicated  to  Matronis 
Lanehiabus,  M.  Hamavehis,  M.  Rumanehabus,  and  on  the  one  in  Gaulish:  Matrebo- 
Namaucicabo,  “to  the  Mothers  of  Nimes.”  To  this  class  apparently  belongs  the  Dea 


613 


Celtio# 


J^ehalennia,  once  represented  on  a relief  with  a basket  of  fruit,  and  a dog  for  companion. 
Mela,  the  geographer,  speaks  of  an  island  in  the  Atlantic,  near  Gaul,  where  there  was  an 
oracle  superintended  by  nine  maidens,  who  could  cause  storms,  take  the  form  of  any 
animal,  could  cure  what  otherwise  was  incurable,  and  predicted  the  future.  These  god- 
desses, at  once  motherly  and  maidenly,  residing  in  field  and  wood  (campestres,  nympliae), 
givers  of  plenty  and  prophets  of  the  future,  are  the  heathen  prototypes  of  ih^fees  (fairies, 
as  distinguished  from  “elfs”)  of  the  middle  ages.  The  “little  folk”  were  known  to  the 
Gauls  under  the  name  of  Diisii.  They  believed  in  the  existence  of  individual  tutelary 
genii,  as  a stone  of  Lausanne  shows,  being  erected  by  three  Gauls  Suljis  suis  (hence  our 
sylph?).  The  belief  in  the  transmigration  of  souls  was  common  amongst  the  Gauls,  or 
at  least  their  priests  the  Druids,  so  called  from  their  performing  sacred  rites  in  oak-woods 
(Welsh,  derw,  an  oak;  derwydd,  a Druid).  These  Druids  were  also  the  depositaries  of 
knowledge  and  tradition,  and  constituted,  in  Gaul  at  least,  a powerful  hierarchy,  with  a 
supreme  pontiff.  Druids  are  found  both  in  Ireland  and  in  Wales,  and  the  fees  abound 
in  Welsh  tradition;  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  superhuman  beings  appearing  in 
the  Welsh  poems  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries — such  as  Hu  Gadarn,  the  reputed  founder 
of  Bardic  institutions  (see  beneath) — are  genuine  relics  of  the  British  religion.  The  belief 
in  transmigration  lasted  very  long,  as  the  mediaeval  Welsh  tale  of  Icdiesin  speaks  dis- 
tinctly of  Taliesin’s  successive  existences.  Though  not  properly  mythological,  we  may 
mention  here  the  romantic  stories  of  the  Britons  ab^out  king  Arthur  and  his  knights.  He 
is  first  mentioned  by  Nennius  in  the  9th  c. ; but  his  fable  was  further  developed  in  the 
next  centuries  both  in  Wales  and  Brittany,  then  embodied  in  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth’s 
Historia  Britonum,  which  served  as  the  groundwork  of  the  French  Roman  de  Brut  of 
Wace.  Through  these  works,  and  partly,  also,  through  the  direct  influence  of  the  oral 
traditions  of  Brittany,  it  passed  into  French  literature,  and  thence  spread  over  all 
Europe. 

Literature. — The  Gauls  learned  writing  from  the  Greeks;  later,  they  employed  the 
Roman  alphabet,  as  do  the  Welsh  and  Irish,  the  now  used  Irish  character  being  nothing 
but  the  common  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  the  Latin  alphabet.  Besides,  however,  tlie  Irish 
claim  an  old  character  of  their  own,  the  Ogham,  in  which  the  letters  are  represented  by 
a number  of  vertical  strokes  put  in  a right  angle  to  a horizontal  line,  or  else  by  horizontal 
strokes  to  a vertical  line.  Some  of  the  Ogham  inscriptions  are  said  to  be  older  than 
Christianity.  Even  more  doubtful  is  the  antiquity  of  a Welsh  so-called  Bardic  alphabet, 
in  which  there  seem  to  be  no  inscriptions  extant,  and  which  is,  at  any  rate,  an  alteration 
of  the  Roman  character.  A feature  common  to  all  Celts  is  the  existence  of  a kind  of 
literary  order,  the  Bards  (q.v.),  poets  and  guardians  of  tradition — in  Gaul,  nearly  related 
to  or  part  of  the  priesthood;  in  Wales  and  Ireland,  in  immediate  connection  wdth  the 
kings. — A Gaulish  literature  there  certainly  was,  as  Caesar  informs  us  that,  in  the  schools 
of  the  Druids,  the  young  men  used  to  learn  by  heart  a great  number  of  verses  on  theolog- 
ical and  historical  subjects.  But  these  poems  were  never  written  down.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  rhyme,  first  used  by  St.  Ambrosius  (397)  in  his  hymns,  is  of  Gaulish  origin, 
this  being  the  common  form  even  of  the  oldest  Irish  and  Welsh  poems. — The  Irish  liter- 
ature began  with  the  conversion,  but  our  existing  manuscripts  are  not  older  than  the  9th 
or  8th  century.  Interlinear  versions  of  biblical  and  other  theological,  or  of  grammatical 
writings  are  about  the  oldest  manuscripts,  many  of  which,  in  consequence  of  the  missionary 
zeal  of  the  nation,  are  to  be  found  at  St.  Gall,  Milan,  and  other  continental  places. 
Then  there  are  ecclesiastic  hymns,  one  of  the  oldest  ascribed  to  Patrick.  A renowned 
author  of  poems,  in  the  10th  c.,  was  Eochad  O’Flin.  Secular  poetry  of  ancient  times 
there  has  come  down  to  us  none,  but  we  have  testimonies  as  old  as  the  12th  c.  of  the 
existence  of  such,  ascribed  in  a general  way  to  the  old  pagan  hero  Oisin,  son  of  Mac- 
Cumhal.  The  existing  specimens,  mostly  warlike — except  some  dialogues  between  Oisin 
and  St.  Patrick — are  recent.  Those  Gaels  that  went  over  to  Scotland,  took,  of  course, 
similar  traditions  with  them.  With  a partial  knowledge  of  these,  Macpherson  composed 
(1765)  the  w^ork  which  he  declared  (rather  loosely)  to  be  an  English  translation  of  the 
songs  of  the  old  Scotch  poet  Ossian,  son  of  Fingal  (the  true  Oisin  was  an  Irishman). 
The  would-be  Gaelic  original  of  Macpherson’s  work,  edited  in  1807,  is  either  a compila- 
tion or  retranslation.  Of  Irish  prose,  the  annals  are  the  most  important  part:  first,  those 
of  Tighernach  (1088),  then  the  Annales  Inisfalienses,  A.  Ultonienses;  lastly,  the  Annals 
of  the  Four  Masters,  being  a compilation  made  (1634)  from  older  sources  chiefly  by  four 
Franciscans,  beginning  with  242  after  the  deluge,  and  ending  with  1616  a.d. — The  oldest 
remains  of  Welsh  literature  are  the  songs,  so  far  as  they  are  genuine,  of  the  bards  of  the 
6th  c. — Liwarch  Hen,  Aneurin,  Taliesin — having  chiefly  the  life  and  deeds  of  contempo- 
rary princes  for  their  subject,  but  few  in  number.  In  the  10th  c.,  we  have  the  col- 
lection of  laws  by  Howel  Dda.  The  historians  Gildas  and  Nennius,  of  the  9th  c.,  wrote 
in  Latin. 

The  great  age  of  Welsh  literature  is  the  12th  and  succeeding  centuries,  when  the 
energies  of  the  nation  were  roused  in  the  struggle  with  England.  In  this  contest,  the 
bards  played  a conspicuous  part  as  agitators.  After  a long  interval,  we  hear  again  of  a 
great  bard,  Meylyr  (1100);  many  follow,  amongst  whom  Kynddelw  (1200)  deserves 
special  mention,  both  as  a poet  (we  have  49  pieces  of  his)  and  a patriot.  Welsh  poetry 
consists  in — 1.  Political  lyrics,  war-songs,  songs  in  praise  of  chieftains,  elegies  on  the 
same.  2.  Religious  hymns.  3.  Pseudonymous  poems,  ascribed  to  Merddin  (Merlin),  the 


Celtis. 

C«ments< 


614 


mythical  enchanter,  and  Taliesen,  the  old  bard,  having  generally  the  form  of  prophesiej 
on  the  struggle  between  the  Saxons  and  Welsh,  and  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  latter. 
Thus,  in  the  Avalennau  (or  apple  trees),  attributed  to  Merlin,  the  Welsh  nation  is  enig^ 
matically  represented  under  the  image  of  “seven  score  and  seven  sweet  apple  trees, 
whose  fruits,  princes  (viz.,  the  English)  wish  in  vain  to  despoil.  4.  The  Triads,  short 
memorial  (?)  verses  in  which  three  remarkable  events,  subjects,  or  persons  are  respec- 
tively mentioned  (hence  the  name),  embracing  history,  theology,  jurisprudence.  5. 
Dialogues  of  dramatic  character.  There  were— apparently  now  lost — also  miracle  plays 
actually  represented. 

The  only  remarkable  remnant  of  Cornish  literature  comes  under  this  head,  being  three 
ecclesiastical  plays  of  the  14t.h  c. — the  Creation,  the  Passion,  and  the  Resurrection. — In 
Welsh  prose,  we  have  first  the  chronicles.  Geoffrey’s  chronicle,  though  Latin,  is 
thoroughly  national ; then  there  is  that  of  Caradoc,  who  begins  where  Geoffrey  leaves 
off;  and  the  Liber  Landarenm,  a history  of  the  bishops  of  Llandaff  down  to  1132. 
Further,  we  have  the  Mabinogion  (Children’s  Tales),  romantic  stories.  The  most  inter- 
esting of  these  refer  to  Arthur  and  his  champions;  the  lady  of  the  fountain,  Peredur, 
Geraint  (now  revived  by  Tennyson),  Arthur’s  boar-hunt.  Amongst  the  non-Arthurian 
tales,  special  mention  is  deserved  by  the  Mabinogi  of  Taliesin,  interspersed  with  verses, 
relating  the  adventures,  transformations  into  animal  shape,  and  transmigrations  of  that 
bard.  There  are  besides  some  scientific  writings,  a treatise  on  medicine,  another  on 
geometry,  and  one  on  Welsh  prosody  by  Edeyrn  (1260).  This  last,  a grammatical  essay 
in  and  on  a vernacular  tongue,  is  paralleled  in  the  middle  ages  only  by  Icelandic  litera- 
ture, to  which,  upon  the  whole,  the  Welsh,  although  not  quite  so  high,  bears  a marked 
resemblance. 

Concluding  Remarks. — Altogether,  the  Celts  are  a very  important  branch  of  our  Indo- 
German  family.  The  incessant  warfares  of  the  Gauls  bespeak  at  least  activity  of  mind 
and  body;  the  Irish  missions  have  done  a great  deal  for  European  civilization;  whilst 
the  traditions  of  the  Britons  have  deeply  influenced  mediaeval  literature.  The  one  great 
defect  of  the  Celts  is  incapacity  for  political  organization.  Their  very  enthusiasm,  lively 
feeling,  and  vivid  imagination,  have  ever  prevented  them  from  taking  coolly  and  delib- 
erately those  measures  which  lead  to  national  unity;  hence  it  is  that  they  gave  way 
before  the  more  practical  Roman  and  Teuton.  But  while  they  lost  their  independence, 
and  oftentimes  their  very  language,  in  the  contest  with  the  foreigner,  whose  strong  hand 
molded  them  into  national  unity,  yet  they  reacted  on  him  in  their  turn.  They  are  fast 
disappearing  by  merging  into  the  English;  but  if  the  quiet  resolution,  the  sturdy  common 
sense,  the  talent  for  public  life,  state  organization,  and  political  dominion,  that  charac- 
terize the  modern  British  nation,  are  altogether  Teutonic — on  the  other  hand,  their 
genuine  refinement  of  manner  and  feeling,  and  their  high  poetical  susceptibilities,  are 
to  no  small  extent  due  to  the  admixture  of  Celtic  blood 

CELTIS.  See  Nettle-tree. 

CEMBRA  NUT  and  CEMBRA  PINE.  See  Pine. 

CEMENTA'TION  OF  STEEL  is  the  process  followed  in  the  production  of  blistered  sted 
(q.v.),  or  steel  of  cementation. 

CEMENTS.  A cement  is  a substance  used  to  make  the  surfaces  of  solid  bodies  adhere 
to  one  another;  it  is  applied  in  a liquid  or  viscous  state,  and  hardens  after  the  surfaces 
are  brought  together.  When  fused  metals  or  alloys  are  used  in  this  manner,  they  are 
called  solders.  There  is  a great  variety  of  C.  derived  from  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral  substances.  The  animal  C.  are  chiefly  composed  of  gelatine  and  albumen  as 
their  bases.’  Joiners’  glue  is  an  example.  See  Glue.  The  binding  materials  of  vege- 
table C.  are  gums,  resins,  and  wax.  The  mineral  C.  are  chiefly  of  lime  and  its  com- 
pounds. In  many  C.,  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  substances  are  combined.  The 
simplest  of  the  mineral  C.  is  plaster  of  Paris,  which  is  used  for  uniting  slabs  of  marble, 
alabaster,  and  many  similar  purposes.  It  is  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  thick 
cream,  and  then  applied.  This  hardens  rapidly,  but  is  not  very  strong.  Its  hardening 
depends  upon  the  true  chemical  combination  of  the  water  with  anhydrous  sulphate  of 
lime,  of  which  plaster  of  Paris  is  composed,  and  the  formation  thereby  of  a solid  hydrate. 
The  plaster  of  Paris  may  be  mixed  with  thin  glue,  with  diluted  white  of  egg,  or  a solu- 
tion of  size  or  gum,  instead  of  water,  and  is  strengthened  thereby. 

Keene’s  marble  cement  is  prepared  by  steeping  plaster  of  Paris  in  a concentrated 
solution  of  alum,  then  recalcining  and  powdering.  This  powder  is  mixed  with  water 
in  the  same  manner  as  plaster  of  Paris.  It  is  used  as  a stucco  for  internal  decorations, 
takes  a high  polish,  and  when  colored,  forms  beautiful  imitations  of  mosaic,  marbles, 
scagliola,  etc. 

A mixture  of  paper  pulp,  size,  and  plaster  of  Paris  in  equal  proportions,  forms  a 
useful  cement,  and  is  also  used  as  a sort  of  papier-mache  for  casting  into  architectural 
ornaments,  etc. 

Common  mortar  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  lime  cements.  It  is  composed 
of  slaked  lime,  or  a mixture  of  this  with  sand;  its  hardening  depends  upon  the  slow 
formation  of  carbonate  of  lime  by  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  a partial  combination  with  the  silica  of  the  sand.  Cow-hair  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  it,  to  bind  it  when  laid  in  masses.  In  order  to  obtain  a fine  smooth  paste,  which. 


615 


Celtls. 

Cementa« 


is  required  for  good  mortar,  the  lime  should  be  slaked  rapidly  by  adding  about  three 
parts  of  water  to  one  of  lime;  if  the  quantity  of  water  is  too  small,  a coarser  or  semi- 
crystalline hydrate  of  lime  is  produced  by  the  slaking.  For  the  mode  of  applying 
mortar,  see  Brickwork. 

Ordinary  mortar,  when  exposed  to  the  continuous  action  of  water,  softens  and  dis- 
integrates, and  some  of  the  lime  dissolves  away.  Lime  which  contains  20  or  30  per  cent 
of  clay,  or  finely  divided  silica,  produces  a mortar  which  is  not  liable  to  this  softening, 
but  possesses  the  property  of  hardening  under  water;  such  lime  is  called  hydraulic,  and 
the  mortar  made  from  it,  hydraulic  cement  or  mortar. 

Puzzolana,  a porous  lava  found  at  Puzzuoli,  near  Naples,  has  been  long  celebrated 
for  its  property  of  forming  a hydraulic  cement,  when  mixed  with  ordinary  lime.  It  is 
mainly  composed  of  silicates  of  alumina,  lime,  and  soda.  Portland  cement,  so  named 
from  its  resemblance  to  Portland  stone  when  dry,  is  made  from  clay  found  in  the  vall^ 
of  the  Medway,  which  is  intimatelymixed  with  the  neighboring  chalk,  and  then  burned. 
Roman  cement  is  similar  to  the  Portland,  but  of  a darker  color;  it  contains  a larger  pro- 
portion of  clay,  and  solidifies  more  rapidly.  These  C.  should  be  mixed  with  a sufficient 
quantity  of  water  to  form  a moderately  thick  paste;  the  surfaces  to  which  they  are  applied 
should  be  well  wetted,  and  the  cement  kept  slightly  moist  until  it  hardens.  The  solidifica- 
tion of  hydraulic  C.  depends  upon  the  combination  of  the  lime  with  the  silica  and  alu- 
mina forming,  first  a hydrated  compound,  and  finally  a true  silicate.  They  expand 
slightly  in  solidifying. 

The  following  receipts  include  some  of  the  most  useful  and  reliable  C.  applicable 
to  the  purposes  specified : for  water-tight  joints,  such  as  slate  cisterns,  aquaria,  etc. , and 
for  uniting  broken  pieces  of  stone,  and  filling  up  metallic  joints — take  equal  parts  of  red 
and  white  lead,  and  work  them  into  a stiff  paste  with  boiled  linseed  oil.  When  used 
for  metal  joints,  it  should  be  made  rather  thin,  and  both  pieces  of  metal,  as  well  as  the 
washer,  well  smeared  with  it.  This  cement  hardens  slowly,  but  becomes  ultimately  of 
almost  flinty  hardness.  We  have  before  us  an  aquarium,  holding  fifteen  gallons  of  water, 
made  of  plate-glass,  cemented  at  the  angles  to  mahogany  columns  with  this  composition. 
It  has  stood  without  leaking  for  above  three  years,  in  spite  of  much  rough  handling  and 
moving  about;  and  the  cement  is  now  so  hard,  that  it  is  difficult  to  scratch  it  with  a 
knife. 

Cement  composed  of  ox-blood  thickened  with  finely  powdered  quicklime,  is  used  by 
coppersmiths,  for  securing  the  edges  of  rivets  of  copper  boilers,  and  for  steam-joints. 
Another  cement  for  steam-joints  is  made  with  borings  or  turnings  of  cast-iron  mixed  with 
a little  sal  ammoniac  and  flowers  of  sulphur.  It  should  be  stirred  up  with  a small  quantity 
of  water,  just  sufficient  to  moisten  it,  then  rammed  into  the  joint,  which  should  be 
bolted  up  as  tightly  as  possible ; 5 lbs.  of  iron  borings  to  2 oz.  of  sal  ammoniac,  and  1 
oz.  of  sulphur,  are  the  proportions  recommended.  A cement  of  this  kind  may  be  made  of 
4 lbs.  iron  borings,  2 lbs.  pipe-clay,  and  1 lb.  of  powdered  earthenware  fragments  made 
into  a paste  with  salt  and  water;  or  2 parts  litharge  in  fine  powder,  1 part  very  fine 
sand,  and  1 of  quicklime  that  has  slaked  spontaneously  in  a damp  place.  These  should 
be  mixed,  and  kept  from  the  air,  and  made  into  a paste  with  boiled  linseed  oil  when  about 
to  be  used.  This  is  a valuable  cement  for  steam,  joints,  for  mending  cracks  in  boilers, 
ovens,  etc.  Beale’s  patent  fireproof  cement,  for  similar  purposes,  is  composed  of  chalk,  12 
parts;  lime  and  salt,  each  4 parts;  Barnsey  sand,  2 parts;  iron  filings  or  dust,  1 part; 
and  blue  or  red  clay,  1 part.  These  are  ground  and  calcined  together. 

Electrical  Cement — so  called  from  its  use  in  uniting  the  cylinders  of  electrical  machines 
to  their  axes,  and  for  a variety  of  similar  purposes — is  composed  of  5 lbs.  rosin,  1 lb. 
each  of  bees’-wax  and  red  ochre,  and  4 oz.  of  plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  Singer’s  form- 
ula. A cheaper  cement  of  this  kind  may  be  made  from  14  parts  rosin,  2 red  ochre,  and  1 
plaster  of  Paris.  These  should  be  melted  together  till  the  frothing  ceases,  and  the  com- 
position runs  smoothly.  This  is  applicable  to  a variety  of  purposes,  where  a cheap  and 
tolerably  adhesive  cement  is  required.  It  will  serve  as  bottle-wax  for  sealing  the  tops  of 
corks;  but  this  is  usually  prepared  from  4 parts  rosin  with  one  of  tallow  or  suet,  and  red 
ochre  or  other  coloring  matter  added. 

Formending  earthenware  and  china,  etc.,  a variety  of  C.  are  recommended.  For 
ornamental  glass  or  china,  which  is  not  subjected  to  heat  or  rough  usage,  Canada  balsam 
that  has  evaporated  until  rather  hard,  is  a very  useful  cement;  from  its  transparency,  it 
makes  an  almost  invisible  joint.  The  surfaces  should  be  slightly  warmed,  and  the  bal- 
sam brushed  over  them,  after  which  they  should  be  kept  pressed  together  for  a short 
time.  Thick  copal  or  mastic  varnish  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  Gum  shellac, 
dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine  in  sufficient  quantity  to  form  a treacly  liquid,  forms  a 
stronger  cement  than  the  above,  but  its  color  is  objectionable  for  some  puposes.  The 
shellac  may  be  di.ssolved  in  naphtha,  but  is  not  equal  to  that  in  spirits  of  wine.  The 
liquid  glue  so\^  in  the  shops  is  usually  prepared  in  this  manner;  another  kind  is  made  of  a 
mixture  of  the  solutions  of  shellac  and  India  rubber.  The  cement  sold  in  sticks  at  fairs 
and  in  the  streets  of  London  by  loquacious  itinerants,  is  shellac  or  gum  mastic  fused 
and  molded  into  a convenient  form,  and  is  one  of  the  most  useful  C.  when  properly 
applied,  by  heating  the  surfaces  to  be  joined  just  sufficiently  to  fuse  the  shellac  and 
then  smearing  them  thinly  with  it,  and  pressing  them  together.  If  shellac  is  heated 
much  above  its  fusing-point,  it  becomes  carbonized  and  rotten,  and  therefore  great  care 


Cemetery. 


616 


must  be  used  in  fusing  any  composition  of  which  it  is  an  ingredient.  The  marine  glue^ 
a mixture  of  shellac  and  India  rubber,  is  a remarkable  cement,  and  when  applied,  as  the 
last,  with  the  precautions  just  alluded  to,  is  so  strong,  that  glass  or  china  cemented  with 
it,  and  then  dashed  on  the  ground,  or  otherwise  broken  again,  will  give  way  in  any  part 
rather  than  that  cemented.  This  cement  may  be  purchased  ready  made.  For  the  mode 
of  preparing  it,  see  Glue.  • 

Universal  Cement,  used  for  the  above  and  many  other  purposes,  is  prepared  as  follows: 
Curdle  skim-milk  with  rennet  or  vinegar,  press  out  the  whey,  and  dry  the  curd  at  a very 
gentle  heat,  but  as  quickly  as  possible.  When  it  has  become  quite  dry,  grind  it  in  a 
coffee  or  pepper  mill,  and  next  triturate  it  in  a mortar  until  reduced  to  a very  fine  pow- 
der. Mix  this  powder  with  of  its  weight  of  new  dry  quicklime,  also  in  very  fine 
powder,  and  to  every  ounce  of  the  mixture  add  5 or  6 grains  of  powdered  camphor; 
triturate  the  whole  well  together,  and  keep  it  in  small  wide-mouthed  phials  well  corked. 
When  required,  make  it  into  a paste  with  a little  water,  and  apply  it  immediately. 

Cheese  Cement  is  similar  in  composition  and  uses.  Take  two  parts  of  grated  cheese 
and  one  of  quicklime  in  fine  powder;  beat  these  together  with  white  of  egg  to  form  a 
paste,  and  use  immediately. 

The  following  is  the  reputed  formula  for  preparing  the  Armenian  or  diarmnd  cement^ 
used  by  the  Armenian  jewelers  for  attaching  diamonds,  etc.,  without  any  metallic  set- 
ting: “Dissolve  5 or  6 bits  of  gum-mastic,  each  the  size  of  a large  pea,  in  as  much  rectified 
spirit  of  wine  as  will  suffice  to  render  it  liquid;  and  in  another  vessel  dissolve  as  much 
isinglass,  previously  a little  softened  in  water — though  none  of  the  water  must  be  used 
— in  French  brandy,  or  good  rum,  as  will  make  a 2-ounce  phial  of  very  strong  glue, 
adding  two  very  small  bits  of  gum  galbanum  or  ammoniacum,  which  must  be  rubbed  or 
ground  till  they  are  dissolved.  Then  mix  the  whole  with  a suflBcient  heat.  Keep  the 
glue  in  a phial  closely  stopped,  and  when  it  is  to  be  used,  set  the  phial  in  boiling  water.” 
This  cement  has  a great  reputation,  but  our  experience  does  not  confirm  it.  We  have 
tried  the  above,  and  several  other  receipts,  with  very  little  success.  We  doubt  whether 
the  true  method  of  preparing  it  is  known  in  this  country,  and  suspect  that  it  still  remains 
one  of  the  oriental  trade-secrets.  White  of  egg,  thickened  with  finely  powdered  quick- 
lime, forms  a useful  cement,  especially  if  the  cemented  article  is  warmed  for  a short 
time  in  a slow  oven. 

Cutlers'  Cement,  used  for  fixing  knives  and  forks  in  handles,  is  made  of  equal  weights 
of  rosin  and  brick-dust  melted  together;  or,  for  a superior  quality,  4 parts  of  rosin,  1 of 
bees-wax,  and  1 of  brick-dust. 

Mahogany  Cement,  used  for  stopping  cracks  and  holes  in  mahogany,  may  be  prepared 
by  melting  4 parts  of  bees-wax  with  1 of  Indian  red,  and  as  much  yellow  ocher  as  is 
found  requisite  to  give  the  color.  If  shellac  be  substituted  for  the  bees-wax,  and  less 
red  used,  a much  harder  cement  is  made. 

For  French  Cement,  rice  glue,  and  other  light  C.  for  joining  paper  articles  and  arti- 
ficial fiowers,  see  Glue  and  Paste. 

CEMETERY,  from  the  Greek,  may  mean  any  grave-yard,  or  other  place  of  deposit 
for  the  dead ; but  it  has  lately  acquired  a special  meaning,  applicable  to  those  extensive 
ornamental  burial-grounds  which  have  recently  come  into  use  in  this  and  other  European 
countries,  as  the  practice  of  burying  within  and  around  churches  was  gradually  aban- 
doned (see  Burial).  The  fine  burial-grounds  of  the  Turks,  extending  over  large  tracts 
adorned  by  cedars  and  other  trees,  may  have  suggested  the  plan  to  Europeans.  It  was 
first  exemplified  on  a great  scale  in  Paris,  in  w^hich,  as  the  largest  walled  town  in 
Europe,  the  disposal  of  the  dead  was  long  a matter  of  extreme  anxiety  and  ditficulty. 
There  are  few  considerable  towns  in  Britain  near  which  there  is  not  at  least  one  C.,  and 
the  legislation  mentioned  under  the  head  of  Burial  has  rendered  their  establishment, 
to  a certain  extent,  a legal  necessity.  There  was  at  first  a natural  feeling  of  regret  at 
the  prospect  of  deserting  places  of  deposit  for  the  dead  so  hallowed  by  ancient  use  and 
recent  associations  as  the  church  and  the  churchyard.  In  many  instances,  however,  the 
places  thus  professedly  hallowed  were  in  reality  surrounded  by  degrading  and  disgusting 
circumstances.  On  the  other  hand,  the  new  places  of  interment  began  to  develop 
humanizing  and  elevating  influences,  in  beautiful  trees  and  flowers,  natural  scenery,  and 
works  of  monumental  art.  The  new  cemeteries  are  in  many  instances  cheerful  open 
places  of  recreation,  and  in  them  the  place  of  rest  for  the  dead  has  rather  tended  to 
improve  than  to  undermine  the  health  of  the  living.  One  of  the  oldest  established  and 
most  celebrated  of  the  European  cemeteries,  is  that  of  P^re  la  Chaise  (q.v.),  near  Paris, 
the  arrangements  of  which  have  been  generally  followed  in  the  cemeteries  of  London 
and  other  English  cities;  with,  however,  this  distinct  difference,  that  the  English  ceme- 
teries are  divided  into  two  portions — one  consecrated  for  the  burials  of  members  of  the 
established  church,  over  whose  remains  the  funeral  service  is  read,  and  one  unconse- 
crated for  the  burials  of  dissenters.  In  the  Scottish  such  distinctions  are  not  required, 
though  the  Episcopal  church  has  some  consecrated  burying-places.  In  the  United 
States,  as  at  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  there  are  cemeteries  equal  in  point  of  arrange- 
ment to  any  in  Europe. 

CEMETERY  {ante).  The  famous  Pere  la  Chaise,  in  Paris,  is  the  most  celebrated  of 
modern  cemeteries,  although  by  no  means  the  largest.  It  was  laid  out  in  1804,  and  com- 


617 


Cemetery. 


prises  about  200  acres,  and  more  than  16,000  monuments  erected  to  the  memory  ol 
nearly  all  the  great  men  of  France  of  the  present  century.  Twice . this  C.  and  the 
neighboring  heights  have  been  the  scene  of  desperate  fighting.  In  1814,  during  the 
attack  on  Paris  by  the  allies,  it  was  stormed  by  a Russian  column ; and  in  1871  the  com- 
munists made  their  last  stand  among  these  tombs,  where  900  of  them  were  killed,  200 
being  buried  in  quicklime  in  one  huge  grave,  and  700  in  another.  Paris  has  also  the 
cemeteries  of  Mont  Parnasse  and  Montmartre,  besides  many  smaller  burial-grounds.  In 
1874,  a very  large  C.  was  laid  out  16  m.  n.  of  Paris,  covering  nearly  1300  acres.  In 
France,  every  city  and  town  is  required  by  law  to  provide  a burial-ground  beyond  its 
barriers,  properly  laid  out  and  planted,  and  each  interment  must  take  place  in  a "separate 
grave.  This  law  does  not  apply  to  Paris,  however.  There  the  dead  are  buried  40  or  50 
at  a time  in  tlie/<?sses  communes,  the  poor  being  interred  gratuitously,  and  a charge  of 
20  francs  being  made  in  all  other  cases.  The  fosse  when  full  is  left  undisturbed  for  5 
years;  then  all  the  crosses  and  other  memorials  are  removed,  the  level  of  the  ground  is 
raised  4 or  5 ft.  by  fresh  earth,  and  interments  begin  again.  For  50  francs  a grave  can 
be  leased  for  10  years;  but  when  permanent  monuments  are  desired  the  ground  must  be 
purchased  in  fee. 

In  English  cities,  about  1840,  the  people  began  to  discuss  the  dangers  to  public  health 
arising  from  the  condition  of  the  grave-yards  surrounding,  and  the  vaults  within  and 
underneath,  the  great  churches.  In  London,  these  receptacles  were  literally  crammed 
with  coflSns,  and  the  surrounding  air  was  infected  to  a dangerous  degree.  Coffins  were 
piled  upon  each  other  until  they  came  within  a few  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  then  the  ground  was  raised  from  time  to  time  until  its  level  came  nearly  up  to  the 
lower  windows  of  the  church.  To  make  room  for  new  burials,  old  bones  were  thrown 
out,  and  this  led  to  systematic  robbing  of  graves  for  the  sake  of  the  coffin  plates  and  the 
pretty  ornaments  sometimes  buried  with  the  bodies.  The  result  of  this  action  and  dis- 
cussion was  an  entire  change  in  the  system.  Burials  within  the  limits  of  cities  and  vil- 
lages were  prohibited,  and  as  a necessit}’’  rural  cemeteries  were  founded.  The  chief 
cemeteries  of  London  at  present  are : Kensal  Green,  on  the  Harrow  road,  2^  m.  from 
Paddington;  Highgate,  on  a slope  of  Highgate  hill;  Abney  Park;  the  Norwood  and 
Nunhead  cemeteries,  on  the  s. ; the  west  London  C.,  at  Brompton;  Ilford  and  Leystone 
cemeteries  in  Essex;  the  Victoria  and  Tower  Hamlets  cemeteries  in  e.  London;  while 
farther  from  the  city  were  the  cemeteries  of  Woking  and  Colney  Hatch. 

The  dead-houses  (Leichenhauser)  of  Frankfort  and  Munich  form  a remarkable  feature 
of  the  burial  customs  of  those  cities.  The  objects  of  the  founders  were  to  obviate  the 
remotest  danger  of  premature  interment,  and  to  provide  a respectable  place  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  dead,  in  order  to  remove  the  bodies  from  the  often  confined  dwellings  of  the 
friends.  At  Frankfort,  the  dead-house  is  at  the  entrance  to  the  cemetery.  It  consists 
of  a warder’s  room,  where  an  attendant  is  always  on  duty ; on  each  side  are  five  rooms, 
well  ventilated,  and  kept  at  even  temperature,  and  each  one  is  furnished  with  a bier,  on 
which  a corpse  can  be  laid.  On  one  of  the  fingers  of  a corpse  is  placed  a ring,  to  which 
is  attached  a light  cord,  connecting  with  a bell  which  hangs  outside  of  the  attendant’s 
room.  Bodies  deposited  here  are  inspected  at  regular  intervals  by  a medical  officer,  and 
the  warden  is  always  on  the  watch  for  the  ringing  of  the  bell.  The  importance  of  this 
care  was  once  proved  at  Frankfort  by  the  revival  of  a child.  The  attendants  are  required 
to  receive  and  treat  the  dead  with  all  respect,  and  no  interment  is  permitted  until  signs  of 
decomposition  appear.  The  relations  are  then  notified,  and  a funeral  is  held.  Similar 
mortuaries  have  been  established  in  many  English  towns. 

Of  the  cemeteries  still  in  use  in  southern  Europe,  the  catacombs  of  Sicily  are  the  most 
remarkable.  In  one  of  these,  near  Palermo,  under  an  old  Capuchin  monastery,  there 
are  four  subterranean  corridors,  in  which  more  than  2,000  corpses  are  ranged  in  niches 
in  the  wall,  many  of  them  shrunk  into  the  most  grotesque  attitudes,  or  hanging  with 
pendent  heads  or  limbs  from  their  receptacles.  As  a preparation  for  its  niche,  the  body 
IS  desiccated  in  an  oven,  and  then  dressed  as  if  in  life  and  put  in  its  place  in  the  wall. 
At  one  end  of  this  C.  there  is . an  altar,  strangely  ornamented  with  a mosaic  of  human 
skulls  and  bones. 

Among  nations  in  the  east  cemeteries  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest  times.  In 
China  the  high  grounds  near  Macao  and  Canton  are  crowded  with  tombs,  many  of  them 
in  the  form  of  small  tumuli  with  a low  encircling  wall,  like  the  ringed  barrows  of  west- 
ern Europe.  But  the  most  picturesque  of  all  cemeteries  are  those  of  the  Turks.  From 
them  it  was,  perhaps,  that  the  first  idea  of  the  modern  C.,  with  its  ornamental  planta- 
tions, was  derived.  Around  Constantinople  the  cemeteries  form  vast  tracts  of  cypress 
woods,  under  whose  branches  stand  thousands  of  tombstones.  A grave  is  never  reopened  ; 
a new  resting-place  is  given  to  every  one,  and  so  the  dead  now  occupy  a wider  territory 
than  that  which  is  covered  by  the  homes  of  the  living.  The  Turks  believe  that  until  the 
body  is  buried  the  soul  is  in  a state  of  discomfort,  and  the  funeral,  therefore,  takes  place 
as  soon  as  possible  after  death.  No  coffin  is  used ; the  body  is  laid  in  the  grave,  a few 
boards  are  placed  around  it,  and  then  the  earth  is  shoveled  in,  care  being  taken  to  leave 
a small  opening  extending  from  the  head  of  the  corpse  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  an 
opening  not  unfrequenlly  enlarged  by  dogs  and  other  beasts  which  plunder  the  graves.  A 
tombstone  of  white  marble  is  then  erected,  surmounted  by  a carved  turban,  in  case  of  a 
man,  and  ornamented  by  a palm  branch  in  low  relief,  if  the  grave  be  that  of  a woman. 


Cenci. 

Censors. 


618 


The  turban  by  its  varying  form  indicates  not  only  the  rank  of  the  sleeper  below,  but  also 
the  period  of  his  death,  for  the  fashion  of  the  Turkish  head-dress  is  always  changing. 
A cypress  is  usually  planted  beside  the  grave,  its  odor  being  supposed  to  neutralize  any 
noxious  exhalations  from  the  ground,  and  thus,  every  C.  is  a forest,  where  by  day 
hundreds  of  turtle-doves  are  on  the  wing  or  perching  on  the  trees,  and  where  bats 
and  owls  swarm  undisturbed  at  night.  These  cemeteries  are  a favorite  resort  for  Turk- 
ish women,  some  of  whom  are  always  to  be  seen  praying  beside  the  narrow  openings 
that  lead  down  into  a parent’s,  a husband’s,  or  a brother’s  grave.  The  cemeteries  of  the 
Armenians  abound  in  bas-reliefs,  which  show  the  manner  of  the  death  of  the  person 
beneath,  and  on  these  singular  tombstones  are  frequent  representations  of  men  being 
decapitated  or  hanging  on  a gibbet.  / 

America  closely  followed  England  in  the  sanitary  reform  of  burial-places,  and  many 
years  ago  burial  within  certain  limits  of  cities  was  prohibited  except  in  special  cases, 
such  as  the  use  of  private  vaults  in  church-yards.  The  earliest  of  the  great  cemeteries 
in  the  United  States  was  Mount  Auburn,  near  Boston,  covering  125  acres,  lovely  by 
nature,  and  most  elaborately  adorned. 

Laurel  Hill  C.,  in  Philadelphia,  was  opened  in  1836.  It  is  on  the  Schuylkill  river, 
about  4 m.  n.  of  the  center  of  the  city,  and  is  part  of  a region  of  romantic 
beauty,  abounding  in  gentle  declivities,  picturesque  lawns,  rugged  ascents,  rocky 
ravines,  and  flowery  dells.  A carriage  drive,  along  the  river  front,  connects  Fairmount 
park  and  the  Wissahickon ; thus  bringing  the  ever- varying  activity  of  the  living  into 
association  with  the  tranquil  resting-places  of  the  dead.  Since  the  first  purchase  of 
ground,  several  larger  tracts  have  been  added  to  it;  while,  under  the  management  of 
various  associations,  other  portions  of  the  beautiful  vicinity  have  been,  in  a similar 
manner,  consecrated  and  adorned.  This  was  followed  by  Greenwood  C.,  the  first  and 
one  of  the  greatest  popular  burial-places  for  New  York  and  Brooklyn.  The  company 
was  chartered  in  1838.  The  grounds,  which  comprise  450  acres,  occupy  the  hills  and 
valleys  on  the  e.  side  of  the  bay  of  New  York,  about  3 m.  s.  of  the  city  hall  in  Brook- 
lyn. The  situation  is  one  of  the  finest  in  all  the  region.  From  the  higher  points  of  the 
C.  the  eye  takes  in  the  two  cities  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  the  bay,  half  a dozen 
cities  in  New  Jersey,  the  far-off  Palisades,  the  broad  lower  bay,  the  highlands  near 
Sandy  Hook,  Coney  island,  the  rich  garden  lands  of  Kings  county,  and  a grand  view 
of  the  Atlantic  ocean.  This  C.  has  five  entrances;  nearly  20  m.  of  stone-bedded 
avenues,  and  17  m.  of  concrete  paths.  Water  for  drinking  and  irrigation  is  supplied 
from  the  city  works  to  nearly  40  hydrants.  There  a^'e  eight  akes  of  varying  dimensions, 
and  four  ornamental  fountains.  * The  grounds  are  drained  by  17  m.  of  subterranean 
sewer  pipes,  with  1140  receiving  basins.  There  have  been  23,000  lots  sold,  and  over 
200,000  interments  made,  the  first  one  on  the  5th  of  Sept.,  1840.  Among  the  edifices 
and  monuments  of  note  are:  the  entrance  buildings,  the  receiving  tomb,  the  shelter 
house,  and  the  following  monuments  and  statues:  to  Horace  Greeley,  statue  of  a printer 
setting  type;  to  John  Matthews,  a sarcophagus  with  marble  effigy;  of  the  Brown  brothers, 
representing  the  loss  of  the  steamship  Arctic  and  the  loss  of  five  members  of  the 
family;  on  Highwood  hill,  a tribute  to  Samuel  B.  Morse,  inventor  of  the  telegraph ; the 
Firemen’s  monument,  a fireman  rescuing  a child;  monument  to  Henry  Howard,  ex-chief 
of  the  New  York  fire  department;  chapel  monument  to  Mary  M.  Danser,  noted  for 
charitable  bequests ; marble  temple  of  A.  S.  Scribner,  of  fine  Italian  marble,  containing 
a figure  of  Hope,  under  a marble  canopy,  supported  on  eight  pillars,  and  on  the  sides,  in 
bas-relief,  illustrations  from  the  life  of  Christ,  from  birth  to  ascension ; monument  to 
Thomas  J.  Read,  a granite  figure  of  Faith  Clasping  the  Cross;  statue  of  John  Correja,  a 
sea-captain  taking  an  observation  with  the  sextant  (put  up  by  himself  many  years  before 
his  death);  the  monument  to  Charlotte  Canda,  who  was  killed  on  her  17th  birthday  by 
falling  from  her  carriage.  (This  is  an  elaborate  Gothic  temple,  and  was  for  many  years 
the  great  attraction  of  the  place;  more  people  have  visited  this  structure,  probably,  than 
any  other  of  the  points  of  interest.)  The  Soldiers’  monument,  in  honor  of  those  w’ho 
fell  in  the  union  cause  during  the  rebellion,  with  four  life-size  statues  representing  the 
different  branches  of  the  service;  the  Pilots’  monument,  to  Thomas  Freeborn,  who  lost 
his  life  in  trying  to  save  the  &\\vp  John  Minturn,  in  1846;  the  statuary  group  of  James 
Gordon  Bennett,  founder  of  the  New  York  Herald,  of  the  finest  Carrara  marble,  repre- 
senting a life-sized  female  figure,  kneeling  on  a cushion,  in  an  attitude  of  prayer,  com- 
mending to  the  Almighty  Giver  her  child  held  in  suspense  by  an  angelic  figure; 
the  colossal  bronze  statue  of  De  Witt  Clinton;  monument  to  Louis  Bonard,  who  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals.  This  C. 
is  not  a stock  corporation,  but  a public  trust,  managed  by  trustees  chosen  by  the  lot 
owners. 

CENCI,  Beatrice,  called  “the  beautiful  parricide,”  was  the  daughter  of  Francesco 
Cenci,  a wealthy  Roman  nobleman.  According  to  Muratori  (AnnaZes,  lib.  x.),  Francesco 
was  twice  married,  Beatrice  being  his  daughter  by  the  first  wife.  After  his  second  mar- 
riage, he  treated  the  children  of  his  first  wife  in  a revolting  manner,  and  was  even 
accused  of  hiring  bandits  to  murder  two  of  his  sons  on  their  return  from  Spain.  The 
beauty  of  Beatrice  inspired  him  with  the  horrible  and  incestuous  desire  to  possess  her 
person ; with  mingled  lust  and  hate,  he  persecuted  her  from  day  to  day,  until  circunk- 


619 


Cenci. 

Censors. 


stances  enabled  him  to  consummate  his  brutality.  The  unfortunate  girl  besought  the 
help  of  her  relatives,  and  of  pope  Clement  VII.  (Aldobrandini),  but  did  not  receive  it; 
whereupon,  in  company  with  her  step-mother,  and  her  brother,  Giacomo,  she  planned 
and  executed  the  murder  of  her  unnatural  parent.  The  crime  was  discovered,  and  both 
she  and  Giacomo  were  put  to  the  torture ; Giacomo  confessed,  but  Beatrice  persisted  in 
the  delaration  that  she  was  innocent.  All,  however,  were  condemned,  and  put  to  death, 
August,  1599,  in  spite  of  efforts  made  in  their  behalf.  Such  is  Muratori’s  narrative. 
Others  allege  that  Beatrice  was  the  innocent  victim  of  an  infernal  plot.  The  results  of 
Bertolotti’s  investigations  {Francesco  Cenci  e la  sua  Famiglia,  1877),  based  on  original 
documents  and  contemporary  notices,  go  far  to  deprive  the  story  of  the  Cenci  tragedy  of 
the  romantic  elements  on  which  Shelley’s  powerful  tragedy  mainly  turns.  Francesco, 
it  would  appear,  was  profligate,  but  no  monster;  Beatrice  at  the  time  she  murdered  her 
father,  was  not  16  but  21  years  of  age,  was  far  from  beautiful,  and  probably  had  already 
a tarnished  moral  reputation.  And  Bertolotti  is  further  convinced  that  the  sweet  and 
mournful  countenance  which  forms  one  of  the  treasures  of  the  Barberini  palace  in 
Rome,  is  not  only  not  the  portrait  of  Beatrice,  but  was  not  ‘even  painted  by  Guido,  to 
whom  it  has  long  been  unhesitatingly  attributed. 

CENEDA,  now  officially  called  Vittorio,  a city  of  northern  Italy,  province  of  Treviso, 
86  m.  n.  of  Venice.  Pop.  10,530.  It  is  an  episcopal  see,  has  a very  handsome  modern 
cathedral  and  a flne  monolithic  fountain.  Under  the  republic  of  Venice  it  was  rich,  and 
famed  for  its  manufactures  of  woolen  cloth,  silk,  and  paper.  C.  is  very  ancient,  dating 
from  the  time  of  the  Romans,  but  now  it  is  a decayed  city. 

CENIS,  Mont,  or  Monte  Cenisio,  a mountain-pass  of  the  Alps,  between  Savoy  and 
Piedmont,  forming  part  of  the  water-shed  between  the  valleys  of  the  Doire  and  the 
Arc.  The  culminating  point  of  the  pass  reaches  an  elevation  of  6,775  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Schist,  limestone,  and  gypsum,  in  altenate  beds,  compose  the  strata  of  the  mountain, 
the  vegetation  of  which  is  rich  in  the  rarer  kinds  of  Alpine  plants.  Over  the  pass  a 
road  was  constructed  (1803-10)  by  the  chevalier  Fabbroni,  under  Napoleon’s  orders,  at 
an  expense  of  £300,000.  This  is  the  safest,  and  most  frequented  road  across  the  Alps. 
Near  the  pass,  a railway  tunnel,  7^  m.  long,  was  finished  in  1870.  For  detail  see 
Tunnel. 

CENIS,  Mont  {ante),  the  site  of  some  remarkable  railroad  building  within  the  last 
15  years.  In  1865,  an  English  engineer  obtained  permission  from  the  Italian  and  French 
governments  to  lay  a railway  on  the  line  of  Napoleon’s  carriage  road  over  the  mountains. 
The  road  was  built  in  the  ordinary  way  with  the  addition  of  a third  rail  midway  between 
the  outer  ones,  and  raised  nearly  a foot  higher.  This  third  rail  was  strongly  gripped  by 
the  driving  wheels,  by  which  means  the  trains  could  safely  traverse  very  sharp  curves 
and  descend  grades  as  steep  as  1 ft.  in  12.  On  the  French  side  the  rise  to  the  summit  in 
6f  m.  of  road  was  4,460  feet.  Then  there  was  a stretch  of  5 m.  nearly  level,  and  after 
that  the  descent  to  Susa  on  the  Italian  side,  a distance  of  20  m.  over  curves  so  numerous 
and  so  sharp  that  the  view  changed  almost  every  minute,  trains  descended  by  the 
momentum  of  weight,  the  speed  being  regulated  by  brakes.  This  road  was  superseded 
by  the  one  now  in  use,  which  runs  through  the  great  tunnel.  (See  Tunnel,  ante.) 

CEN'OBITES.  See  Monachism. 

CENO'MYCE.  See  Reindeer  Moss. 

CENO'TAPH  (Gr.  kenotafion,  from  kenos,  empty,  and  tafos,  a tomb),  a monument 
which  does  not  contain  the  remains  of  the  deceased.  They  were  originally  erected  for 
those  whose  bones  could  not  be  found,  e.g.,  for  those  who  had  perished  at  sea.  Lat- 
terly, the  name  was  applied  to  tombs  built  by  a man  during  his  lifetime,  for  himself  and 
the  members  of  his  family. 

CENSER  (Fr.  encensoir,  from  Lat.  incendo,  to  burn),  a vase,  or  other  sacred  vessel, 
used  for  burning  perfumes.  See  Incense.  Censers  were  much  used  in  the  Hebrew 
service  of  the  ternple,  but  their  form  is  not  accurately  ascertained,  and  it  is  probable  that 
they  varied  in  this  respect,  according  to  the  occasions  on  which  they  were  used.  The 
C.,  called  also  a thurible  (Lat.  thuribulum,  from  thus,  frankincense),  is  used  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  at  mass,  vespers  and  other  offices.  It  is  suspended  by  chains, 
which  are  held  in  the  hand,  and  is  tossed  in  the  air,  so  as  to  throw  the  smoke  of  the 
incense  in  all  directions.  It  varies  very  much  in  form. 

CENSORI'NUS,  a chronologist  and  grammarian  of  the  3d  c.,  known  by  a work 
called  De  Die  Natali,  in  which  he  treated  of  man’s  generations,  his  natal  hour,  and  the 
influence  that  the  stars  and  genii  exercise  over  his  fate.  It  was  by  some  work  of  his 
on  chronology  that  certain  important  dates  have  been  ascertained. 

CENSORS,  the  name  of  two  Roman  officers  of  state.  The  office  was  established  by 
Servius  Tullius,  the  fifth  king  of  Rome.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  it  vras  held 
by  the  consuls,  special  magistrates  not  being  appointed  till  443  b.c.  It  continued  to  be 
filled  by  patricians  till  351  b.c.,  when  C.  Marcius  Rutilus,  a plebeian,  was  elected. 
Twelve  years  later,  it  was  enacted  that  one  of  the  C.  (there  were  always  two)  must  be  a 
plebeian.  In  131  b.c.,  both  C.  for  the  first  time  were  plebeians.  Th«  C.  were 


Censorship. 

Census. 


620 


elected  in  the  comitia  eenturiata,  presided  over  by  a consul.  The  term  of  office  at 
first  lasted  five  years,  but  was  shortly  afterwards  limited  to  18  months.  The  censor- 
ship was  regarded  as  the  highest  dignity  in  the  state,  except  the  dictatorship.  It  was 
a sacred  and  irresponsible  magistracy,  whose  powers  were  vast  and  undefined,  and 
whose  decisions  were  received  with  solemn  reverence.  The  duties  of  the  C.  were 
threefold.  1.  The  taking  of  the  census,  or  register  of  the  citizens  and  of  their  property. 
2.  The  regimen  Trwrum  (regulation  of  morals).  3.  The  administration  of  the  finances  of 
the  state.  The  taking  of  the  census  (Lat.  censeo,  to  value,  to  take  an  account  of)  was 
originally  their  sole  function  (hence  their  name),  and  was  held  in  the  campus  martius, 
in  a building  called  villa  puhlica.  The  regimen  morum  was  the  most  dreaded  and  abso- 
lute of  their  powers.  It  grew  naturally  out  of  the  exercise  of  the  previous  duty,  which 
compelled  them  to  exclud^e  unworthy  persons  from  the  lists  of  citizens.  Gradually,  the 
superintendence  of  the  C.  extended  from  the  public  to  the  private  life  of  citizens.  They 
could  inflict  disgrace  {ignominia)  on  any  one  whose  conduct  did  not  square  with  their 
notions  of  rectitude  or  duty.  For  instance,  if  a man  neglected  the  cultivation  of  his 
fields,  or  carried  on  a disreputable  trade,  or  refused  to  marry,  or  treated  his  family  either 
too  kindly  or  too  harshly,  or  was  extravagant,  or  guilty  of  bribery,  cowardice,  etc., 
he  might  be  degraded,  according  to  his  rank,  or  otherwise  punished,  llie  adminis- 
tration of  the  finances  of  the  state  included  the  regulation  of  the  trihutum,  or  property- 
tax;  of  the  vectigalia,  such  as  the  tithes  paid  for  the  public  lands,  salt-works,  mines,  cus- 
toms, etc.,  which  were  usually  leased  out  to  speculators  for  five  years;  the  preparation 
of  the  state  budget,  etc. — See  Rovers,  De  Censorum  apud  Romanos  Auctoritate  et  Existi- 
matioiie  (Utrecht,  1825). 

CEN'SORSHIP  OP  THE  PRESS,  the  term  generally  applied  to  the  arrangements  for 
regulating  what  may  be  printed,  in  countries  where  the  press  is  not  free.  The  simplest 
form  of  C.  is  when  a public  officer — the  censor,  or  licenser,  as  he  is  sometimes  called — 
reads  over  the  MS.  to  be  printed,  and,  after  striking  out  any  objectionable  passages, 
certifies  that  the  work  may  be  printed.  Thence  it  is  common  in  old  books  to  see  the 
word  imprimatur — let  it  be  printed — followed  by  one  or  more  signatures.  Though  it  has 
its  name  from  an  analogy  with  the  functions  of  the  Roman  censor,  the  C.  did  not  come 
into  operation  until  the  invention  of  printing.  It  w^as  common  to  all  European  coun- 
tries, Great  Britain  included.  The  C.  was  established  by  act  of  parliament  in  1662, 
13  Char.  II.  c.  33  : “An  act  for  preventing  the  frequent  abuses  in  printing  seditious, 
treasonable,  and  unlicensed  books  and  pamphlets,  and  for  regulating  of  printing  and 
printing-presses.”  This  was  a temporary  act,  renewed  from  time  to  time;  and  its 
renewal  was  refused  in  1693,  owing  to  a quarrel  between  the  house  of  commons  and 
the  licenser.  Since  that  time  there  has  been,  generally  speaking,  no  restriction  in  this 
country  on  what  any  man  may  publish;  and  he  is  merely  responsible  to  the  law,  if  in 
his  publication  he  should  commit  any  public  or  private  wrong.  See  Libel,  Law  op; 
see  also  Press,  Freedom  op  the  ; Book-Trade  ; and  Copyright. 

CENSUS  means,  in  this  country,  the  periodical  counting  of  the  people.  It  is  a Latin 
word  applied  by  the  Romans  to  one  of  the  functions  of  their  censors  (q.  v.).  They  had 
to  enumerate  the  people,  but  only  for  immediate  purposes  of  taxation,  so  that  no 
accounts  of  the  results  of  such  enumerations  has  been  preserved.  The  idea  of  ascertain- 
ing the  numbers  of  the  people,  and  the  proportions  in  which  they  are  divided  according 
to  sex,  age,  profession,  rank,  and  the  like,  as  statistical  information,  is  of  late  origin. 
The  first  C.  of  Britain  was  taken  in  the  first  year  of  the  present  c. — 1801.  From  that 
time  it  has  been  taken  at  each  period  of  ten  years.  An  attempt,  but  a rather  unsuccess- 
ful one,  was  made  to  take  the  statistics  of  Ireland  in  1811.  Ten  years  after,  the  attempt 
was  repeated,  but  the  accuracy  of  the  bare  enumeration  it  furnished  was  doubtful. 
That  of  1831,  which  was  an  improvement,  was  corrected  three  years  after,  in  order  that 
it  might  form  the  basis  of  a new  system  of  education.  The  four  subsequent  enumera- 
tions have  been  very  trustworthy,  and  have  furnished  besides  valuable  statistics  regard- 
ing the  agricultural  condition  of  the  country.  The  system  of  registration  under  a regis 
trar-general,  established  in  England  in  1836,  has  given  considerable  assistance  by  sup 
plying  a staff  for  carrying  out  the  enumeration,  and  also  by  affording  the  means  of 
checking  the  census.  A similar  registration  system  was  extended  to  Scotland  in  1854,  of 
which  the  C.  of  1861  and  1871  have  had  the  advantage.  A C.  must  be  taken  for  the 
whole  empire  simultaneously,  otherwise  it  cannot  be  accurate.  The  practice  is  for  the 
enumerating  officer  in  each  petty  district  to  leave  a schedule  at  each  house,  which  he 
receives  filled  up,  aiding,  when  necessary,  in  the  filling  up.  The  C.  of  1851  "was  taken 
for  the  night  of  the  31st  March.  This  C.  supplied  important,  but  not  altogether  satis- 
factory information,  as  to  the  educational  and  ecclesiastical  condition  of  the  country, 
elements  of  which  the  latter  has  been  left  out  in  1861  and  1871.  The  C.  of  1861  was 
taken  for  the  night  of  Sunday,  7th  April;  that  of  1871  for  the  night  of  Sunday,  2d 
April,  a schedule  being  left  in  each  house  on  the  Saturday,  and  called  for  on  Monday. 
The  schedule  of  1871  contained  compartments  for  “particulars  of  the  name,  sex,  age, 
rank,  profession  or  occupation,  condition,  relation  to  head  of  family,  and  birthplace  of 
every  living  person”  who  passed  the  night  of  Sunday  in  the  house;  wdiether  any  was 
blind,  deaf,  dumb,  imbecile,  or  lunatic;  and  how  many  betw^een  the  ages  of  6 and  13 
were  receiving  education.  Most  civilized  nations  take  a C.  at  regular  intervals — France, 


621 


Censorship. 

Census. 


..every  five  years,  the  last  in  1872;  Belgium,  every  ten  years,  the  last  in  1866,  with  calcu- 
lated estimate  in  1873;  Austria,  every  ten  years,  the  last  in  1869;  the  United  States,  the 
same,  the  last  in  1870;  in  Germany,  the  last  two  censuses  were  taken  in  1871  and  1875. 
The  first  C.  for  India  was  taken  between  1867  and  1872. 


CENSUS  {ante).  The  tenth  C.  of  the  United  States  was  taken  in  June,  1880.  Up  to 
1860  our  decennial  progress  in  population  and  material  wealth  had  been  uniformly  rapid 
and  wonderful.  The  war  of  the  rebellion  then  interfered,  and  both  directly  and  indi- 
rectly tended  to  arrest  that  progress — directly  in  the  destruction,  through  war  and  dis- 
ease, of  more  than  three  quarters  of  a million  of  men  in  the  beginning  of  life,  when,  in 
the  natural  course  of  events,  they  would  have  largely  increased  the  population;  and  in- 
directly in  checking  the  fiood  of  immigration,  a flood  that  had  been  bringing  us  half  a 
million  inhabitants  in  a single  year.  The  regularity  of  progress  from  1790  to  1860  is 
very  remarkable.  The  percentage  of  increase  in  each  decade  is  here  shown : 


Decade.  Per  Cent. 

1790  to  1800 35.02 

1800  to  1810 36.45 

1810  to  1820 33.13 

1820  to  1830 33.49 


Decade.  Per  Cent. 

1830  to  1840 32.67 

1840  to  1850 35.87 

1850  to  1860 35.58 

1860  to  1870 22.22 


So,  for  the  70  years  up  to  1860  the  population  grew  at  an  average  rate  of  3|  per  cent  per 
annum,  dividing  the  whole  period  into  periods  of  ten  years  each.  Without  the  war 
the  population  of  the  United  States  in  1870  would  have  been  42,600,000;  in  1880,  by  the 
same  ratio,  it  would  have  been  upward  of  57,000,000. 

The  numbering  of  the  people,  though  on  one  special  occasion  forbidden  by  the 
highest  power,  is  an  ancient  custom.  Moses  numbered  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
and,  in  later  times,  Joshua  and  David  followed  his  example.  The  Chinese  tell  of  a C. 
of  their  people  taken  2,042  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ.  In  Japan  an  enumeration 
was  made  about  1,900  years  ago.  Solon  ordered  the  C.  of  Athens  to  be  taken,  especially 
with  reference  to  classes  of  the  people  and  taxable  property.  Servius  Tullius,  sixth 
king  of  Rome,  ordered  a C.,  when  every  citizen  had  to  appear  on  the  field  of  Mars  and 
declare  on  oath  his  name  and  residence,  the  number  and  names  of  his  children,  and  the 
value  of  his  property.  Failing  to  do  this,  his  property  might  be  confiscated  and  him- 
self scourged  and  sold  for  a slave.  Augustus  enlarged  the  scope  and  improved  the 
manner  of  taking  the  census.  In  the  16th  c.  the  church  began  to  record  births,  mar- 
riages, and  deaths,  and  from  this  practice  gradually  grew  up  the  modern  C.,  though 
there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  exact  popular  C.  made  until  after  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  century. 

Russia,  then  almost  a barbarous  country,  appears  to  have  led  other  nations  in  C. 
taking.  Partial  enumerations  were  made  in  1700,  1704-5,  and  1710.  In  1719,  Peter 
the  great  sent  a commission  into  all  the  provinces  to  make  a general  census.  This 
commission  took  account  of  the  number  of  peasants,  mechanics,  domestics,  and  men 
unemployed.  Women  were  not  taken  into  account  at  all  at  the  commencement,  but 
they  were  recognized  before  the  work  closed,  and  in  some  districts  were  partially 
enumerated.  In  1722,  the  C.  distinguished  the  insane  and  infirm  without  means  of 
subsistence,  and  the  czar  ordered  that  a C.  should  be  taken  every  twentieth  year. 
In  1802,  a central  bureau  of  statistics  was  organized,  reorganized  in  1852,  and  again  in 
1858.  This  bureau  is  charged  with  the  taking  of  the  C.,  which  now  includes  much 
the  same  information  as  that  obtained  in  the  United  States.  Prussian  enumerations 
were  begun  under  Frederick  William  I.,  and  improved  by  his  successor.  From  1748 
to  1800,  the  C.  was  taken  annually,  except  when  prevented  by  war.  In  1805,  the 
central  bureau  of  statistics  was  established.  In  1834,  a triennial  C.  was  ordered. 
The  schedules  for  questioning  were  very  full,  and  the  enumeration  was  to  be  made  some  one 
day  in  December.  The  first  C.  of  the  German  empire  was  taken  on  the  1st  of  Dec., 
1871.  Austria  first  took  a C.  in  1754,  and  kept  it  up  triennially  until  1857,  when  it 
was  enacted  that  the  enumeration  should  be  made  every  sixth  year.  In  Sweden,  as  early 
^s  1686,  there  was  a law  requiring  the  clergy  to  record  marriages,  legitimate  and  illegiti- 
mate births,  deaths,  persons  removed  from  or  settled  in  parishes,  and  all  the  population, 
arranged  by  place  of  habitation  and  households.  Such  information  was  first  published 
in  1746.  A statistical  bureau  was  established  in  1857,  to  collate  and  publish  C.  and 
other  statistical  information.  Norway  has  kept  up  a decennial  C.  since  1815,  and 
the  work  is  usually  thoroughly  done.  In  Spain,  enumerations  were  made  in  1787, 1798, 
1857,  and  1860,  and,  by  calculation,  in  1867.  The  work  is  done  by  government  officials 
in  one  night.  Denmark  had  a C.  once  in  five  years,  from  1840  to  1860;  now  it  is 
decennial,  the  last  enumeration  being  on  the  1st  of  Feb.,  1870.  The  first  and  only 
C.  of  Portugal  was  made  Jan.  1,  1864,  and  extended  only  to  the  number  of  the 
population.  Switzerland  began  enumerations  about  1750.  Her  C.  is  now  decen- 
nial. Belgium  doubtless  leads  all  nations  in  the  fullness  and  accuracy  of  her  statistics, 
although  h^er  C.  is  taken  but  once  in  ten  years.  The  last  was  in  1876.  The  Nether- 
lands C.  is  decennial.  The  last  was  taken  Dec.  1,  1870.  Italy  has  an  enumeration 
once  in  ten  years,  the  last  Dec.  31,  1871.  Greece  counts  up  irregularly.  From  1836  to 
1845,  a C.  was  made  every  year;  then  in  1848,  1853,  1856,  1861,  1868,  and  1870. 
Turkey  has  never  taken  a C.  except  for  conscription  or  taxation.  The  first  C. 


Centaurea. 

Centaurs. 


622 


on  record  in  France  was  taken  in  1700  and  published  in  1720.  There  was  a general 
C.  taken  in  1800,  and  a decree  of  the  national  convention  ordered  that  it  should  be 
continued  every  fifth  year.  Since  about  1820,  the  C.  has  been  taken  very  regularly. 
Brazil  began  in  1872,  the  Argentine  Republic  in  1869,  Colombia  in  1870,  and  Egypt  in 
1862. 

The  first  real  effort  to  record  the  population  of  Great  Britain  was  made  in  1801,  and 
then  it  did  not  extend  to  Ireland,  which  had  just  become  a part  of  the  empire  by  the 
celebrated  union.  This  C.  was  crude  and  unsatisfactory,  and  the  returns  were  im- 
possible of  classification.  The  chief  value  of  the  C.  of  1801  was  in  calling  attention 
to  the  importance  of  such  statistics  and  evoking  better  methods  for  getting  and  classify- 
ing them.  Much  better  work  was  done  in  1841  and  1851,  when  advantage  v^as  taken  of 
the  elaborate  records  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths,  which  were  begun  the  1st  of  July, 
1837.  The  first  attempt  at  a general  C.  in  Ireland  was  made  in  1811,  but  it  was  a. 
failure.  Some  improvements  were  made  in  1821  and  1831,  since  which  satisfactory 
enumerations  have  been  made  by  the  constabulary.  We  lack  space  to  go  over  the  enu- 
merations in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  in  1841,  1851,  and  1861,  and  must  come  directly 
to  the  first  imperial  C. — 1871.  This  first  attempted  complete  enumeration  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  empire  was,  so  far  as  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  a part,  made  in 
one  day,  April  3,  1871.  The  returns  for  the  whole  empire  showed  a population  of  234,- 
762,593,  living  upon  7,769,449  sq.m,  of  territory,  viz.: — England  and  Wales,  22,856,164 
population;  Scotland,  3,392,259;  Ireland,  5,449,186;  islands  in  British  seas,  147,470; 
colonies  and  possessions,  202,917,214.  The  annual  rate  of  increase  from  1861  was: — In 
England  and  Wales,  1.23  per  cent;  Scotland,  0.92;  Ireland  (decrease),  0.71.  The  work 
of  this  C.  was  in  charge  of  the  registrar-general,  assisted  by  Dr.  W.  Farr  and  J.  T. 
Hammick.  The  main  work  was  done  by  32,543  enumerators,  employed  under  2,195 
registrars  and  626  superintendent  registrars.  All  the  enumerators  were  required  to  be 
intelligent,  trustworthy,  and  -active;  to  write  well,  and  to  have  some  knowledge  of 
arithmetic.  They  were  to  be  not  under  eighteen  nor  over  sixty-five,  and  to  be  in  good 
health  and  of  unexceptionable  character.  The  whole  country  was  divided  into  minute 
districts,  and  so  great  was  the  care  taken,  that  every  unnumbered  house  or  dwelling  had 
a fixed  number  put  upon  it  before  the  schedules  were  sent  out.  Every  means  was  taken 
through  the  press  and  by  means  of  special  publications  to  apprise  the  people  of  what 
was  wanted,  and  instructing  them  how  to  facilitate  the  work.  The  householders’  sched- 
ules were  delivered  in  person  by  the  enumerators  who  were  to  take  them  up.  Every 
separate  occupier  received  a schedule  arranged  so  as  to  record  the  name,  day,  age,  rank, 
profession  or  occupation,  conjugal  relation,  relation  to  the  head  of  the  family  and  birth- 
place of  every  person  who  abode  in  any  house  on  the  night  of  Sunday,  2d  of  April, 
1871.  There  were  special  blanks  for  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  etc.  There  were  6,500,006 
of  these  schedules,  weighing  41  tons.  In  addition  to  schedules  and  enumeration  books, 
there  were  sent  from  the  central  office  115  different  printed  forms  of  instructions  and 
circulars.  The  houseless  population  were  enumerated  by  the  police,  the  navy  by  the 
admiralty,  the  merchant  seamen  by  the  customs  bureau,  and  the  army  through  the  field- 
marshal’s  office.  The  tenacity  of  the  Welsh  tongue  was  shown  by  the  return  of  17,275 
schedules  filled  out  in  that  language.  The  care  exercised  in  taking  this  enumeration  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  enumerators  were  instructed  to  consider  a house  as  com- 
prising all  the  space  within  the  external  and  party  walls  of  a building,  whether  occupied 
by  one  or  several  families ; they  were  also  instructed  to  make  an  exact  record  of  each 
house  and  the  number  of  schedules  left.  With  the  help  of  the  police  they  were  to  return 
all  persons  not  on  that  night  dwelling  in  houses,  but  sleeping  in  barns,  sheds,  caravans 
or  tents,  or  in  the  open  air.  Special  schedules  were  printed  for  the  enumeration  of 
persons  in  public  institutions,  on  board  vessels,  or  in  charge  of  boats  and  barges  em- 
ployed in  inland  navigation.  Persons  traveling  during  the  night  of  Sunday,  April  2, 
were  to  be  included  in  the  schedules  of  the  hotel,  or  the  house  at  which  they  arrived  on 
the  morning  of  Monday.  Persons  engaged  in  work  away  from  home  during  the  night 
of  Sunday  were  to  be  included  in  the  schedule  left  at  the  house  where  they  usually 
resided.  The  causes  why  an  unusual  number  of  persons  were  present  or  absent  at  any 
given  places  were  to  be  reported.  The  expedition  with  which  the  enormous  mass  of 
information  was  assorted  and  compiled  may  be  known  from  the  fact  that  the  abstract 
showing  the  population  of  Great  Britain  was  laid  before  parliament  in  print  on  the  20th 
of  June,  only  eleven  weeks  from  the  day  for  collecting  the  schedules.  The  C.  of 
Ireland  at  the  same  time  was  taken  by  4,536  members  of  the  royal  constabulary,  aided 
in  cities  by  the  local  police.  In  Scotland  there  were  1016  local  registrars,  and  8,342 
enumerators.  The  cost  of  this  imperial  C.  was,  in  England,  £5  5s.  7|d  for  each  1000 
of  population ; in  Scotland,  £8  Is.  4d  ; in  Ireland,  £7  2s.  Id. 

Census  work  began  in  the  United  States  with  the  beginning  of  the  government.  In 
order  to  secure  a proper  apportionment  of  representatives  in  the  lower  house  of  congress 
a C.  is  taken  every  tenth  year.  At  first  it  was  nothing  more  than  an  enumeration  of 
the  people,  classifying  slave  and  free.  Additions  and  improvements  were  made  until 
the  schedules  of  1870  comprised  questions  as  to  name,  age,  sex,  color,  conjugal  condi- 
tion, place  of  birth  and  place  of  birth  of  father  and  mother.  To  these  were  added  par- 
ticulars as  to  schools,  libraries,  newspapers,  churches,  disease  and  mortality,  pauperism 
and  crime,  school,  military  and  citizenship  ages  ; areas  of  farms,  families  and  dwellings  ; 


623 


Centaurea. 

Centaurs. 


tlie  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  insane  and  idiotic,  occupations  of  the  people,  wealth,  taxa- 
tion, and  public  indebtedness,  and  the  amount  and  value  of  the  products  of  agriculture 
and  manufactures.  The  questions  were  certainly  comprehensive  enough,  but  the  mode 
of  taking  the  C.  was  slow,  cumbrous,  and  unsatisfactory.  It  was  two  years  and  six 
months  after  the  beginning  of  the  work  when  the  compilation  known  as  the  Compendium 
was  sent  to  congress.  In  the  introduction  to  this  compendium  gen.  Walker,  superin- 
tendent of  the  ninth  C.,  says:  “There  is  no  reason,  however,  why,  with  such  mod- 
ifications of  existing  laws  as  would  insure  that  the  material  should  come  originally  to 
the  census  office  in  proper  shape  for  tabulation,  the  entire  compilation  should  not  be 
concluded  within  a year  from  the  date  of  the  first  receipt  of  returns.  It  is  not  possible 
for  one  who  has  had  such  painful  occasion  as  the  present  superintendent  to  observe  the 
workings  of  the  census  law  of  1850,  to  characterize  it  otherwise  than  as  clumsy,  anti- 
quated and  barbarous.  The  machinery  it  provides  is  as  unfit  for  use  in  the  C.  of 
the  United  States,  in  this  day  of  advanced  statistical  science,  as  the  smooth-bore  muzzle- 
loading queen’s  arm  of  the  revolution  would  be  for  service  against  the  repeating  rifle  of 
the  present  time.  It  ought  not  to  be  possible  that  another  0.  should  be  taken  under 
this  law  ; such  a thing  ought  not  to  be  seriously  proposed.  The  country  has  suffered 
more  than  enough  already  of  discredit  and  of  loss  on  account  of  the  wretched  insufld- 
eiency  and  inappropriateness  of  the  provisions  of  this  ill-constructed  and  outgrown 
statute.” 

In  1850  Mr.  Joseph  C.  G.  Kennedy,  who  superintended  the  C.  of  that  decade, 
ventured  to  prophesy  our  future  population,  basing  his  estimates  upon  the  progress 
already  achieved.  Of  course,  he  did  not  make  allowances  for  the  war,  then  undreamed 
of.  He  reckoned  that  in  1870  we  should  have  a population  of  42,328,432,  and  in  1880 
it  would  rise  to  56,450,241.  His  estimates  were  high,  but  without  the  war  we  should 
probably  have  come  well  up  to  them.  Taking  the  whole  country,  we  lost  through 
battle  and  diseases  consequent  upon  military  service  more  than  a million  of  men  ; and 
these  were  men  in  the  prime  of  life — just  the  period  for  natural  increase  of  families. 
Three  times  as  many,  who  did  not  lose  their  lives,  were  away  from  their  homes  one, 
two,  or  three  years,  and  this,  too,  greatly  reduced  natural  increase. 

CENT  {ante),  a coin  of  the  United  States  valued  at  the  hundredth  part  of  a dollar. 
The  first  one  authorized  by  act  of  congress,  April  2,  1792,  was  copper,  and  weighed  264 
grains.  The  next  year  the  weight  Was  reduced  to  208  grains,  and  in  1796  to  168  grains. 
Half  cents  were  also  coined,  but  not  to  great  extent.  Collectors  of  coins  should  remem- 
ber that  no  coins  other  than  gold  or  silver  were  issued  from  the  United  States  mint  in 
the  year  1815  or  1832.  By  the  act  of  Feb.  21, 1857  the  issue  of  half  cents  was  discontinued, 
and  the  copper  C.  was  made  of  .88  copper  and  12  zinc,  and  to  weigh  72  grains.  April 
22,  1864,  the  bronze  C.  was  introduced,  consisting  of  ,95  copper  and  .5  tin  and  zinc, 
and  weighing  48  grains.  Ten  of  the  present  cents  weigh  just  a troy  ounce,  and  120 
cents  weigh  a troy  pound.  They  cannot  be  conveniently  used  for  avoirdupois  or  com- 
mon weight.  Cents  are  legal  tender  to  the  amount  of  25  cents. 

CENTATT'REA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  compositce,  sub-order  cynaracea, 
containing  many  species  of  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  chiefly  natives  of 
the  temperate  and  cold  regions  of  the  eastern  hemisphere.  Six  or  seven  species  are 
natives  of  Britain,  some  of  them  common  weeds,  whilst  some  species  appear  among  the 
frequent  ornaments  of  flower-gardens. — The  Blue-bottle,  or  Corn  Blue-bottle  (C. 
cyanus),  is  common  in  cornfields  in  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  has  now 
become  frequent  also  in  similar  situations  in  America,  and  indeed  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  world.  It  is  an  annual,  growing  to  the  height  of  about  2 ft.,  and  producing  its 
flowers  in  July  and  August.  The  florets  of  the  disk  are  small  and  purple;  those  of  the 
ray  are  few,  comparatively  large,  and  of  a bright  blue.  Its  flowers  have  long  been 
much  used  in  wreaths  and  garlands.  It  is  common  in  gardens,  with  flowers  variously 
modified  by  cultivation.  Water  distilled  from  the  flowers  of  the  blue-bottle  was  at  one 
time  in  high  repute  as  a remedy  for  weak  eyes.  The  juice  of  the  florets  of  the  disk, 
with  a little  alum,  dyes  a beautiful  and  permanent  blue. — The  large , blue-bottle  {G. 
montana),  a native  of  central  Europe,  is  still  more  frequently  cultivated  in  flower-gar- 
. dens.  Its  flowers  are  considerably  larger,  and  it  is  a perennial. — Sweet  Sultan  {G. 
moschaia),^  a native  of  the  Levant,  with  fragrant  flowers,  is  also  common  in  flower-gar- 
dens. It  is  an  annual  or  biennial. — Several  species,  having  the  involucre  spiny,  bear 
the  name  of  Star-thistle.  The  common  Star-thistle  {C.  calcitrapa)  is  a native  of 
the  southern  parts  of  Britain  and  of  Europe. — The  common  or  black  Knapweed,  called 
in  Scotland  horse  knot  {G.  nigra),  is  abundant  in  the  meadows  and  pastures  of  most  parts 
of  Britain,  and  is  a troublesome  perennial  weed,  difficult  of  extirpation.  G.  jacea,  also 
called  Knapweed,  more  rare  in  Britain,  is  very  common  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  and 
its  bitter  astringent  root,  and  indeed  the  whole  plant,  were  formerly  used  in  medicine. 
It  affords  a beautiful  bright  yellow  dye,  almost  as  good  as  saw-wort. — The  name  C.  has 
its  origin  in  an  ancient  legend  concerning  the  cure  of  a centaur  by  one  of  the  species. 

CENTAURS  (“  bull-killers”),  a wild  race  of  men  who  inhabited,  in  early  times,  the 
forests  and  mountains  of  Thessaly,  and  whose  chief  occupation  was  bull-hunting. 
Homer,  the  first  who  mentions  them,  describes  them  merely  as  savage,  gigantic,  and 
covered  with  hair.  They  do  not  appear  as  monsters,  half -man  and  half-horse,  until  the 


Centaurus. 

Center. 


624 


age  of  Pindar.  The  C.  are  celebrated  in  Greek  mythology  on  account  of  their  war  with 
th^e  Lapithm  (q.v.),  and  their  contest  with  Hercules.  The  fact  lying  at  the  bottom  of 
Pindar’s  myth  may  refer  to  the  impression  which  the  old  bull-hunters  of  Thessaly,  who 
spent  almost  their  whole  life,  it  is  said,  on  horseback,  first  made  on  some  of  the  neigh- 
boring tribes — viz. , that  the  man  and  the  horse  were  one  creature,  which,  at  least,  we- 
know  was  the  opinion  entertained  by  the  Mexicans  of  the  Spanish  cavalry.  On  account 
of  their  resemblance  to  the  Satyrs,  the  C.  were  at  a later  period  introduced  into  the 
artistic  representation  of  the  Bacchic  worship. 

CENTATJ'IITJS,  the  Centaur,  one  of  the  constellations  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
represented  on  the  celestial  globe  by  a form  half-man  and  half -horse.  The  stars  in  this 
constellation  are,  according  to  Ptolemy’s  catalogue,  37  in  number;  according  to  the 
Britannic  catalogue,  35.  It  contains  the  stars  a Centauri  and  (5  Centauri,  both  of  the 
first  magnitude. 

CEN'TATJRY,  Erythrma,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  gentianece,  having  a 
funnel-shaped  regular  5-partite  corolla.  The  species  are  pretty  little  annuals,  natives 
chiefly  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  with  pink  or  rose-colored  flowers. 
They  possess  the  tonic  and  other  medicinal  virtues  of  gentian,  and  although  not  fre- 
quently administered  by  physicians,  are  an  important  domestic  medicine ; and  the  tops 
are  collected,  when  the  plant  is  in  flower,  by  the  country  people  both  in  England  and  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  to  be  employed  in  cases  of  dyspepsia,  in  intermittent  fevers, 
and  as  a vermifuge.  They  contain  a substance  called  centaurine,  the  hydrochlorate  of 
which  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  febrifuge.— The  common  C.  {E.  centaurium)  is  the  spe- 
cies most  frequent  in  Britain;  a plant  of  8 in.  to  a foot  in  height,  with  flow^ers  collected 
in  loose  heads,  growing  in  dry  pastures.  Two  or  three  other  species  are  found  on 
sandy  sea-shores.  Nearly  allied  to  these  is  the  American  C.  {sabbatia  angularis),  an 
annual  plant  with  an  erect  quadrangular  stem,  extensively  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  much  used  in  the  domestic  practice  of  America,  as  a 
prophylactic  against  autumnal  fevers  in  strong  infusions  and  large  and  repeated  doses. 
The  name  C.  owes  its  origin  to  the  same  legend  with  the  name  centaurea,  although 
appropriated  to  plants  so  different. 

CENT  and  CENTIME'  (Lat.  centum,  a hundred),  names  of  coins.  The  Dutch  cent 
is  a copper  coin  =Y^^th  of  the  guilder,  which  is  equal  to  1«.  8d.  sterling.  In  the  U.  S. 
of  America,  the  cent  is  a copper  coin  =Y07rth  part  of  the  dollar,  or  nearly  one  half- 
penny English.  The  centime  is  the  100th  of  the  French  franc  (q.v.),  and  is  of  the  value 
of  j^ijth  of  an  English  penny. 

CENTE'NES.  See  Tenrec. 

CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION,  in  the  United  States,  held  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  a 
hundred  years  after  the  declaration  of  independence.  It  was  opened  in  Fairmount  park, 
May  10,  1876.  An  area  of  236  acres  was  used,  and  the  cost  of  the  five  main  buildings 
was  $4,500,000.  Before  the  close  there  were  more  than  200  separate  buildings  within 
the  inclosure.  Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  preparations  may  be  obtained  from, 
the  apportionment  of  space  in  the  main  building,  designed  for  the  exhibition  of  the  manu- 
factured products  and  products  of  mines  and  metallurgy,  as  well  as  the  condition  of 
science  and  education  in  all  nations.  This  building  covered  20  acres,  and  was  1880  ft. 
long  and  464  wide,  with  projecting  wings  in  the  center  of  the  sides  416  ft.  long,  and  in 
the  center  of  the  ends  216  ft.  long.  The  exhibition  space  was  on  one  floor.  The 
roof  of  the  main  portion  was  70  ft.  high.  In  the  center  was  an  elevated  square,  with 
sides  of  184  ft.,  having  towers  120  ft.  high  and  48  ft.  square  at  the  corners.  At  the 
four  corners  of  the  building  were  towers  75  ft.  high.  The  roof  was  supported  by  wrought- 
iron  roof-trusses  resting  upon  672  wrought-iron  columns.  The  sides  were  closed  with 
glazed  sash,  above  a substructure  of  brick  7 ft.  high,  resting  on  a foundation  of  massive 
masonry.  Space  was  apportioned  as  follows,  in  square  feet;  Argentine  Republic,  2,861; 
Austria-Hungary,  24,727;  Belgium,  15,598;  Brazil,  6,899;  Canada,  24,118;  Chili,  3,244; 
China,  6,628;  France,  45,460;  Germany,  29,629;  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  54,155; 
India  and  British  colonies,  24,193;  Hawaiian  islands,  1575;  Italy,  8,943;  Japan,  17,831; 
Luxemburg,  247;  Mexico,  6,567;  Netherlands,  15,948;  Norway,  6,959;  Orange  Free 
State,  1058;  Peru,  1462;  Spain  and  colonies,  11,253;  Sweden,  17,799;  Switzerland,  6,693; 
Tunis,  2,015;  Turkey,  3,347;  United  States,  136,684.  Within  this  vast  space  the  nations 
vied  with  each  other  in  showing  proofs  of  their  industry,  wealth,  and  greatness.  A most 
interesting  part  of  the  exhibition  was  that  devoted  to  the  progress  of  modern  education. 
Another  building  was  the  women’s  pavilion,  covering  an  acre  of  ground,  designed  to 
receive  the  products  of  woman’s  ingenuity  and  progress.  Besides  the  United  States 
more  than  a dozen  other  nations  were  here  represented.  This  was  the  first  collect- 
ive display  of  women’s  work  ever  attempted.  The  art  building  was  called  Memorial 
hall,  and  remains  as  a permanent  monument  of  the  exhibition.  It  is  a splendid  structure, 
in  the  renaissance  style.  On  a central  tower  150  ft.  high  stands  a colossal  statue  of 
America;  at  the  base  are  four  figures  of  smaller  proportions,  representing  the  four  quar- 
ters of  the  globe.  The  building  is  365  ft.  long  by  210  wide,  and  59  high;  it  is  of  granite, 
glass,  and  iron.  Machinery  hall,  next  in  size  to  the  main  building,  was  1402  ft.  long  by  360 
wide,  its  area,  including  that  of  its  annex,  being  nearly  13  acres.  Steam,  water-power,  and 


625 


Centanroa 

Center. 


shafting  were  provided  by  the  commissioners.  The  United  States  building  was  504  by  30^ 
feet.  In  it  were  exhibited,  as  fully  as  possible,  all  the  operations  of  government  service^ 
Horticultural  hall,  in  the  Moorish  style  of  the  12th  c.,  was  built  by  the  city  of  Philadelphia, 
and  was  intended  to  be  permanent.  It  is  of  iron  and  glass,  383  by  193  ft.,  and  72  in 
height.  Agricultural  hall  covered  a rectangular  space  820  ft.  long  and  540  wide.  Great 
Britain  erected  three  buildings  for  the  use  and  entertainment  of  her  commissioners; 
and  Germany,  Brazil,  and  Portugal  each  had  a pavilion.  The  English  buildings  were 
fine  specimens  of  the  later  Tudor  architecture.  Sweden  exhibited  a national  school- 
house  with  educational  appliances  and  furniture  complete.  France  had  a building 
containing  charts,  drawings,  and  models  of  public  works.  Canada  displayed  her  woods 
and  lumber  in  log  and  frame  houses.  Spain  had  a soldiers’  barracks,  and  Cuba  had 
an  acclimatization  garden.  Turkey  showed  in  a special  building  her  sponge  fisheries. 
Japan  had  a model  dwelling.  Morocco  had  a Moorish  villa  for  the  display  and  sale  of 
her  productions.  Chili  had  a building  containing  models  of  amalgamating  machines. 
There  were  also  a number  of  special  edifices  belonging  to  private  exhibitors.  There 
was  a Turkish  cafe  of  true  oriental  type,  where  Mocha,  mastic,  Syrian  tobacco,  and 
Samian  wine  were  dispensed.  There  were  a Tunisian  bazar,  and  an  Algerine  pavilion; 
Japanese  booths,  houses,  and  gardens;  a New  England  farmer’s  home  with  the  old  style 
of  kitchen,  and  other  peculiar  structures.  There  were  26  buildings  for  the  headquar- 
ters of  as  many  states,  some  of  them  containing  large  exhibitions  of  state  products; 
several  were  made  of  the  stone  or  wood  of  the  state  represented.  Thirty  or  more  build- 
ings w^ere  erected  by  private  companies  or  individuals.  Among  them  were  the  tele- 
graph building,  the  transportation  building,  the  bankers’  building,  the  American  kin- 
dergarten, the  Bible  building,  and  others  showing  the  manufacture  of  innumerable 
articles;  finally,  the  ingenuity  of  man  was  supplemented  by  bees  making  honey  in  the 
midst  of  all  the  crowd  and  turmoil.  The  exhibition  was  opened  to  visitors  every  day 
except  Sunday  for  six  months,  closing  on  the  10th  of  November.  The  number  of  admis- 
sions was  9,910,966,  of  which  number  7,250,620  paid  the  regular  fee  of  50cts.,aud 
753,654  the  special  rate  of  25  cts. ; 1,906,692  admissions  were  free,  representing  exhibit- 
ors, officers,  employes,  the  press,  and  complimentary  passes. 

CENTER,  a co.  in  middle  Pennsylvania,  traversed  by  the  Allegheny  and  other 
mountain  ridges.  Bald  Eagle  creek,  and  two  or  three  branches  of  the  Pennsylvania 
railroad;  1000  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,37,921.  The  chief  business  is  agriculture.  Coal,  iron, 
and  limestone  are  abundant.  Co.  seat,  Bellefonte. 

CENTER  OF  GRAVITY  is  that  point  in  a body  or  system  of  bodies  rigidly  connected, 
upon  which  the  body  or  system  acted  upon  only  by  the  force  of  gravity,  will  balance 
4 itself  in  all  positions.  Though  the  action  of  gravity  enters  this  definition,  many  of  the 
properties  of  the  point  are  independent  of  that  force,  and  might  be  enunciated  and 
proved  without  conceiving  it  to  exist.  By  some,  accordingly,  th^e  point  has  been  called 
the  center  of  magnitude,  and  by  others,  the  center  of  parallel  forces.  Such  a point  exists 
in  every  body  and  system,  and  only  one  such  point.  Every  body  may  be  supposed  to 
be  made  up  of  a multitude  of  minute  particles  connected  by  cohesion,  and  so  far  as  its 
balance  under  gravity  is  concerned,  each  of  these  may  be  supposed  to  be  removed,  and 
its  place  occupied  by  a force  proportioned  to  its  weight.  . Instead  of  the  body,  on  these 
suppositions,  we  should  then  have  a system  of  parallel  forces,  the  lines  from  the  various 
particles  to  the  earth’s  center  being  regarded  as  parallel.  But  a system  of  parallel  forces 
(see  Parallel  Forces)  has  a single  resultant  acting  through  a fixed  point,  whose 
position  is  independent  of  the  position  in  space  of  the  points  of  application  of  the  com- 
ponent forces,  provided  their  relative  positions  in  the  system  continue  unchanged.  This 


c 


point  is  the  C.  of  G. ; and  if  it  be  supported,  it  is  clear  that  the  body  will  balance  itself 
upon  it  in  all  positions.  The  same  reasoning  obviously  applies  to  any  system  of  bodies 
rigidly  connected.  It  is  usual  to  demonstrate  this  and  the  general  rule  for  finding  the 
C.  of  G.  by  proving  it  first  in  the  case  of  two  heavy  particles  forming  a body  or  system, 
and  then  extending  the  proof  to  the  case  of  any  number  of  particles.  Let  P and  Q (see 
fig.  1)  be  two  heavy  particles.  Join  P and  Q,  and  divide  the  line  PQ  in  C,  so  that 
weight  of  P ; weight  of  Q : : CQ  : CP.  Then  C will  be  the  C.  of  G.  of  P and  Q.  Draw 
ACB  horizontal,  and  PM,  QN  vertical,  meeting  AB  in  M and  N.  Then  if  P and  Q 
represent  the  weights  of  P and  Q,  we  have  P : Q : : CQ  : CP.  But  CQ  : CP  : : CN  : CM 
by  similar  triangles.  Therefore  P : Q : : CN  : CM,  and  P.CM  = Q.CN.  P and  Q, 
therefore  are  balanced  about  C.  See  Balance  and  Lever.  This  is  true  in  all  positions 
of  P and  Q,  for  no  assumption  was  made  as  to  their  positions.  C,  therefore,  is  their 
center  of  gravity,  Also,  we  may  conceive  P and  Q to  be  removed  (see  Parallel 
Forces),  and  in  their  stead  a particle  at  C equal  to  them  taken  together  in  weight.  If 
U.  K.  III.— 40 


Center. 


626 


now,  the  system  contained  three,  it  is  clear  how  we  should  proceed  to  find  its  center  of 
;gravity;  having  found  the  C.  of  G.  of  two,  we  should  consider  the  system  as  formed  of 
two — viz.,  the  equivalent  of  the  first  two  at  their  C.  of  G.,  and  the  third,  when  the  case 
would  fall  under  that  already  treated;  and  so  on,  extending  the  rule  to  a system  con- 
taining any  number  of  particles.  Apart  from  this  rule,  however,  it  is  possible,  in  the 
case  of  most  regular  homogeneous  bodies,  to  fix  upon  their  centers  of  gravity  from  gen- 
eral considerations.  The  C.  of  G.  of  a straight  line,  for  instance,  must  clearly  be  in  its 
middle  point.  So  the  C.  of  G.  of  a uniform  homogeneous  cylinder  must  be  in  the  mid- 
dle point  of  its  axis.  It  must  be  in  the  axis,  for  the  cylinder  clearly  is  equally  balanced 
about  its  axis.  It  must  also  be  somewhere  in  its  middle  circular  section,  for  it  will  bal- 
ance itself  on  a knife-edge  under  that  section.  It  must,  therefore,  be  in  the  point  where 
that  section  cuts  the  axis,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  axis.  The  C.  of  G.  of  a uniform 
material  plane  triangle  may  be  found  from  similar  considerations.  The  triangle  ABC 
<see  fig.  2)  may  be  supposed  to  be  made  up  of  uniform  material  lines  parallel  to  its  base 
AB;  each  of  these  will  balance  upon  its  middle  point.  The  whole  triangle,  therefore, 
will  balance  upon  the  line  CD,  which  bisects  the  base  AB  and  all  lines  parallel  to  it.  In 
the  same  wa}",  the  triangle  will  balance  upon  the  line  AE,  bisecting  BC.  But  if  a figure 
balances  itself  upon  a line,  its  C.  of  G.  must  lie  in  that  line.  The  C.  of  G.  of  the  trian- 
gle is  therefore  in  CD,  and  also  in  CB.  It  must  therefore  be  at  g where  these  lines  inter- 
sect, g being  the  only  point  they  have  in  common.  Now,  by  geometry,  we  know  that 
g divides  CD,  so  that  Qg  = \ CD.  Hence  the  rule  for  finding  the  C.  of  G.  of  a triangle: 
Draw  a line  from  the  vertex,  bisecting  the  base,  and  measure  off  Qg,  two  thirds  of  the 
line,  g is  the  center  of  gravity.  By  a similar  method,  the  C.  of  G.  of  a great  number 
of  figures  may  be  determined. 

The  above  method  applies  only  where  the  figure  of  the  body  is  regular,  and  its  mass 
homogeneous.  But  many  bodies,  besides  being  irregular,  are  formed  by  the  agglomeration 
of  particles  of  different  specific  gravities.  Of  these,  the  C.  of  G.  can  be  found  only  by 
experiment,  though  not  always  satisfactorily.  Let  the  body  be  suspended  by  a string, 
and  allowed  to  find  its  position  of  equilibrium.  The  equilibrium  being  due  to  the  ten- 
sion of  the  string  counterbalancing  gravity,  it  follows  that  the  tension  is  in  the  same 
line  with  that  on  which  gravity  acts  on  the  body.  But  the  tension  acts  on  the  line  of  the 
string,  which  therefore  passes  through  the  center  of  gravity.  Mark  its  direction  through 
the  body.  Suspending  it  then  by  another  point,  we  should  ascertain  a second  line  in 
which  lies  the  center  of  gravity.  The  C.  of  G.,  then,  must  be  where  these  lines  inter- 
sect.— For  the  effect  on  the  stability  of  bodies  of  the  position  of  the  C.  of  G.,  see  Sta- 
bility. 

CENTEE  OF  GYRA'TION  is  the  point  at  which,  if  the  whole  mass  of  a body  rotating  • 
round  an  axis  or  point  of  suspension  were  collected,  a given  force  applied  would  pro- 
duce the  same  angular  velocity  as  it  would  if  applied  at  the  same  point  to  the  body 
itself.  The  0.  of  G.  bears  a strong  analogy  to  the  center  of  oscillation.  The  cases 
differ  only  in  this,  that  in  the  latter  the  operating  forces  are  supposed  to  act  at  every 
point  of  the  moving  body,  while  in  the  former  there  is  only  one  force  acting  upon 
one  point.  The  C.  of  G.  is  found  by  the  following  rule:  Divide  the  moment  of  inertia 
of  the  rotating  mass  by  the  mass  of  the  body,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  quo- 
tient. The  result  is  the  distance  of  the  point  from  the  axis  of  rotation.  The  moment 
of  inertia,  it  may  be  stated,  is  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the  weight  of  each  point  of 
the  mass  by  the  square  of  the  perpendicular  distance  of  that  point  from  the  axis. 

CENTERING,  the  frame-work  upon  which  an  arch  or  vault  of  stone,  brick,  or  iron  is 
supported  during  its  construction.  The  simplest  form  of  C.  is  that  used  by  masons  and 
bricklayers  for  the  arches  of  common  windows  and  doors.  This  is  merely  a deal-board 
of  the  required  shape,  upon  the  curved  edge  of  which  the  bricks  or  stones  of  the  arch 
are  supported  until  they  are  keyed  in.  In  building  bridges  or  other  structures  where 
arches  of  great  span  are  to  be  constructed,  the  C.  is  usually  made  of  framed  timbers,  or 
timbers  and  iron  combined.  The  arrangement  of  the  timbers  should  be  such,  that  the 
strain  upon  each  shall  be  mainly  a thrust  in  the  direction  of  its  length,  for  if  the  strain 
were  transverse,  a comparatively  slight  force  would  snap  it,  and  if  a longitudinal  pull, 
the  whole  structure  would  be  no  stronger  than  the  joints  holding  the  pieces  of  timber 
together.  In  arches  of  great  span,  such  as  that  of  Waterloo  bridge,  London,  a lonrf- 
tudinal  pulling  strain  is  almost  inevitable  in  some  parts,  as  a beamof  great  length  would 
bend  to  some  extent  under  a thrusting  strain.  In  such  cases  great  skill  and  care  are 
demanded  in  the  designing  and  construction  of  the  joints.  As  an  arch  is  built  from  the 
piers  towards  the  keystone,  the  weight  upon  the  haunches  during  construction  tends  to 
push  the  crown  upwards,  and  therefore  the  problem  of  designing  a framed  C.  involves 
the  resistance  of  this  tendency,  as  well  as  the  supporting  of  the  weight  of  the  materials. 

The  C.  of  Waterloo  bridge,  designed  by  Rennie,  presents  a fine  example  of  the 
fulfillment  of  these  requirements.  The  weight  is  resisted  by  direct  thrust  upon  beams 
passing  obliquely  downwards  from  various  parts;  one  of  each  pair  of  these  oblique  beams 
thrusts  outwards,  and  is  directly  supported  by  the  abutments;  the  other  thrusts  inwards 
towards  a support  equidistant  from  the  abutments,  the  yielding  of  which  is  prevented 
by  the  longitudinal  pull  of  lower  and  longer  oblique  beams.  In  this,  and  other  modern 
structures,  cast-iron  shoes  have  been  successfully  used  for  the  tying  joints  subject  to  the 


G27 


center. 


longitudinal  pulling  strain.  The  flexible  C.,  so  called  from  its  yielding  at  the  joints, 
and  varying  its  form  with  the  load  put  upon  it,  is  now  abandoned.  It  was  chiefly  used 
by  French  engineers.  That  of  Perronet  for  the  bridge  of  Neuilly  is  a celebrated 
example. 

Occasionally,  when  a very  great  span  is  required,  and  the  navigation  will  permit, 
piers  are  built,  or  piles  are  driven,  to  support  the  C.,  and  the  design  is  much  simplified 
thereby. 

Cupolas  like  the  pantheon  and  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome,  St.  Paul’s  in  London,  or  the  flat 
domes  of  the  Turkish  mosques,  require  very  effective  centerings. 

CENTEB  OP  MAGNITUDE  or  Figure  (see  Center  of  Gravity).  C.  of  M.  is  the 
point  on  which  plane  figures  and  curved  surfaces  would  balance  themselves,  supposing 
their  areas  to  have  weight.  Thus,  the  center  of  a circle  is  its  center  of  magnitude. 
Otherwise,  C.  of  M.  or  F.  is  a point  so  situated  that  all  straight  lines  passing  through 
it,  and  terminated  by  the  circumference  or  superficies  of  the  figure  or  surface,  are 
bisected  in  it. 


CENTEB  OF  OSCILLA'TION.  Referring  to  the  article  Pendulum,  the  reader  will  see 
that  the  time  of  a pendulum’s  vibration  increases  with  its  length,  being  always  propor- 
tioned to  the  square  root  of  its  length.  This  is  strictly  true  only  of  the  simple  pen- 
dulum, in  which  the  pendulous  body  is  supposed  to  have  no  determinate  magnitude, 
and  to  be  connected  with  the  point  of  suspension  by  an  inflexible  wire  without  weight. 
If,  however,  the  vibrating  body  have  a determinate  magnitude,  then  the  time  of  vibra- 
tion will  vary,  not  with  the  square  root  of  its  length,  but  with  the  square  root  of  the 
distance  from  the  axis  of  suspension  of  a point  in  the  body  called  itscenter  of  oscillation. 

If  each  part  of  the  vibrating  body  were  separately  connected  with  the  axis  of  sus- 
pension by  a fine  thread,  and  entirely  disconnected  from  the  rest  of  the  body,  it  would 
form  an  independent  simple  pendulum,  and  oscillate  as  such — the  time  of  each  vibra- 
tion being  as  the  square  root  of  the  length  of  its  thread.  It  follows  that  those  particles 
of  the  body  which  are  nearest  to  the  axis  of  suspension  would,  as  simple  pendulums, 
vibrate  more  rapidly  than  those  more  remote.  Being  connected,  however,  as  parts  of 
the  solid  body,  they  vibrate  all  in  the  same  time.  But  this  connection  does  not  affect 
their  tendencies  to  vibrate  as  simple  pendulums,  and  the  motion  of  the  body  which  they 
compose  is  a compromise  of  these  tendencies  of  its  particles.  Those  nearest  the 
axis  are  retarded  by  the  more  remote,  while  the  more  remote  are  urged  on  by  the 
nearer.  Among  these  particles  there  is  always  one  to  be  found  in  which  the 
accelerating  and  retarding  effects  of  the  rest  are  mutually  neutralized,  and  which 
^vibrates  in  the  same  time  as  it  would  if  it  w’ere  unconnected  with  the  other  parts 
of  the  body,  and  simply  connected  by  a fine  thread  to  the  axis  of  suspension.  The 
point  in  the  body  occupied  by  this  particle  is  its  center  of  oscillation.  By  this 
C.  of  O.  the  calculations  respecting  the  vibration  of  a solid  body  are  rendered  as 
simple  as  those  of  a molecule  of  inconsiderable  magnitude.  All  the  properties  which 
belong  to  a simple  pendulum  may  be  transferred  to  a vibrating  body  of  any  magnitude 
and  figure,  by  considering  it  as  equivalent  to  a single  particle  of  matter  vibrating  at 
its  centre  of  oscillation. 

The  determination  of  the  position  of  the  C.  of  O.  of  a body  usually  requires  the  aid 
of  the  calculus.  It  is  always  further  from  the  axis  of  suspension  than  the  center  of 
gravity  is,  and  always  in  the  line  joining  the  center  of  gravity  and  the  point  of  sus- 
pension, when  the  body  is  suspended  from  a point.  The  rule  for  finding  it  in  such  a 


^ ijnd}) 


or  it  is  the 


case  is:  If  S be  the  point  of  suspension,  and  0 the  C.  of  0.,  SO— 

quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  body  by  the  product  of  its 
mass  into  the  distance  of  its  center  of  gravity  from  the  point  of  suspension. 

CEN'TEB  OF  PEBCUS'SION.  The  C.  of  P.  of  a body  or  a system  of  bodies  revolving 
about  a point  or  axis,  is  that  point  in  it,  which  striking  an  immovable  object,  the  whole 
mass  shall  not  incline  to  either  side,  but  rest,  as  it  were,  in  equilibrio,  without  acting  on 
the  center  or  axis  of  suspension.  If  the  body  be  moving  freely,  then  the  C.  of  P.  is  that 
• point  in  it  at  which  its  whole  impetus  is  supposed  to  be  concentrated.  In  this  case,  if 
the  body  struck  with  its  C.  of  P.  an  immovable  obstacle,  and  if  it  were  perfectly  rigid 
and  inelastic,  it  would  come  to  perfect  repose;  whereas,  if  it  struck  the  obstacle  with 
- any  other  point,  a rotatory  motion  would  be  produced  in  it.  When  the  body  is  moving 
freely,  and  there  is  no  rotatory  motion,  the  C.  of  P.  coincides  with  the  center  of  gravity. 
If  the  body  be  moving  round  a point  or  axis  of  suspension,  the  C.  of  P.  coincides  with 
the  center  of  oscillation.  The  more  complicated  case  of  a body  rotating  round  an  axis 
within  it,  would  require,  for  its  explanation,  analytical  formulae  which  cannot  con- 
veniently be  translated  into  ordinary  language.  There  are  many  positions  which  the 
axis  may  have  in  which  there  will  be  no  C.  of  P. — i.e.,  there  will  be  no  direction  in 
which  an  impulse  could  be  applied  without  producing  a shock  upon  the  axis.  One 
case  of  this  sort  is  that  of  the  axis  being  a principal  axis  through  the  center  of  gravity. 


CEN'TEB  OF  FBES'SUBE.  The  C.  of  P.  of  any  surface  immersed  in  a fluid  is  the 
point  in  which  the  resultant  of  the  pressures  of  the  fluid  on  the  several  points  meets  the 
surface.  When  the  bottom  of  a vessel  containing  fluid,  or  when  a plane  immersed  in 


Centig^rade. 

Central. 


628 


fluid,  is  horizontal,  a pressure  on  every  point  of  it  is  the  same,  being  that  due  to  the 
weight  of  the  column  of  fluid  standing  above  the  bottom  or  plane.  In  either  case,  the 
pressures  at  the  different  points  obviously  form  a system  of  equal  parallel  forces,  whose 
center  will  be  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  bottom  or  plane,  their  resultant  passing  through 
this  point  being  the  sum  of  all  their  forces.  But  when  the  plane  is  inclined  at  any  angle 
to  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  the  pressure  is  not  the  same  at  all  points,  but  is  obviously 
greater  at  the  lower  than  at  the  upper  points,  for  the  lower  have  to  support  taller 
columns  of  the  fluid.  -The  resultant  of  these  forces,  then,  will  not  pass  through  the 
center  of  gravity  of  the  surface,  but  through  a point  below  it.  This  point  is  the  C. 
of  P.,  and  evidently  will  lie  below  the  center  of  gravity  for  all  fluids  in  which  the 
pressure  increases  with  the  depth.  If  the  surface  pressed  upon  form  part  of  the  con- 
taining vessel,  and  be  supposed  movable,  it  will  be  kept  at  rest  by  a pressure  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  fluid  pressures  applied  at  the  C.  of  P. , and  acting  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. In  the  case  of  a vessel  with  a parallelogram  for  one  side,  the  C.  of  P.  is  at  the 
distance  of  one  third  of  the  height  from  the  bottom.  In  the  case  of  a triangular  vessel 
whose  base  is  at  the  bottom,  it  is  one  fourth  of  the  height  only. 

CENTIGRADE.  See  Thermometer. 

CENTIPEDE,  Scohpendra,  a genus  of  myriapoda  (q.v.),  having  a long  slender  depressed 
body,  protected  by  coriaceous  plates,  21  pair  of  legs,  distinct  eyes,  four  on  each  side, 
and  antennse  with  17  joints.  The  name  is,  however,  popularly  extended  to  species  of 
nearly  allied  genera.  Centipedes  run  nimbly,  feed  on  insects,  and  pursue  them  into 
their  lurking-places.  They  have  not  only  a pair  of  horny  jaws,  like  those  of  vnsects, 
but  also  another  pair  of  organs  closely  connected  with  the  mouth,  and  which  are 
regarded  as  transformed  legs,  dilated  and  united  at  the  base,  terminated  by  a strong 
hook,  and  pierced  beneath  the  extremity  for  the  emission  of  a venomous  fluid,  which 
makes  their  bite  quickly  fatal  to  insects,  and  in  the  case  of  the  larger  species,  very 
painful  and  even  dangerous  to  the  larger  animals  and  to  man.  The  common  C.  of 
tropical  America  {8.  morsitans)  is  often  9 in.  or  a foot  in  length.  A species  found  in 
the  s.  of  Europe  {8.  cingulata)  is  nearly  as  large,  but  its  bite  does  not  seem  to  be  equally 
venomous.  It  may  seem  strange  that  creatures  of  such  aspect  as  centipedes  should  ever 
have  been  thought,  of  as  human  food,  but  Humboldt,  in  his  personal  narrative,  tells  us 
that  he  has  seen  Indian  children  of  the  tribe  of  the  Chuymas  draw  large  centipedes  out 
of  the  earth  and  eat  them. — The  most  common  British  C.  is  not  a true  scolopendra,  as 
that  genus  is  now  restricted,  but  is  very  nearly  allied  to  it.  It  is  known  to  naturalists 
as  Uthobius  forjicatus.  It  is  very  plentiful  under  stones,  etc.,  in  summer.  Another  allied 
genus,  geophilus,  of  more  numerous  joints  and  slender  form,  contains  some  species 
which  are  occasionally  phosphorescent,  one  of  which,  O.  longicornis,  yellow,  with  a rust- 
colored  head,  is  very  abundant  at  the  roots  of  turnips,  etc.  It  is  supposed,  however, 
to  be  rather  useful  than  injurious,  preying  on  the  destructive  larvse  of  insects. 

CENTLIVRE,  Susanna,  an  English  dramatic  authoress,  was  the  daughter  of  a Lin- 
colnshire gentleman,  named  Freeman,  b.  (most  probably)  in  Ireland,  about  1670.  Her 
early  history  is  obscure;  but  such  were  her  wit  and  beauty,  that  on  her  arrival  in  Lon- 
don, though  a destitute  orphan,  and  only  16  years  of  age,  she  won  the  heart  of  a 
nephew  of  sir  Stephen  Fox,  who,  however,  died  shortly  after  their  marriage.  Her 
second  husband,  an  officer  named  Carrol,  lost  his  life  in  a duel.  Left  in  extreme 
poverty,  his  widow  endeavored  to  support  herself  by  writing  for  the  stage,  and  after 
producing  a tragedy  called  The  Perjured  Husband  (performed  first  in  1700),  made  her 
appearance  on  the  stage.  She  afterwards  married  (1706)  Joseph  Centlivre,  principal 
cook  to  queen  Anne,  with  whom  she  lived  happily  until  the  time  of  her  death,  Dec.  1, 
1723.  Her  plays — Ihe  Busybody  (of  which  the  leading  character,  “ Marplot,”  is  highly 
amusing);  A Bold  8troke  for  a Wife  (1717);  and  The  Wonder  (1714) — though  not  dis- 
tinguished by  purity  of  style  or  truthfulness  of  portraiture,  are  lively  in  their  plots,  and 
have  kept  their  place  on  the  stage. 

CENTO  (from  Gr.  kentrbn,  patchwork),  a name  applied  to  literary  trivialities  in  the 
form  of  poems  manufactured  by  putting  together  distinct  verses  or  passages  of  one 
author,  or  of  several  authors,  so  as  to  make  a new  meaning.  After  the  decay  of  genuine 
poetry  among  the  Greeks,  this  worthless  verse-manufacture  came  into  vogue,  as  is 
proved  by  the  Homer o-centones,  a patchwork  of  lines  taken  from  Homer  (edited  by 
Teucher  at  Leipsic,  1793);  but  it  was  much  more  common  among  the  Romans  in  the 
later  times  of  the  empire,  when  Virgil  was  frequently  abused  in  this  fashion,  as  in  the 
C.  Nuptialis  of  Ausonius  (who  gives  rules  for  the  composition  of  the  C.),  and  especially 
in  the  C.  Virgilianus,  constructed  in  the  4th  c.  by  Proba  Falcoffia,  wife  of  the  proconsul 
Adclfius,  and  giving,  in  Virgil’s  misplaced  words,  an  epitome  of  sacred  history!  The 
C.  was  a favorite  recreation  in  the  middle  ages.  In  the  12th  c.,  a monk  named  Metellus 
contrived  to  make  a C.  of  spiritual  hymns  out  of  Horace  and  Virgil. — See  Litierature  du 
Centon,  by  M.  Delepierre  (1875). 

CENTO,  a t.  of  central  Italy,  16  m.  n.w.  of  Bologna,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a 
fertile  plain  near  the  Reno.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  birth-place  of  the  famous  painter, 
Guercino,  whose  house,  adorned  with  paintings,  is  still  preserved;  and  in  the  church  of 
C.  are  many  of  his  works.  Pop.  about  5,000. 


629 


Centigrrade. 

Central. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA,  in  geography  that  portion  of  North  America  included  be- 
tween the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  the  isthmus  of  Darien;  politically  including  the 
states  or  republics  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and  British  Hon- 
duras, or  Belize.  The  geographical  limits  would  take  in  on  the  n.  from  Mexico  the 
states  of  Tehuantepec,  Chiapa,  Campeche,  and  Yucatan;  and  on  the  s.  from  the  repub- 
lic of  Colombia  the  greater  portion  of  the  state  of  Panama.  Further  details  will  be 
found  under  the  titles  of  the  respective  countries.  Also,  see  America,  ante. 

CENTRAL  CITY,  in  Gilpin  co.,  Col.,  about  40  m.  w.  of  Denver;  the  center  of  sup- 
ply for  a rich  mining  district.  Pop.  ’80,  2626. 

CENTRAL  FORCES  are  those  which  cause  a moving  body  to  tend  towards  some  point 
or  center,  called  the  center  of  force  or  motion.  The  doctrine  of  C.  F.  has  for  its 
starting-point  the  first  law  of  motion — viz. , that  a body  not  acted  on  by  any  external 
force  will  remain  at  rest,  or  move  uniformly  in  a straight  line.  It  follows  from  this  law 
that  if  a body  in  motion  either  changes  its  velocity  or  direction,  some  external  force  is 
acting  upon  it.  The  doctrine  of  C.  F.  considers  the  paths  which  bodies  will  describe 
round  centers  of  force,  and  the  varying  velocity  with  which  they  will  pass  along  in 
these  paths.  It  investigates  the  law  of  the  force  round  which  a body  describes  a known 
curve,  and  solves  the  inverse  problem,  and  many  others,  the  general  statement  of  which 
could  convey  no  clear  idea  to  the  unmathematical  reader.  As  gravity  is  a force  which 
acts  on  all  bodies  from  the  earth’s  center,  it  affords  the  simplest  general  illustration  of 
the  action  of  a central  force.  If  a stone  be  slung  from  a string,  gravity  defiects  it  from 
the  linear  path  which  it  would  otherwise  pursue,  and  makes  it  describe  a curved  line 
which  we  know  would,  in  vacuo,  be  a parabola.  Again,  the  moon  is  held  in  her  orbit 
round  the  earth  by  the  action  of  gravity,  which  is  constantly  preventing  her  from  going 
off  in  the  line  of  the  tangent  to  her  path  at  any  instant,  which  she  would  do,  according 
to  the  first  law  of  motion,  if  not  deflected  therefrom  by  any  external  force.  To  that 
property  of  matter  by  which  it  maintains  its  state  of  rest  or  motion,  unless  acted  upon 
by  other  matter,  has  been  given  the  name  inertia. 

We  will  now  explain  how,  through  the  action  of  a central  force,  a body  is  made  to 
describe  a curved  path.  Suppose  it  to  have  moved  for  a finite  time,  and  conceive 
the  time  divided  into  very  small  equal  parts;  and  instead  of  the  central  force  acting 
constantly,  conceive  a series  of  sudden  impulses  to  be  given  to  the  body  in  the  direction 
of  the  center,  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  equal  intervals,  and  then  observe  what,  on  these 
suppositions,  will  happen.  Let  S (see  Fig.  1)  be  the  center,  and  let  the  original  motion 
be  from  A,  on  the  line  AB,  which  does  not  pass  through  S.  In  the  first  interval,  the 
body  will  move  with  a uniform  velocity,  say  from  A to  B.  In  the  second,  if  acted  on 
by  no  force,  it  would  move  on  in  AB  pro- 
duced to  c.  Be  being  = AB.  But  when  it 
arrives  at  B,  it  receives  the  first  sudden  im- 
pulse towards  S.  By  the  composition  of 
velocities  (q.v.),  it  will  move  now  with  a new 
but  still  uniform  velocity  in  BC  instead  of 
Be,  BC  being  the  diagonal  of  the  parallelo- 
gram of  which  the  sides  represent  its  im- 
pressed and  original  velocity.  Having 
reached  C at  the  end  of  the  second  interval, 
it  receives  the  second  impulse  towards  S. 

It  will  now  move  in  CD  instead  of  in  BC 
produced.  If,  then,  we  suppose  the  periods 
of  time  to  be  indefinitely  diminished  in 
length,  and  increased  in  number,  the  broken  line  ABCD  will  become  ultimately  a 
continuous  curve  and  the  series  of  impulses  a continuous  force.  This  completes  the 
explanation. 

Going  back,  however,  on  our  suppositions,  we  may  here  establish  Newton’s  leading 
law  of  central  forces.  That  the  body  must  always  move  in  the  same  plane,  results  from 
the  absence  of  any  force  to  remove  it  from  the  plane  in  which  at  any  time  it  may  be 
moving.  The  triangles  ASB  and  BSC  are  clearly  in  the  same  plane,  as  the  latter  is  on 
that  in  which  lie  the  lines  Be  and  BS.  Also,  since  the  triangles  ASB,  BSc  are  equal, 
being  on  equal  bases,  AB,  Be,  and  triangle  BSC  = triangle  BSc,  as  they  are  between 
the  same  parallels,  cC  and  BS,  it  follows  (by  Euclid  I.  37)  that  ASB  = BSC.  So 
BSC  = CSD ; and  so  on.  In  other  words,  the  areas,  described  in  equal  times  by  the 
line  (called  the  radius  vector)  joining  the  center  of  force  and  the  body,  are  equal.  As 
this  is  true  in  the  limit,  we  arrive,  by  the  composition  of  the  small  equal  areas,  at  the 
law:  that  the  areas  described  by  the  lines  drawn  from  the  moving  body  to  the  fixed  cen- 
ter of  force,  are  all  in  one  plane,  and  proportional  to  the  times  of  describing  them. 
Very  few  of  the  laws  of  C.  F.  are  capable  of  being  proved  like  the  preceding,  without 
drawing  largely  on  Newton’s  lemmas,  with  which  we  shall  not  suppose  the  reader  to  be 
acquainted. 

Centrifugal  and  Centripetal  Force.— We  have  shown  that  a body  continually  drawq 
to  a center,  if  it  has  an  original  motion  in  a line  that  does  not  pass  through  the  center, 
will  describe  a curve.  At  each  point  in  the  curve,  it  tends,  through  its  inertia,  to 


Central. 

Centumviri. 


630 


Fig.  2. 


recede  from  the  curve,  and  proceed  in  the  tangent  to  it  at  that  point.  It  always  tends  to 
move  in  a straight  line  in  the  direction  in  which  it  may  at  any  time  be  moving,  and 
that  line,  by  the  definitions  of  a tangent  and  of  curvature,  iff 
the  tangent  to  the  curve  at  the  point.  At  the  point  A (see  fig.  2), 
it  will  endeavor  to  proceed  in  AD:  if  nothing  hindered  it,  it 
would  actually  proceed  in  that  line,  so  as,  in  the  time  in  which  it 
describes  the  arc  of  the  curve  AE,  to  reach  the  point  D,  and 
thus  recede  the  length  DE  from  the  curve ; but  being  continually 
drawn  out  of  its  direction  into  a curve  by  a force  to  a center, 
it  falls  below  the  point  D by  the  distance  DE.  The  force  which 
draws  it  through  this  distance  is  called  the  centripetal  force, 
and  that  which  would  make  it  recede  in  the  same  time  through 
the  distance  DE  from  the  curve  is  called  the  centrifugal  force.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  centrifugal  force  is  not,  like  the  centripetal,  an  impressed  or  external  force  act- 
ing on  the  body.  It  is  simply  the  assertion  of  the  body’s  inertia  under  the  circumstances 
produced  by  the  centripetal  force. 

Many  familiar  illustrations  will  occur  to  the  reader  of  the  action  of  what  is  called  the 
centrifugal  force.  A ball  fastened  to  the  end  of  a string,  and  whirled  round,  will,  if 
the  motion  is  made  sufficiently  rapid,  at  last  break  the  string,  and  fly  off.  A glass  of 
water  may  be  whirled  so  rapidly  that,  even  when  the  mouth  is  pressed  downwards,  the 
water  will  still  be  retained  in  it,  by  the  centrifugal  force  pressing  it  up  against  the  bot- 
tom of  the  glass.  The  centrifugal  action  will  be  found  to  increase  with  the  velocity. 
In  all  cases  of  a body  moving  in  a circle,  the  force,  it  can  be  proved,  varies  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity  of  the  body  at  the  moment,  and  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  radius.  As 
in  this  case  the  velocity  varies  as  the  radius  inversely,  it  follows  that  the  force  is  as  the 
inverse  cube  of  the  radius.  As  in  the  case  of  circular  motion  the  body  always  is  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  center,  it  follows  that  the  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces 
are  equal  at  all  points  of  a circular  orbit.  The  general  law  for  all  orbits  is,  that  the 
centrifugal  force  varies  as  the  inverse  cube  of  the  distance  from  the  center.  As  the 
attractive  force  of  gravitation  varies  as  the  inverse  square  of  the  distance,  it  may  hence 
be  shown  that  the  centrifugal  force  gives  perfect  security,  notwithstanding  the  con- 
stant attraction  of  the  sun,  that  the  planets,  so  far  as  that  attraction  is  concerned,  will 
never  fall  into  the  sun. 

The  doctrine  of  C.  F.  owes  more  to  Kepler  and  sir  Isaac  Newton,  of  whose  philos- 
ophy it  makes  a considerable  branch,  than  to  all  the  rest  of  the  philosophers,  though 
almost  all  the  leading  mathematicians  have  contributed  to  it.  The  doctrine  of  centrif- 
ugal forces  was  first  mentioned  by  Huygens,  at  the  end  of  Horologium  Oscillatorium, 
published  in  1673;  but  Newton  was  the  first  who  fully  handled  the  doctrine,  at  least  ao 
far  as  regards  the  conic  sections. 


CENTRAL  HEAT  involves  the  theory  that  the  temperature  of  the  earth  increases 
from  its  surface  towards  its  center.  Observations  in  mines  and  in  boring  artesian 
wells  seem  to  justify  such  a conclusion,  and  the  inference  therefore  is  that  the  solid 
earth  is  a mere  crust,  at  most  but  a few  miles  thick,  within  which  all  matter  must  be  in 
a state  of  fusion.  Observers  have  estimated  the  increase  of  heat  at  1°  F.  for  50  to  60  ft. 
of  depth.  Eminent  philosophers,  however,  reject  the  theory,  and  attribute  the  phe- 
nomena to  local  heat.  They  argue  that  if  such  a mass  of  fire  existed  in  the  interior  the 
crust  would  soon  be  melted.  Some  contend  that  if  the  earth  ever  cooled  from  a state 
of  fire  to  its  solid  form,  the  cooling  must  have  commenced  in  the  center.  The  most 
that  can  be  said  is  that  it  is  still  an  open  question,  while  experiments  and  indications 
seem  to  favor  the  theory  of  a fiery  and  fluid  interior. 

CENTRALIA,  a city  in  Marion  co..  111.,  on  the  Illinois  Central  railroad,  at  a junc- 
tion of  the  Chicago  branch  with  the  main  line,  112  m.  n.  of  Cairo.  There  are  repair 
shops  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad,  which  give  employment  to  many  persons.  Pop. 
3,190. 


CENTRAL  INDIA  POLITICAL  AGENCY,  the  official  name  for  a group  of  feud- 
atory states  in  the  middle  of  India,  the  principal  of  which  are  Gwaliar  (Scindiah),  Indor 
(Holkar),  Rewah,  and  Bhopal.  The  total  number,  great  and  small,  comprised  in  the 
C.  I.  P.  A.  is  71;  covering  about  90,000  sq.m.,  and  having  a pop.  of  8,000,000.  These 
states  have  nothing  in  common  except  a diplomatic  connection  with  the  British  gov- 
ernment through  the  agent  to  the  governor-general. 

CENTRALIZATION,  a term  which  has  lately  come  into  general  use  for  expressing  a 
tendency  to  administer,  by  the  sovereign  or  the  central  government,  matters  which  had 
been  previously  under  local  management.  We  cannot  properly  use  the  term  towards  an 
established  despotism,  for  there  everything  is  already  directed  from  the  center.  The 
legitimate  application  is  to  a state  of  change  from  local  to  central  management — a 
change  in  the  opposite  direction  would,  on  the  same  principle,  be  called  localization. 
Of  this  latter  change,  however,  it  can  scarcely  be  said  that  we  have  any  recent  example, 
unless  it  may  be  found  in  the  systems  of  self-government  lately  communicated  to  some 
of  the  British  colonies.  Ever  since  the  existing  European  states  began  to  grow  out  of 


631 


Central. 

CentumvlrL 


the  chaos  of  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  there  has  been  a continued  progress  in  cen- 
tralization. That  empire  itself  was,  however,  the  greatest  instance  of  C.  which  the  world 
has  yet  seen.  In  it  the  numerous  municipalities  and  other  local  organizations  originally 
existing  in  Italy,  and  communicated  to  the  colonies,  were  entirely  centralized.  The 
-empire,  such  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Constantine,  was  the  type  after  which  the 
European  monarchs,  such  of  them  especially  as  became  more  powerful  than  their  neigh- 
bors, were  ever  striving ; and  a few  of  them,  such  as  Charlemagne,  and,  long  afterwards, 
Charles  V. , seemed  to  have  almost  restored  it.  In  this  country,  we  trace  C.  from  the 
time  when  there  were  about  a dozen  kings  in  Britain,  and  perhaps  as  many  in  Ireland, 
till  the  united  kingdom  came  under  the  rule  of  one  monarch.  A subsidiary  C.  at  the 
same  time  made  silent  progress,  absorbing  the  feudal  pow6r  of  the  aristocracy  and  the 
municipal  privileges  of  the  corporations.  In  other  countries — as,  for  instance,  in 
France,  notwithstanding  her  desperate  struggles  for  freedom,  this  process  of  C.  has 
tended  to  a pure  irresponsible  despotism.  With  so  sad  a result  before  their  eyes,  a 
distrust  of  C.  has  not  unnaturally  been  felt  by  some  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain.  But 
the  British  constitution  possesses  a grand  remedy,  which  turns  the  process  to  good  use 
instead  of  mischief.  While  administrative  authority  has  been  centralizing  in  the  crown, 
the  controlling  power  of  parliament  has  been  increasing  at  a more  rapid  ratio,  so  that 
the  vesting  of  a function  in  the  crown  or  central  government,  means  the  putting  it  under 
the  control  of  parliament,  and  especially  of  the  people’s  representatives  in  the  house  of 
commons.  There  is  nothing  done  in  any  of  the  offices  under  the  government  for  which 
a secretary  of  state,  or  some  other  member  of  the  ministry,  may  not  at  any  time  be 
called  to  account  in  parliament.  The  efficiency  of  this  control  was  in  a manner  proved 
by  one  or  two  instances  in  which  offices  with  central  powers  were  created,  without 
being  connected  with  any  of  the  great  state  departments.  There  were,  for  instance,  the 
English  poor-law  board,  and  the  board  of  health.  Both  created  much  discontent  and  out- 
■cry  about  C.,  and  it  was  found  necessary  to  transfer  their  functions  to  the  great  govern- 
ment departments,  the  heads  of  which  are  immediately  responsible  to  parliament.  It  is 
not  the  policy  of  this  country  in  any  case  to  abolish  local  management,  but  rather  to  aid 
nnd  direct  it  from  the  central  authority.  The  constituents  of  local  bodies  are  often  dis- 
inclined to  W’atch  or  control  them,  and  the  business  falls  into  the  hands  of  incapable  or 
designing  men,  or  is  otherwise  mismanaged.  A very  little  central  help — especially 
from  a quarter  where  the  proceedings  of  other  bodies  of  the  same  kind  are  known — 
remedies  such  defects.  One  of  the  methods  in  which  the  government  has  of  late  been 
in  use  to  exercise  its  central  power,  has  been  been  by  the  appointment  of  inspectors, 
who  make  reports  which  are  laid  before  parliament.  This  is,  in  reality,  nothing  more 
than  a method  of  concentrating  public  opinion  on  the  proceedings  inspected  and 
reported  on,  and  as  such  it  is  very  efficacious. 

CENTRAL  PARK.  See  New  York  City. 

CENTRAL  PROVINCES,  a chief  commissionership  of  British  India,  between  17" 
50'  and  24°  30'  n.,  and  76°  and  85°  e. ; 80,078  sq.m.;  pop.  ’72,  8,201,519.  The  chief- 
■commissionership  was  constituted  in  1861,  when  the  territories  previously  known  as  the 
Nagpur  province  and  the  Sagar  and  Nerbudda  territories  were  united  under  the  name 
of  the  Cemtral  provinces.  This  tract  comprising  almost  every  variety  of  soil  and 
physical  aspect,  inhabited  by  races  of  very  diverse  origin,  is  bounded  n.  by  the  feudatory 
state  of  Rewah,  the  small  native  states  of  Bundelkhand,  and  by  the  district  of  Latatpur 
in  the  Northwest  Provinces;  on  the  n.  and  e.  by  the  Chhota  Nagpur  division,  the  Oressa 
tributary  states,  and  the  n.  districts  of  Madras;  on  the  s.  by  the  Godavari  district;  and 
on  the  s.w.  and  n.w.  by  the  states  comprising  the  Central  India  Political  Agency.  The 
Central  Provinces  are  separated  into  four  divisions,  or  commissionerships : Nagpur, 
Jabalpur,  Nerbudda,  and  Chhatisgarh,  comprising  19  British  districts.  The  country  is 
intersected  b^  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  and  the  East  Indian  railroads.  The  pop. 
is  made  up  in  each  thousand,  of  717  Hindus,  28  Mohammedans,  4 Buddhists,  2 
Christians,  and  249  “others,”  who  consist  of  descendants  of  Gonds  and  original  in- 
habitants. 

CENTRIFUCrAL  and  CENTRIPETAL  are  terms  used  in  botany  to  designate  two 
different  kinds  of  inflorescence,  or  modes  of  flowering  of  plants.  When  the  flower-bud 
which  terminates  the  floral  axis,  and  is  central  in  the  inflorescence,  is  the  flrst  to  expand 
^in  which  case  the  others  are  developed  in  succession  from  the  center  outwards — the 
inflorescence  is  said  to  be  centrifugal.  When  the  outermost  flowers  expand  flrst,  the 
inflorescence  is  centrvpetal,  as  is  the  case  in  catkins,  spikes,  and  racemes,  in  which  the 
flowers  nearest  the  base  are  the  flrst  to  expand,  and  those  nearest  the  apex  the  last. 
These  modes  of  inflorescence  are  very  characteristtic  of  different  plants,  of  genera,  and 
of  orders. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE.  See  Central  Forces. 

CENTRIPETAL  FORCE.  See  Central  Forces. 

CENTUM'VIRI,  .judges  among  the  Romans  appointed  to  decide  common  causes 
among  the  people.  Three  were  chosen  in  each  tribe.  The  extent  of  their  jurisdiction  is 
not  clearly  understood,  but  it  was  probably  confined  to  unimportant  causes. 


centurion. 

Ctrphalopoda. 


632 


CENTURION,  a Roman  infantry  officer  who  originally  commanded  a hundred  men,, 
but  afterwards  an  indefinite  number.  They  were  of  two  grades,  and  were  chosen  by 
the  tribunes.  Their  duties  were  to  drill  the  soldiers  and  appoint  them  tasks;  and  they 
had  power  to  punish  for  minor  offenses. 

CENTURY  PLANT.  See  Agave,  ante. 

CEPHAE'LIS.  See  Ipecacuanha. 

CEPHALAS'PIS,  a genus  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes,  of  which  six  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, two  belonging  to  the  upper  Silurian  and  four  to  the  Devonian  measures.  The 
head  was  protected  by  a large  ganoid  plate,  sculptured  externally  with  circular  radiating 
markings.  Agassiz  gave  the  name  C.  (buckler-headed)  from  this  extraordinary  covering, 
which  has  very  much  the  appearance  of,  and  was  formerly  supposed  to  be,  the  cephalic 
shield  of  an  asaphus.  The  body  was  covered  with  rhomboidal  enameled  scales,  and 
furnished  with  dorsal  and  pectoral  fins:  it  terminated  in  a large  heterocercal  tail.  In  a. 
graphic  description  of  this  fossil  in  his  Old  Red  Sandstone,  Miller  thus  sketches  the 
general  appearance  of  the  animal : ‘ ‘ Has  the  reader  ever  seen  a saddler’s  cutting-knife — 
a tool  with  a crescent-shaped  blade,  and  the  handle  fixed  transversely  in  the  center  of 
its  concave  side?  I.n  general  outline,  the  C.  resembled  this  tool,  the  crescent-shaped 
blade  representing  the  head,  the  transverse  handle  the  body.  ” The  endo-skeleton  was 
cartilaginous,  retaining  the  notochord  through  life.  The  flexible  body,  assisted  by  the 
large  tail  and  the  fins,  would  give  the  C.  the  power  of  moving  rapidly  through  the  water. 
Being  a predaceous  fish,  it  must  have  been  a formidable  enemy  to  its  associates  in  the 
palaeozoic  seas,  for,  besides  its  power  of  rapid  motion,  the  sharp  margin  of  its  shield 
probably  did  the  work  of  a vigorously  hurled  javelin,  as  in  the  sword-fish.  This  genus 
was  originally  named  asterolepis  (star-scale),  from  the  circular  marking  on  its  cephalic 
shield. 

CEPHALIZA'TION,  a word  used  to  indicate  the  degree  in  which  the  head,  or,  more 
accurately,  the  brain,  dominates  over  the  remainder  of  the  animal  structure.  The  dis- 
tinction between  a higher  and  a lower  cephalization  may  be  indicated  thus : 


Superior  Cephalization. 

More  of  the  anterior  appendages  serve  the 
head,  in  supplying  food,  etc. 

The  structure  of  the  head  is  compacted, 
and  its  form  abbreviated. 

The  posterior  part  of  the  body  is  abbre- 
viated and  compacted. 

The  anterior  extremity  tends  upward; 
finds  its  limit  in  man,  and  is  erect. 


Inferior  Cephalization. 

Fewer  of  the  anterior  appendages  serve 
the  head. 

The  structure  of  the  head  is  loose  and  im- 
perfect; the  form  is  elongated  and  enlarged. 

Great  length  of  tail  shows  inferiority  of 
grade. 

The  anterior  extremity  tends  downward, 
finds  its  limit  and  is  horizontal  in  the  fish. 


Degradation  often  extends  to  the  absence  of  essential  parts,  as  teeth,  limbs,  senses, 
and  is  often  indicated  by  gross  enlargement  of  mass,  accompanied  by  stupidity  and 
slu^ishness. 

Degrees  of  cephalization  may  be  illustrated  by  the  subdivisions  of  the  mammalia, 
beginning  with  the  lowest:  1.  The  mutilates,  in  which  the  limbs  are  wanting,  or  are 
degraded  to  fins;  as  whales,  dolphins,  etc.:  2.  Herbivores,  or  plant-eaters ; as  the  ele- 
phant, horse,  deer,  hog,  etc. : 3.  Carnivores,  or  flesh-eaters;  as  the  lion,  bear,  dog,  wolf, 
etc.:  4.  Quadrumanes,  including  monkeys:  5.  Bimanes,  including  mankind.  Follow- 
ing this  arrangement,  as  we  ascend  step  by  step,  we  find  constant  degrees  of  develop- 
ment corresponding  to  higher  cephalic  character,  and  showing  itself  in  every  phase  of 
organized  structure.  In  locomotion,  for  example,  we  find  the  limbs  of  (1)  the  mutilates 
fit  only  for  paddling  the  body  about  in  the  element  which  gives  it  support;  those  of  (2) 
the  herbivores  carry  them  from  place  to  place;  those  of  (3)  the  carnivores  cany  them 
about,  and  serve  to  grasp  and  tear  their  prey;  those  of  (4)  the  quadrumanes  serve  for 
locomotion,  for  grasping  prey,  for  carrying  food  to  the  mouth,  and  for  carrying  and 
defending  their  young;  while  in  (5)  man  the  fore  limbs  are  relieved  from  service  of  loco- 
motion, and  are  fitted  not  merely  for  feeding,  for  carrying,  for  defense,  but  aleo  for 
an  infinity  of  purposes,  to  which  they  are  guided  by  the  acuter  sensibility  of  the  bram. 
Similar  steps  of  gradation  may  be  found  in  other  respects,  as  in  the  tail,  the  teeth,  the 
form  of  the  skull,  etc.  The  principle  may  be  further  illustrated  by  the  gradations  of 
the  lower  orders,  as  in  the  articulates,  going  from  the  worms  through  the  crustaceans  to 
the  insects;  or  in  insects,  from  myriapods  through  spiders  to  the  true  insects;  as  in  the 
varieties  of  man,  in  which  the  lower  races  have  projecting  jaws,  retreating  foreheads, 
and  enlarged  basal  brains.  With  increased  brain-force  we  find  diminished  jaw,  less 
facial  angle,  elevated  and  enlarged  forehead,  the  head  generally  shortened  froin  front 
to  rear,  a larger  cavity  for  the  brain,  and  a greater  weight  thereof.  Finding  this  con 
stant  progression  from  lower  to  higher  developments,  whose  exponent  is  larger  and 
more  efficient  brain,  with  nicer  adaptation  of  mechanism  for  all  the  functions  of  life; 
finding  also  evidence  of  a similar  gradation  in  sensation,  sensibility,  intelligence — every- 
where the  material  more  and  more  subordinated  to  the  immaterial,  the  body  conformed 
to  the  spirit,  and  ruled  by  it — it  is  not  strange  that  men  should  look  for  a law  of  devel- 
opment, pervading  and  controlling  all  animated  nature,  or  that  they  should  expect  to 
find  in  this  law  a formula  of  the  relation  between  though^  and  matter,  as  a function  of 


633 


Centurion. 

Cephalopoda. 


the  brain.  But,  while  there  may  be  abundant  reason  for  supposing  that  such  a law  of 
relationship  might  exist,  and  that  if  demonstrated  it  might  account  logically  for  a vast 
and  rapidly  growing  mass  of  observed  facts,  it  is  evident  that  no  such  law  has  yet  been 
proved.  N”or,  indeed,  does  it  now  seem  that  such  a law  can  be  demonstrated  without 
the  admission  of  axioms  and  postulates,  which  involve  as  great  strains  upon  the  philo- 
sophic imagination  as  the  very  principles  which  such  demonstrated  law  would  antago- 
nize and  overthrow. 

CEPHALO'NIA,  or  Cepalonia,  the  largest  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands  (q.v.),  is 
situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  of  Lepanto  or  Corinth,  in  lat.  38°  3'  to  38°  30'  n.,  and 
long.  20°  21'  to  20°  49'  east.  It  is  irregular  in  shape.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  30  m. , and 
its  total  area  348  sq.  miles.  Its  surface  is  mountainous,  the  soil,  for  the  most  part  thin, 
and  water  very  scarce.  The  inhabitants,  however,  are  industrious  and  enterprising,  and 
have  planted  vineyards  wherever  the  grape  will  grow,  and  currants  and  olive-oil  are  also 
produced  for  export.  The  climate  is  warm  and  agreeable.  The  population  in  1870 
amounted  to  77,382.  The  numbers  who  are  brought  up  to  the  medical  profession  are 
remarkable ; it  is  said  that  there  is  hardly  a town  in  the  Levant  which  has  not  a prac- 
titioner from  Cephalonia.  The  inhabitants  are  also  much  more  disposed  to  engage  in 
foreign  trade  than  those  of  Corfu  or  Zante,  and  own  more  vessels.  In  1874,  the  exports 
amounted  to  £189,309,  and  the  imports  to  £240,410.  The  island  is  subject  to  frequent, 
but  slight  earthquakes.  There  was  formerly  a small  English  garrison  at  Cephalonia. 
Steamers  ply  between  it  and  Malta,  Patras,  and  Triest.  The  language  spoken  is  a Greek 
dialect.  The  chief  towns  are  Argostoli  (q.v.)  and  Lixuri. 

C.  is  called  by  Homer  Same  or  Samos,  and  during  the  heroic  ages  was  subject  to 
Ulysses,  whose  residence  was  in  the  neighboring  isle  of  Ithaca  (q.v.).  Later,  C.  appears 
under  the  name  of  Cephallenia.  It  successively  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Athenians, 
Komans,  Byzantines,  and  Venetians,  from  the  last  of  whom  it  was  several  times  wrested 
by  the  Turks.  On  the  ruin  of  the  Venetian  republic  in  1797,  it  was  seized  by  the 
Erench,  who  were  in  their  turn  dislodged  by  the  Russians.  In  1809,  it  came  into  the 
possession  of  England.  It  was  ceded  to  Greece  in  1864. 

CEPHALOP'ODA  (Gr.  head-footed),  a class  of  mollusks,  the  highest  in  organization  of 
that  division  of  the  animal  kingdom.  To  this  class  belong  the  nautili,  spirulae,  argo- 
nauts, poulpes,  squids  or  calamaries,  cuttle-fish,  etc.,  of  the  present  time,  and  the 
ammonites,  belemnites,  etc.,  of  former  geological  periods.  The  C.  are  all  marine,  and 
only  a few  of  them  are  capable  of  leaving  the  water,  and  moving  about  in  search  of  food 
on  shore. 

The  C.  receive  their  name  from  having  organs  of  prehension  and  locomotion  attached  to 
the  head,  an  arrangement  towards  which  a gradual  approach  may  be  traced  in  the  highest 
gasteropod  (q.v.)  mollusks.  These  organs  have  been  variously  designated  arms,  feet,  and 
tentacula.  They  “ have  no  true  homology”  with  the  limbs  of  vertebrate  animals,  but  are 
only  analogous  to  them  in  respect  of  the  purposes  which  they  serve. — The  body  of  the 
C.  is  a bag,  formed  of  the  mantle  (see  Mollusca),  open  only  at  the  end  to  which  the 
head  is  attached.  In  some,  this  bag  is  almost  spherical,  and  locomotion  is  accomplished 
only  by  the  appendages  of  the  head;  in  others,  the  body  is  elongated,  and  furnished  with 
two  fin-like  expansions,  which  are  the  principal  instruments  of  locomotion.  In  locomo- 
tion by  the  fins,  a cephalopod  swims  like  a fish,  with  the  head  first,  and  often  very 
rapidly;  in  locomotion  by  the  arms,  it  draws  itself  along,  laying  hold  of  any  object 
within  reach  by  means  of  suckers,  with  which  the  arms  are  furnished.  Some  C.  are 
capable  also  of  moving  backwards  through  the  water  by  alternate  contractions  and 
expansions  of  a muscular  web  which  unites  the  bases  of  the  arms;  some  appear  to 
depend  for  a similar  power  of  swimming  backwards  upon  the  forcible  ejection  of  water 
from  the  ‘ funnel”  below  the  eye.  * 

The  head  of  a cephalopod  is  roundish,  generally  furnished  with  two  large  and 
prominent  eyes,  very  similar  in  structure  to  those  of  vertebrate  animals.  There  are  also 
ears,  but  they  consist  merely  of  little  cavities,  one  on  each  side  of  the  brain,  in  each  of 
which  is  suspended  a membranous  sac  containing  a small  stone.  The  organs  of  smell 
are  not  very  certainly  known,  but  it  appears  that  the  C.  possess  this  sense,  as  well  as  that 
of  taste,  of  which  the  character  of  the  tongue  is  much  more  indicative  than  in  many 
vertebrate  animals. — The  brain  forms  a ring  around  the  gullet.  The  whole  nervous 
system  is  more  complex  than  in  the  lower  mollusks. — The  mouth  opens  in  the  midst  of 
the  circle  of  arras.  It  is  furnished  with  a strong  horny  beak  of  two  mandibles,  moving 
vertically,  not  unlike  the  bill  of  a parrot,  but  the  upper  mandible  the  shorter  of  the  two. 
— The  digestive  apparatus  is  very  complicated.  The  gullet  swells  out  into  a crop,  and 
there  is  a gizzard  as  muscular  as  that  of  a bird.  The  intestine,  after  a few  convolutions, 
terminates  in  the  cavity  which  contains  the  gills,  at  the  base  of  the  funnel  by  which  the 
water  is  ejected  after  having  supplied  air  for  respiration.  This  cavity  is  situated  within 
the  mantle  or  bag,  and  separated  from  the  other  viscera  by  a membranous  partition. 
Into  it  the  water  is  freely  admitted  by  means  of  a slit  or  valvular  opening,  being  drawn 
in  by  muscular  action,  and  again  expelled  with  considerable  force  through  the  funnel, 
which  opens  at  the  neck,  and  with  its  current  all  secretions,  eggs,  and  excrements  are 
carried  forth.  There  are  only  two  gills  in  the  greater  number  of  existing  C.,  the  only 
exceptions  being  the  two  or  three  known  species  of  nautilus,  which  have  four  gills;  and 


Cephaloptera. 

Cerberus. 


634 


two-gilled  C. — the  order  dibrancMata^2iXQ  in  many  respects  of  higher  organization  than 
the  four-gilled — the  order  tetrabranchiata — which,  although  containing  so  few  recent,  con- 
tains a vast  number  of  fossil  species.  Each  gill  consists  of  many  membranous  plates, 
fixed  to  two  sides  of  a stalk. — The  heart  in  the  tetrabranchiata  consists  of  a single 
ventricle  only ; but  besides  this  systemic  heart,  the  dibranchiata  have  two  branchial  or 
respiratory  hearts,  contractile  reservoirs,  one  for  each  gill,  by  which  the  blood  is  forced 
into  these  organs. 

The  ‘ ‘ arms”  or  ‘ ‘ feet”  are  very  numerous  in  the  tetrabranchiata,  not  provided  with 
suckers,  but  hollow,  and  with  long  retractile  tentacula;  in  the  dibranchiata  they  are  only 
eight  or  ten  in  number,  furnished  with  suckers  {acetabula)\  two  of  them,  when  they  are 
ten  in  number,  being  much  longer  than  the  rest,  and  differing  from  them  in  form.  The 
suckers  are  very  admirably  constructed — an  adhesive  disk  of  muscular  membrane,  often 
having  a cartilaginous  circlet,  capable  of  most  exact  application  to  any  object,  with  an 
aperture  in  the  center  leading  into  a cavity,  the  bottom  of  which  can  be  retracted  like  a 
piston  so  as  to  form  a vacuum,  and  render  the  adhesion  of  the  sucker  close  and  firm, 
whilst  on  the  muscular  action  being  interrupted  or  reversed,  it  immediately  lets  go  its 
hold.  The  poulpe  has  each  of  its  eight  flexible  arms  crowded  with  120  pairs  of  such 
suckers,  and  as  an  animal  of  this  kind  exists  on  some  tropical  shores,  with  arms  about 
2 ft.  long,  it  is  not  wonderful  that  it  is  reckoned  dangerous.  Still  more  formidable, 
however,  are  the  hook-squids  of  the  South  seas,  the  two  long  arms  of  which  have  suck- 
ers furnished  in  the  center  with  a hook  to  enter  into  the  flesh  of  any  creature  of  which 
they  may  lay  hold,  and  so  more  effectually  to  secure  their  prey. 

The  sexes  are  distinct  in  all  the  cephalopoda.  The  eggs  have  a horny  covering,  and 
after  their  extrusion  from  the  parent,  become  agglutinated  into  masses  of  various 
forms.  The  young,  from  the  first,  very  much  resemble  the  mature  animals,  except  in 
size. 

All  the  dibranchiata  are  provided  with  a peculiar  organ  of  defense,  called  an  “ink- 
bag,”  which  is  wanting  in  the  tetrabranchiata.  This  ink-bag  is  filled  with  a peculiar 
secretion,  capable  of  being  expelled  at  will  to  darken  the  water,  and  facilitate  the  escape 
of  the  cephalopod. 

The  tetrabranchiate  C.  have  a chambered  shell.  See  Nautilus.  The  dibranchiate 
C.  have  no  external  shell — the  shell  of  the  female  argonaut  (q.v.)  being  scarcely  an 
exception — but  they  have  an  internal  shell  (cuttle-fish  bone,  etc.),  sometimes  merely 
rudimentary,  included  between  two  folds  of  the  mantle,  and  apparently  intended  to  give 
support  to  the  soft  body  of  the  animal. 

The  0.  are  all  very  voracious,  feeding  on  fish,  mollusks,  crustaceans,  etc.  Even  a 
powerful  crab  is  not  safe  from  the  attacks  of  a dibranchiate  C.  little  bigger  than  itself; 
the  arms,  so  abundantly  provided  with  suckers,  seize  it,  and  trammel  every  movement,, 
whilst  the  parrot-like  beak  is  strong  enough  to  break  the  hard  shell.  Cuttle-fish  and 
squids  are  often  very  troublesome  to  fishermen,  following  shoals  of  fish,  and  devouring 
great  numbers  of  them  after  they  are  entangled  in  the  net. 

Fossil  C.  exist  in  all  the  strata  which  form  the  earth’s  crust.  The  order  tetrabran- 
chiata is  almost  exclusively  a fossil  order,  being  represented  by  not  more  than  four 
recent  species.  With  the  exception  of  two  genera,  nautilus  and  aturia,  this  order  is 
confined  to  primary  and  secondary  rocks.  The  two  poups  into  which  it  is  divided  are 
also  characteristic  of  geological  epochs.  The  nautilidce,  with  simple  or  gently  undu- 
lating septa,  and  siphuncle  central  or  in  the  inner  margin,  belong,  with  th^e  exception 
of  the  two  genera  just  referred  to,  to  the  paleozoic  rocks.  Including  a small  group 
which,  while  it  has  the  siphon  on  the  external  margin,  has  yet  simple  septa,  the  nautili- 
dce are  represented  by  145  Silurian,  158  Devonian,  and  91  carboniferous  species.  The 
ammonitidce  have  the  siphuncle  always  on  the  outer  margin  of  the  shell,  and  the  septa 
with  corrugated  or  lobed  margins.  This  group,  with  the  exception  of  goniatites,^,  pale- 
ozoic genus,  is  peculiar  to,  and  co-extensive  with,  the  secondary  strata.  Of  the  939 
species  that  have  been  described,  more  than  the  half  belong  to  the  genus  ammonites  (q.v.). 

The  order  dibranchiata  is  found  first  in  the  lias,  and  extends  through  the  more  recent 
strata,  receiving  its  full  development  in  our  present  seas.  Scarcely  90  fossil  species  have 
been  described,  while  more  than  double  that  number  are  known  as  recent  animals. 
See  Ammonites,  Argonaut,  Belemnites,  Calamary,  Ceratites,  Cuttle-Fish, 
Goniatites,  Hook-squid,  Nautilus,  Octopoda,  Orthoceras,  Poulpe,  etc. 

CEPHALOP'TERA  (Gr.  head-wing),  a genus  of  cartilaginous  fishes  of  the  ray  family, 
the  type  of  a sub-family,  cephalopteridce.  The  pectoral  fins  are  very  much  elongated,  so 
as  to  give  great  breadth  to  the  fish.  The  tail  is  slender  and  without  fin,  but  armed  near 
its  origin  with  a great  spine.  The  head  is  terminated  in  front  by  a straight  line,  and  on 
each  side  of  it  there  projects  a membrane  {precephalic  fin)  rolled  upon  itself,  and  resem 
bling  in  shape  a pointed  horn.  The  name  Horned  Ray  has  therefore  sometimes  been 
given  to  these  creatures,  of  which  only  one  species,  C.  giorna,  has  ever  been  found  on 
the  British  coasts.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  there  acquires  a great 
size;  one  is  mentioned  as  having  been  taken  off  Messina,  which  weighed  1250  lbs. — 
more  than  half  a ton.  But  this  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  some  of  the 
cephalopteridce  which  occur  in  tropical  seas : one  taken  at  Barbadoes  required  seven  yoke 
of  oxen  to  draw  it.  They  are  very  dangerous  to  swimmers  and  bathers. 


635 


Cephalopterm. 

Cerberus. 


CEPH'EUS,  a constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  containing,  according  to  the 
Britannic  catalogue,  85  stars.  Its  principal  star  is  Alderamin,  of  the  third  magnitude. 

CEPO'LA.  See  Bandfish. 

CERAC'CHI,  Gtuseppe,  1760-1801;  a native  of  Corsica  who  was  active  in  estab- 
lishing a republic  in  that  island  in  1798.  He  took  refuge  in  France,  and  with  others 
undertook  the  assassination  of  Napoleon.  The  deed  was  to  have  been  done  while  the 
consul  was  at  the  opera,  Oct.  10,  1800,  but  there  was  a traitor  among  the  conspirators, 
and  C.  and  three  others  were  seized,  tried,  and  executed.  C.  was  a sculptor  of  some 
note. 

CERAM',  an  island  in  the  Moluccas  archipelago,  lies  n.e.  of  Amboyna,  between  2°  44' 
80"  and  3°  30'  30"  s.  lat.,and  129°  30'  and  130°  53'  e.  long.,  and  is  divided  into  Great  and  Little 
Ceram  by  the  isthmus  of  Tariino.  Area,  7,140  sq. miles.  Pop.  195,000.  Malays  inhabit 
the  coasts;  Papuans  the  interior.  A mountain  chain  runs  through  C.,  reaching  in  Nusa 
Keli  9,250  feet.  The  soil  is  very  fertile.  The  vegetable  products  include  timber-trees, 
rice,  sago,  maize,  sugar-cane,  bananas,  and  edible  roots.  The  Malays  fish.  Exports 
are  Ceram  clothing,  textiles,  iron,  copper-wire,  earthenware,  birds  of  paradise,  trepang, 
sago,  dried  fish,  edible  nests,  etc.  C.  belongs  to  the  Netherlands. 

CERAM'BYX,  a Linnaean  genus  of  coleopterous  insects,  included  among  those  which, 
on  account  of  the  length  of  their  antennae,  are  usually  known  as  Long-horned  Bee- 
tles, and  now  generally  regarded  as  the  type  of  a tribe  or  family.  To  this  tribe 
belongs  the  musk  beetle  of  England  {callichroma  moschata),  remarkable  for  its  strong 
and  agreeable  odor,  which,  however,  is  rather  that  of  roses  than  of  musk.  Some  for- 
eign species  have  the  odor  of  musk  in  great  perfection.  G.  heros,  one  of  the  largest 
European  beetles,  extremely  rare  in  Britain,  deposits  its  eggs  in  a hole  which  it  exca- 
vates for  that  purpose  in  the  wood  of  the  oak ; and  the  grub  feeds  upon  the  wood, 
excavating  long  passages  through  it. 

CERAMIA'CE.®,  a sub-order  of  algce,  (q.v.),  also  called  Floride^,  and  consisting  of 
sea-weeds  of  a rose  or  purplish  color,  with  fronds  formed  of  cells  arranged  in  rows, 
sometimes  in  a single  row ; the  sporocarps  containing  cells  or  spores,  often  in  fours  {tetra- 
spores),  with  a transparent  and  inclosed  in  receptacles  of  very  various  form 

and  structure.  They  are  most  abundant  in  the  seas  of  the  northern  temperate  zone. 
Many  of  them  are  very  delicate  and  beautiful.  A considerable  number  furnish  agreeable 
articles  of  food  of  a gelatinous  nature,  as  dulse  (q.v.),  carrageen  (q.v.)  or  Irish  moss, 
and  certain  species  of  plocaria  (q.v.),  which  are  much  used  on  the  sea-coasts  of  the 
East  Indies.  The  edible  swallows’  nests  of  the  east  are  supposed  to  be  formed  of  a sea- 
weed of  this  sub-order,  a species  of  gelidium. 

CERAM'IG  (Gr.  keramos,  potter’s  clay,  from  kaio,  to  burn,  and  era,  earth),  a term 
used  to  designate  the  department  of  plastic  art  which  comprises  all  objects  made  of 
clay,  such  as  vases,  cups,  bassi-rilievi,  cornices,  and  the  like. 

CERAMI'CUS,  a public  ground,  or  potter’s  field,  outside  of  the  walls  of  Athens, 
where  citizens  killed  in  war  were  buried  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 

CERAS'TES,  or  Horned  Viper,  a genus  of  serpents  of  the  family  mperidm,  distin- 
guished by  a broad  depressed  heart-shaped  head,  the  scales  of  which  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  back,  and  particularly  remarkable  for  the  development  of  one  of  the  scales  of 
each  eyelid  into  a spine  or  horn,  often  of  considerable  length.  The  tail  is  very  distinct 
from  the  body.  This  genus  is  exclusively  African,  and  very  venomous.  The  b6*t 
known  species,  C.  rulgaris,  the  horned  viper  of  the  n.  of  Africa,  was  called  C.  by  the 
ancients,  the  name  being  derived  from  the  Greek  keras,  a horn.  It  was  correctly 
described  by  the  traveler  Bruce,  but  his  description  was  for  some  time  regarded  with 
incredulity.  Other  species  of  the  same  genus  are  C.  nasicornis  of  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  and  C.  caudalis  of  the  cape  of  Good  Hope. 

CE'BATE  (Lat.  cera,  wax),  a compound  of  wax  with  other  oily  and  medicinal  sub- 
stances in  such  proportions  as  to  have  the  consistence  of  an  ointment  (q.v.).  Simple  C. 
is  made  by  melting  together  equal  parts  of  white  wax  and  olive-oil ; they  are  to  be 
heated  together,  and  carefully  stirred  into  a uniform  substance,  while  cooling. 

GE'RATITES,  a^  genus  of  ammonitidae,  peculiar  to,  and  characteristic  of,  the  trias. 
They  are  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  family  by  having  the  lobes  of 
the  sutures  serrated,  while  the  intervening  curves,  directed  towards  the  aperture,  are 
simple.  Twenty-six  species  have  been  described. 

CERAUNIAN  MOUNTAINS,  a name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  two  mountain  chains, 
the  first  being  probably  the  e.  extremity  of  Caucasus;  according  to  Strabo  that  portion 
of  the  Caucasus  which  looks  dawn  upon  the  Caspian  sea,  where  he  locates  the  land  of 
the  Amazons.  The  second,  called  also  “ Acroceraunian,”  extended  along  the  coast  of 
the  Ionian  sea.  These  mountains  were  often  mentioned  in  ancient  poetry.  The  chain 
is  now  called  Khimara,  Chimara,  or  Chinari. 

GERBERTJS  (Gr.  kerberos),  in  Greek  mythology,  was  the  name  of  the  many-headed 
dog — the  offspring  (according  to  Hesiod)  of  Typhon  and  Echidna — who  guarded  the 
portal  of  the  infernal  regions.  Later  writers  describe  C.  as  only  three-headed,  with  the 
tail  and  mane  composed  of  serpents,  though  the  poets  sometimes  encumber  him  with 


Ceroaria* 

Cerebrum 


636 


100  heads. — A northern  constellation,  near  the  hand  of  Hercules,  was  named  C.  by 
Hevelius. 

CERCA'EIA,  a name  formerly  given  to  a supposed  genus  of  entozoa,  at  first,  from 
their  minute  size,  mistaken  for  infusoria,  but  now  known  to  be  the  young  of  trematode 
worms.  In  the  form  to  which  the  name  C.  was  given,  these  creatures  consist  of  an  oval 
body  with  a thread-like  tail;  and  swim  about  with  great  activity  in  water,  but  exhibit  a 
strong  instinctive  propensity  to  penetrate  into  the  soft  bodies  of  insect  larvae,  which  they 
do  by  means  of  a spine-like  weapon  projecting  from  their  head.  The  tail,  as  no  longer 
needed,  is  now  left  behind,  the  closing  of  the  wound  through  which  the  C.  enters  appar- 
ently nipping  it  off.  Within  the  body  which  it  enters,  the  C.  loses  also  its  spine,  becomes 
encysted,  and  awaits  its  passive  migration  into  an  animal  of  higher  kind,  there  to  become 
a trematode  worm.  When  it  does  not  succeed  in  finding,  in  due  time,  a larva  into 
which  to  enter,  the  C.  gathers  itself  up  into  a ball;  emits  a mucous  secretion,  which 
soon  hardens;  and  incessantly  turning  round  within  this  mucous  mass,  becomes  invested 
with  a sort  of  shell,  in  which  form  it  is  not  unlikely  to  be  swallowed  by  some  vertebrate 
animal.  The  C.  is  not  the  immediate  offspring  of  a parent  like  itself.  It  is  generated 
in  a curious  little  animated  sac,  which  is  to  be  found  buried  among  the  organs  of  fresh- 
water mullusks,  and  within  which  this  development  of  young  takes  place  by  gemma- 
tion. See  Generations,  Alternation  op. 

CERCELEE,  or  Recercelbe,  in  heraldry,  is  a cross  circling,  or  curling  at  the  ends, 
like  a ram’s  horn. 

CER'CIS.  See  Judas’^  Tree. 

CERGOCE'EUS  (Gr.  tail-ape),  a genus  of  monkeys,  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa,  included 
by  some  naturalists  in  the  large  genus  cercopithecus.  These  monkeys  have  large  cheek- 
pouches,  large  callosities,  and  long  tails.  The  species  commonly  called  Mangabeys,  or 
White  Eyelid  Monkeys,  are  commonly  referred  to  this  genus,  besides  the  Callithrix, 
or  Green  Monkey,  and  the  Malbrouk,  or  Dog-tailed  Baboon. 

CERCOPITHE'CUS  (Gr.  tail-ape),  a genus  of  monkeys,  containing  a large  number  of 
species,  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  chiefly  of  Africa.  They  are  called  guenons  by 
French  naturalists,  but  they  have  no  common  English  name  more  distinctive  than 
monkey.  They  have  cheek-pouches  and  callosities,  and  a long  but  not  prehensile  tail. 
A Mona,  or  Varied  Monkey  (6’.  mona) — an  African  species — in  the  Parisian  menagerie, 
was  remarkable  not  only  for  the  cunning  and  adroitness  with  which  it  searched  and 
rifled  the  pockets  of  visitors,  but  also  for  the  readiness  with  which  it  applied  a key  to 
the  opening  of  a lock,  untied  knots,  undid  the  rings  of  a chain,  and  performed  other 
similar  feats. 

CERDO'CYON  (Gr.  cunning-dog),  a genus  of  canidoe,  apparently  intermediate  between 
true  dogs  and  foxes,  natives  of  South  America.  They  are  sometimes  called  Aguara 
foxes.  Their  aspect  is  thoroughly  vulpine,  as  are  also  their  manners.  Some  of  them 
add  to  the  dispositions  of  ordinary  foxes  g.  singular  propensity  to  steal  and  secrete  bril- 
liant or  gaudy  objects.  A Brazilian  species  has  been  known  to  carry  pocket-handker- 
chiefs into  the  woods.  Some  are  natives  of  the  coldest  parts  of  South  America,  and 
have  a rich  fur. 

CERDONIANS,  a sect  of  Gnostics,  founded  by  Cerdo,  a Syrian,  who  came  to  Rome 
about  140  A.D.  They  held  that  there  were  two  primal  causes — the  perfectly  good,  and 
the  perfectly  evil.  The  good  created  the  world,  is  the  God  of  the  Jews,  and  the  author 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Jesus  Christ  is  the  son  of  the  good  Deity : he  was  sent  into  the 
world  to  oppose  evil ; but  his  incarnation,  and  consequently  his  sufferings,  were  mere 
appearance.  Deeming  the  human  body  the  work  of  the  evil  deity,  the  Cerdonians  pro- 
hibited marriage,  wine,  and  flesh -eating,  and  advocated  fasting  and  other,  austerities. 
Cerdo  rejected  the  Old  Testament,  and  all  of  the  New,  except  a part  of  Luke’s  gospel 
and  Paul’s  epistles. 

CERE.  See  Bill. 

CERE'A,  at.  of  n.  Italy,  about  19  m.  s.s.e.  of  Verona.  It  is  a straggling  place, 
with  the  remains  of  an  old  castle.  Pop.  5,930.  The  Austrians  defeated  the  French 
here  in  1798. 

CEREA'LIA,  or  Ce'real  Grasses,  so  named  from  Ceres  (q.v.),  are  the  plants  which 
produce  grain  or  corn ; in  other  words,  all  the  species  of  grass  {gramineee)  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  their  seed  as  an  article  of  food.  They  are  also  called  corn-plants  or  bread- 
plants.  They  do  not  belong  to  any  particular  tribes  of  the  great  order  of  grasses,  but 
differ  from  each  other  botanically,  perhaps  as  much  as  any  plants  within  the  limits  of 
that  order.  The  seeds  of  the  grasses  in  general  being  indeed  farinaceous  and  whole- 
some, the  employment  of  particular  species  as  bread-plants  seems  to  have  been  deter- 
mined chiefly  by  the  superior  size  of  the  seed,  or  by  the  facility  of  procuring  it  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  and  of  freeing  it  from  its  unedible  envelopes.  Some  of  the  grains,  as 
wheat  and  barley,  are  produced  in  ears  or  close-set  spikes;  some,  as  a few  of  those  called 
millet,  in  spike-like  panicles;  others,  as  oats  and  rice,  in  very  loose  panicles.  The  form 
and  size  of  the  grains  vary  not  a little,  some  being  roundish,  and  some  elongated;  maize 
hi  the  largest ; many  of  the  millets  are  very  small.  The  plants  themselves  vary  in  size 


637 


Carcai'ia. 

Cerebrum. 


ftlraost  as  much  as  their  seeds,  the  millets  being  the  smallest,  and  maize  the  largest  of 
ordinary  corn-plants. — Buckwheat  and  spurry  are  sometimes  ranked  with  the  C.,  but 
incorrectly,  if  the  term  is  regarded  as  having  any  botanical  limits,  for  they  are  not 
grasses;  but  their  seeds  are  used  in  the  same  way.  The  quinoa  of  South  America,  and 
the  kiery  {amarantlius)  of  India,  with  other  plants  of  different  orders,  might  be  added 
to  the  list  on  the  same  account;  even  the  lotus  of  the  Nile,  the  Victoria  regia,  and  other 
species  of  water-lilies  might  thus  be  reckoned  as  cereal  plants.  The  most  extensively 
cultivated  grains  are  wheat  {triticum),  barley  {hoi'deum),  rye  (secale),  oats  {arena),  rice 
{oryza),  maize  or  Indian  corn  {zea),  different  kinds  of  millet  {setaria,  panicum,  paspalum, 
pennisetum,  and  penicUlaria),  and  durra  or  Guinea  corn  {sorghum  or  andropogon).  These 
have  all  been  cultivated  from  time  immemorial,  and  there  is  great  uncertainty  as  to  the 
number  of  species  to  which  the  many  existing  varieties  belong;  their  original  forms  and 
native  countries  cannot  confidently  be  determined.  Barley,  oats,  and  rye  are  the  grains 
of  the  coldest  regions,  the  cultivation  of  the  two  former  extending  even  within  the  arctic 
circle.  Wheat  is  next  to  these,  and  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  temperate  zone  its 
cultivation  is  associated  with  that  of  maize  and  rice,  which  are  extensively  cultivated 
within  the  tropics.  The  millets  belong  to  warm  climates,  and  durra  is  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical. Rice  is  the  food  of  a greater  number  of  the  human  race  than  any  other  kind 
of  grain.  Maize  has  the  greatest  range  of  temperature. — Besides  these,  other  grasses  are 
cultivated  to  some  extent,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  for  the  grain  they  yield:  a 
species  of  eleudne  (mand)  in  India,  and  another  (tocusso)  in  Abyssinia;  a species  of  poa 
(teff)  in  Abyssinia,  and  a species  of  coix  (Job’s  tears)  in  India.  Canary  grass  {phalaris} 
may  also  be  named.  Canadian  rice  {zizania)  is  used  as  a grain,  but  is  scarcely  cultivated, 
and  the  same  remark  applies  to  the  manna  grass  {glyceria)  of  the  n.  of  Europe,  to  some 
species  of  bamboo  (bambusa),  and  to  the  sea  lyme  grass  {elymus),  which  affords  an 
esteemed  article  of  food,  in  small  quantity,  to  the  inhabitants  of  Iceland. 

Of  all  the  C.,  wheat  is  by  common  consent  admitted  to  be  that  of  which  the  grain  is 
best  fitted  for  the  making  of  bread,  although  others  are  to  some  extent  employed  for 
this  purpose.  But  some,  as  rice  and  maize,  are  scarcely  suited  for  it,  and  other  methods 
are  chiefly  employed  of  preparing  them  for  food.  All  the  grains  are  also  used  to  pro- 
duce some  kind  of  fermented  liquor  or  beer,  and  spirituous  liquors  are  obtained  from 
them  by  distillation. 

CEEEBELLUM.  See  Cerebrum. 

CEREBRINE,  or  Cerebric  Acid,  is  an  organic  acid  of  very  complex  composition,, 
found  in  the  liver,  blood,  and  nerves,  but  especially  the  brain  of  animals. 

CEREBRO-SPI'NAL  ELTJID.  There  is  an  interval,  termed  the  sub-arachnoid  space, 
lying  between  the  two  innermost  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord — viz., 
the  arachnoid  and  the  pia  mater.  This  space,  which  is  narrow  on  the  surface  of  the 
cerebral  hemispheres,  but  is  comparatively  wide  at  the  base  of  the  brain  between  the 
two  middle  lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  and,  posteriorly,  between  the  hemispheres  of  the- 
cerebellum  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  is  occupied  by  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid,  which 
fills  up  the  interval  between  the  arachnoid  and  pia  mater,  and  keeps  the  opposed 
surfaces  of  the  former  membrane  (which  is  a closed  serous  sac)  in  contact.  The 
cerebro-spinal  fluid  is  a clear,  limpid,  slightly  albuminous  fluid,  having  a saltish  taste, 
and  a faintly  alkaline  reaction,  and  not  containing  more  than  1.5  per  cent  of  solid 
matters.  It  varies  in  ^quantity  from  2 to  10  ozs.,  and  is  said  to  be  most  abundant  in 
aged  persons.  Its  chief  use  is  to  afford  mechanical  protection  to  the  nervous  centers, 
and  to  prevent  the  effects  of  external  shocks  or  concussions. 

CER'EBRO-SPINAL  MENINGITIS.  See  Meningitis,  anU. 

CEREBRUM-CEREBELLUM.  Cerebrum  (Lat.  the  brain)  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
whole  contents  of  the  cranium  or  skull;  but  more  usually  it  denotes  the  upper  portion, 
while  the  under  and  posterior  portion  is  called  the  Cerebellum,  or  little  brain.  In 
this  article  we  shall  briefly  notice  the  chief  results  which  have  as  yet  been  obtained 
regarding  the  uses  of  the  various  parts  of  the  mass,  referring  to  the  article  Brain  for 
the  necessary  anatomical  details. 

The  crura  cerebri  appear  as  the  principal  conductors  of  impressions  to  and  from  the 
cerebrum.  When  one  is  divided,  the  animal  moves  round  and  round,  from  the  injured 
towards  the  sound  side,  as  if  from  a partial  paralysis  of  the  latter  side.  The  effect  may 
be  referred  to  the  interruption  of  the  voluntary  impulses  from  the  C.,  for  although  the 
cerebellum  seems  to  have  the  office  of  combining  the  muscles,  whose  co-operation  is 
necessary  for  each  action,  the  effort  of  the  will  must  proceed  from  the  cerebrum. 

The  corpora  quadrigemina  are,  as  stated  in  the  article  Brain,  “analogues  of  the  optic 
ganglia  of  the  lower  animals.”  Their  removal  wholly  destroys  the  power  of  seeing,  and 
diseases  by  which  they  are  seriously  affected  are  usually  accompanied  with  blindness. 
Disease  or  destruction  of  one  corpus  quad,  produces  blindness  of  the  opposite  eye.  Prob- 
ably their  connection  with  vision  is  not  their  only  function. 

The  optic  thalami  probably  participate  slightly  in  the  visual  function  of  the  corpora 
quadrigemina;  but  we  have  no  definite  evidence  on  this  point.  They  are  intimately 
connected  with  the  power  of  movement.  Destruction  of  one  of  them  causes  rotation  of 
the  animal,  similarly  to  division  of  one  of  the  crura  cerebri.  Longet  has  shown,  that 


Ceremony. 

Ceres. 


638 


after  removing  all  the  cerebral  hemispheres  and  the  corpora  striata,  the  animal  can  still 
stand  and  walk,  but  that  on  removing  one  of  the  optic  thalami,  it  falls  down  paraljzed 
on  the  opposite  side,  or  commences  rotatory  motion. 

The  function  of  the  corpora  striata  is  very  uncertain;  they  have  probably  some  con- 
nection with  sensation  and  volition,  the  precise  nature  of  which  is  at  present  unknown. 

The  parts  hitherto  considered — including  the  cerebellum — appear  to  comprise  the 
apparatus  (1.)  For  the  direction  and  government  of  all  the  unfelt  and  involuntary  move- 
ments of  the  parts  which  they  supply;  (2.)  For  the  perception  of  sensations;  and  (3.) 
For  the  direction  of  such  instinctive  and  habitual  movements  as  do  not  require  the 
exercise  of  any  reasoning  or  intellectual  act.  They  cannot  be  regarded  as  organs  of  the 
higher  faculties  of  the  mind. 

The  functions  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres  are,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Kirkes  {Handbook 
of  Physiology),  those  of  organs  by  which  the  mind,  1st,  perceives  those  clear  and  more 
impressive  sensations  which  it  can  retain  and  judge  according  to ; 2d,  performs  those 
acts  of  will,  each  of  which  requires  a deliberate,  however  quick,  determination ; 3d, 
retains  impressions  of  sensible  things,  and  reproduces  them  in  subjective  sensations  and 
ideas;  Ath,  manifests  itself  in  its  higher  and  peculiarly  human  emotions  and  feelings, 
and  in  its  faculties  of  judgment,  understanding,  memory,  reflection,  induction,  and 
imagination,  and  others  of  the  like  class. 

‘ ‘ The  evidences  that  the  cerebral  hemispheres  are,  in  the  sense  and  degree  indicated 
above,  the  organs  of  the  mind,  are  chiefly  these:  1.  That  any  severe  injury  of  them, 
such  as  a general  concussion,  of  sudden  pressure  by  apoplexy,  may  instantly  deprive  a 
man  of  all  power  of  manifesting  externally  any  mental  faculty ; 2.  That  in  the  same 
general  proportion  as  the  higher  mental  faculties  are  developed  in  the  vertebrate  animals, 
and  in  man  at  different  ages,  the  more  is  the  size  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres  developed 
in  comparison  with  the  rest  of  the  cerebro-spinal  system;  3.  That  no  other  part  of  the 
nervous  system  bears  a corresponding  proportion  to  the  development  of  the  mental 
faculties ; 4.  That  congenital  and  other  morbid  defects  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres  are, 
in  general,  accompanied  with  corresponding  deficiency  in  the  range  or  power  of  the 
intellectual  faculties  and  the  higher  instincts.”  See  Mind,  the  Human. 

Cerebellum. — The  functions  of  this  organ  have  been  made  the  subject  of  much  dis- 
cussion and  investigation.  It  is  itself  insensible  to  irritation,  and  has  been  cut  away  in 
various  animals  (by  Longet  and  other  French  physiologists),  without  eliciting  signs  of 
pain ; moreover  its  removal  or  disorganization  by  disease  is  generally  unaccompanied 
with  loss  or  disorder  of  sensibility,  animals  from  whom  it  has  been  removed  being  appar- 
ently able  to  smell,  see,  hear,  and  feel,  as  perfectly  as  before.  Flourens  seems  by  his 
vivisections  to  have  arrived  at  the  correct  view  regarding  the  functions  of  this  organ, 
and  his  results  have  been  fully  confirmed  by  Longet  and  others.  He  extirpated  the  C. 
in  birds  by  successive  layers.  Feebleness  and  want  of  harmony  of  the  movements 
resulted  from  the  removal  of  the  superficial  layers;  when  he  reached  the  middle  layers, 
the  animals  became  restless;  their  movements  were  violent  and  irregular;  but  they  were 
not  convulsed,  and  their  sight  and  hearing  were  perfect.  By  the  time  that  the  organ 
was  entirely  removed,  the  animals  had  completely  lost  the  power  of  flying,  walking, 
standing,  and  preserving  their  equilibrium.  When  a pigeon  in  this  state  was  laid  upon 
its  back,  it  could  not  recover  its  former  position ; but  fluttered  its  wings,  and  saw  and 
tried  to  avoid  a threatened  blow.  Hence  volition,  sensation,  and  memory  were  not 
lost,  but  merely  the  faculty  of  combining  the  actions  of  the  muscles.  From  a large 
series  of  experiments  of  this  kind,  subsequently  made  on  all  classes  of  animals,  Flourens 
infers  that  the  C.  belongs  neither  to  the  sensitive  nor  to  the  intellectual  apparatus  ; and 
that  it  is  not  the  source  of  voluntary  movements,  although  it  belongs  to  the  motor 
apparatus;  but  that  it  is  the  organ  for  the  co-ordination  of  the  voluntary  movements,  or 
for  the  excitement  of  the  combined  and  harmonious  action  of  the  muscles. 

This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  phenomena  observed  in  certain  cases  of  disease,  and  to 
a certain  extent  by  comparative  anatomy,  for  to  each  of  the  four  classes  of  vertebrata — 
if  we  reckon  amphibians  and  reptiles  as  a single  class — the  species  whose  natural  move- 
ments require  the  most  rapid  and  exact  combinations  of  muscular  actions  are  those  in 
which  the  C.  is  most  developed  in  proportion  to  the  spinal  cord ; and  if  we  compare 
different  species  of  the  same  class,  we  usually  find  the  development  of  the  C.  to  corre- 
spond very  closely  with  the  perfection  and  variety  of  the  muscular  movements.  For 
example,  in  the  frog  the  movements  are  exceedingly  simple  in  character,  consisting  of 
little  else  than  flexion  and  extension  of  the  posterior  limbs;  and  the  C.  of  this  animal  is 
extremely  small  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  brain,  being  merely  a thin  narrow  band 
of  nervous  matter.  In  the  common  sea-turtles,  the  movements  of  the  body  are  of  a 
more  varied  character,  and  the  motions  of  the  head  and  neck  are  more  extensive;  and 
here  we  have  a much  more  highly  developed  cerebullum.  In  the  alligator,  again,  a 
reptile  whose  motions  closely  resemble  those  of  quadrepeds,  the  C.  is  still  more  fully 
developed. 

The  influence  of  each  half  of  the  C.  is  directed  to  the  muscles  of  the  opposite  side  of 
the  body,  and  for  the  right  ordering  of  the  movements,  the  actions  of  its  two  halves 
must  be"  mutually  balanced  and  adjusted;  for  if  the  nervous  structures  uniting  one  of 
the  halves  of  the  C.  with  the  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  cord  be  divided,  strangely 
disordered  movements  occur,  the  animal  falling  down  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  which 


639 


Ceremony, 

Ceres. 


iiEis  been  injured,  and  continually  rotating  round  the  long  axis  of  its  body,  sometimes 
+or  several  days,  at  the  rate  of  fifty  or  sixty  times  in  a minute.  Similar  movements 
iiave  been  observed  in  men  in  vv^hom  one  of  the  crura  of  the  C.  has  been  diseased. 

Phrenologists  are  of  opinion,  in  accordance  with  the  view  originally  propounded  by 
Gall,  that  the  C.  is  the  seat  of  the  sexual  impulse  and  instincts;  but  this  view  has  been 
long  abandoned  by  almost  all  physiologists,  for  the  reason  that  it  has  not  been  found  ta 
be  sufficiently  supported  by  anatomical  and  experimental  facts,  many  of  which  ar» 
indeed  directly  opposed  to  it. 

Our  limited  space  .compels  us  to  leave  altogether  untouched  many  most  interesting 
topics  in  cerebral  physiology,  as,  for  instance,  the  quality  of  the  brain,  the  plurality  of 
the  cerebral  organ.s,  etc.  The  reader  who  wishes  for  further  information,  is  referred  to 
Kirkes’s  Physiology  (from  which  we  have  freely  quoted),  Carpenter’s  Human  Physiology, 
Noble  On  the  Brain,  Holland’s  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,  and  Brodie’s  Psychological 
Inquiries. 

CEREMONY  (Fr.  ceremonie;  Lat,  ccerimonia,  a sacred  rite).  Almost  any  act,  wffien 
performed  in  a regular,  orderly,  and  formal  manner,  and  when  viewed,  not  with  refer- 
ence to  its  object,  but  the  mode  of  its  performance,  becomes  a C. ; and  the  more  entirely 
the  attention  of  the  performers  is  withdrawn  from  the  object  of  the  act,  and  fixed  upon 
the  manner  of  its  performance,  the  more  ceremonious  does  it  become.  The  purely 
formal  character  of  C.  is  thus  illustrated  by  Hooker:  “ The  name  ceremony,”  he  says, 
“we  do  not  use  in  so  large  a meaning  as  to  bring  sacraments  within  the  compass  and 
reach  thereof,  although  things  belonging  to  the  outward  form  and  seemly  administration 
of  them  are  contained  in  that  name.”  The  remark  is  applicable  to  the  most  trivial 
ceremonies  of  social  life  and  of  state  pageantry,  as  well  as  to  the  most  sacred  rites  of 
religion,  for  a C.  which  is  its  own  object  would  scarcely  be  entitled  to  be  regarded  even 
as  a ceremony.  The  most  empty  display  has  always  the  ulterior  object  of  imposing  on 
somebody. 

Ceremonies  may  be  divided  into  four  classes:  1.  Religious  ceremonies;  2.  Social 
ceremonies;  3.  State  ceremonies;  4.  International  ceremonies. 

Religious  and  state  ceremonies  will  be  treated  of  respectively  under  their  various- 
denominations;  see,  for  the  first.  Rites,  Litukgy,  Mass,  Processions,  etc.,  and  for 
the  second.  Coronation;  Court;  Court,  Presentation  at;  Parliament;  etc.  Social 
C.  will  in  a great  measure  fall  under  the  heads.  Etiquette,  Precedency,  Courtesy, 
Forms  of  Address,  etc. ; and  international  C.  under  Diplomacy,  Consul,  Ambassa- 
dor, etc. 

CEREOP'SIS  (Gr.  wax-face),  a genus  of  birds  of  the  family  anatidce,  to  which  the  New 
Holland  goose  ((7,  Novoe  Hollandioe)  belongs.  This  bird  has  been  known  since  the 
southern  shores  of  that  country  were  first  visited  by  navigators.  There,  and  on  the 
adjacent  islands,  it  is  found  in  great  abundance;  and  the  earlier  navigators  easily  sup- 
plied themselves  with  fresh  provisions  by  knocking  them  down  with  sticks,  so  little 
were  they  acquainted  with  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  man.  The  cere  is  remark- 
ably large,  whence  the  name. 

CE'R,ES,  among  the  Greeks  named  Demeter,  daughter  of  Ghronos  (Saturn),  by  Phea 
(Ops),  sister  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Juno,  etc.  She  had  the  misfortune,  along  with  her 
other  brothers  and  sister,  to  be  devoured  by  her  father,  who,  however,  vomited  her  forth 
again  after  taking  the  emetic  wffiich  Metis  gave  him.  By  her  brother  Jupiter  she  became 
the  mother  of  Persephone  or  Proserpina  (q.v.).  The  chief  myth  relating  to  C.  tells  how 
her  daughter  Proserpina  v/as  stolen  by  Pluto,  and  how  the  mother  wandered  far  ia 
quest  of  the  maiden.  After  traveling  in  human  form  nine  days,  and  everywhere  dis- 
tributing her  gifts  to  mankind,  she  excited  the  pity  of  Jupifer,  by  whom  Mercury  was- 
dispatched  to  bring  back  Proserpina  from  the  infernal  world,  but  on  the  condition  that 
she  must  spend  there  a third  part  (or,  as  others  say,  one  half)  of  every  year.  The  myth 
of  C,  was  symbolical  of  the  growth  of  grain ; some  consider  that  this  is  intimated  in  tho 
name  Demeter,  which  is  thought  to  be  equivalent  to  ge  meter,  “Mother  Earth.”  Tho 
relations  of  the  worship  of  C.  with  agriculture,  social  order,  etc.,  were  expressed  in  her 
two  great  festivals — the  Eleusinia  (q.v.)  and  Thesmophoria  (q.v.),  C,  was  especially 
worshiped  in  Crete,  Delos,  Sicily,  Asia  Minor,  Arcadia,  Argolis,  and  Attica.  Bulls, 
cows,  pigs,  honey-cakes,  and  fruits  were  offered  to  her.  Among  the  Romans,  her  fes- 
tivals were  styled  Cerealia;  and  of  these,  the  most  interesting  was  the  feast  celebrated 
by  the  rural  population  shortly  before  harvest,  when  the  country  people,  dressed  in 
white,  and  crowned  with  oak -leaves,  danced  and  sang  harvest  songs  in  honor  of  the 
goddess.  The  feast  in  April  lasted  several  days,  and  was  celebrated  by  games  of  the 
circus.  C.  was  represented,  most  commonly,  in  a chariot  drawn  by  dragons,  having  her 
head  crowned  with  a garland  of  corn-ears,  and  holding  a torch,  a basket,  or  a poppy  in 
her  hand. 

CERES,  one  of  the  planetoids  (q.v.),  and  the  first  of  them  that  was  discovered.  It 
was  first  seen  by  Piazzi  at  Palermo,  Jan.  1,  1801.  He  continued  to  observe  its  motion 
till  the  13th  of  Feb.,  when  illness  obliged  him  to  discontinue  his  observations,  which, 
however,  sufficed  to  enable  astronomers  approximately  to  calculate  its  orbid.  It  waa 
nearly  a year  after  before  it  again  became  visible,  owing  to  its  approach  to  the  sun.^ 


Cereus. 

Certification. 


640 


C.’s  magnitude  is  less  than  that  of  the  moon;  and  it  looks  like  a star  between  th« 
seventh  and  eighth  magnitudes. 

CEEEUS,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  cacteoR  (q.v.),  containing  about  100 
known  species,  among  which  are  some  of  the  most  splendid  flowers  of  that  order.  One 
of  these  is  C.  speciosiasimus,  now  one  of  the  most  common  greenhouse  plants  in  Britain, 
and  sometimes  cultivated  even  in  windows.  Its  large  flowers  are  of  a fine  scarlet  color, 
the  inner  petals  with  a violet  tinge ; they  spring  singly  from  the  younger  branches.  The 
fruit,  when  well  ripened,  is  of  a delicious  flavor.  The  plant  is  a native  of  Mexico. 

CEEIGNOLA,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  23  m.  s.e.  of  Foggia.  It  i» 
divided  into  two  parts — the  old  and  new  town,  in  the  former  of  which  a portion  of  the 
ancient  walls  still  remain — and  is  celebrated  for  the  decisive  victory  obtained  over  the 
French  by  the  Spaniards  in  1503,  and  which  established  the  supremacy  of  Spain  in 
Naples.  C.  has  manufactures  of  linen,  and  a trade  in  cotton  and  fruits.  Pop,  ’71, 
25,131. 

CEEIG0,one  of  the  smaller  of  the  seven  Ionian  islands,  was  anciently  called  Cythera; 
is  situated  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  separated  from  the  coast  of  Morea  by  a narrow 
strait;  lat.  36°  28'  n.,  long.  23°  e.  It  has  an  area  of  107  sq.m.,  with  a pop.,  in  1870,  of 
10,637.  With  the  exception  of  a few  tracts  of  land,  it  is  a very  barren,  dry,  and  moun- 
tainous island.  In  some  parts,  however,  corn,  wine,  and  olive-oil  are  raised.  There 
are  two  great  caverns  in  the  island — one  in  the  sea-cliff  at  the  termination  of  the  wild 
glen  of  Milopotamos;  the  other  known  by  the  name  of  the  cavern  of  St.  Sophia,  from  a 
small  chapel  at  its  mouth  dedicated  to  this  saint,  is  situated  at  about  one  and  a half 
hour’s  ride  from  Capsali  (q.v.),  the  capital  of  the  island.  The  former  cavern  is  said  to 
be  3 m.  in  length,  and  so  low  that  it  is  necessary  to  creep,  in  many  places,  on  hands 
and  knees  to  explore  it.  The  latter — that  of  St.  Sophia — is  a very  remarkable  one,  and  pos- 
sesses singular  beauty;  it  abounds  in  enormous  stalactites  of  various  shapes  and  great 
beauty.  In  ancient  times,  C.  was  sacred  to  Venus,  being,  according  to  the  old  mythology, 
the  island  that  received  this  goddess  when  she  arose  from  the  sea. 

CEEIN'THUS  (abusively  named  Merinthus,  i.e.,  a halter),  a heretic  who  lived  at  the 
close  of  the  apostolic  age,  but  of  whom  we  have  nothing  better  than  uncertain  and  con- 
fused accounts.  It  is  said  that  he  was  a Jew  by  birth,  and  studied  philosophy  in  Alex- 
andria. From  Egypt  he  passed  into  Asia  Minor,  and  lived  in  Ephesus  contemporane- 
ously (according  to  the  belief  of  the  church)  with  the  aged  apostle  John.  Tradition 
tells  us  that  John  held  the  heretic  in  such  detestation,  that,  on  a certain  occasion,  when 
he  encountered  C.  in  the  baths  of  Ephesus,  he  immediately  left  the  place,  saying  to 
those  about  him:  “ Let  us  flee  home,  lest  the  bath  should  fall  while  Cerinthus  is  with- 
in.” It  was  believed  in  the  ancient  church,  that  the  gospel  of  St.  John  was  written  in 
opposition  to  the  tenets  of  C. ; and  the  Roman  presbyter  Caius  (about  she  close  of  the 
2d  c.)  supposed  that  C.  had  revenged  himself  by  falsely  ascribing  the  authorship  of  the 
Apocalypse  to  St.  John — it  being  in  reality  his  own  work!  The  fathers  contradict  one 
another  in  their  accounts  of  Cerinthus.  Some  describe  him  as  a complete  Gnostic,  in 
which  case  he  would  be  the  earliest  recorded  teacher  of  that  sect;  others  say  that 
he  held  coarse  and  sensual  millenarian  views,  making  the  millennium  (q.v.),  with 
the  licentious  fancy  of  an  Arab,  consist  chiefly  in  “nuptial  delights;”  and  that  he 
believed  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  to  be  in  part  binding  upon  Christians.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  C.  made  use  of  the  Jewish  law  at  least  as  a symbol  for  his  Gnostic 
doctrines,  and  also  employed  millenarian  terms  in  a symbolical  manner;  a very  natural 
thing  for  him  to  do,  on  the  hypothesis  which  Neander  and  others  have  suggested — that 
Gnosticism  originated,  not  among  the  minds  which  had  received  a true  Hellenic  cul- 
ture, but  among  the  Judaizing  sects,  whose  theosophy  was  a jumble  of  the  spiritual  and 
the  material.  C.  being  the  oldest  teacher  of  Judaico-Gnostic  principles,  there  would 
naturally  be  a greater  incongruity  and  want  of  harmony  in  his  language  and  ideas  than 
characterized  Gnosticism  at  a later  period  of  its  development;  and  subsequent  ecclesi- 
astical writers,  destitute  as  all  of  them  were  of  precise  historical  knowledge  and  sound 
principles  of  criticism,  could  hardly  avoid  misunderstanding  a system  which  is  not  con- 
sistent throughout,  but  bears  evident  marks  of  being  formed  in  a transition  epoch. — 
Paulus  Historia  Gerintlii  (Jena,  1799);  Neander,  Kirchcngeschichte,  vol.  i.,  part  2. 

CE'EITE,  or  O'citroite,  is  the  silicate  of  cerium.  It  is  found  as  a mineral  in  gneiss, 
at  Westmanland,  Redderhyttan,  and  Bastniis.  It  contains  in  100  parts — silica,  16; 
peroxide  of  cerium,  26.55;  oxide  of  lanthanum,  33.38;  carbonie  acid,  4.62;  alumina, 
1.68;  peroxide  of  iron,  3.53;  lime,  3.56;  oxide  of  manganese,  0.27;  and  water,  9.1.  It 
occurs  in  granular  pieces  of  a clove-brown,  cherry-red,  or  gray  color,  with  a white 
streak,  a splintery  fracture,  an  adamantine  luster,  and  is  translucent  at  the  edges. 

CEEI'THIUM,  a genus  and  the  type  of  a family,  cerithiadm,  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusca  of  the  order  pectinihranchiata  of  Cuvier.  The  shell  is  spiral,  elongated,  and 
man^- whirled,  with  an  oval  oblique  aperture,  which  has  a short  canal  in  front.  The 
species  of  this  family  are  numerous,  most  of  them  marine,  but  many  inhabiting  estuaries 
and  brackish  rather  than  salt  w’ater;  some  are  found  in  lakes  and  rivers.  A few  belong 
to  temperate  climates,  but  most  of  them  are  tropical,  and  in  mangrove  swamps  they  par- 


641 


Cereus. 

Certification. 


ticularly  abound.  The  fossil  species  are  very  numerous,  almost  all  limited  to  the  tertiary 
formations.  See  Bagshot  Beds. 

CE'RIIJM  is  a rare  metal  found  native  in  cerite  (q.v.)  and  a few  other  minerals.  It  is 
a white  metal,  has  not  been  obtained  in  any  quantity,  is  not  therefore  employed  in  any 
manufacture,  and  forms  two  oxides  and  a numerous  class  of  salts. 

CEROFLAS'TIC  (Lat.  cera,  wax),  the  art  of  modeling  in  wax.  See  Wax-wokk. 

CEBOSTBO'TXJM,  or  Cestro'tum,  (Lat.),  a species  of  encaustic  painting  upon  horn  or 
ivory,  the  lines  of  the  design  being  burned  in  with  the  cestrum  or  burning  needle,  and 
wax  introduced  in  the  furrows  thus  made. 

CEROX'YLON.  See  Wax  Palm. 

CERR'ETO,  a t.  of  South  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Benevento,  situated  on  a slope  of 
the  Apennines,  about  22  m.  n.e.  of  Capua.  It  is  a well-built  town,  with  a cathedral,  and 
manufactures  of  coarse  cloth.  The  district  produces  good  wine.  fop.  6,469, 

CERRO  DE  PASCO,  or  Pasco.  See  Cerro  Gordo,  ante. 

CER'RO  GOR  DO,  the  name  of  several  localities  of  Spanish  America. — 1.  A plateau  in 
Mexico,  the  most  easterly  on  the  route  from  Yera  Cruz  to  the  capital.  Here,  on  the  18th 
April,  1847,  the  Americans  totally  defeated  the  Mexicans. — 2.  A city  of  Peru,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Pasco,  in  the  department  of  Junin.  It  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
richest  silver  mines  in  the  republic;  and  standing  at  an  elevation  of  14,100  ft.,  it  has,  all 
the  year  round,  the  temperature  of  an  English  winter.  The  estimates  of  the  population 
range  from  7,000  to  16,000.  C.  G.  is  140  m.  to  the  n.e.  of  Lima. 

CERRO  GORDO.  See  Cerro  Gordo,  ante,  a mountain  pass  on  the  national  road 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Mexico.  April  18,  1847,  gen.  Scott  with  a United  States 
force  of  8,500  defeated  Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican  leader,  with  12,000  men,  at  this  .place. 
The  Mexican  loss  was  from  1,000  to  1,200  killed  and  wounded  and  3,000  prisoners;  that 
of  the  other  side,  63  killed  and  368  wounded. 

CERRO  GORDO,  a co.  in  n.  Iowa,  intersected  both  e.  and  w.,  and  n.  and  s.  by  rail- 
roads, and  watered  by  Shell  Rock  river.  Lime  creek,  and  the  headwaters  of  Beaver  Dam 
river;  652.sq.m. ; pop.  '80,  11,461.  It  is  an  agricultural  region.  Co.  seat,  Mason  City. 

CERRO  GORDO  DE  POTOSI',  a mountain  in  Bolivia,  directly  s.w.  of  Potosi,  con- 
taining very  rich  silver  mines.  The  summit  is  16,150  ft.  above  sea  level. 

GERTALDO,  a market  t.  of  central  Italy,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  Elsa,  about 
18  m.  s.w.  of  Florence.  It  is  noteworthy  as  the  residence  of  Boccaccio,  as  well  as  the 
scene  of  his  death.  His  house,  surmounted  with  a tower,  is  still  standing,  and  contains 
the  articles  of  furniture  belonging  to  the  poet’s  time,  and  a fresco  painting  of  him  by 
Benvenuto  Cellini.  Pop.  8,562. 

CERTHI'AD.S:,  a family  of  birds,  generally  placed  in  the  great  ordier  insessores  or  pas- 
serinee,  and  tribe  tenuirostres,  although  some  naturalists  have  ranked  them  in  the  order 
scansores.  They  mostly  live  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees,  feeding  on  insects 
which  they  find  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark;  and  many  of  them  aia  themselves  by  their 
stiff  tail-feathers  in  retaining  their  position  as  they  search  for  their  food  on  the  perpendicu- 
lar stem.  Their  claws  are  long  and  sharp ; the  hind-toe  is  also  elongated,  so  that  they  can 
take  firm  hold  of  the  bark  or  of  a small  branch;  and  many  of  them  can  pass  round  a 
horizontal  branch,  clinging  to  its  under-surface  with  their  backs  to  the  ground.  The  bill  of 
many  is  slender  and  curved ; others,  however,  have  a comparatively  short  and  straight 
bill.  The  tongue  is  cartilaginous  at  the  extremity,  and  so  fitted  to  aid  in  seizing  insect 
prey.  The  plumage  is  usually  dull  and  uniform;  but  the  birds  are  lively  and  active  in 
their  habits.  The  species  are  numerous  and  widely  diffused ; they  are  divided  into  a 
number  of  genera.  All  of  them  are  small  birds.  The  creepers  (q.v.),  forming  the  genus 
certhia,  are  regarded  as  exhibiting  the  type  of  the  family.  Wrens  and  nut-hatches, 
although  referred  to  it,  depart  very  considerably  from  this  type.  Many  small  tropical 
and  subtropical  birds,  which  live  by  sucking  honey  from  flowers,  formerly  referred  to 
this  family,  are  now  separated  from  it. 

CERTIFICATE,  a written  testimony  to  the  truth  of  a certain  fact  or  facts.  The  law 
of  England  recognizes  certificates  for  various  purposes.  1.  Annual  C.  of  attorneys.  See 
Attorney.  2.  C.  of  appointment  of  the  creditors’  assignees  to  a bankrupt’s  estate 
and  effects.  3.  C.  of  conformity  of  a bankrupt.  4.  C.  of  counsel,  to  enable  a pauper  to 
litigate  in  forma  pauperis.  5.  C.  of  the  judges  of  the  superior  common-law  courts  at 
Westminster,  which  are  of  various  kinds  and  for  various  purposes.  6.  C.  of  registry  of 
a ship ; which  is  a copy  of  what  is  entered  in  the  registry  of  the  ship  in  the  books  of  the 
custom-house.  This  C.  is  granted  by  the  collector,  comptroller,  or  principal  oflBcer  of 
the  customs  at  the  port  of  registry,  and  delivered  to  the  captain  as  a voucher  of  the  char- 
acter and  privileges  of  the  vessel  as  a British  ship. 

CERTIFICA'TION,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  signifies  the  judicial  assurance  given  to  a 
party  of  the  course  to  be  followed  by  the  judge  in  case  he  disobeys  the  will  of  a sum- 
mons, or  other  writ  or  order  of  the  court.  Reiterated  contumacy  on  the  part  of  the 
defender  was  at  one  time  punished  with  confiscation  of  his  property  (1449,  c.  29),  but 
now  C.  amounts  to  nothing  beyond  an  intimation  that  if  he  fails  to  appear  in  the  usual 
U.  K III.-41 


Certified. 

Cervetere. 


642 


manner,  the  judge  will  decern,  or  pronounce  judgment  against  him.  The  most  impor- 
tant C.  is  in  the  process  of  reduction-improbation  (q.v.).  In  this  action,  two  terms  are 
allowed  for  the  production  of  the  deed  called  for,  and  sought  to  be  reduced.  There- 
after, an  additional  ten  days  are  given;  but  should  production  not  be  satisfied  on  their 
expiry,  decree  of  C.  will  be  pronounced,  and  this  decree  has  the  effect  of  declaring  the 
deed  to  be  forged  and  fabricated.  Such  a decree,  even  though  pronounced  in  absence, 
can  hardly  be  recalled.  In  simple  reduction  (see  Reduction),  the  C.  is  only  to  the  effect 
that  the  deed  shall  be  void  and  null,  till  produced. 

CERTIFIED  COPY.  See  Evidence. 

CERTIORA'RI  (Lat.  to  be  certiorated,  or  more  fully  and  accurately  informed  of),  in 
English  law,  is  an  original  writ  issuing,  in  civil  cases,  out  of  the  chancery  division  of 
the  high  court  of  justice,  and  in  criminal  from  the  queen’s  bench  division  of  the  same 
court.  This  writ,  which  runs  in  the  queen’s  name,  is  addressed  to  judges  or  officers  of 
an  inferior  court,  copimanding  them  to  certify  or  to  return  the  records  of  a cause 
depending  before  them,  in  order  that  the  party  may  obtain  more  sure  and  speedy  jus- 
tice, from  such  justices  as  shall  be  assigned  to  determine  the  cause.  A writ  of  may 
be  granted  at  the  instance  either  of  the  prosecutor  or  defender;,  but  to  prevent  its  being 
used  as  an  instrument  of  oppression  by  the  one  party  against  the  other,  it  is  provided  (5 
and  6 Will.  IV.  c.  33,  and  16  and  17  Viet.  c.  30)  that  either  party,  before  applying  for  it, 
must  obtain  the  leave  of  the  court,  and  enter  into  recognizances. 

The  writ  passes  on  a hill  of  G.,  which  states  the  proceedings  in  the  inferior  court,  so 
far  as  they  have  gone;  sets  forth  the  alleged  ground  of  incompetency,  by  suggesting  that 
the  cause  is  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  that  the  defendant  or  witnesses  live 
beyond  it,  or  the  like  reason  why  substantial  justice  cannot  be  done.  The  writ  is  now 
cluefly  used  in  the  queen’s  bench  division,  and  is  the  usual  mode  of  correcting  excesses 
of  justices  of  the  peace  in  miscellaneous  matters. 

CERTIORA'RI  {ante),  a writ  by  a superior  to  an  inferior  court  of  record,  requiring 
the  latter  to  send  to  the  former  some  proceeding  pending,  or  the  record  of  some  cause 
terminated  in  cases  where  the  proceedings  were  not  in  accordance  with  the  course  of 
common  law.  The  writ  is  granted  or  refused  at  the  discretion  of  the  superior  court, 
and  the  usual  result  is  that  the  proceedings  below  are  either  quashed  or  afiBrmed. 

CERTO'SA  DI  PA'VIA,  La,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  monasteries  in  the  world,  is 
situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pavia,  and  was  founded,  1396,  by  Giovanni  Galeazzo 
Visconti,  first  duke  of  Milan,  to  appease  his  conscience  for  the  murder  of  his  uncle.  The 
church  is  a splendid  structure  in  the  form  of  a Latin  cross,  the  ground-plan  being  249 
ft.  long  by  173  ft.  broad.  It  has  altogether  12  chapels,  7 in  the  whole  length  of  the 
church,  and  5 in  the  transept,  some  of  which  are  decorated  with  fine  frescoes  and  paint- 
ings. The  richly  sculptured  fa9ade,  designed  by  Ambrogio  da  Fossano,  named  Borgog- 
none,  was  commenced  in  1473.  The  building  is  made  up  of  various  styles,  but  the 
pointed  prevails  in  the  interior,  which  is  decorated  with  frescoes,  paintings,  etc.,  by  Dan 
Crespi,  Andrea  Solari,  Campi,  and  Ambrogio  Fossano,  and  contains  a gorgeous  high- 
altar,  the  mausoleum  of  the  founder,  and  several  monuments. 

CERU'MEN.  This  term  is  applied  to  yellow  waxy  matter  which  is  secreted  by  certain 
glands  lying  in  the  external  auditory  canal,  or  the  passage  that  leads  from  the  external 
opening  of  the  ear  to  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum.  Its  main  use,  doubtless,  is  to 
lubricate  this  passage.  It  possesses  a peculiarly  bitter  taste,  and  some  phy  siologists  have 
believed  that  in  consequence  of  this  property  it  prevents  insects  from  entering  the  audi- 
tory canal.  It  is  popularly  known  as  ear-wax. 

CERUSE,  or  White-lead,  the  basis  of  white  oil-paint,  is  a carbonate  of  lead.  It  has 
several  other  names — krems,  Nottingham  white,  flake-white,  etc.  Like  all  other  prepa- 
rations of  lead,  C.  is  liable  to  be  acted  upon  by  exhalations  from  sewers,  or  by  any- 
thing which  contains  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  in  which  case  it  is  changed  to  a dull  and 
leaden  hue.  Neither  will  it  bear  to  "be  mixed  with  any  pigment  containing  sulphur, 
such  as  vermilion.  It  is  supposed  that  the  white  oxide  of  zinc  might  be  substituted  for 
0.  as  a white  pigment  with  advantage. 

CERUT'TI,  Giuseppe  Antoine  Joachim,  1738-92;  a Jesuit  and  professor  in  the  col- 
lege of  that  order  in  Lyons.  Among  his  works  are  an  Apology  for  the  Institute  of  the 
Jesuits;  a Memoir  of  the  People  of  France;  a poem  entitled  The  Garden  of  Bietz.  He  also 
edited  a weekly  journal,  and  was  once  elected  to  the  legislative  assembly. 

CERVAN  TES  SAAVE  DRA,  Miguel  de,  one  of  the  greatest  imaginative  writers  of 
Spain,  was  b.  of  an  old  Galician  family,  at  Alcala  de  Henares,  Oct.  9,  1547.  He  studied 
at  Salamanca,  and  afterwards  at  Madrid,  where  he  was  placed  under  the  care  of  a 
hiarned  theologian,  Juan  Lopez  de  Hoyos,  who  was  then  professor  of  belles-lettres  in  the 
university.  But  his  natural  love  of  poetry  led  him  to  spend  most  of  his  time  in  writing 
elegies,  ballads,  sonnets,  and  a pastoral  romance  entitled  Filena.  When  22  years  old, 
C.  served  for  some  time  as  valet  de-chambre  to  cardinal  Giulio  Aquaviva  of  Rome.  In 
1570,  he  served  as  a volunteer  under  the  command  of  the  papal  admiral,  Marco  Antonio 
Oolonna,  and  fought  gallantly  against  the  Turks.  At  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  he  was 
maimed  for  life  by  a gunshot  wound  in  the  left  hand.  He  afterwards  took  part  in  vari- 
ous campaigns.  Captured  by  an  Algerine  squadron,  he  was  made  a slave,  but  was  ran- 


643 


Certified. 

Cervetere, 


somed  in  1580,  after  a four  years'  captivity.  On  his  return  to  Spain,  he  rejoined  his  regi- 
ment in  the  army  sent  by  Philip  II.  to  support  his  claims  in  Portugal,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  expedition  to  the  Azores.  In  1584,  he  returned  to  Spain,  and  retired 
into  private  life,  to  devote  his  attention  to  literature.  Soon  after  his  publication  of  the 
pastoral  romance,  Galatea  (1584),  he  married,  commenced  writing  for  the  stage,  and 
produced,  in  the  course  of  a few  years,  as  many  as  30  dramatic  pieces,  of  which  the 
tragedy  Numancia  is  the  most  remarkable.  During  the  years  1588-99,  he  lived  in  strait- 
ened circumstances  in  Seville.  In  1605,  he  once  more  appeared  as  an  author,  and  now 
in  a sphere  exactly  suited  to  his  genius.  In  his  immortal  work,  Don  (Quixote,  C.  intended 
to  put  an  end  to  that  taste  for  extravagant  romances  of  chivalry  which  had  so  long  pre- 
vailed. The  first  part  of  this  great  satirical  work  appeared  in  Madrid,  and  was  received 
at  first  coolly,  but  soon  afterwards  with  loud  applause,  which,  at  a later  period,  was 
echoed  from  all  parts  of  educated  Europe.  Don  Quixote,  though  written  wdth  a satirical 
purpose,  is  throughout  pervaded  by  the  true  spirit  of  poetry.  With  that  universality 
which  belongs  to  the  highest  genius,  C.  connected  a universal  human  interest  with 
descriptions  of  local  and  temporary  characteristics.  He  did  not  intend  by  his  Don 
Quixote  to  burlesque  the  old  Spanish  knight-eiTantry,  for,  as  Mr.  Ford  remarks  (see 
Handbook  of  Spain,  part  i.,  p.  238),  “ the  thing  had  expired  a century  before  his  birth;” 
but  to  put  an  end  to  the  absurd  and  affected  romances  which  it  w^as  then  the  fashion  to 
read,  and  which  were  believed  to  be  true  pictures  of  chivalry.  He  had  also,  it  is  quite 
clear,  another  object  in  view — viz.,  to  show  that  the  deeper  and  truer  and  more  guile- 
less a nature  is,  the  more  will  it  become  the  jest  and  butt  of  real  life;  but  he  likewise 
teaches  us  that  the  pure  heart  and  the  high  soul  obtain  a triumph  which  misfortunes 
and  blunders  cannot  tarnish;  for  the  knight  always  “disinterested,  generous*  elevated, 
and  beneficent,”  though  “the  sweet  bells  of  his  intellect  are  jangled  and  out  of  tune,” 
maintains  throughout  a firm  hold  on  our  affections  and  esteem.  Charles  Lamb  has  truly 
said,  that  readers  who  see  nothing  more  than  a burlesque  in  Don  Quixote,  have  but  a 
shallow  appreciation  of  the  work. 

Though  received  with  enthusiasm,  Don  Quixote  brought  no  pecuniary  reward  to  the 
author.  He  was  left  in  the  obscurity  and  poverty  in  which  he  had  passed  so  many 
years,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  improve  his  circumstances.  After  silence  during  sev- 
eral years,  C.  published  his  twelve  Novelas  Examplares  (Exemplary  Tales),  1613;  his 
Viage  al  Parnaso  (Journey  to  Parnassus),  1614 — his  next  best  production  ioDon  Quixote; 
and  in  the  following  year  he  produced  eight  new  dramas,  but  these  were  indifferently- 
received.  In  1614,  a certain  Alonso  Fernandez  de  Avellaneda  published  at  Tarragona 
a so-called  continuation  of  Don  Quixote,  which  was  made  a vehicle  of  abuse  lav- 
ished on  Cervantes.  It  appears  that  C.  suffered  considerably  under  these  despicable 
attacks;  but  he  revenged  himself  in  noble  style  by  publishing  (1615)  the  true  continua- 
tion of  Don  Quixote.  Near  the  close  of  his  career,  C.  found  a patron  in  the  count  of 
Lemos,  who  relieved  his  poverty.  During  the  last  few  years  of  his  life,  he  resided  in 
Madrid,  where  he  died,  April  23,  1616.  No  stone  marks  the  spot  where  his  remains 
were  interred.  His  novel.  The  Sorrows  of  Persiles  and  Sigismunda,  was  posthumously 
Dublished.  In  1835,  when  the  house  in  which  the  poet  had  lived  in  Madrid  was  rebuilt, 
a bust  of  C.,  by  the  sculptor  Don  Antonio  Sola,  was  placed  in  the  front. 

Among  the  several  editions  of  Don  Quixote,  we  may  mention  the  splendid  one  in  4 
vols.  (Madrid,  1780);  that  by  Pellicer  (5  vols.,  Madrid,  1798);  the  fourth  published  by 
the  Madrid  academy,  with  an  admirable  life  of  C.  by  Navarette  (5  vols.,  Madrid,  1819); 
Diego  Clemencin’s  edition,  with  the  most  complete  commentary  (6  vols. , Madrid,  1833-39) ; 
and  a good  pocket-edition,  published  at  Leipsic  (6  vols.,  1800-7).  Of  the  collected  works 
of  C.,  an  edition,  not  containing  the  comedies,  appeared  at  Madrid  (16  vols.,  1803-5); 
and  another,  without  the  Journey  to  Parnassus,  was  published  in  the  same  city  (11 
vols.,  1829).  Don  Aug.  Garcia  de  Arrieta  published  a selection  from  the  works  of  C. 
(10  vols.,  Paris,  1826-32);  and  a reprint  of  the  collected  works  is  included  in  Baudry’s 
Geleccion  de  los  Mejores  Autores  Espafioles  (Paris,  1840-41).  England  has  been  fertile  in 
translations  of  C. ’s  immortal  work.  The  first  is  that  of  Thomas  Skelton  (1612-20),  in 
addition  to  which  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Philips,  Motteux,  Smollett,  Durfey,  Jar- 
vis, Wilmot,  and  Clark.  The  best  are  those  of  Skelton,  Jarvis,  and  Clark. 

CEEVE'BA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Barcelona,  28  m.  e.  of  the  city  of  Lerida. 
It  is  situated  on  an  eminence,  is  surrounded  by  old  walls  pierced  with  nine  gates,  and  the 
west  approach  is  commanded  by  a castle,  which  is  now  in  a ruinous  condition.  The 
university  of  Lerida  was  removed  here  by  Philip  V.,  but  it  was  afterwards  transferred 
to  Barcelona.  The  university  building,  a massive  but  unsightly  edifice,  is  still  standing. 
C.  has  manufactures  of  linen,  woolen,  and  cotton  fabrics.  Pop.  5,300. 

CERVE'TERE,  or  Cerye'tri  (ancient  Caere  or  Agylla),  a t.  of  central  Italy,  27  m.  w. 
of  Rome.  Though  now  a place  of  some  700  or  800  inhabitants,  it  was  formerly  one  of 
the  most  important  cities  of  Etruria,  possessing,  it  is  said,  a famous  collection  of  paint- 
ings before  even  Rome  was  founded.  Many  Etruscan  remains  of  value  have  been 
found  here. 

CERVET'ER^:,  or  Cervet'ri  {ante),  a village  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Caere,  in  s. 
Etruria,  near  the  Tyrrhenian  sea,  in  the  district  of  Civita  Vecchia,  32  m.  from  Rome. 
It  afforded  refuge  to  the  Tarquins  after  their  expulsion  from  Rome,  and  was  by  the 


Cervia. 

Cestoid. 


644 


Romans  chosen  as  the  safest  hiding-place  of  their  treasures  during  the  occupation  of 
the  capital  by  the  Gauls.  The  old  city  thenceforward  declined,  and  in  1250  was 
deserted  by  a large  portion  of  its  inhabitants,  who  removed  to  the  present  village  of 
Ceri.  From  the  fact  that  the  old  inhabitants  were  admitted  to  Roman  citizenship 
■without  the  right  of  suffrage,  the  “ Caerite  franchise”  came  to  be  a proverbial  expression 
denoting  disfranchisement.  Many  interesting  Etruscan  remains  have  been  found  in  the 
tombs  of  the  city.  One  of  the  sepulchres  belonged  to  the  Tarquin  family. 

CER'VIA,  a t.  of  central  Italy,  situated  on  the  Adriatic,  13  m.  s.s.e.  of  Ravenna.  It 
is  regularly  built,  has  a cathedral  and  several  convents ; and  from  a marsh  in  the  neigh- 
borhood about  50,000  tons  of  salt  are  annually  obtained,  the  salt-works  employing  a 
considerable  number  of  the  population,  which  is  about  6,000. 

CERVIBJE  AND  CEE'VTJS.  See  Deer. 

GEBVIN,  Mont  (Ger.  Matterhorn;  Ital.  Monte  Silvio),  a mountain  of  the  Pennine 
Alps,  about  40  m.  e.n.e.  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  between  the  Valais  in  Switzerland  and  the 
Val  d’ Aosta  in  Piedmont.  Above  an  unbroken  glacier  line  of  11,000  ft.  high,  it  rises  in 
an  inaccessible  obelisk  of  rock,  more  than  3000  ft.  higher,  and  is  described  by  the  late 
prof.  Forbes  as  the  most  striking  natural  object  he  had  ever  seen.  The  total  elevation 
of  the  mountain  is  14,836  feet.  The  Col  of  Mont  C.,  used  as  a passage  for  horses  and 
mules  in  summer,  has  an  elevation  of  10,938  feet. 

CERVINA'RA,  a t.  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Avellino,  12  m.  n.w.  of  Avellino.  It 
has  a convent  and  several  churches,  and  a trade  in  the  produce  of  the  district.  Pop. 
2,328. 

CE'SAEI,  Giuseppe  (sometimes  called  Giuseppino,  or  il  Cavaliere  d’Arpino),  an 
Italian  painter,  was  b.  at  Rome,  1570,  and  d.  there  in  1640  (or  1642).  He  was  greatly 
honored  by  no  less  than  five  popes,  and  his  paintings  were  always  highly  popular.  His 
works — in  fresco  and  oil — display  lively  imagination,  gay  coloring,  and  great  tact  in 
execution;  but  are  deficient  in  natural  simplicity,  correctness  of  design,  symmetry  of 
arrangement,  and  dignity  of  style.  As  he  was  the  most  brilliant  of  the  mannerists,  he 
was  the  chief  object  of  the  attacks  made  by  the  artistic  reformers,  Caravaggio,  the 
Caracci,  and  their  followers — who  constituted  the  naturalisti — on  the  convention^  or 
pseudo-idealistic  style  of  painting. 

CESAEOT'TI,  Melchiore,  an  excellent  Italian  poet,  was  b.  at  Padua,  15th  May, 
1730,  and  d.  3d  Nov.,  1808.  He  gained  a reputation  by  the  vigor  and  originality  of 
his  style,  especially  in  his  translation  of  Macpherson’s  Ossian{2  vols.,  Padua,  1763).  The 
versification  of  this  work,  like  that  of  C.’s  free  translation  of  the  Iliad,  under  the  title  of 
La  Morte  di  Ettore,  was  admired  by  Alfieri.  C.  unquestionably  threw  fresh  life  into 
Italian  literature,  but  few  in  this  country  will  consider  his  enthusiasm  very  rational, 
when  it  could  induce  him  to  think  poor  Macpherson  a better  poet  than  Homer.  C.’s  best 
work  was  his  Saggio  sulla  Filosofia  delle  Lingue  (Padua,  1785),  written  in  opposition  to 
the  academical  pedantry  of  La  Crusca.  His  prose  style  is  vigorous,  but  full  of  innova- 
tions, especially  Gallicisms. 

GESE'NA,  a t.  of  central  Italy,  about  12  m.  s.e.  of  Forli,  on  the  Emilian  Way.  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a hill-slope,  washed  by  the  Savio.  Its  principal  buildings  are  the 
Palazzo  Puhblico,  the  Capuchin  church,  and  the  library  founded  by  Domenico  Malatesta 
Novello,  in  1452,  with  a rich  collection  of  MSS.  There  are  many  monasteries  and  nun- 
neries, as  befits  a place  that  gave  birth  to  two  popes — Pius  VI.  and  VII.  It  has  some 
silk  factories,  with  a trade  in  wine  and  silk;  and  in  the  vicinity  are  productive  sulphur- 
mines.  Pop.  ’72,  35,870. 

CESNO'LA,  Luigi  Palma  di,  ll.d.,  Count,  b.  in  Turin,  Italy,  1832.  When  but  15 
years  old  he  enlisted  in  the  war  against  Austria.  In  1850,  he  graduated  from  the  Turin 
royal  military  academy,  receiving  a commission  which  he  surrendered  in  1854.  In  the 
Crimean  war  he  was  a staff  officer.  He  emigrated  to  New  York  in  1860,  and  began 
teaching  languages.  The  next  year  he  married  one  of  his  pupils,  a daughter  of  com- 
modore Reid,  of  the  U.  S.  navy.  In  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  he  was  col.  of  cavalry 
and  participated  in  many  engagements  until  June,  1863,  when  he  was  wounded  and 
made  prisoner.  He  was  exchanged  not  long  after,  and  left  the  service  at  the  close 
of  the  war,  with  the  rank  of  brig. gen.;  at  once  became  an  American  citizen,  and 
was  appointed  consul  at  Cyprus.  There  he  soon  interested  himself  deeply  in  archae- 
ological researches,  and  brought  to  light  some  of  the  most  valuable  remains  of  ancient 
Greek  art  thus  far  recovered  (see  Archeology).  Gen.  Cesnola  has  devoted  the  greater 
portion  of  his  time  to  Cyprian  or  Grecian  exploration  for  the  past  15  years.  In  1878,  he 
gave  lectures  in  New  York  and  elsewhere,  and  in  1879,  was  made  a director  of  the 
metropolitan  museum  of  art,  in  which  his  great  collection  is  deposited.  (See  New 
York  City.) 

Cl)SPEDES,  Carlos  Manuel  de,  b.  in  Cuba,  1819;  educated  in  the  university  at 
Havana,  and  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  traveled  in  Europe  and  learned  several  languages. 
At  Madrid  he  was  concerned  with  Prim  in  a conspiracy  to  overthrow  the  govern- 
ment, and  was  compelled  to  fly.  He  returned  to  Cuba  and  began  the  practice  of  law. 
When  Lopez  made  his  revolutionary  experiment,  C.  S3’^mpathized  with  the  acts  and  was 


645 


Cervia. 

Cestoid. 


imprisoned:  When  the  revolt  of  1868  began  he  was  the  leader,  and  one  of  his  first  acts 

was  to  liberate  the  slaves  on  his  sugar  estate.  On  the  10th  of  Oct.,  .1868,  he  proclaimed 
the.  independence  of  Cuba  on  the  field  of  Yara,  and  when  the  republic  was  formally 
organized,  April  10,  1869,  he  was  elected  president.  The  attempt  at  revolution  was 
kept  up  at  intervals  until  1878.  On  the  21st  of  Feb.,  in  that  year,  the  rebellion  was  olfi- 
cially  declared  at  an  end. 

CllSPE'DES,  Pablo  de,  1538-1608;  a Spanish  theologian,  linguist,  poet,  painter, 
architect,  and  sculptor;  b.  at  Cordova,  and  educated  at  Alcala  de  Henares,  and  in  art 
at  Rome.  He  was  a bold  and  correct  draughtsman,  a skillful  anatomist,  and  a master 
of  color  and  composition.  His  best  picture  is  “The  Last  Supper,”  at  Cordova.  But 
little  of  his  poetry  has  been  preserved,  the  most  important  being  fragments  of  The  Art 
of  Painting.  C.  held  the  office  of  prebend  of  the  cathedral  of  Cordova. 

CESS,  probably  a corruption  for  assess,  from  the  Ital.  assessare,  to  impose  a tax.  It 
has  long  been  used  in  England  as  synonymous  with  the  more  modern  noun  assessment. 
Camden,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  speaks  of  every  man  being  “cessed  by  the  pole,  man 
by  man,  according  to  the  valuation  of  their  goods  and  lands.”  See  Land-tax. 

CESSIO  BONO'RTTM  (Lat.  cession  or  surrender  of  goods),  a process  which  the  law  of 
Scotland  has  borrowed  from  that  of  Rome,  and  which,  like  many  others,  is  common  to 
it  with  most  of  the  continental  systems.  A C.  B.  may  be  defined  to  be  an  equitable 
relief  from  the  severity  of  the  earlier  laws  of  imprisonment  for  debt,  granted  to  a debtor 
in  consideration  of  a cession  of  his  goods  to  his  creditors.  The  jurisdiction  in  cessios 
formerly  belonged  exclusively  to  the  court  of  session,  but  by  6 and  7 Will.  IV.  c.  56,  it 
was  extended  to  sheriffs.  The  principal  regulations,  with  reference  to  this  process,  at 
present  in  force,  are  the  following:  Any  debtor  in  prison,  or  who  has  been  in  prison,  or 
even  against  whom  a warrant  of  imprisonment  has  been  issued,  may  apply  for  a cessio 
bohorum.  In  his  petition,  he  sets  forth  his  inability  to  pay  his  debts,  and  his  willing- 
ness to  surrender  his  estates,  and  prays  for  interim  protection.  This  petition  must  be 
intimated  in  the  Gazette.  The  bankrupt  then  lodges  with  the  sheriff-clerk  a state  of  his 
affairs,  subscribed  by  himself,  with  all  the  relative  books  and  papers.  On  a day 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  he  is  examined  before  the  sheriff  on  oath ; and  if  his  creditors 
object  to  the  petition,  they  are  heard,  and  a proof,  if  necessary,  allowed  them.  What- 
ever order  the  sheriff  may  pronounce  is  subject  to  review  by  the  court  of  session,  or  a 
lord  ordinary  in  vacation.  Cessios  originating  in  the  court  of  session  are  sued  out  in  the 
form  of  a summons,  by  which  all  the  creditors  are  called  as  defenders  to  the  action. 
Any  one  or  more  of  them  may  appear;  and  the  pursuer  will  not  be  allowed  the  benefit 
of  the  process,  till  he  has  satisfied  the  court  that  his  insolvency  has  arisen  from  misfor- 
tune, and  that  his  disclosure  of  the  state  of  his  affairs  is  full  and  honest  The  burden  of 
proving  objections  to  his  statements,  and  to  the  evidence  which  he  may  produce,  will  be 
laid  on  the  creditors.  If  the  debtor  can  find  caution  (q.v.)  to  attend  all  diets  when  called 
on,  the  sheriff  or  the  court  of  session  may  grant  him  liberation  or  protection  whilst  the 
process  is  pending.  A decree  of  C.  B.  operates  as  an  assignation  of  the  debtor’s  mova- 
ble estate  in  favor  of  a trustee  for  behoof  of  the  creditors.  These  trustees,  like  those  in 
sequestrations,  are  now  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  accountant  in  bankruptcy. 
A C.  B.  differs  from  a sequestration  (q.v.)  in  this,  that  it  confers  no  power  on  the  bank- 
rupt to  insist  on  his  discharge,  and  affords  no  protection  against  the  attachment  of  his 
subsequent  acquisitions  by  his  creditors.  The  debtor  has  the  privilege  of  retaining  his 
working  tools;  but  nothing  beyond  what  is  necessary  for  mere  aliment  will  be  allowed, 
■even  to  half-pay  officers  and  clergymen. 

CESTITJS,  Pyramid  of,  a Roman  monument  of  the  Augustan  age,  situated  close  to 
the  Porto  San  Paolo,  partly  without  and  partly  within  the  walls  of  Aurelian.  It  is 
known  to  every  English  traveler,  being  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  cemetery  where 
Protestants  dying  in  Rome  are  buried.  The  exterior  form  is  perfectly  preserved ; but 
of  the  paintings  which  formerly  decorated  the  internal  walls,  only  a few  traces  remain. 
Several  copies  of  these  paintings  have  been  made,  of  which  we  may  mention  those  edited 
by  Falconieri,  1661.  The  pyramid  is  125  ft.  high,  100  ft.  in  width  at  the  base;  the  walls 
25  ft.  thick.  It  is  built  of  brick  and  tufa,  faced  with  slabs  of  Carrara  marble,  now  per- 
fectly black  with  age,  and  rests  on  a base  of  travertine  3 ft.  high.  The  interior  contains 
burial  chambers  of  considerable  extent.  The  inner  walls  are  covered  with  hard  stucco, 
and  the  roof  is  vaulted.  Both  the  walls  and  the  roof  were  covered  with  paintings  of 
fernale  figures.  The  memory  of  the  Caius  Cestius  for  whom  this  pyramid  was  built  has 
perished,  but  it  has  been  supposed  that  he  was  the  Cestius  whom  Cicero — in  the  orar 
tion  pro  Flacco — mentions  as  a rich  man  of  business,  who,  having  no  children,  left  a 
large  sum  of  money  for  the  erection  of  a monument  to  himself.  Two  fluted  columns  of 
white  marble,  now  standing  before  the  pyramid  of  C.,  with  their  bases  and  two  other 
bases,  were  discovered  in  the  excavations  of  1663,  at  the  foot  of  the  pyramid.  In  the 
cemetery,  the  remains  of  several  celebrated  men  have  their  resting-place,  among  whom 
are  the  poets  Keats  and  Shelley,  Wyatt  the  sculptor,  and  Bell  the  anatomist. 

CESTOID  WORMS  (Lat.  cestus,  a band  or  throng),  a family  of  entozoa,  or  intestinal 
worms,  of  the  order  Codelmintha  (q.v,),  consisting  of  tape-worms  and  other  creatures 
which  resemble  them  in  structure  and  habits.  Tlk*  number  of  different  kinds  of  C.  W. 


Cestracion. 

Cestus. 


646 


is  great.  Their  natural  history  is  important  in  reference  to  the  health  of  human  beingff 
and  of  the  most  valuable  domesticated  animals;  and  although  the  subject  is  not  in  all 
respects  an  agreeable  one,  it  presents  much  that  is  interesting  and  wonderful.  Recent 
discoveries  have  given  it  an  entirely  new  character. 

C.  W.,  in  their  most  perfect  state,  when  alone  they  possess  the  form  from  which 
their  name  is  derived,  are  in  reality  compound  animals,  like  many  zoophytes  and  asci- 
dians.  They  do  not,  however,  like  these,  subsist  by  food  entering  the  system  through 
mouths  with  which  the  individuals  composing  it  are  furnished;  for  the  joints  of  a cestoid 
worm,  the  individuals  composing  the  system  or  “colony,”  have  no  mouth;  nor  is  there 
any  mouth  in  what  is,  on  various  accounts,  quite  properly  regarded  as  the  head,  but 
nutriment  is  obtained  froni  the  surrounding  medium  hy  endosmose  nourishing 

juices  entering  everywhere  through  the  skin,  as  in  the  spongioles  of  the  roots  of  plants, 
into  the  cellular  tissue  or  parencliyma  of  which  the  whole  body  consists.  The  head  of 
a cestoid  worm  is  furnished  with  organs — different  in  different  kinds — by  which  it 
affixes  itself  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  intestine  of  a vertebrate  animal.  When  first  it 
gets  into  this  situation,  the  body  is  very  short,  and  has  no  joints;  but  they  soon  begin 
to  appear  as  transverse  striae,  and  gradually  increasing  in  size,  become  in  most  of  the 
kinds  very  distinct,  and  at  last  separate  from  the  system  in  which  they  were  produced, 
and  are  carried  away  out  of  the  intestines  of  the  animal  which  contained  them.  This 
does  not  take  place,  however,  till  they  have  not  only  become  mature  in  the  development 
of  the  sexual  organs — the  principal  organs  to  be  observed  in  them — but  until  they  are 
full  of  what  are  called  eggs,  which,  indeed,  are  rather  young  ones  ready  for  a separate 
existence,  and  each  enveloped  in  a sort  of  protective  shell.  Each  joint  of  a cestoid  worm 
is  androgjmous.  Whilst  the  most  matured  joints  are  thrown  off  from  the  posterior  end,* 
new  joints  are  continually  formed,  as  at  first,  in  the  part  nearest  to  the  head.  The 
number  of  joints  thus  formed  from  a single  individual  is  very  great,  as  will  appear 
when  it  is  considered  that  tape  worms  have  been  found  20  feet  long  or  upwards,  and 
that  these  have  probably  been  throwing  off  joints  in  large  numbers  before  opportunity 
has  been  obtained  of  measuring  them. 

As  the  C.  W.  have  no  mouth,  so  they  have  no  alimentary  canal.  Some  of  them,  as 
the  true  tape-worms,  have  been  supposed  to  imbibe  nourishment  by  the  sucking  disks  of 
the  head ; but  these  are  more  probably  mere  organs  of  attachment,  and  the  canals  which 
are  seen  to  arise  behind  them,  apparently  belong,  not  to  the  digestive,  but  to  the  vascular 
system,  and  are  united  by  transverse  vessels  or  vascular  rings  in  the  head  and  in  each 
of  the  segments.  The  only  trace  of  a nervous  system  hitherto  observed  is  a single  gan- 
glion in  the  head,  which  in  some  is  seen  to  send  off  nerves  to  the  suckers. 

The  division  into  segments  remains  imperfect  in  some  cestoid  worms.  Those  of  the 
genus  ligula — chiefly  found  in  birds  and  fishes — resemble  a long  flat  ribbon,  not  even 
notched  along  the  edge,  and  containing  a mere  series  of  hermaphrodite  brood-places. 
When  segmentation  is  perfect,  the  segments  {proglottides),  on  separating  from  the  parent 
system  {strobila),  possess  life  and  a little  power  of  independent  motion,  creeping  away 
on  moist  ground,  plants,  etc.  Their  period  of  separate  existence,  however,  is  brief ; they 
burst  or  decay,  and  the  numerous  minute  embryos  which  they  conti^in  are  ready  to 
commence  their  career,  if  in  any  w^ay  transferred  into  the  stomach  of  an  animal  of 
proper  kind,  which  is  generally  different  from  that  whose  intestine  their  parent  inhabited. 
This  may  happen  by  their  being  swallowed — or  even  the  proglottis  itself — along  with 
water,  grass,  etc.  Some  of  the  C.  W.  in  this  embryo  state  find  their  appropriate  place 
in  the  stomachs  of  vertebrate,  and  others  in  those  of  invertebrate  animals. 

The  shell  being  broken  or  digested,  the  young  cestoid  worm  is  set  free.  It  is 
extremely  unlike  the  proglottis  by  which  it  was  generated.  It  presents  the  appearance  of 
a vesicle  furnished  with  a few  microscopic  hooks.  It  possesses,  however,  a power  of 
active  migration  by  means  of  these  hooks,  and  is  able  to  perforate  the  stomach  of  the 
animal  which  contains  it.  To  this  its  instinct  seems  immediately  to  prompt  it,  and  it  is 
so  minute  that  it  passes  through  the  stomach  without  any  serious  inconvenience  to  the 
animal.  It  now  probably  gets  into  the  blood,  and  is  lodged  in  some  of  the  capillaries, 
from  which  it  makes  its  way  again  by  perforation,  until  it  finds  a suitable  place  in 
some  of  the  tissues  or  of  the  serous  cavities,  in  the  flesh,  or  in  such  organs  as  the  liver 
or  the  brain ; and  here  relinquishing  all  active  migration,  it  rapidly  increases  in  size,  at 
the  same  time  developing  a head,  which  is  in  fact  that  of  a cestoid  worm,  and  generally 
either  encysts  itself  or  is  encysted — inclosed  in  a cyst  (q.v.) — according  to  circumstances, 
or  according  to  its  species.  Great  numbers  of  such  parasites  are  sometimes  present  in  a 
single  animal,  causing  disease  and  even  death.  Until  recently,  they  were  regarded  by 
naturalists  as  constituting  species  and  genera  quite  distinct  from  the  C.  W’..  of  which 
they  are  really  the  young;  and  the  name  scolex,  formerly  given  to  one  of  these  supposed 
genera,  has  now  become  a common  name  for  the  young  of  all  C.  W.  in  this  stage,  as 
larva  is  the  common  name  for  the  young  of  insects  in  their  first  stage  after  being  hatched 
from  the  egg.  Those  scolices  which  inhabit  vertebrate  animals  very  generally  become 
distended  with  a watery  fluid,  and  in  this  state  were  formerly  regarded  as  liydatids 
(q.v.);  little  else,  indeed,  appearing  without  very  careful  examination,  but  a small  bag 
filled  with  fluid,  the  scolex  liead  being  formed  within  the  bag,  although  capable  of  being 
everted  from  it,  as  the  finger  of  a glove  which  has  been  drawn  in  at  the  end  is  turned 
out.  Such  is  the  young  of  the  common  tape-worm  {toenia  solium),  formerly  known  to 


647 


Cestracion. 

Cestus. 


naturalists  as  cysticercus  celluhsm,  and  found  in  the  flesh  of  the  pig  and  of  some  other 
animals,  and  sometimes  of  man.  It  is  this  scolex,  existing  in  great  numbers,  which 
produces  in  the  pig  the  diseased  state  commonly  known  as  measly;  and  it  is  very  unsafe 
€ven  to  handle  measly  pork  in  a raw  state,  because  a scolex  accidentally  getting  into  the 
mouth,  and  thence  into  the  stomach,  is  likely  to  become  a formidable  inmate  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal.  It  does  not  appear  that  this  particular  species  has  the  power  of  multi- 
plying in  its  scolex  state,  or  the  circumstances  in  which  it  exists  in  the  flesh  of  the  pig 
may  be  unfavorable  to  its  so 'doing,  and  the  prodigious  numbers  sometimes  existing  in  a 
single  animal  have  probably  all  entered  by  the  mouth  in  the  way  already  described,  the 
contents  of  a single  proglottis  or  joint  of  a tape-worm  being  perhaps  sufflcient  to  account 
for  them;  but  some  scolices,  as  that  called  coenurus  cerehralis,  found  in  the  brain  of 
sheep,  and  the  cause  of  the  disease  called  staggers — now  known  to  be  the  scolex  of  a 
tmnia  of  the  dog — are  proliferous  by  a sort  of  pullulation,  so  that  clusters  of  scolices 
■cover  the  same  parental  vesicle.  Until,  however,  the  scolex  reaches  the  intestine  of  an 
animal  suited  to  it,  its  propagation  is  entirely  unsexual,  and  no  organs  of  sex  exist;  but 
no  sooner  is  it  there,  than  it  begins  to  develop  itself  into  a cestoid  worm,  and  to  produce 
androgynous  joints,  fertile  of  new  embryos,  as  already  described.  Thus  we  have  in 
these  creatures  an  instance,  in  its  relations  the  most  important  known,  of  the  recently 
discovered  alternation  of  generations.  See  Generations,  Alternation  op.  The 
transference  of  the  scolex  from  its  place  of  growth  to  that  in  which  it  becomes  a cestoid 
worm,  usually  if  not  always  takes  place  by  the  animal  which  contains  it  being  eaten  by 
that  whose  intestine  is  suitable  to  its  perfect  development.  Each  kind  of  cestoid  worm 
is  limited  to  certain  kinds  of  vertebrate  animals,  and  it  has  been  proved  by  experiment 
that  if  introduced  into  the  stomach  of  other  kinds,  the  scolices  soon  die.  The  only  C. 
W.  which  infest  the  human  species  are  bothriocephalus  (q.v.)  lutus,  and  tape- worms  (q.v.). 
See  Von  Siebold’s  interesting  work  on  tape  and  cystic  worms,  printed  for  the  Sydenham 
society  (London,  1857). 

CESTRA'CION,  a genus  of  sharks,  regarded  as  constituting  a distinct  family,  cestraci- 
<ontidcB,  although  not  more  than  two  species  are  known  as  now  existing.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  having  two  dorsal  fins  and  one  anal,  the  first  dorsal  situated  over  the  space 
between  the  pectorals  and  ventrals;  a spine  forming  the  front  of  each  dorsal;  a short, 
wide  tail,  with  its  upper  lobe  strongly  notched  beneath;  the  mouth  at  the  fore-end  of 
the  snout;  spout-holes  distinctly  visible,  rather  behind  the  eyes;  eyes  destitute  of  nicti- 
tating membrane;  small  gill-openings;  and  the  front  of  the  mouth  armed  with  sharp 
angular  teeth,  whilst  the  margins  and  inner  surface  of  the  jaws  are  covered  with  pave- 
ment-like teeth,  presenting  a general  continuity  of  surface,  as  in  skates,  and  disposed  in 
rounded  oblique  scrolls — the  former  evidently  adapted  to  the  seizing  of  food,  the  latter 
to  the  crushing  and  bruising  of  it.  The  Port  Jackson  shark  or  “nurse  ” {0.  Philippi)  of 
the  Australian  seas,  and  the  cat  shark  of  Japan  and  China  {C.  zebra),  seems  to  differ 
chiefly  in  the  patterns  of  color.  The  cestraciontidce  are  particularly  interesting  to  geolo- 
gists; for  the  ol|jlest  fossil  sharks  belong  in  great  part  to  this  family,  of  which  “remains 
are  found  even  in  the  paleozoic  strata;  they  become  more  numerous  in  the  carbonifer- 
ous series;  they  are  very  numerous  in  the  lias  and  chalk  formations;  but  there  they  cease 
almost  entirely,  the  strata  of  the  tertiary  series  scarcely  containing  any  of  them ;”  whilst 
now  the  species  are  reduced,  as  we  have  seen,  to  one  or  two,  and  other  types  of  shark 
have  become  more  prevalent. 

CESTRUM,  the  style  or  spatula  used  by  the  ancients  in  encaustic  painting  in  wax  and 
ivory.  See  Encaustic. 

CESTUI  QUE  TRUST,  a person  who  possesses  the  equitable  right  to  deal  with  prop- 
erty, the  legal  estate  in  which  is  vested  in  a trustee.  There  is  such  a confidence  between 
the  cestui  que  trust  and  his  trustee,  that  no  action  at  law  will  lie  between  them,  but 
they  must  settle  their  differences  and  arrange  their  disputes  in  a court  of  equity.  “The 
phrase  cestui  que  trust  is  a barbarous  Norman  law  French  phrase,  and  is  so  ungainly 
and  ill  adapted  to  the  English  idiom,  that  it  is  surprising  that  the  good  sense  of  the 
English  legal  profession  has  not  long  banished  it,  and  substituted  some  phrase  in  the 
English  idiom,  furnishing  an  analogous  meaning.” — Wharton’s  Laio  Lexicon. 

CESTUI  QUE  VIE,  a person  whose  life  is  the  measure  of  the  duration  of  an  estate. 
If  A.  grants  to  B.  an  estate  to  be  B.’s  own  so  long  as  another  person  named  C.  lives, 
then  C.  is  the  cestui  que  vie. 

CESTUS  (Gr.  kestos,  embroidered),  a girdle  worn  by  Greek  and  Roman  women  close 
under  the  breasts,  and  so  distinguished  from  the  zone,  worn  round  the  loins.  The  C.  of 
Venus  was  covered  with  alluring  representations,  so  that  Juno  borrowed  it  when  she 
"desired  to  win  the  love  of  Jupiter. — Cestus — or,  more  correctly,  CiESTUs,  from  the  Lat. 
ccsdere,  to  slay — is  also  the  name  of  the  covering  for  the  hands  worn  by  Roman  pugilists. 
It  was  at  first  nothing  more  than  a leathern  thong  or  bandage  to  strengthen  the  fist;  but 
afterwards  it  was  covered  with  knots  and  nails,  and  loaded  with  lead  and  iron,  etc.,  to 
increase  the  force  of  the  blow.  It  was  not  uncommon  for  a pugilist  armed  with  the  C. 
to  dash  out  the  brains  or  break  the  limbs  of  his  antagonist.  The  Roman  pugilist 
icoestuarius)  was  often  represented  in  sculpture. 


Cetacea. 

Cevennes. 


648 


CETA'CEA  (Gr,  Icetos,  a whale),  an  order  of  mammalia  (q.v.)  greatly  ditfering  in  gen- 
eral form  and  habits  from  the  rest  of  that  class,  so  as  indeed  to  be  popularly  reckoned 
among  fishes.  The  C.  have  a fish-like  form,  terminating  in  a fish-like  tail  or  tail-fin, 
which,  however,  is  not  vertical,  as  in  fishes,  but  horizontal,  and  is  the  great  instrument 
of  progression;  being  moved  by  very  powerful  muscles,  commonly  with  an  oblique 
downward  and  lateral  movement,  like  that  by  which  a boat  is  propelled  in  sculling,  but 
sometimes  by  direct  upward  and  downward  strokes,  when  greater  velocity  is  requisite. 
There  are  no  hinder  limbs,  and  even  the  pelvis  is  represented  only  by  two  small  rudi- 
mentary bones,  suspended  in  the  soft  parts,  so  that  the  body  tapers  gradually  and  unin- 
terruptedly towards  the  tail.  The  fore-limbs  are  exclusively,  or  almost  exclusively, 
adapted  for  swimming;  their  bones,  however,  appearing  in  the  skeleton  as  those  of  a 
hand,  placed  at  the  extremity  of  an  arm,  of  which  the  bones  are  much  abbreviated  and 
consolidated,  with  little  power  of  motion  except  at  the  shoulder-joint,  and  are  entirely 
concealed  in  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal.  The  head  is  connected  with  the  body  with- 
out any  apparent  neck,  and  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  are  partly  ankylosed  or  soldered 
together.  The  skin  is  naked,  having  no  general  covering  of  hair,  although  some  of  the 
species  possess  conspicuous  whiskers.  The  C.  agree  with  quadrupeds,  notwithstanding 
the  great  differences  already  indicated,  in  the  most  important  parts  of  their  organiza- 
tion. They  are  viviparous,  and  suckle  their  young,  for  which  they  exhibit  great  affec- 
tion; they  are  also  warm-blooded,  breathe  by  lungs,  and  not  by  gills,  and  come  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  inhaling  air.  An  approach  to  their  fish-like 
form  is  to  be  seen  in  seals  (q.v.)  and  other  phocidm  (q.v.);  in  which,  however,  the  hinder 
limbs  are  largely,  although  peculiarly  developed,  whilst  the  fish-like  tail-fin  is  wanting; 
the  skin  has  a covering  of  hair;  and  the  head  and  fore-limbs  more  resemble  those  of 
ordinary  quadrupeds. 

The  C.  are  usually  divided  into  two  sections— the  herbivorous  and  the  ordinary  C.  ; 
but  the  former,  constituting  the  family  of  manatidm  (q.v.),  have  recently,  by  some 
systematic  naturalists,  been  rejected  from  this  order  altogether,  and  associated  with  the 
pachydermata.  They  differ  very  widely  from  the  ordinary  or  true  C.,  not  only  in  their 
adaptation  for  the  use  of  vegetable  instead  of  animal  food,  which  appears  both  in  their 
dentition  and  in  their  digestive  apparatus,  but  also  in  their  pectoral  instead  of  abdomi- 
nal teats,  and  in  their  want  of  blow-holes  and  of  any  provision  for  retiring  to  great 
depths  of  the  ocean,  and  remaining  there  for  a considerable  time,  without  returning  to 
the  surface  to  breathe. 

The  ordinary  or  true  C.  are  divided  into  the  families  of  delphinidoe  (dolphin,  por- 
poise, beluga,  bottlenose,  narwhal,  etc.),  physeteridce  or  catodontidoe  (cacholot,  or  sperma^- 
ceti,  whale,  etc.),  and  baloenidce  (Greenland  whale,  rorqual,  etc.),  the  distinguishing 
characters  of  which  are  given  under  separate  heads.  They  all  feed  on  animal  food, 
some  of  them  pursuing  and  devouring  fishes;  others,  and  these  the  largest,  subsisting 
chiefly  on  smaller  prey,  mollusks,  small  crustaceans,  and  even  zoophytes,  which  they 
strain  out  of  the  water  by  a peculiar  apparatus  in  their  mouths.  None  of  the  true  C. 
have  molar  teeth  or  grinders  like  the  manatidm;  all  the  teeth  which  any  of  them  have 
are  conical ; but  some  of  the  largest  are  entirely  destitute  of  teeth.  # The  females  of 
all  of  them  have  the  teats  situated  far  back  on  the  abdomen.  The  fore-limbs  of  the 
true  C.  are  mere  fins,  the  slight  power  of  grasping  with  them,  which  the  manatidm  pos- 
sess, having  entirely  disappeared.  The  resemblance  to  fishes  is  increased  in  many  of  them 
by  the  presence  of  a dorsal  fin.  There  is  a wonderful  provision  to  enable  them  to  spend 
some  time  under  water,  before  returning  again  to  the  surface  to  breathe — an  arterial 
plexus  or  prodigious  intertwining  of  branches  of  arteries,  under  the  pleura  and  between 
the  ribs,  on  each  side  of  the  spine.  This  being  filled  with  oxygenated  blood,  after 
the  animal  has  spent  some  time  at  the  surface  breathing,  the  wants  of  the  system  are 
supplied  from  it,  whilst  breathing  is  suspended,  so  that  some  whales  can  remain  below 
even  for  an  hour.  The  position  of  the  nostrils  is  remarkable,  almost  on  the  very  top 
of  the  head,  so  that  the  animal  can  breathe  as  soon  as  the  head  comes  to  the  surface  of 
the  water;  and  the  nostrils  are  furnished  with  a valve  of  singular  but  very  perfect  con- 
struction, a sort  of  conical  stopper  of  fibrous  substance,  preventing  the  ingress  of  water 
even  under  the  pressure  of  the  greatest  depths.  The  nostrils  appear  to  be  little  used  for 
the  purpose  of  smelling,  the  sense  of  smell  being  one  which  these  animals  either  do  not 
possess  at  all,  or  in  a very  imperfect  degree;  but  they  are  much  used,  not  only  for 
breathing,  but  also  for  spouting,  or  the  ejection  of  water  from  the  mouth,  for  which 
reason  they  are  generally  called  blow-holes — the  water  being  forced  through  them  by  the 
compression  of  two  large  pouches  or  reservoirs  which  are  situated  beneath  them.  This 
compression  is  accomplished  by  an  action  similar  to  that  of  swallowing;  the  throat, 
however,  not  being  open,  but  closed.  The  height  to  which  the  water  is  thrown  into  th« 
air  is  extraordinary,  and  the  spouting  of  the  whale  is  one  of  those  wonders  of  the  ocean 
never  to  be  forgotten  by  those  who  have  seen  it. 

A peculiarity  in  the  skin  of  the  true  C.  adapts  them  for  their  manner  of  life.  The 
skin  is  extremely  thick,  the  inner  part  of  it  consisting  of  elastic  fibers  interlacing  each, 
other  in  every  direction,  the  interstices  of  which  are  filled  with  oil,  forming  the  sub- 
stance usually  called  blubber.  The  oil  deposited  in  this  unusual  situation,  not  only 
serves  the  ordinary  purposes  of  fat,  but  that  also  of  keeping  the  body  warm,  which  to  a 
warm-blooded  animal,  continually  surrounded  with  water,  is  of  great  importance; 


649 


Cetaee*. 

Cevennes. 


whilst  the  elasticity  of  this  extraordinary  skin  affords  protection  in  the  great  depths  to 
which  some  of  the  whales  descend,  and  in  which  the  pressure  must  sometimes  amount 
to  a ton  on  every  square  inch. 

The  number  of  known  species  of  C.  is  not  great,  but  their  natural  history  has  as  yet 
been  very  imperfectly  studied.  All  of  them  are  large  animals,  some  of  them  by  far  the 
largest  that  now  exist.  Almost  all  of  them — both  herbivorous  and  ordinary — are 
marine,  but  some  of  the  smaller  species  ascend  large  rivers  to  a great  distance  from  the 
sea;  and  one,  of  the  family  delphinidm,  belongs  exclusively  to  fresh  waters,  being  found 
only  in  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  and  the  elevated  lakes  of  Peru. 

Fossil  cetacea  have  been  hitherto  discovered  only  in  the  tertiary  formation.  Their 
remains  represent  species  not  only  belonging  to  each  of  the  recent  families  of  true  C., 
but  have  supplied  materials  for  forming  a new  family  intermediate  between  the  true 
whales  and  the  herbivorous  cetacea.  These  fossils  were  originally  described  as  reptiles; 
but  they  have  been  satisfactorily  shown  to  be  carnivorous  C.  by  Owen,  who,  from  their 
remarkable  conjugate  teeth,  has  given  the  typical  genus  the  name  of  zeuglodon  (q.v.), 
and  the  family  that  of  zeuglodontidce.  In  all,  six  or  seven  species  have  been  described 
belonging  to  this  family,  from  the  eocene  and  miocene  beds  of  Europe  and  America. 
The  ^Iphinidm  appears  first  in  the  miocene  strata,  and  continue  through  the  newer 
beds.  The  remains  of  a narwhal,  which  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  living 
species,  have  been  found  in  several  places  in  England.  Of  physeteridoe,  three  species 
have  been  noticed  in  pleiocene  and  pleistocene  strata,  belonging  to  the  recent  genus 
physeter.  Fossil  haloenidm  occur  in  the  miocene  and  newer  beds.  Only  four  species 
have  been  described,  if  we  exclude  cetotolites  (q.v.),  a name  given  to  teeth  and  ear- 
bones,  belonging  to  animals  of  this  family,  which  occur  in  great  numbers  in  the  Suffolk 
Crag. 

CETOTOLITES,  a name  given  by  Owen  to  fossil  cetacean  teeth  and  ear-bones,  which 
occur  in  great  abundance  in  the  Red  Crag  of  Suffolk,  a member  of  the  pleiocene  period. 
They  are  rubbed  and  water-worn,  and  have  evidently  been  washed  out  of  some  earlier 
strata,  which  remain  yet  unrecognized.  The  extent  of  these  earlier  strata  must  have 
been  very  great,  seeing  that  the  remains  now  extend  over  a large  district  in  Essex  and 
Suffolk,  and  attain  a thickness,  in  some  places,  of  not  less  than  40  ft.  Prof.  Henslow, 
in  1843,  drew  the  attention  of  agricultural  chemists  to  this  deposit,  as  a source  of 
materials  for  manure,  and  since  then  superphosphate  manures  have  been  manufactured 
from  it  to  the  value  of  many  thousand  pounds  annually ; a striking  example  of  the  valua- 
ble practical  results  which  frequently  flow  from  a purely  scientific  discovery. 

CETBA'BO,  a t.  of  s.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Cosenza,  situated  on  the  Mediterranean, 
24  m.  n.w.  of  Cosenza.  It  has  anchovy  fisheries,  and  a population  of  2,619. 

CETTE,  a seaport  t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  H6rault,  is  built  on  a neck  of 
land  between  the  lagoon  of  Thau  and  the  Mediterranean,  in  lat.  43°  24'  n.,  long.  3°  42' 
east.  The  town^  which  is  entered  by  a causeway  raised  above  the  Thau  lagoon,  and  a 
bridge  of  52  arches,  is  fortified,  and  the  harbor  is  defended  by  a citadel  and  forts.  The 
space  inclosed  by  the  piers  and  breakwater  forming  the  harbor  is  about  30  acres,  and 
has  a depth  of  from  16  to  19  feet.  A broad  deep  canal,  lined  with  excellent  quays,  con- 
nects the  port  with  the  lake  of  Thau,  and  so  with  the  Canal  du  Midi  and  the  Rhone, 
thus  giving  to  C.  an  extensive  inland  traffic ; it  has  likewise  an  active  foreign  commerce. 
The  principal  trade  is  in  wine,  brandy,  salt,  dyestuffs,  perfumery,  and  verdigris.  C. 
has  ship-building  yards,  and  fisheries  of  oysters  and  anchovies.  Pop.  ’76,  28,152. 

CETTIGNE,  or  CETINXS.  See  Montenegro. 

CETUS,  or  The  Whale,  the  largest  of  all  the  constellations.  It  reaches  from  0°  to 
25°  s.  declination,  and  from  0 to  2h.  30m.  right  ascention.  Mira,  a variable  star,  is  the 
most  conspicuous  feature. 

CETJ'TA,  a t.  belonging  to  Spain,  situated  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  on  the  n.  coast  of 
Africa,  and  opposite  to  Gibraltar,  in  lat.  35°  54'  n.,  and^ong.  5°  16'  west.  It  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  defended  by  a citadel  and  forts  erected  on  mount  Hacho,  the  ancient 
Abyla,  or  south  pillar  of  Hercules.  It  is  the  most  important  of  the  four  Spanish  presi- 
dios, or  convict  establishments,  on  this  coast.  The  harbor  is  small  and  not  very  safe; 
and  the  population,  which  amounts  to  8,200,  is  composed  of  Spaniards,  Moors,  Negroes, 
Mulattoes,  and  Jews,  mostly  very  poor,  and  employed  in  trade  and  fisheries.  Many  of 
the  Spaniards  living  here  are  state-prisoners,  and  even  the  garrison  is  partly  manned  by 
convicts.  C.,  formerly  called  Septa  or  Septum,  was  taken  from  the  Vandals  in  534  by 
Justinian,  who  fortified  the  place  anew.  In  618,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  western 
Goths;  afterwards  it  was  taken  by  the  Moors,  who  held  it  until  1415,  when  it  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Portuguese.  It  was  annexed,  with  Portugal,  to  the  crown  of  Spain  in 
1580,  and  was  the  only  place  on  the  African  coast  retained  by  Spain  when  Portugal  was 
restored  to  its  independence  in  1640. 

CEVADIL'LA.  See  Sabadilla. 

CEVENNES  (ancient  Gehenna),  the  chief  mountain  range  in  the  s.  of  France.  With 
its  continuations  and  offsets,  it  forms  the  water-shed  between  the  river  systems  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Garonne.  Its  general  direction  is  from  n.e.  to  s.w.,  commencing  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Lyonnais  mountains,  and  extending  under  different 


Ceylanite. 

Ceylon. 


650 


local  names  as  far  as  the  canal  du  Midi,  which  divides  it  from  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  Pyrenees.  The  central  mass  of  the  C.  lies  in  the  departments  Lozere  and  ArdSche, 
Mont  Lozere  reaching  an  elevation  of  4,884  ft.,  and  Mont  Mezen  (the  culminating  point 
of  the  chain)  an  elevation  of  5,794  feet.  The  average  height  is  from  3000  to  4000  feet. 
The  masses  consist  chiefly  of  amphibolic  rocks,  grauwacke,  and  limestone,  covered  with 
tertiary  formations,  which  in  many  places  are  interrupted  by  volcanic  rocks. 

The  C.  has  been  celebrated  as  the  arena  of  religious  warfare.  As  early  as  the  12th 
c.,  the  several  sects  known  by  the  names,  the  “ Poor  of  Lyon,”  i\\e  AlUgenses  (q.v.),  and 
the  Waldenses  (q.v.),  were  known  and  persecuted  in  this  district.  After  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1685,  a series  of  cruel  persecutions  of  the 
Protestants  in  the  C.  began,  especially  in  1697,  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick.  ‘’Dragon- 
nades”  (q.v.)  were  employed  to  enforce  the  doctrines  of  the  monks  sent  as  missionaries 
into  the  heretical  district.  All  persons  suspected  of  Protestantism  met  with  the  most 
harsh  and  cruel  treatment.  Some  of  the  inhabitants  emigrated,  others  fled  into  the 
fastnesses  of  the  mountains.  Driven  to  desperation,  the  persecuted  people  at  length 
rose  to  arms,  and  the  murder  of  the  abbe  du  (Jhaila,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  dragon- 
nades,  gave  the  signal  of  a general  insurrection  in  1702.  The  insurgent  peasants  were 
styled  camisards — possibly  from  camise,  a smock  worn  by  the  peasantry.  Headed  by 
bold  leaders,  the  most  famous  of  whom  were  Cavalier  and  Roland,  they  defeated  the 
troops  sent  against  them  by  Louis  again  and  again,  until  that  king  thought  the  insurrec- 
tion of  suflicient  importance  to  require  the  presence  of  the  distinguished  general,  mar- 
shal Villars;  but  he  was  recalled  before  the  revolt  had  been  put  down,  and  it  was  left  to 
the  duke  of  Berwick  to  extinguish  it  in  blood;  the  contest  terminating  in  an  entire  des- 
olation of  the  province,  and  the  destruction  or  banishment  of  a great  portion  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  embers  of  religious  hatred  still  remained  glimmering  through  the  fol- 
lowing century,  and,  after  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815,  burst  out  into  flames 
in  the  terrible*^  persecution  of  the  Protestants  in  Nimes  (q.v.)  and  other  places  in  the  s. 
of  France.  See  Histoire  des  Troubles  des  Cevennes  by  Court  de  Gebelin  (1760);  Schulz’s 
OescMchte  der  Camisarden  (1790);  Bray’s  Revolt  of  the  Protestants  of  the  G.  (1870). 

CEYLANITE.  See  Spinel. 

CEYLON'  (the  taprohane  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  serendib  of  the  Arabian 
Nights),  a valuable  island  and  British  colony  in  the  Indian  ocean,  to  the  s.e.  of  the 
peninsula  of  Hindustan,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  gulf  of  Manaar  and  Palk’s 
strait.  Recent  observations  have  shown  its  true  place  to  be  between  5°  55'  and  9°  51'  n. 
lat.,  and  79°  42'  and  81°  55'  e.  long.  Extreme  length  from  n.  to  s.,  from  Point  Palmyra 
to  Dondera  Head,  271^  m. ; greatest  width,  from  Colombo  to  Sangemankande,  137^ 
miles.  Area,  including  dependent  islands,  24,454  sq.miles. 

Physical  Features. — In  natural  scenery,  C.  can  vie  with  any  part  of  the  world;  and  as 
it  rises  from  the  ocean,  clothed  with  the  rich  luxuriance  of  a tropical  vegetation,  it 
seems  to  the  voyager  like  some  enchanted  island  of  eastern  story.  Its  hills,  “draped 
with  forests  of  perennial  green,”  tower  grandly  from  height  to  height,  till  they  are  lost 
in  clouds  and  mist.  Near  at  hand,  a sea  of  sapphire  blue  dashes  against  the  battle- 
mented  rocks  that  occur  at  isolated  points,  and  the  yellow  strands  are  shaded  by  groves 
of  noble  palms.  In  shape,  C.  resembles  a pear,  but  its  inhabitants  more  poetically  com- 
pare it  to  one  of  their  elongated  pearls.  Undulating  plains  cover  about  four  parts  of 
the  island,  and  the  fifth  is  occupied  by  the  mountain-zone  of  the  central  s.,  which  has 
an  elevation  of  from  6,000  to  8,000  ft.  above  the  sea-level.  Pedro tallagal  la,  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  range,  attains  the  height  of  8,280  ft. ; the  celebrated  mountain  of  Adam’s 
peak,  7,420  ft. ; and  the  table-land  of  Neuera  Elba,  6,210  feet. 

Geology. — The  mountain  system  is  mainly  composed  of  metamorphic  rocks,  chiefly 
gneiss,  frequently  broken  up  by  intruded  granite.  With  the  exception  of  some  local 
beds  of  dolomitic  limestone,  the  gniess  is  everywhere  the  surface  rock,  and  the  soil  is 
composed  of  its  disintegrated  materials.  No  fossils,  as  was  to  be  expected,  have  been 
noticed  in  C.,  if  we  except  the  semi-fossil  remains  of  mollusca,  Crustacea,  and  corals, 
belonging  to  living  species,  whicn  occur  in  the  rude  breccias  of  the  n.  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  island  is  rising,  and  there  also  the  land  is 
making  encroachments  on  the  sea  from  another  agency.  The  immense  masses  of  corals 
continually  increasing,  retain  the  debris  brought  from  the  Indian  continent  by  the  cur- 
rents of  the  sea,  and  thus  form  a flat,  ever-increasing  madrepore  plain. 

Of  metals  and  minerals^  iron,  in  the  form  of  a carbonate,  can  be  obtained  in  great 
quantities,  and  of  such  purity  as  to  resemble  silver.  Tin  is  found  in  the  alluvium  at 
the  base  of  the  mountains,  and  on  the  heights  the  rare  metal  tellurium  has  been  discov- 
ered. Nickel  and  cobalt  are  scarce.  Anthracite  and  rich  veins  of  plumbago  exist  on 
the  southern  range  of  hills.  The  gems  of  C.  have  been  celebrated  from  time  imme- 
morial, and  they  are  most  plentiful  in  the  alluvial  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  of  Saf- 
fragam.  Sapphires,  rubies,  the  oriental  topaz,  garnets,  amethysts,  cinnamon  stone,  and 
cat’s-eye,  are  the  principal  gems  and  precious  stones  of  the  island.  The  most  valuable 
is  the  sapphire;  and  one  of  these,  found  in  the  year  1853,  was  worth  more  than  £4,000. 
The  value  of  the  precious  stones  annually  found  in  the  island  is  estimated  at  £10,000 
The  pearl  fisheries  of  C.  have  long  been  famous,  and  since  the  beginning  of  the  century 
are  conducted  directly  for  behoof  of  the  government.  But  sometimes  fishing  operations 


651 


CeylanitO* 

Ceylon. 


have  to  be  suspended  for  a considerable  period ; thus  there  was  no  fishery  from  1863, 
when  tne  value  obtained  was  £46,000,  till  1874,  when  pearls  worth  £9,500,  were  secured. 

Ri'tt&i's. — The  most  important  river  in  C.  is  the  Mahawelli-ganga.  It  has  its  source 
in  the  vicinity  of  Adam’s  peak,  and  after  draining  more  than  4,000  sq.m.,  it  separates 
into  several  branches,  and  enters  the  ocean  near  Trincomalee.  The  s.  side  of  the  island 
is  watered  by  10  rivers  of  considerable  size,  which  flow  into  the  sea  between  Point  de 
Galle  and  Manaar.  On  the  e.  coast,  the  rivers  are  smaller,  but  still  more  numerous,  and 
many  others  traverse  the  northern  and  eastern  provinces. 

Harbors. — Point  de  Galle  (q.v.)  and  Trincomalee  (q.v.)  are  the  two  harbors  of  Ceylon. 
The  former  is  small  and  dangerous,  but  the  latter  is  unsurpassed  as  a safe  and  com- 
modious port.  The  variation  of  the  tides  is  very  trifling;  the  rise  and  fall  not  generally 
exceeding  18  to  24  in.,  with  a third  of  increase  at  spring-tides. 

In  climate,  C.  has  a great  advantage  over  the  mainland  of  India,  and  as  an  island, 
enjoys  a more  equable  temperature.  The  average  for  the  year  in  Colombo  (q.v.)  is  80“ 
in  ordinary  seasons.  April  is  the  hottest  month;  and  in  May  the  s.w.  monsoon  com- 
mences amid  a deluge  of  rain,  and  continues  the  prevailing  wind  till  Oct.,  when  the  n.a 
monsoon  sets  in:  80  in.  is  the  average  annual  fall  of  rain,  though  in  an  exceptional  year, 
120  in.  have  been  registered.  The  beautiful  table-land  of  Neuera  Ellia  was  first  visited  by 
Europeans  in  1826,  and  is  now  used  as  a sanatorium.  Here  the  thermometer  in  the 
shade  never  rises  above  70°,  while  the  average  is  62° ; the  nights  are  cool  and  refreshing. 
The  n.  of  the  island,  including  the  peninsula  of  Jaffna,  the  plains  of  Neuera  Kalawa, 
and  the  Wanny,  may  be  reckoned  as  a third  climatic  division.  Here  the  annual  fall  of 
rain  does  not  exceed  30  in.,  and  irrigation  is  largely  employed  in  agriculture. 

Flora. — The  general  botanical  features  of  C.,  especially  of  the  lowlands,  are  nearly 
identical  with  those  of  southern  India  and  the  Deccan,  although  it  possesses  a few 
genera  of  plants  not  to  be  found  in  those  regions.  Its  phaenogamic  plants  are  limited  to 
about  3,000.  The  beautiful  ixoras,  erythrinas,  buteas,  Jonesias,  and  other  flowering 
shrubs  bloom  in  the  forests.  At  an  elevation  of  6,500  ft.,  the  acanthaceoB  cover  large 
tracts  of  ground,  and  the  tree-fern  reaches  the  height  of  20  feet.  On  the  highest  ground, 
rhododendron  attain  the  size  of  timber-trees.  The  coral-tree  {eurythrina  Indica),  the 
murutu  {lagerstrcBmia  regince),  and  the  Jonesia  asoca  are  amongst  the  most  magnificent  of 
the  flowering  trees.  The  fig  tribe  are  planted  in  the  vicinity  of  the  temples.  In  the 
forests,  climbing-plants  and  epiphytes  of  prodigious  size  and  striking  appearance  cover 
the  trees  with  a mass  of  parasitical  foliage  of  extraordinary  growth.  The  palmaceae 
are  very  conspicuous  in  the  vegetation  of  C.,  although  not  more  than  10  or  12  species 
are  indigenous : the  cocoa-palm — of  which  it  is  estimated  there  are  not  less  than  20 
millions  of  trees — the  taliput,  the  palmyra — which  forms  extensive  forests  in  the  n.  of 
the  island — and  the  jaggary  palmare  the  most  noteworthy.  Of  timber-trees,  416  varieties 
are  known,  and  amongst  these  the  satin-wood  holds  the  first  rank.  The  flora  of  the 
highlands,  above  2,000  ft.,  and  up  to  6,000  or  7,000,  though  much  resembling  that  of  the 
Neilgherries,  has  a marked  affinity  to  the  vegetation  of  the  highlands  of  Malacca  and 
Java,  especially  the  latter. 

Fauna. — A knowledge  of  the  fauna  of  C.  has  been  greatly  advanced  by  the  labors  of 
Drs.  Templeton  and  Kelaart  and  Mr.  Edgar  Layard.  Quadrumanous  animals  are  repre- 
sented by  the  loris  gracilis,  and  five  species  of  monkeys.  Sixteen  species  of  the  cheirop- 
tera or  bat  tribe,  exist  in  C.,  and  what  is  very  remarkable,  many  of  these  rival  the  birds 
in  the  brilliancy  of  their  colors.  The  pteropus  Edwardsii  (the  flying-fox  of  Europeans) 
measures  from  4 to  5 ft.  from  tip  to  tip  of  its  extended  wings.  Of  the  larger  carnivora, 
the  bear  and  the  leopard,  and  of  the  smaller,  the  palm-cat  and  the  glossy  genette  (the 
civet  of  Europeans)  may  be  mentioned.  The  dreaded  tiger  of  India,  the  cheeta,  the 
wolf,  and  the  hyena  are  happily  not  met  with  in  Ceylon.  Deer,  buffaloes,  and  the 
humped  ox  of  India  are  amongst  the  ruminantia;  the  little  musk-deer  {moschus  meminna) 
is  less  than  2 ft.  in  length.  The  pachydermata  are  represented  by  the  elephant  and  the 
wild  boar;  the  former,  wffiich  is  for  the  most  part  tuskless,  is  emphatically -lord  of  the 
forests  of  Ceylon.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  cetacea  is  the  dugong.  Whales  are 
captured  off  the  coast;  320  species  of  birds  have  been  ascertained  by  Drs.  Templeton 
and  Kelaart  and  Mr.  Layard.  The  song  of  the  robin  and  long-tailed  thrush,  and  the 
flute-like  voice  of  the  oriole,  are  heard  over  the  whole  mountain  zone,  and  far  down  into 
'the  neighboring  plains.  Eagles,  the  beautiful  peregrine  falcon,  owls,  swallows,  king- 
fishers, sun-birds,  bulbuls,  crows,  paroquets,  pigeons,  pea-fowl,  jungle-fowl,  and  many 
others  of  the  feathered  tribe  might  be  mentioned  did  space  permit.  Myriads  of  aquatic 
birds  and  waders,  amongst  which  the  flamingo  is  conspicuous,  cover  the  lakes  and 
lagoons.  The  crocodile  is  the  largest  reptile  in  the  island;  tortoises  and  lizards  are  also 
found.  There  are  a few  species  of  venomous  snakes,  and  of  these  the  ticpolonga  and 
the  cobra  da  capello  are  the  most  deadly. 

Inhabitants. — The  Singhalese,  the  most  numerous  of  the  natives  of  C.,  are  the 
descendants  of  those  colonists  from  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  who  first  settled  on  the 
island  543  b.c.  In  their  customs,  costume,  and  general  appearance,  they  have  remained 
unchanged  since  the  days  of  Ptolem3^  The  dress  of  the  men,  who  have  delicate 
features  and  slender  limbs,  is  singularly  effeminate,  and  consists  of  a comboy  or  waist- 
cloth,  very  much  resembling  a petticoat;  their  long  hair,  turned  back  from  the  forehead, 
is  confined  with  combs,  and  ear-rings  are  worn  by  way  of  ornament.  The  women. 


Ceylon. 


652 


in  addition  to  the  comboy,  cover  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  with  a White  muslin 
jacket,  and  adorn  themselves  with  necklaces,  bangles,  rings,  and  jewelry.  1 he  Singhalese 
are  false  and  cowardly,  but  manifest  a strong  affection  for  their  relatives,  and  a reverence 
for  old  age.  Polyandry  still  lingers  in  the  interior  of  C.,  and  was  formerly  universal; 
it  is  now,  however,  chiefly  confined  to  the  wealthier  classes,  amongst  whom  one  woman 
has  often  three  or  four  husbands.  The  Kandyans,  or  Highlanders,  are  a more  sturdy  race, 
and  maintained  their  independence  for  three  centuries  after  the  conquest  of  the  low 
country  by  European  settlers.  The  Malabars,  or  Tamils,  have  sprung  from  those  early 
invaders  of  C.,  who  from  time  to  time  swept  across  from  southern  Hindustan,  and  con- 
tended with  the  Singhalese  kings  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  island.  They  have  formed, 
the  chief  population  of  Jaffna  for  full  2,000  years,  and  constitutionally  excel  the  Sin- 
ghalese and  Kandyans.  The  Moormen,  who  are  the  most  energetic  and  intelligent  of  the 
native  communities,  are  met  with  in  every  province  as  enterprising  traders.  They  are 
a very  distinct  race  from  the  Singhalese,  but  have  no  tradition  of  their  origin.  Euro- 
peans generally  believe  them  to  be  of  Arab  descent,  but  Tennent  is  of  opinion  that 
“they  may  be  a remnant  of  the  Persians,  by  whom  the  island  was  frequented  in  the  4th 
and  5th  centuries. 

The  ‘ ‘ burghers”  of  C.  are  a people  of  European  descent,  who  have  become  natural- 
ized. Those  of  Portuguese  extraction  hold  the  low’est  place,  and  are  mostly  tradesmen 
and  artisans;  but  the  Dutch  burghers  frequently  fill  responsible  posts,  and  are  employed 
in  the  government  offices. 

Besides  the  races  already  alluded  to,  there  is  a remarkable  tribe  of  outcasts — theYed- 
dahs — hardly  removed  from  the  wild  animals  of  the  forest,  and  believed  to  be  descended 
from  the  Yakkhos,  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  They  occupy  a district 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  and  have  there  preserved  their  ancient  customs  and 
manner  of  living  unaltered  for  more  than  2,000  years.  They  appear  to  be  without  the 
instinct  of  worship,  and  have  no  knowledge  of  a God.  The  tribe  is  divided  into  the 
Bock  Veddahs  and  the  Village  Veddahs.  The  former  hide  themselves  in  the  jungle,  live 
by  the  chase,  and  sleep  in  trees  or  caves.  They  use  fire  to  cook  their  meat,  and  their 
greatest  gastronomic  treats  are  the  iguana  lizard  and  roasted  monkey.  Their  language 
— if  the  few  words  they  make  use  of  can  be  called  by  that  name — is  a dialect  of  the 
Singhalese.  The  Village  Veddahs  locate  themselves  in  the  vicinity  of  the  European  set- 
tlements, on  the  eastern  coast,  living  in  rude  huts  of  mud  and  bark,  and  are  hardly 
more  civilized  than  their  brethren  of  the  jungles.  The  exertions  of  government  to 
reclaim  this  harmless  but  degraded  people  have  in  some  degree  succeeded,  and  a prom- 
ising colony  has  been  formed. 

Population. — Sir  J.  E.  Tennent  is  of  opinion  that  C.,  when  in  the  height  of  its  pros- 
perity, must  have  been  ten  times  as  densely  peopled  as  at  the  present  day.  In  the 
official  returns  for  the  year  1870,  the  area  and  population  of  the  six  provinces  of  Cey- 
lon are  given  as  follows  (total  pop.  in  1871,  2,405,287): 


Provinces. 

Area  in 
sq.  miles. 

Total 

population. 

Pop.  per 
sq.  mile. 

Western 

3,345 

662,658 

198.11 

North-western 

2,805 

214,699 

76.54 

Southern 

1,927 

353,989 

183.69 

Eastern 

4,545 

96,601 

21.25 

Northern 

6,062 

426,597 

70.36 

Central 

5,770 

371,466 

64.37 

Total 

24,454 

2,126,037 

86.94 

Military 

2,847 

.11 

Total  (including  military) 2,128,884*  87.05 

Religion. — The  Singhalese  are  devoted  to  Buddhism  (q.v.),  which  is  the  prevailing 
religion  of  the  island.  It  does  not  exist,  however,  in  that  state  of  purity  in  which  it  is 
still  found  in  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula.  Its  sacred  books  are  identical  with  those  of 
Burma!)  and  Siam,  and  both  record  the  doctrines  of  Gautama  in  the  Pali  language;  the 
deviations  are  in  matters  of  practice.  The  Malabar  kings  adulterated  Buddliism  lo  a 
considerable  extent  with  Brahmanism,  introducing  the  worship  of  Hindu  deities  into 
the  Buddhist  temples,  and  this  continues  more  or  less  to  be  the  c^se.  More  than  once 
have  the  Buddhists  of  C.  sought  to  restore  the  purity  of  their  faith — at  one  time  send- 
ing deputies  to  Siam,  at  another  to  Burmah,  wdth  this  object  in  view.  The  Burmah  or 
Amarapura  sect  have  long  been  the  reformers  of  Singhalese  Buddhism, and  maintain  no 
very  friendly  relations  with  the  party,  who,  supported  by  the  priests  of  Siam,  acknowl- 
edge the  civil  powder  in  matters  of  religion,  sanction  the  worship  of  Hindu  deities  and 
the  employment  of  the  priesthood  in  secular  occupations,  uphold  caste,  and  restrict  the 
gacred  books.  Caste  was  acknowledged  by  the  Singhalese  prior  to  the  introduction  of 
Buddhism,  which  in  principle  is  opposed  to  it;  but  so  firmly  was  it  rooted,  that  it  still 
endures,  though  more  as  a social  than  a sacred  institution.  Gautama  Buddha  is  said  to 

♦ Including  4,732  British  and  14,201  whites  of  European  descent. 


658 


Ceylon^ 


have  visited  C.  three  different  times  to  preach  his  doctrine,  and  his  SH-pada,  or 
sacred  footstep,  on  the  summit  of  Adam’s  Peak  (q.v.),  still  commands  the  homage  of 
the  faithful.  Buddhism  was  not,  however,  permanently  introduced  into  C.  till  307  b.c,, 
when  Mahindo,  obtaining  the  support  of  the  king,  established  it  as  the  national  faith. 
The  influence  of  the  priests  gradually  increased,  and,  by  the  piety  of  the  Singhalese 
kings,  monasteries  were  richly  endowed;  for  though  the  Buddhist  monk  is  individually 
forWdden  to  possess  goods,  a community  may  own  property  to  any  extent;  and  it  is  a 
remarkable  fact  that,  at  the  present  day,  no  less  than  one  third  of  the  cultivated  land  of 
the  island  is  computed  to  belong  to  the  priesthood,  and  is  exempt  from  taxation.  Tho 
priests  of  C.  are  divided  into  two  orders — the  8amanaros,  and  those  who,  after  a time 
of  probation,  receive  the  higher  grade  of  Upasampada.  The  fraternity  are  not  raised 
by  education  above  their  countrymen,  and  the  respect  paid  them  is  directed  more  to 
the  dress  than  to  the  person  of  the  individual.  Any  member  is  at  liberty  to  lay  aside  his 
ascetic  character,  and  return  to  a secular  life.  The  most  celebrated  Buddhistic  relic  in 
C.  is  the  Dalada,  or  sacred  tooth  of  Gautama,  at  Kandy,  which  is  guarded  with  jealous 
care,  and  preserved  in  an  elegant  shrine;  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  original  relic  was 
destroyed  by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  present  substitute  is  a piece  of  discolored  ivory, 
bearing  no  resemblance  to  a human  tooth.  In  all  Buddhist  countries,  the  sacred 
buildings  present,  with  certain  modiflcations,  the  same  general  character  (see  articles 
Buddhism,  Buhman,  etc.);  and  in  C.  we  And  the  three  classes  represented  by  the 
dagoba,  or  relic-shrine  {datu,  a relic,  and  gabhhan,  a shrine),  the  temple  proper,  and  the 
vihara  or  monastery.  The  labor  bestowed  on  these  ediflces  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Singhalese  monarchy  is  truly  astonishing.  In  the  n.  of  the  island,  ruined  cities — 
buried  for  ages  in  the  depths  of  the  forest — have  been  discovered,  revealing  monuments 
that  in  dimensions  may  almost  compare  with  the  pyramids  of  Egypt.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  vestiges  of  an  early  civilization  is  Pollanarrua,  the  ancient  capital 
of  C. ; and  here  is  the  celebrated  Gal-wihara,  a rock  hewn  temple,  supposed  to  be 
“the  only  example  in  Ceylon  of  an  attempt  to  fashion  an  architectural  design  out  of 
the  rock,  after  the  manner  of  the  cave-temples  of  Ajunta  and  Ellora.”  The  reclin- 
ing flgure  of  Gautama  is  45  ft.  in  length,  the  upright  one  measures  23  ft. , 
and  the  sitting  image  on  the  left  is  16  ft.  from  the  altar  to  the  top  of  the  head.  Tlie 
cave-temple  of  Dambool  was  built  100  b.c.,  and  is  the  most  celebrated  in  the  island. 
The  bell-shaped  tapering  dagobas  of  C.,  as  relic-shrines,  answer  to  the  pagodas  of 
Burmah — which  they  very  much  resemble — and  the  topes  of  Afghanistan.  The  ruins 
of  the  Jaytawanarama  dagoba  still  reach  the  height  of  249  ft. ; its  diameter  is  360  ft. ; 
and  from  base  to  pinnacle  it  is  covered  with  trees  of  the  largest  size.  This  enormous 
structure  contains  20  millions  of  cubical  ft. ; and  sir  J.  E.  Tennent  concludes  that 
to  erect  such  a mass  of  masonry,  even  in  the  present  day,  “would  occupy  500  brick- 
layers from  six  to  seven  years,”  at  the  cost  of  a million  sterling.  The  Ambustella  of 
Mihintala  is  another  remarkable  dagoba.  A very  famous  object  in  connection  with 
Buddhism  in  C.  is  the  sacred  Bo-tree  of  Anarajapoora  ij>eepul,  ficus  religiosa),  which 
was  planted  there  288  years  b.c.,  and  is  by  far  the  oldest  tree  in  the  world  of  which 
an  authentic  history  exists.  See  Bo-tbee.  Amongst  the  antiquities  of  C.  must  be 
mentioned  those  wonderful  monuments  of  the  former  greatness  of  the  Singhalese 
people — the  ruined  tanks;  with  which  almost  nothing  of  a similar  kind,  whether  ancient 
or  modern,  can  be  compared;  30  colossal  reservoirs,  and  about  700  smaller  tanks, 
still  exist,  though  for  the  most  part  in  ruins.  The  restoration  of  these  magniflcent 
works  of  irrigation  has  recently  been  begun.  Brahmanism  or  Hinduism  (q.v.)  i?  the 
faith  of  the  Tamils  or  Malabars,  but  the  Moormen  are  Mohammedans.  After  the  expul- 
sion of  the  Dutch  Christians,  Protestant  missions  to  the  natives  of  C.  were  com- 
menced by  the  Baptists  in  1813.  The  Wesleyan  Methodists  followed  in  1814,  the 
Americans  in  1816,  the  church  of  England  in  1818,  and  Christian  instruction  has 
made  some  progress  amongst  the  native  populations.  Of  these  the  peasantry  of  the 
Kandyan  hills  have  proved  the  least  accessible  to  its  influence.  Schools,  collegiate 
institutions,  and  female  seminaries,  under  the  direction  of  the  missionaries,  are  in  suc- 
cessful operation. 

Government. — The  administration  of  C.  is  vested  in  a governor,  who  is  assisted  by 
an  executive  council  of  flve  members,  and  a legislative  council  of  fifteen  members.  The 
governor’s  salary  is  £7,000  per  annum.  In  1876  the  revenue  was  £1,375,888,  and  the 
expenditure  £1,276,930.  The  chief  items  of  revenue  are  the  customs,  averaging 
£286,000;  licenses,  £150,000;  sales  and  rents  of  put*nc  rands,  £230,000.  The  colony 
made  very  great  progress  under  the  able  admmj'  tracion  of  sir  H.  Ward.  The  civil 
and  judicial  establishments  of  the  colony  cost  nearly  £300,000. 

The  following  are  the  trade  returns  for  the  five  years  1870  to  1874: 


Exports  from  Cey-  Imports  of  British 

Years.  Imports.  Exports.  Ion  to  the  United  Home  Produce 

. Kingdom.  into  Ceylon. 

1870.. £4,634,297  £3,803,730  £3,450,974  £908,415 

1871  4,797,592  3,634,853  3,167,673  928,807 

1872  5,169,524  3,139,060  3,163,153  1,017,753 

1873  5,574,358  5,439,591  4,331,006  1,052,072 

1874  5,691,860  4,687,388  3,600,492  1,158,283 


Ceylon. 

Oliadwick. 


654 


The  value  of  the  staple  coffee  exported  from  Ceylon  to  the  United  Kingdon:  was,  in 
1867,  £2,814,060;  in  1869,  £2,867,724;  in  1871,  £2,623,263;  in  1872,  £2,341,601 ; in  1873, 
£3,692,333;  and  in  1876,  £2,550,688.  In  1876,  cocoa-nut  oil  valued  at  £236,856,  and 
cinnamon  at  £119,700,  were  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom.  To  the  ancient  world,  C. 
was  famous  as  a place  of  traffic,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  Romans,  Persians,  and  Arabians 
traded  to  its  ports;  and  many  particulars,  such  as  geographical  position  and  natural  pro- 
ductions, seem  to  identify  Point  de  Galle  with  the  Tarshish  of  the  Hebrew  historians. 

The  history  of  C.,  of  which  the  limits  of  this  article  will  only  allow  the  briefest  pos- 
sible outline,  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  ancient  and  modern,  and  the  latter  into 
the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  British  periods. 

The  records  of  its  early  history  came  to  light  in  1826,  and  Mr.  Tumour,  devoting 
lumself  to  their  study,  composed  an  Epitome  of  the  History  of  (7.,  from  the  year  543  b.c. 
to  1798  A.D. ; and  he  records  the  reigns  of  165  kings,  who  reigned  during  ibis  space  of 
2,341  years.  The  most  famous  of  the  Singhalese  books  is  the  Mahaioanso,  a metrical 
chronicle,  in  the  Pali  language,  which  gives  an  account  of  the  island  during  the  above 
23  centuries.  The  story  begins  with  the  invasion  of  Wijayo  (543  b.c.),  son  of  a petty 
Indian  sovereign  in  the  country  watered  by  the  Ganges.  He  subdued  the  Yakkhos, 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants;  married  a daughter  of  one  of  the  native  chiefs,  whom  he 
subsequently  repudiated  for  an  Indian  princess;  and  founded  a dynasty  that  held  undi- 
vided sovereignty  in  C.  for  nearly  eight  centuries.  He  bestowed  on  his  kingdom  his 
patrimonial  name  of  Siliala  (whence  Singhalese,  Ceylon),  and  promoted  the  settlement 
of  colonists  from  the  mainland.  In  the  reign  of  king  Devenipiatissa  (307  b.c.).  Bud- 
dhism was  established  as  the  national  religion,  and  his  reign  was  further  remarkable  by 
the  planting  of  the  sacred  bo-tree,  288  b.c.;  and  now  commenced  the  erection  of  those 
stupendous  buildings  already  noticed.  The  next  important  epoch  in  Singhale.se  history  is 
the  usurpation  of  the  Malabars  (237  b.c.),  foreign  mercenaries  from  the  Coromandel 
coast,  to  whom  the  native  sovereigns  had  intrusted  the  defense  of  the  island.  Several 
Malabar  invasions  are  chronicled  in  the  history  of  C.,  and  these  foreigners  long  con- 
tended with  the  native  princes  for  supreme  authority.  Passing  on  to  1071  a.d.,  a native 
dynasty  was  then  re  established  in  the  person  of  Wijayo  Bahu,  which,  for  100  years, 
delivered  the  country  from  the  dominion  of  the  Malabars.  Prakrama  Bahu  commenced 
a reign,  in  1153,  the  most  renowned  in  the  records  of  Ceylon.  He  devoted  himself  to 
religion  and  agriculture,  and  besides  many  notable  religious  edifices,  he  caused  no  less 
tlian  1470  tanks  to  be  constructed,  subsequently  known  as  the  “seas  of  Prakrama.” 
Thirty  years  after  the  death  of  this  monarch,  the  Malabars  landed  with  a large  army, 
and  speedily  conquered  the  whole  island.  In  1235,  a native  dynasty  recovered  a part 
of  the  kingdom.  During  the  reign  of  Dharma  Prakrama  IX.  the  Portuguese  first  visited 
C.,  1505;  but  it  was  in  1517  that  they  first  formed  a permanent  settlement  at  Colombo 
for  trading  purposes.  Their  encroachments  soon  raised  the  patriotic  Kandyans,  and  it 
is  a remarkable  fact,  that  though  at  the  first  visit  of  the  Portuguese  in  1505  they  were 
even  ignorant  of  the  use  of  gunpowder,  they,  after  a while,  excelled  their  enemies  as 
musketeers,  and  were  finally  able  to  bring  20,000  stand  of  arms  to  bear  against  them. 
“ Amity,  commerce,  and  religion,”  was  the  Portuguese  motto;  but  their  rule  in  C.  is  a 
sad  story  of  rapacity,  bigotry,  and  cruelty.  They  were  at  last  driven  from  the  island  by 
the  Dutch  in  1658,  after  a contest  of  20  years,  when,  as  sir  J.  E.  Tennent  remarks,  “ the 
fanatical  zeal  of  the  Roman  Catholic  sovereign  for  the  propagation  of  the  faith,  was 
replaced  by  the  earnest  toil  of  the  Dutch  traders  to  intrench  their  trading  monopolies; 
and  the  almost  chivalrous  energy  with  which  the  soldiers  of  Portugal  resisted  the  attacks 
of  the  native  princes,  was  exchanged  for  the  subdued  humbleness  with  which  the  mer- 
chants of  Holland  endured  the  insults  and  outrages  perpetrated  by  the  tyrants  of  Kandy 
upon  their  envoys  and  officers.  ” But  the  purely  military  tenure  of  the  Dutch  was  des- 
tined to  give  place  to  the  colonization  of  the  British.  It  was  during  the  great  European 
war  succeeding  the  French  revolution,  that  the  English  gained  possession  of  the  island. 
On  the  1st  Aug.  1795,  an  expedition  under  col.  James  Stuart  landed  at  Trincomalee, 
which  was  speedily  captured,  and  finally  the  garrison  of  Colombo  surrendered  on  the  16th 
Feb.  1796.  By  this  capitulation  all  the  Dutch  settlements  and  strongholds  in  C.  were 
ceded  to  the  English;  though  the  island  was  not  formally  annexed  to  the  British  crown 
till  the  peace  of  Amiens,  27th  Mar.  1802.  The  native  sovereigns,  however,  continued  in 
the  possession  of  their  mountain  territory;  but  at  length  the  Kandyan  king,  Wikrama 
Raja  Singha,  after  perpetrating  the  most  frightful  atrocities  on  his  own  people,  seized 
and  murdered  certain  native  merchants,  British  subjects,  trading  to  Kandy.  War  fol- 
lowed, Jan.  1815;  Kandy  was  taken,  and  the  tyrant  sent  a captive  to  the  fortress  of  Vel 
lore.  On  the  2d  Mar.  1815,  a treaty  was  concluded  with  the  native  chiefs,  by  which  the 
king  was  formally  deposed,  and  his  territories  annexed  to  tlip.  British  crown. 

Since  then,  the  island  has  made  rapid  strides  in  material  prosperity.  The  mountain- 
forests  have  been  replaced  by  plantations  of  coffee,  of  which  there  are  now  about  500 
under  cultivation,  of  150,000  acres,  giving  an  average  crop  of  950,000  cwts.  per  annum. 
Many  important  public  works  have  been  completed,  and  others  are  still  in  progress. 
Several  good  roads  have  been  constructed,  including  a magnificent  mountain-road 
between  Colombo  and  Kand}%  and  there  is  a railway  92  m.  in  length.  In  1874,  there 
were  243  government  schools,  with  11.719  pupils;  882  mission  schools,  with  44,449 
pupils;  and  329  private  schools,  with  9,929  pupils. 


655 


Ceylon. 

Chadwick* 


See  Ceylon,  Physical,  Historical,  and  Topographical,  etc.,  by  sir  James  Emerson  Ten - 
nent  (Lond.  1859);  Christianity  in  Ceylon,  by  the  same  author  (Lond.  1850);  The  States- 
man's Year-hook  for  the  current  year;  and  Ceylon,  a General  Description  of  the  Island,  by 
an  officer,  late  of  the  Ceylon  rifles  (1876). 

CEYLON,  ante.  The  Cinghalese,  or  Singhalese  language  is  spoken  in  the  interior 
and  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  It  is  a modification  of  the  aboriginal  Ebu 
by  the  Sanskrit,  with  a tinge  of  Malay.  The  Cinghalese  has  so  far  degenerated  that 
there  is  now  a material  difference  between  the  vernacular  and  the  written  language. 
The  former  is  copious  and  has  a regular  grammar.  There  are  50  letters,  8 vowels,  8 diph- 
thongs, and  34  consonants,  but  all  representing  only  30  sounds,  7 vowels  and  23  conso- 
nants. In  literature  the  language  has  several  original  poems  of  some  merit,  and  an 
extensive  and  interesting  series  of  native  chronicles,  but  the  most  valuable  literature  is 
written  in  Pali.  This  Pali  is  one  of  the  Prakrits  of  ancient  India,  “which  was  spoken 
in  the  6th  c.  before  Christ,  and  has  been  a dead  language  for  upwards  of  2,000  years.” 

CEYX.  See  Kingfisher. 

CEZIM'BRA,  a coast  t.  of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  about  18  m.  s.  of 
Lisbon.  C.  has  active  fisheries,  and  a pop.  of  5,000. 

CHABAS,  FRAN901S  Joseph,  b.  1817.  He  has  devoted  himself  especially  to  Egypt- 
ian archaeology,  in  which  he  is  considered  among  the  highest  authorities.  His  principal 
works  are  Le  Papyrus  Magique  Harris;  Voyage  in  Egypt  and  Syria;  Les  Pasteurs  en 
Egypte,  and  Studies  in  Ancient  History. 

CHABLAIS,  an  old  division  of  the  province  of  Annecy  in  Savoy,  now  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Thonon,  France;  356  sq.m.;  pop.  60,193.  It  once  formed  a part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Burgundy.  Under  the  French  empire  it  was  a part  of  the  department  of  Leman; 
in  1814,  its  possessions  went  to  Sardinia,  and  in  1860,  with  all  of  Savoy,  it  was  given 
over  to  France. 

CHABLIS,  a village  in  France,  dep.  of  Yonne,  which  gives  name  to  a much  esteemed 
white  Burgundy  (q.v.)  wine 

CHABOT,  Philippe  de,  d.  1543;  a French  general,  brought  up  with  Francis  I.  He 
defended  Marseilles  in  1524,  but  the  next  year  was  made  prisoner  at  Pavia.  He  was 
subsequently  made  admiral,  and  in  1535  commander  in  chief.  He  was  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  suggest  the  colonization  of  Canada.  There  is  a monument  to  him  in  the 
Louvre. 

CHA'BRIAS,  an  Athenian  gen.  who  assumed  command  about  392  b.  c.  He  defeated 
the  Spartans  at  ..^gina  in  388,  and  again  at  Naxos  in  376.  He  commanded  with  Iplii- 
crates  and  Callistratus  at  Corcyra,  and  repulsed  Epaminondas  before  the  walls  of  Corinth. 
In  366,  he  was  accused  of  treachery  in  advising  the  surrender  of  Oropus  to  the  Thebans, 
and  was  defended  by  Plato.  At  the  commencement  of  the  social  war,  in  357,  he  joined 
Charos  in  the  command  of  the  Athenian  fleet.  At  the  siege  of  Chios  his  ship  was  dis- 
abled, but  he  refused  to  retire,  and  was  killed  while  fighting.  C.  was  famous  for  invent- 
ing a new  style  of  receiving  a charge,  which  was  on  the  left  knee,  the  shield  resting  on 
the  ground,  and  the  spears  pointed  at  the  enemy. 

CHACHAPOY'AS,  or  San  Juan  de  laFrontera,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Amazo- 
nas, Peru,  410  m.  w.  of  Lima;  pop.  6,000.  It  is  on  a tributary  of  the  Maranon,  in  a rich 
agricultural  region. 

CHAC'MA.  See  Baboon. 

^ CHACO,  EL  GRAN,  a large  and  little  explored  country  in  South  America,  about  the 
middle  of  the  continent.  The  n.  portion  is  well  watered  and  densely  wooded,  with 
intervals  of  grassy  plains  and  marshes,  and  capable  of  producing  nearly  all  tropical 
vegetation.  The  s.  portion  is  for  the  most  part  a desert  and  can  be  cultivated  only  after 
irrigation.  The  n.  portion  belongs  to  Bolivia,  while  the  s.  is  occupied  almost  entirely 
by  Indians. 

CHAD,  Saint,  bishop  of  York,  in  the  7th  century.  He  was  educated  under  Aidan 
at  Lindisfarne.  At  his  death  he  held  the  see  of  Litchfield.  His  day  is  Mar.  2. 

CHADBOURNE,  Paul  Ansel,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  b.  Me.,  1823;  professor  of  natural  history 
and  chemistry  in  Williams  college  and  in  Bowdoin  college,  and  in  1867,  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  university  of  Wisconsin,  at  the  same  time  becoming  professor  of  metaphysics. 
In  1872,  he  was  elected  president  of  Williams  college,  and  resigned  in  1880.  He  has 
published  Natural  Theology,  and  Instinct  in  Animals  and  Men. 

CHAD'DA.  See  Benuwe. 

CHADWICK,  Edwin,  c.b.,  a distinguished  social  and  sanitary  reformer  of  the  present 
day,  born  in  the  vicinity  of  Manchester,  24th  Jan.,  1801.  He  studied  law,  but  early 
devoting  his  attention  to  questions  of  social,  sanitary,  and  political  science,  he  attracted 
the  notice  of  lord  Grey’s  government,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  an  assistant-commis- 
sioner to  inquire  into  the  operation  of  the  poor-laws  in  England  and  Wales.  His  report, 
published  with  others  in  1833,  commanded  most  attention,  being  remarkable  alike  for 
the  wide  and  searching  character  of  its  investigations,  the  happiness  of  its  illustrations, 
and  the  convincing  proofs  it  furnished  as  to  the  necessity  of  reform  in  the  system  of 


Chaeroneia. 

Clxalaza. 


656 


(administration.  Its  merit  was  recognized  by  those  who  had  the  power  to  reward  him; 
iud  on  the  organization  of  the  new  poor-law  board,  C.  was  appointed  secretary.  In  con- 
nection with  this  board,  and  the  general  board  of  health,  C.  for  twenty  years  was  ener- 
getic in  the  origination  and  administration  of  I'emedial  measures  relative  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  poor-law  funds,  and  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  country.  He  has  also  given 
much  attention  to  the  constitution  of  the  constabulary  force,  with  a view  to  the  better 
prevention  of  offenses  and  the  readier  detection  of  criminals.  On  a change  being  made  in 
the  board  of  health,  in  1854,  C.  retired  with  a pension.  He  has  since  taken  great  interest 
in  promoting  competitive  examinations  for  government  offices,  and  indeed  in  almost  all 
questions  of  social  economy.  He  has  been  an  active  member  of  the  association  for  the 
promotion  of  social  science.  In  1859-60,  he  collected  evidence  for  the  education  com- 
mission. 

CHIEBONEI'A,  a city  of  Boeotia,  in  ancient  Greece,  near  the  Cephissus,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Phocis.  It  is  celebrated  on  account  of  several  important  battles  fought  in  the 
neighborhood.  In  447  b.c.,  the  Boeotians  here  obtained  a victory  over  the  Athenians; 
and  in  338  b.c.,  Philip  of  Macedon  signally  defeated  the  united  forces  of  the  Athenians 
and  Boeotians,  and  so  crushed  the  liberties  of  Greece.  A mound  of  earth,  about  a mile 
from  the  modern  village  of  Kapurna,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  city,  still  marks 
the  place  where  the  Thebans  who  fell  in  the  battle  were  buried ; and  a magnificent  lion, 
which  col.  Mure  pronounced  to  be  “ the  most  interesting  sepulchral  monument  in  Greece,’' 
was  excavated  from  this  tumulus  some  years  ago.  At  C.,  also,  86  b.c.,  Sulla  defeated 
the  generals  of  Mithridates.  Plutarch  was  a native  of  this  town.  A few  ancient  remains 
yet  exist. 

CHJET0D0N'TID.S,  a family  of  acanthopterous  fishes,  nearly  corresponding  to  the 
genus  chsetodon  (Gr.  hair-tooth)  of  Linnaeus;  and  also  named  Squamipennes  (Lat. 
scaly-finned),  because  of  the  most  distinctive  character  of  the  family,  the  incrustation 
of  the  soft  portions  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  and  often  of  the  spinous  parts  also,  with 
scales,  the  tins  appearing  to  taper  gradually  out  of  the  thickness  of  the  body,  which  is 
in  general  remarkably  compressed,  so  that,  without  dissection,  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
where  they  begin.  The  scales  are  strongly  ctenoid  (q.v.).  The  typical  genus  clmtodon, 
and  those  most  nearly  allied  to  it,  have  hair-like  teeth,  so  that  their  jaws  resemble 
brushes;  some  fishes  of  the  family,  however,  have  trenchant  teeth  on  the  jaws,  and 
some,  as  brama  (q.v.),  have  card-like  teeth  both  on  the  jaws  and  palate.  Most  of  the 
0.  are  tropical;  only  one  species,  B^ama  raii,  is  ever  found  in  the  British  seas.  They 
generally  frequent  rocky  shores.  Their  colors  are  often  extremely  gay,  and  usually 
disposed  rather  in  stripes  or  bands  than  in  spots.  “ The  eye  of  man  receives  the  greater 
pleasure  from  their  contemplation,  in  that,  being  of  moderate  or  small  size,  and  haunt- 
ing habitually  the  coral  basins  of  the  transparent  tropical  seas,  they  disport  themselves 
in  the  beams  of  a vertical  sun,  as  if  desirous  of  exhibiting  their  splendid  liveries  to  the 
greatest  advantage  in  the  blaze  of  day.”  Many  singularities  of  form  occur  in  this 
family,  as  the  long  slender  snout  of  the  clielmons,  the  whip-thong-like  prolongation  of 
5ome  of  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  fins  in  heniochus  and  zanclns,  the  wing-like  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  of  platax,  the  sharp  recurved  horns  of  the  buffalo-fish  {taurichtJiys),  etc.  To  this 
family  belong  the  archer-fishes  (q.v.),  whose  singular  habits  have  been  already  noticed. 
The  flesh  of  most  of  the  C.  is  of  very  fine  flavor. 

CHAF'EK,  a common  name  of  those  beetles  or  coleopterous  insects,  which  either  in 
the  perfect  or  larva  state,  are  destructive  to  plants ; particularly  those  w'hich  devour  the 
wood,  bark,  or  roots  of  trees.  From  these,  however,  it  is  sometimes  extended  to  some 
coleopterous  insects  which  have  no  such  habit.  The  word  C.  is  seldom  used  alone,  but 
generally  as  part  of  a name,  with  some  prefix ; thus,  we  have  cock-chafer,  rose-chafer, 
bark-chafer,  etc. 

CHAFF-CUTTER,  a name  commonly  given  to  an  implement  now  much  used  by  farm- 
ers for  cutting  hay  and  straw  into  half-inch  lengths.  The  advantage  of  this  consists 
not  so  much  in  facilitating  mastication  or  digestion,  as  in  preventing  animals  from 
wasting  their  food.  No  small  amount  of  mechanical  ingenuity  has  been  applied  to  the 
construction  of  chaff-cutters,  the  simplest  and  oldest  kinds  of  which  are  mere  hand 
rrachines  with  a single  large  knife,  the  hay  or  straw  being  pushed  forward  in  a trough 
or  box,  whilst  others  are  driven  by  horse,  steam,  or  water  power,  and  are  not  a little 
complicated 

CHAF  FINCH,  Fringilla  ccelebs,  one  of  the  most  common  British  birds,  a species  of 
finch  (q.v.),  and  probably  that  to  which  the  name  finch,  now  so  extended  in  its  signifi- 
cation, originally  belonged;  fink,  the  German  form  of  the  name,  and  pink  and  twink, 
English  provincial  forms  still  appropriated  to  the  C.,  having  some  resemblance  of  sound 
to  its  common  call-note..  The  whole  length  of  the  C.  is  about  6 inches.  The  tail  U 
very  slightly  forked.  The  male,  in  summer,  has  the  top  of  the  head  and  nape  of  the 
iieck  bluish-gray;  the  back,  chestnut;  the  wings  almost  black,  with  two  conspicuous 
wdiite  bars;  the  tail,  nearly  black.  The  colors  of  the  female  are  much  duller  than  those 
of  the  male.  The  C.  is  a very  widely  distributed  species,  being  found  in  almost  all 
parts  of  Europe,  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  in  the  n.  of  Africa,  and  as  far  w.  as  the  Azores. 
In  the  colder  northern  countries,  it  is  migratory;  in  more  southern  regions,  ;t  is  station 


657 


Clueronela* 

Clialaza. 


«ry.  Linnajiis  gave  il  the  specific  name  cedebs,  from  observing  that  the  flocks  congre- 
gated in  winter  in  Sweden  consisted  chiefly  of  males,  the  females  having,  as  he  sup- 
posed, sought  a milder  climate.  A partial  separation  of  the  sexes  is  observed  also  in 
the  great  winter-flocks  in  Britain,  but  it  is  only  partial;  and  Yarrell  thinks  that  the 
young  males  of  the  previous  season,  which  resemble  the  females  in  plumage,  are  asso- 
ciated with  them,  and  have  been  mistaken  for  them.  The  flocks  seen  in  Britain  in 
winter  are  believed  to  be  augmented  by  migration  from  Scandinavia,  The  eggs  are 
usually  4 or  5 in  nnmber,  of  pale  purplish  buff  color,  sparingly  streaked  and  spotted 
with  reddish  brown.  The  C.  feeds  chiefly  on  insects,  and  does  much  service  in  sum- 
mer by  destroying  aphides  and  caterpillars;  but  eats  also  seeds,  and  is  sometimes  perse- 
cuted, because  in  spring  it  pulls  up  and  eats  young  turnips  and  radishes  when  in  the 
seed-leaf.  Great  numbers  of  chaffinches  are  killed  for  the  table  in  Italy.  In  Germany, 
this  bird  is  in  the  highest  esteem  as  a song-bird.  Its  notes  are  very  clear  and  loud,  but 
some  individuals  greatly  excel  the  ordinary  multitude  of  their  species ; and  their  supe- 
rior notes,  if  heard  on  the  Thuringian  hills,  speedily  attract  bird-catchers.  Bechstein 
jBays  that,  in  Thuringia,  a cow  has  been  given  for  a 0.  with  a fine  voice;  and  the  Ger- 
mans have  taken  the  trouble  to  classify  the  different  strains  of  chaffinches,  giving  them 
distinct  names,  and  regarding  those  birds  as  particularly  valuable  by  which  certain  of 
these  strains  are  produced. — The  common  Scotch  name  of  the  C.  is  shiJfa. 

CHAGRES,  a river  entering  the  gulf  of  Darien  on  the  n,  side  of  the  isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama, near  lat.  9°  18'  north.  Though,  towards  its  mouth,  it  varies  in  depth  from  16  to 
30  ft. , it  is  yet,  by  reason  at  once  of  its  rapidity  and  its  falls,  but  little  available  for 
navigation.  At  its  entrance  is  a port  of  its  own  name.  Both  the  town,  however,  and 
the  stream  have  recently  lost  nearly  all  the  advantages  of  their  position,  through  the 
establishment  of  an  inter-oceanic  railway,  which,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  commences  at 
Aspinwall,  about  8 m.  to  the  north. 

CHAILLU,  Paul  B.  DU.  See  Du  Chaillu. 

CHAIN,  in  surveying  (called  Gunter’s  chain,  from  its  inventor),  is  a measure  of  22 
yards  long,  composed  of  100  iron  links,  each  of  which  is  thus  7.92  in.  long.  As  an  acre 
contains  4,840  sq.  yards,  10  sq.  chains  (22x22x10=4,840  sq.  yards),  or  100,000  sq.  links, 
make  an  acre. 

CHAIN-BRIDGE.  See  Suspension  Bridges. 

CHAIN-CABLE.  See  Cable. 

CHAIN-MAIL,  or  Chain- Armor,  much  used  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  consisted 
of  hammered  iron  links,  connected  one  to  another  into  the  form  of  a garment.  Such 
armor  was  much  more  flexible  and  convenient  to  the  wearer  than  that  which  was  formed 
•f  steel  or  brass  plates,  but  was  less  fitted  to  bear  the  thrust  of  a lance. 

CHAINS,  on  shipboard,  are  strong  iron  links  or  plates,  bolted  at  the  lower  end  to  the 
ship-timbers,  and  having  a block  or  dead-eye  at  the  upper  end.  Their  purpose  is  to  fas- 
ten down  the  shrouds  tightly.  They  are  brought  out  laterally  at  the  top  by  resting  in 
the  middle  against  the  channels,  which  are  broad  thick  planks,  very  strongly  fixed,  and 
projecting  horizontally  from  the  side  of  the  ship,  one  pair  for  each  mast. 

CHAINS,  Hanging  in.  In  atrocious  cases,  it  was  usual  for  courts  of  justice,  in  for- 
mer times,  to  direct  the  bodies  of  malefactors,  after  execution,  to  be  hung  in  C.  upon  a 
gibbet  near  the  spot  where  the  crime  was  committed;  but  this,  says  Blackstone,  “was 
no  part  of  the  legal  judgment.”  The  reasons  commonly  assigned  for  the  practice  are 
two:  first,  that  it  might  strike  terror  into  other  offenders;  and  second,  that  it  might 
afford  “a  comfortable  sight  to  the  relations  and  friends  of  the  deceased.”  This  barbar- 
ous adjunct  to  capital  punishment  was  not  finally  abolished  till  a very  recent  period,  and 
it  may  surprise  our  readers  to  learn  that,  two  years  after  the  passing  of  the  reform  bill, 
it  was  still  in  accordance  with  the  law,  if  not  with  the  custom  of  England.  The  act  “ to 
abolish  the  practice  of  hanging  the  bodies  of  criminals  in  chains”  (4  and  5 Will.  IV.  c. 
26),  was  passed  on  25th  July,  1834.  The  last  case  of  hanging  m C.  mentioned  as  having 
occurred  in  Scotland,  is  that  of  Andrew  Wilson,  who  poisoned  his  wife  in  1755  (Hume, 
vol.  ii.  p.  482).  See  Punishments  and  Dissection. 

CHAIN-SHOT,  a nearly  obsolete  kind  of  ammunition,  chiefly  used  in  naval  warfare, 
consisting  of  two  balls  connected  by  a short  chain.  The  object  of  the  chain  is  to  destroy 
the  rigging,  etc.,  which  otherwise  might  escape.  As  grape-shot  has  been  found  to  serve 
the  same  end,  the  making  of  chain-shot  has  been  discontinued. 

CHAIN  SNAKE,  or  King  Snake,  an  American  serpent,  haunting  moist  or  shady 
places,  and  feeding  upon  mice,  moles,  small  birds,  and  reptiles.  It  is  remarkable  for 
the  beauty  of  its  colors,  the  ground  work  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body  being  a lustrous 
black,  while  the  scales  are  marked  with  white  spots.  The  head  is  very  small. 

CHAJUG,  or  CHIUG,  Jehuda  ben-Dayid,  b.  about  1030;  regarded  by  Jewish  crit- 
ics as  the  first  of  Hebrew  grammarians.  He  made  some  very  remarkable  and  valuable 
discoveries  in  philology, 

CHALA'ZA,  in  botany,  a membrane  which  unites  the  nucleus  and  integuments  at  the 
base  of  an  ovule.  It  is  traversed  by  vessels  which  supply  nourishment  to  the  ovule.  It 
is  often  of  a different  color  from  the  rest  of  the  integuments,  and  is  conspicuous  in  the 
U.  K.  III.-42 


Chaloedon. 

Chalk. 


658 


ripened  seed ; but  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  it,  particularly  in  orthotrop<d 
seeds,  when  it  is  in  contact  with  the  hilum,  the  foramen  or  micropyle  being  at  the  oppo- 
site extremity  of  the  seed.  See  Ovule  and  Seed. 

The  cords  which  bind  the  yolk-bag  of  an  egg  to  the  lining  membrane  at  the  two  ends- 
of  the  shell,  and  keep  it  near  the  middle  as  it  floats  in  the  albumen,  are  also  called 
cfialazoe.  They  appear  to  be  formed  of  a peculiarly  viscid  albumen. 

CHALCE'DON,  a city  of  ancient  Bithynia,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Euxine,  opposite  to 
Byzantium.  It  was  founded  684  b.c.  by  a colony  from  Megara,  and  soon  became  a place 
of  considerable  trade  and  importance.  It  contained  several  temples,  one  of  which,  ded- 
icated to  Apollo,  had  an  oracle.  C.  was  taken  by  the  Persians,  suffered  the  vicissitudes 
of  war  during  the  strife  for  Grecian  supremacy  between  the  Athenians  and  Lacedemo- 
nians, and  Anally  merged  into  the  Roman  empire.  During  the  Mithridatic  war,  it  was 
the  scene  of  a bold  exploit  of  the  Pontic  sovereign.  Having  invaded  Bithynia,  all  the 
wealthy  Romans  in  the  district  fled  for  refuge  to  C.,  whereupon  he  broke  the  chains  that 
protected  the  port,  burned  four  ships,  and  towed  away  the  remaining  sixty.  Under  the 
empire  it  was  made  a free  city,  and  was  the  scene  of  a general  council,  held  451  a.d. 
Chosroes  the  Persian  captured  it  616  a.d.,  after  which  it  declined,  until  it  was  finally 
demolished  by  the  Turks,  who  used  its  ruins  to  build  mosques  and  other  edifices  at  Con- 
stantinople. C.  was  the  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Xenocrates. 

The  council  of  C.,  to  which  allusion  has  been  made,  was  the  fourth  universal  council, 
and  was  assembled  by  the  emperor  Marcian  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  a form  of 
doctrine  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  Christ,  which  should  equally  avoid  the  errors  of  the 
Nestorians  (q.v.)  and  Monophysites  (q.v.).  Six  hundred  bishops,  almost  all  of  the  east- 
ern or  Greek  church,  were  present.  The  doctrine  declared  to  be  orthodox  was,  that  in 
Christ  there  were  two  natures,  which  could  not  be  intermixed  (this  clause  was  directed 
against  the  Monophysites),  and  which  also  were  not  in  entire  separation  (this  was  directed 
against  the  Nestorians),  but  which  were  so  conjoined,  that  their  union  destroyed  neither 
th^e  peculiarity  of  each  nature,  nor  the  oneness  of  Christ’s  person. 

CHALCE'DONT  (often  misspelled  calcedony),  a beautiful  mineral  of  the  quartz  family, 
or  rather  a variety  of  quartz,  from  which  it  does  not  differ  in  chemical  composition  or 
in  any  essential  character.  It  derives  its  name  from  Chalcedon  in  Bithynia,  near  which 
it  is  found  in  considerable  abundance,  and  has  been  known  by  the  same  name  from 
ancient  times.  It  occurs  in  different  kinds  of  lock,  but  most  frequently  in  old  lavas  and 
trap-rocks,  and  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world  where  these  exist,  or  where  there 
are  boulders  derived  from  them.  It  is  common  in  Scotland,  and  specimens  of  great  beauty 
are  brought  from  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  islands.  It  never  occurs  in  crystals.  It  consti- 
tutes the  whole  or  the  principal  part  of  many  agates.  It  is  generally  translucent,  some- 
times semi-transparent,  has  not  much  luster,  and  is  in  color  generally  white  or  bluish 
white,  sometimes  reddish  white,  sometimes  milk-white,  less  frequently  gray,  blue, 
green,  yellow,  brown,  or  even  black.  Its  fracture  is  even,  or  very  slightly  conchoidal. 
•— C.  is  much  used  in  jewelry,  for  brooches,  necklaces,  and  ornaments  of  all  sorts,  the 
largest  pieces  being  sometimes  made  into  little  boxes,  cups,  etc.  It  was  much  used  by 
the  ancients,  and  many  beautiful  engraved  specimens  appear  in  antiquarian  collections. 
Chalcedonies  with  disseminated  spots  of  brown  and  red,  were  once  very  highly  prized, 
and  were  called  stigmites  or  8t.  Stephen' s-stones.  Petrified  plants  are  sometimes  found  in 
C.,  in  which  they  appear  to  have  been  encased  whilst  it  was  in  course  of  formation. 
Specimens  of  C.  are  sometimes  found  enclosing  a little  water  in  the  interior,  which  gives 
them  a very  beautiful  appearance ; but  the  water  easily  escapes,  to  prevent  which,  rings 
or  other  ornaments  made  of  such  stones  are  kept  in  distilled  water,  when  not  worn. 
The  ancients  set  a very  high  value  on  these  enhydrites  (Gr.  en,  in,  and  hydor,  water). 
The  Vincentin  was  celebrated  for  producing  them. 

CHALCED'ONYX  (or,  erroneously,  calcedonyx),  a name  given  to  agates  formed  of 
cacholong,  or  a white  opaque  chalcedony,  alternating  with  a grayish  translucent  chalce- 
dony. 

CHALCHIHUITL,  a stone  held  in  great  repute  by  the  ancient  Mexicans,  and  still 
by  the  Indians  of  that  country,  who  fashion  it  into  ornaments  and  occasionally  use  it  in 
te’ade.  It  is  a turquoise  found  in  the  mountains  not  far  from  Santa  Fe.  The  mines 
were  exhausted  before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  The  stone  was  valued  by  the 
Mexicans  more  highly  than  gold. 

CHAL'CIS,  a genus  of  Saurian  reptiles,  the  type  of  a family  called  chalddm,  some  of 
which  are  popularly  termed  snake-lizards,  because  of  the  resemblance  to  snakes  in  the 
elongated  form  of  the  body,  the  limbs  being  also  remarkably  small,  so  that  this  family 
forms  one  of  the  transition  links  between  the  Saurian  and  the  Ophidian  reptiles.  The  scales 
are  rectangular,  and  arranged  in  transverse  bands,  without  being  imbricated  or  dis- 
posed like  tiles.  The  chc^idm  are  natives  of  warm  climates,  both  in  the  old  and  new 
worlds. 

The  name  C.  has  also  been  bestowed  on  a genus  of  the  order  hipnxnoptera,  allied  to 
*he  ichneumons,  which  has  become  the  type  of  a tribe  or  family,  containing  a vast  number 
of  species — 1500  being  supposed  to  exist  in  Britain — all  of  them  of  small  size,  many  very 
minute,  many  of  them  very  brilliant  in  their  colors,  and  the  larvae  of  afi  of  them  parasitic 


659 


Chalcedon. 

Chalk. 


in  the  larvoe  or  piipee,  some  even  in  the  eggs,  of  other  insects.  The  ckiysalis  of  a but- 
terfly or  moth  often  nourishes  a great  number  of  these  parasites;  and  they  become  useful 
in  preventing  the  excessive  multiplication  of  species  which  destroy  valuable  plants. 

CHAL'CIS,  the  capital  t.  of  the  island  and  government  of  Euboea,  Greece,  situated  on 
the  Euiipus,  a strait  separating  the  island  from  Boeotia,  and  which  at  this  point  is  only 
120  ft.  wide.  The  Euripus  is  divided  into  two  channels,  of  unequal  breadth  and  depth, 
by  a rock,  which  is  surmounted  by  a castle,  partly  of  Venetian  and  partly  of  Turkish 
construction,  A stone  bridge,  of  some  70  ft.  in  length,  connects  the  rock  with  the  Boeo- 
tian shore,  while  a w^ooden  and  movable  bridge,  of  about  35  ft.,  unites  it  with  Chalcis 
C.  is  a place  of  very  great  antiquity,  having  been  founded,  as  tradition  asserts, 
before  the  Trojan  war,  by  an  Ionian  colony  from  Athens.  Its  rise  was  rapid.  It 
sent  out  numerous  colonies,  and  was  the  center  of  the  trade  of  the  western  Mediter 
ranean.  Governed  at  first  by  an  aristocracy,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Athenians 
who  in  506  b.c.  divided  the  lands  of  C.  amongst  some  of  thei.r  own  number.  It 
subsequently  fell  under  the  power  of  the  Macedonians  and  Romans,  and  was  at  thh 
time  a place  of  great  military  importance,  nearly  9 m.  in  circumference,  and  had 
many  fine  temples,  theaters,  and  other  public  buildings.  Aristotle  died  at  Chalcis. 
In  the  middle  ages,  it  was  prosperous  under  the  Venetians,  who  held  it  for  nearly 
three  centuries,  until  its  conquest  by  the  Turks  in  1470.  The  lion  of  St,  Mark  is, 
or  was  until  within  recent  years,  still  to  be  seen  over  the  gateway  between  the 
bridge  and  the  citadel.  Not  many  ancient  remains  now  exist  at  Chalcis.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  but  the  houses,  many  of  W'hich  owe  their  origin  to  the  Venetians, 
are  substantial  and  spacious.  Pop.  ’70,  6,447. 

CHALCOG'BAPHY,  a pedantic  term  used  to  signify  engraving  on  copper,  com- 
pounded of  the  Greek  words  cTialkos,  brass  or  copper,  and  graplio,  I write.  The 
term  is  inaccurate  when  applied,  as  it  often  is,  to  engraving  on  other  metals,  such 
as  steel  and  zinc.  For  zinc-engraving  the  still  more  objectionable  word  zincography 
has  been  invented. 

CHAIiB-Sl'A.  See  Babylon,  Babylonia. 

CHALD^'AN  CHRISTIANS,  a branch  of  Nestorians  who  acknowledge  the  pope 
of  Rome.  They  use  the  eastern  rite,  and  are  under  the  patriarch  of  Babylon.  They 
are  supposed  to  number  about  70,000. 

CHAL  DEE.  See  Aram^ea. 

CHALDEE,  an  old  Scotch  dry  measure,  containing  16  bolls.  See  Boll. 

.CHALDEON  (Lat.  caldarium,  a vessel  for  warm  water),  an  old  dry  measure  used  in 
selling  coal,  and  containing  36  heaped  bushels.  Coal  is  now  sold  by  weight. 

CHALETJE  BAY,  an  inlet  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between  Gaspe,  a district  of 
Lower  Canada,  and  New  Brunswick,  having  a depth  of  90  m.  from  e.  to  w.,  and  a width 
varying  from  12  to  20.  The  Restigouche,  which  enters  the  gulf  from  New  Brunswick 
at  its  very  head,  marks,  at  its  mouth,  the  interprovincial  boundary. 

CHALEURS,  BAY  OF,  a westward  extension  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  separating 
New  Brunswick  from  Quebec.  It  is  nearly  100  m.  long,  and  varies  in  width  from  10  to 
22  miles.  It  is  navigable  in  all  parts,  and  is  much  resorted  to  for  its  mackerel  fisheries. 

CHALICE  (Lat.  calix,  a cup).  This  ancient  name  for  an  ordinary  drinking-cup  has 
been  retained  for  the  vessels  used  for  the  wine  in  the  holy  sacrament.  Chalices  are 
commonly  made  of  silver,  but  it  w^^as  not  unusual  for  them  to  be  of  gold,  or  gilt  and 
jeweled.  Chalices  were  also  made  of  glass,  crystal,  and  agate;  but  these  substances 
have  been  abandoned,  in  consequence  of  their  fragile  nature.  The  C.  is  the  attribute  of 
St.  John  the  evangelist. 

CHALK,  a soft  earthy  variety  of  limestone  or  carbonate  of  lime,  forming  great  strata, 
and  claiming  the  attention  of  the  geologist  even  more  than  of  the  mineralogist.  It  is 
generally  of  a yellowish-white  color,  but  sometimes  snow-white.  It  is  easily  broken, 
and  has  an  earthy  fracture,  is  rough  and  very  meager  to  the  touch,  and  adheres  slightly 
to  the  tongue.  It  generally  contains  a little  silica,  alumina,  or  magnesia,  sometimes  all 
of  these.  Although  often  very  soft  and  earthy,  it  is  sometimes  so  compact  that  it  can 
be  used  as  a building-stone ; and  it  is  used  for  this  purpose  either  in  a rough  state,  or 
sawn  into  blocks  of  proper  shape  and  size.  It  is  burned  into  quicklime,  and  nearly  all 
the  houses  in  London  are  cemented  with  mortar  so  procured.  The  siliceous  particles 
being  separated  by  pounding  and  diffusing  in  water,  it  becomes  whiting,  of  which  the 
domestic  uses  are  familiar  to  everyone.  Carpenters  and  others  use  it  for  making  marks, 
which  are  easily  effaced:  the  blackboard  and  piece  of  C.  are  now  common  equally  in  the 
lecture-rooms  of  universities  and  in  the  humblest  village-schools.  C.,  perfectly  purified, 
is  mixed  with  vegetable  coloring  matters,  such  as  turmeric,  litmus,  saffron,  and  sap 
^reen,  to  form  pastil  colors;  but  vegetable  colors  which  contain  an  acid  are  changed  by 
it.  See  Crayon.  The  Vienna  white  of  artists  is  simply  purified  chalk.  In  a perfectly 
purified  state,  it  is  administered  as  a medicine,  to  correct  acidity  in  the  stomach.  C.  is 
also  extensively  used  as  a manure.  See  Lime,  as  a manure. 

CHALK,  Black,  is  a mineral  quite  different  from  common  chalk,  and  apparently 
receives  its  name  from  resembling  it  in  meagerness  to  the  touch,  in  soiling  the  fingers, 


Chalk. 

Chalmera. 


660 


and  in  being  used  for  drawing,  writing,  etc.  It  is  also  called  Drawing-slate.  It  is  of 
a slaty  structure,  of  a bluish  or  grayish-black  color,  easily  cut  and  broken,  and  makes  a 
perfectly  black  mark  on  paper.  It  is  used  for  drawing,  and  as  a black  color  in  painting. 
It  becomes  red  by  exposure  to  heat.  It  is  essentially  a kind  of  clay  (q.v.),  and  derives 
its  color  from  carbon,  which  it  contains.  It  is  found  in  primitive  mountains,  in  Spain, 
France,  Italy,  etc.,  also  in  the  coal  formation  in  Scotland. — Brian(JON  Chalk  and 
French  Chalk  are  popular  names  for  soapstone  (q.v.). — Red  Chalk  is  ochery  red  clay- 
iron-ore,  consisting  of  clay  and  much  peroxide  of  iron.  It  is  of  a brownish-red  color, 
and  a somewhat  slaty  structure,  the  cross  fracture  earthy.  The  coarser  varieties  are 
used  chiefly  by  carpenters  for  making  marks  on  wood ; the  finer,  by  painters.  It  occurs 
in  thin  beds  in  clay-slate  and  grauwacke-slate  in  some  parts  of  Germany. 

CHALK-BEDS.  See  Cretaceous  Group. 

CHALKING  THE  DOOR,  a mode  of  warning  tenants  to  remove  from  burghal  tene- 
ments, long  known  and  still  in  use  in  Scotland.  The  practice  is  thus  described  by  Mr. 
Hunter  in  his  valuable  work  on  Landlord  and  Tenant:  “A  burgh-officer,  in  presence  of 
witnesses,  chalks  the  most  patent  door  forty  days  before  Whitsunday,  which  is  held  to 
be  a legal  warning.  There  is  no  execution  at  the  parish  church,  but  the  officer  makes 
out  an  execution  of  ‘chalking,’  in  which  his  name  must  be  inserted,  and  which  must  be 
subscribed  by  himself  and  two  witnesses.  This  ceremony  now  proceeds  simply  on  the 
verbal  order  of  the  proprietor,  but  anciently  the  interposition  of  a judge  was  requisite. 
In  such  a case,  authority  was  given  by  one  of  the  magistrates  to  the  burgh-officer.” 
That  judicial  authority  is  still  assumed  to  lie  at  the  root  of  the  proceeding,  is  apparent 
from  the  fact  that  the  execution  bears  that  the  w^arning  has  been  executed  in  her 
majesty’s  name  and  authority,  and  that  of  the  magistrates  of  the  burgh.  The  officer 
ought  to  notify  to  the  tenant  the  object  of  his  visit,  though  it  is  not  perhaps  indispen- 
sable that  he  should  do  so.  The  execution  of  chalking  is  a warrant  under  which  decree 
of  removal  will  be  pronounced  by  the  burgh-court,  in  virtue  of  which  the  tenant  may  be 
ejected  on  the  expiration  of  a charge  of  six  days.  See  Ejectment. 

CHALKLEY,  Thomas,  1675-1741;  a Quaker  preacher,  native  of  London.  He  came 
to  America  in  1698,  and  traveled  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  the  New  England  colonies. 
Returning  to  England,  he  married,  and  soon  afterwards  came  back  and  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia. Again  he  crossed  the  sea  and  traveled  in  Holland  and  Germany;  thence  he 
went  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  died  while  engaged  in  missionary  work:  In  his 
will  he  founded  the  library  of  the  four  monthly  meetings  of  Friends  in  Philadelphia.  The 
journal  of  his  life  and  labors  has  been  published. 

CHALKY  ISLAND,  in  New  Zealand,  near  the  s.w.  extremity  of  Middle  Island,  about 
lat.  46°  s.,  and  Ion.  166°  20'  east.  It  takes  its  name  from  being  composed  of  a mass  of 
white  limestone,  and  imparts  the  same  to  the  adjacent  bay  of  16  m.  in  length,  and  alsa 
to  one  of  the  harbors  of  the  inlet. 

CHALLENGE.  See  Duel. 

CHALLENGE.  See  Jury. 

CHALLONER,  Richard,  1691-1781 ; the  son  of  an  English  dissenter,  but  brought 
up.  among  Roman  Catholics,  whose  religion  he  embraced.  He  was  ordained  a priest  at 
Douay,  and  made  professor  in  the  faculty.  In  1730,  he  held  the  English  mission  in 
London,  where  he  published  several  religious  works.  In  1758,  he  became  vicar  aposto- 
lic, residing  generally  in  London;  but  during  the  “ No  Popery”  riots  of  1780,  he  retired 
into  the  country.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  controversial  and  devotional  works, 
the  most  popular  one  being  The  Garden  of  the  Soul,  which  has  been  frequently  reprinted, 
and  translated  into  various  languages.  He  revised  the  Douay  Bible  (in  English);  and 
as  an  antidote  to  Foxe’s  well-known  Martyrology,  he  wrote  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Jh'iests 
and  Other  Catholics  of  both  Sexes,  who  suffered  Death  or  Imprisonment  in  England  on- 
Account  of  their  Beligion. 

CHALMERS,  Alexander,  1759-1834;  a Scotchman  educated  for  a physician  who 
gave  up  that  calling  for  literature,  writing  for  periodicals  generally,  and  being  for  some 
time  editor  of  the  Morning  Herald.  Besides  revised  editions  of  standard  authors,  he 
published  a General  Biographical  Dictionary,  in  32  vols. ; a Glossary  to  Shakespeare;  and 
British  Essayists  from  the  Tatler  to  the  Guardian,  both  inclusive. 

CHAL'MERS,  George,  an  eminent  historical  antiquary,  was  b.  at  Fochabers,  Moray- 
shire, Scotland,  in  1742.  Having  attended  King’s  college,  Aberdeen,  and  afterwards 
studied  law  at  Edinburgh,  he  went  in  1763  to  North  America,  where  he  practiced  as  a 
lawyer  till  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  independence.  Being  a keen  loyalist,  he 
returned  to  Britain,  where  he  was  appointed  clerk  to  the  board  of  trade  in  1786.  The 
duties  of  this  office  he  continued  to  discharge  with  diligence  and  ability  till  liis  death  in 
1825.  Before  his  appointment,  he  had  distinguished  himself  by  various  publications  in 
political  economy ; and  for  some  time  after  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  editing  the 
works  of  various  authors  and  writing  biographies.  His  great  work  is  his  Caledonia;  an 
Account,  Historical  and  Topographical,  of  North  Britain;  a production  displaying  pro- 
found research  into  the  liistory  of  Scotland,  and  abounding  in  varied  erudition.  It 
was  intended  to  be  completed  in  4 vols.  4to.  The  first  volume,  containing  the  historical 


661 


Chalk. 

Chalmers* 


part,  appeared  in  1807  •,  of  the  other  three,  which  were  destined  to  give  an  account  of 
the  several  counties,  the  second,  embracing  Roxburghshire,  Berwickshire,  Hadding- 
tonshire, Edinburghshire,  Linlithgowshire,  Peeblesshire,  and  Selkirkshire,  appeared  in 
1810;  the  third,  containing  the  counties  of  Dumfries,  Kirkcudbright,  Wigton,  Ayr, 
Lanark,  Renfrew,  and  Dumbarton,  appeared  in  1824.  A fourth  volume  is  understood 
to  have  been  left  at  his  death,  ready  for  the  press. 

Among  his  other  publications  are;  Political  Annals  of  the  United  Colonies  (Lond. 
1780) ; On  the  Comparative  Strerigth  of  Great  Britain,  during  the  present  and  the  four 
preceding  Reigns  (Lond.  1782,  1786,  1794,  1802,  1812);  A Collection  of  Treaties  between 
Great  Britain  and  other  Powers  (2  vols,  Lond.  1790);  Life  of  Daniel  Defoe  (Lond.  1786); 
Life  of  Thomas  Ruddiman  (1794);  Life  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (Lond.  1818);  editions  of 
the  works  of  Allan  Ramsay  (1800),  and  of  sir  David  Lindsay  (1806),  with  memoirs;  also 
various  pamphlets  apologizing  for  those,  himself  included,  who  had  believed  in  the 
authenticity  of  the  Shakespeare  manuscripts  forged  by  Mr.  Ireland. 

CHALMERS,  Thomas,  d.d.,  ll.d.,  was  b.  at  Anstruther,  in  Fifeshire,  17th  Mar., 
1780,  educated  at  the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  and  in  his  19th  year  licensed  to  preach 
the  gospel.  In  1803,  he  was  ordained  minister  of  the  parish  of  Kilmany,  in  Fifeshire, 
about  9 m.  from  St.  Andrews.  At  this  period  his  attention  was  entirely  absorbed  by 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  to  the  neglect  of  the  studies  appertaining  to  his 
profession.  To  gratify  his  love  of  scientific  pursuits,  he  eveu  formed  mathematical  and 
chemistry  classes  in  St.  Andrews  during  the  winter  of  1803-04,  and  by  his  wonderful 
enthusiasm  and  lucidity  of  exposition  excited  intense  interest,  and  obtained  for 
himself  a great  reputation.  In  1808,  he  published  an  Inquiry  into  the  Extent  and  Stabil- 
ity of  National  Resources,  which  proved  his  capacity  for  dealing  with  questions  of  politi- 
cal economy.  Shortly  after  this,  certain  domestic  calamities,  and  a severe  illness  of  his 
own,  opened  up  the  fountains  of  his  soul,  and  rendered  him  keenly  susceptible  to  relig- 
ious impressions.  Having  to  prepare  an  article  on  Christianity  for  Brewster’s  Edinburgh 
Encyclopedia,  he  commenced  an  extensive  study  of  the  evidences,  and  rose  from  his 
investigations  convinced  that  Christianity  was  2^ fact,  and  the  Bible  the  veritable  “word 
of  God.”  Then  the  great  genius  of  the  man  broke  forth  like  sunshine.  He  grew  ear- 
nest, eloquent,  devout,  and  faithful  to  his  pastoral  duties.  In  July,  1815,  he  was  trans- 
lated to  the  Tron  church  and  parish,  Glasgow,  where  his  magnificent  oratory  took  the 
city  by  storm.  His  Astronomical  Discourses  were  probably  the  most  sublimely  intellec- 
tual and  imaginative  that  had  ever  been  preached  in  a Scottish  pulpit.  They  were  pub- 
lished in  1817,  and  had  a prodigious  popularity.  During  the  same  year  he  visited  Lon- 
don, where  his  preaching  excited  as  great  a sensation  as  at  home.  But  C.’s  energies 
could  not  be  exhausted  by  mere  oratory.  Discovering  that  his  parish  was  in  a state  of 
peat  ignorance  and  immorality,  he  began  to  devise  a scheme  for  overtaking  and  check- 
ing the  alarming  evil.  It  seemed  to  him  that  the  only  means  by  which  this  could  be 
accomplished  was  by  “revivifying,  remodeling,  and  extending  the  old  parochial  econ- 
omy of  Scotland,”  which  had  proved  so  fruitful  of  good  in  the  rural  parishes.  In  order 
to  wrestle  more  closely  with  the  ignorance  and  vice  of  Glasgow,  C.,  in  1819,  became 
minister  of  St,  John’s  parish,  “the  population  of  which  was  made  up  principally  of 
weavers,  laborers,  factory-workers,  and  other  operatives.”  “Of  its  2,000  families,” 
says  Dr.  Hanna,  “more  than  800  had  no  connection  with  any  Christian  church,  while 
the  number  of  its  uneducated  children  was  countless.”  We  have  not  space  to  narrate 
at  length  how  vast  and  successful  were  the  labors  of  Chalmers.  It  is  sufficient  to  say, 
that  in  pursuance  of  his  favorite  plan,  he  broke  up  his  parish  into  25  districts,  each  of 
which  he  placed  under  separate  management,  and  established  two  week-day  schools, 
and  between  40  and  50  local  Sabbath-schools,  for  the  instruction  of  the  children  of  the 
“poorer  and  neglected  classes,”  more  than  1000  of  whom  attended.  In  a multitude  of 
other  ways  he  sought  to  elevate  and  purify  the  lives  of  his  parishioners.  While  in 
Glasgow,  C.  had  matured  his  opinions  relative  to  the  best  method  of  providing  for  the 
poor.  He  disliked  the  English  system  of  a “ compulsory  assessment,  ” and  preferred 
the  old  Scotch  method  of  voluntary  contributions  at  the  church-door,  administered  by 
elders.  The  management  of  the  poor  in  the  parish  of  St.  John’s  was  intrusted  to  his 
care  by  the  authorities,  as  an  experiment,  and  in  four  years  he  reduced  the  pauper 
expenditures  from  £1400  to  £280  per  annum. 

But  such  herculean  toils  began  to  undermine  his  constitution,  and  in  1823  he  accepted 
the  ofl^er  of  the  moral  philosophy  chair  in  St.  Andrews,  where  he  wrote  his  treatise  on 
the  Use  and  Abuse  of  Literary  and  Ecclesiastical  Endowments  (1827).  In  the  following 
year  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  theology  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  1832  published  a 
work  on  political  economy.  In  1833  appeared  his  Bridgewater  treatise.  On  the  Adapta- 
tion of  External  Nature  to  the  Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man.  It  was  received 
with  great  favor,  and  obtained  for  the  author  many  literary  honors;  the  royal  society  of 
Edinburgh  electing  him  a fellow,  and  the  French  institute  a corresponding  member, 
while  the  university  of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  d.c.l.  In  1834,  he  was 
appointed  convener  of  the  church-extension  committee ; and  after  seven  years  of  enthu- 
siastic labor,  announced  that  upwards  of  £300,000  had  been  collected  from  the  nation, 
and  220  new  churches  built.  Meanwhile,  however,  troubles  were  springing  up  in  the 
bosom  of  the  church  itself.  The  evangelical  party  had  become  predominant  in  the  gen- 


Chalon-sur-saone. 

Chamber. 


662 


eral  assembly,  and  came  forward  as  the  vindicators  of  popular  rights;  the  struggles  in 
regard  to  patronage  between  them  and  the  “moderate”  or  “ Erastian”  party  became 
keener  and  more  frequent,  until  the  decision  of  the  civil  courts  in  the  famous  “ Auch- 
terarder  and  Strathbogie”  cases  brought  matters  to  a crisis;  and  on  the  18th  of  May, 
1843,  C.,  followed  by  470  clergymen,  left  the  church  of  his  fathers,  rather  than  sacrifice 
those  principles  which  he  believed  essential  to  the  purity,  honor,  and  independence  of 
the  church.  See  articles  Disruption  and  Free  Church.  The  rapid  formation  and 
organization  of  the  Free  church  were  greatly  owing  to  his  indefatigable  exertions,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  elected  principal  of  the  Free  church  college,  and  spent 
the  close  of  his  life  in  the  zealous  performance  of  his  learned  duties,  and  in  perfecting 
his  Institutes  of  Theology.  He  died  suddenly  at  Morningside,  Edinburgh,  May  30,  1847. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  a criticism  on  the  works  of  C. , which  extend  to  more  than 
30  volumes.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  they  contain  valuable  and,  in  some  cases,  origi- 
nal contributions  to  the  sciences  of  natural  theology,  Christian  apologetics,  and  political 
economy;  while  on  minor  topics,  such  as  the  church-establishment  question,  they  exhibit 
both  novelty  and  ingenuity  of  argument.  As  an  orator,  C.  was  unique  and  unrivaled. 
We  read  of  men,  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  church,  whom  we  can  believe  to  have 
been  as  eloquent,  impassioned,  and  earnest,  but  nowhere  do  we  encounter  a man  in 
whom  intellect,  feeling,  and  imagination  were  so  harmoniously  combined — a nature  so 
“nobly  planned,  to  warn,  to  comfort,  and  command.”  Scotland  never  produced  a 
greater  or  more  lovable  soul,  one  more  gentle,  guileless,  genial-hearted,  or  yet  more 
fervid,  from  the  strength  of  a resolute  and  irresistible  will,  before  whose  impetus  diffi- 
culties were  dashed  aside  as  by  a torrent.  There  have  been  some  loftier  and  more  purely 
original  minds  in  Scotland  than  C.’s,  but  there  has  never  been  a truer  one,  nor  a heart 
whose  Christian  faith  and  piety  were  more  intense,  sincere,  and  humane. 

CHALON-SUB-SAONE,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Saone-et-Loire,  about  33 
m.  n.  of  Macon.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saone,  at  the  point  where  that 
river  is  joined  by  the  Canal-du-Centre,  which  unites  the  Saone  with  the  Loire,  and 
secures  C.  an  extensive  traffic  with  the  central  districts  of  France,  as  well  as  with  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic.  The  town  is  generally  well  built,  good  quays  line  the 
river,  along  which  also  the  finest  houses  extend.  Vineyards,  wood,  meadows,  and 
cultivated  fields  surround  and  add  variety  and  beauty  to  the  situation.  Its  manu- 
factures include  hats,  hosiery,  vinegar,  oil,  pottery,  jewelry,  and  imitation  pearls  ; and 
it  has  a large  trade  in  the  agricultural  and  other  produce  of  the  district.  Steamboats 
navigate  the  Saone  from  C.  downwards.  Pop.  ’76,  20,571.  C.  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Cabillonum  or  Caballinum. 

CHALONS-SUR-MAENE,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Marne,  107  m.  e.  of 
Paris  by  railway.  It  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Marne,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  a handsome  stone  bridge.  C.  is  old  ; and  the  houses  consist  chiefly  of  timber,  lath, 
and  plaster.  The  situation,  however,  is  agreeable,  and  the  town  contains  some  fine 
public  buildings,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  cathedral,  in  the  sanctuary  of  which 
there  is  one  of  the  finest  grand  altars  in  France.  On  the  east  side  of  the  town  there  is 
the  splendid  Promenade  du  Jard,  or  park,  which  covers  19  acres.  C.  has  manufactures 
of  woolens,  cotton,  leather,  etc.,  and  a considerable  trade  in  grain,  hemp,  rape-seed  oil, 
and  Champagne  wine.  Pop.  ’76,  20,215.  Previous  to  the  union  of  Champagne  with 
France  in  1284,  the  population  numbered  about  60,000.  In  1856,  Napoleon  III.  formed 
the  celebrated  camp  of  C.  to  the  n.e.  of  the  town,  which  was  occupied  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  war  by  Canrobert,  and  afterwards  by  MacMahon.  On  the  night  of 
Aug.  21,  1870,  MacMahon  withdrew  his  troops ; and  next  day  the  town  was  occupied 
by  the  Germans. 

CHALOTAIS,  La,  Louis  Rene  De  Caradeuc,  1701-85  ; procureur-general  of  the 
parliament  of  Brittany,  where  he  was  a decided  opponent  of  Jesuits.  Grimm  asserts 
that  Chalotais’s  reports  led  to  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in  France.  Voltaire  gave 
C.  high  praise  for  his  essay  on  national  education.  Later  in  life  he  was  subjected 
to  long  political  persecution,  but  was  finally  found  free  of  blame,  and  resumed  his 
place  in  the  parliament  at  Rennes. 

CHALYB.ffi'US,  a genus  of  birds  very  closely  allied  to  the  baritahs  (q.v.),  but  having 
a rather  thicker  bill,  and  the  nostrils  pierced  in  a broad  membranous  space.  The 
species  are  natives  of  New  Guinea,  and  are  birds  of  the  most  beautiful  plumage,  remark- 
able for  the  brilliancy  of  their  metallic  tints,  and  particularly  for  the  resemblance  to 
burnished  steel,  to  which  they  owe  their  name  (Gr.  chalyps,  ybos,  steel).  On  this 
account,  they  are  sometimes  included  under  the  name  of  birds  of  paradise  ; and  the 
skin  of  C.  paradisceus,  deprived  of  its  feet,  is  sold  as  that  of  a bird  of  paradise. 

CHALYBJETJS,  Heinrich  Moritz,  a German  philosopher,  was  b.  3d  July,  1796,  at 
Pfaffroda,  in  Saxony,  and  educated  at  Leipsic.  After  spending  some  years  in  teaching, 
he  was  appointed  in  1839  professor  of  philosoph}-^  in  the  university  of  Kiel,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death  in  1862.  His  chief  works  are  the  Historische  Entwickelung  der 
speculativen  Philosophie  von  Kant  bis  Hegd  (1836 — English  translations  by  Edersheim 
and  Tulk);  System  der  speculativen  Ethik  (1850):  Philosophie  und  Christenthum  (1853); 
and  Fundamental  Philosophie  (1861). 


663 


Chalon-sur-saone. 

Chamber. 


CHALYB'EATE  WATERS  are  those  which  contain  a considerable  portion  of  iron  in 
solution.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  carbonated  and  sulphated.  The  carbonated  G.  W. 
contain  carbonate  of  iron  (Fe0,C02)  dissolved  in  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  may  be 
recognized  by  forming  an  ochry  deposit  of  red  oxide  of  iron  (FejOs)  on  the  surface  of 
the  stones  near  the  mouths  of  the  springs,  owing  to  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  Islington  Spa  near  London,  Tunbridge  Wells,  and  Oddy’s  Saline 
C.  W.  at  Harrogate,  are  examples  of  this  class.  Where  an  excess  of  carbonic  acid  is 
present,  communicating  a sparkling  aspect  to  the  water  and  an  acidulous  taste,  as  at 
Pyrmont  and  other  places,  the  term  acidulo-chalybeate  or  acidulo-ferruginous  is  applied. 
The  sulphated  G.  W.  contain  sulphate  of  iron  (Fe0,S03)  dissolved  in  them,  and 
examples  of  this  class  are  afforded  at  the  Isle  of  Wight  (the  Sand  Rock  spring).  Vicars 
bridge,  Moffat,  etc.  C.  W.  are  characterized  by  a more  or  less  inky  or  styptic  taste  ; 
by  becoming  of  a purplish  black  tint  when  infusion  of  galls  or  tea,  and  some  varieties 
of  wine,  are  added  ; and  by  giving  a pale  blue  color  on  the  addition  of  a few  drops  of 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  (yellow  prussiate  of  potash).  C.  W.  are  of  great  service  in 
cases  of  debility,  and  the  acidulo- carbonated  kind  being  lighter  on  the  stomach,  is  gen- 
erally preferred  ; but  all  C.  W.  are  to  be  avoided  in  plethoric,  febrile,  and  inflammatory 
conditions  of  the  system. 

CHAM,  or  Amedee  De  Noe,  1819-79;  b.  Paris;  the  son  of  a former  peer  of  France; 
he  was  intended  for  the  polytechnic  school,  but  preferring  painting  he  studied  with  Paul 
Delaroche,  and  afterwards  with  M.  Charlet,  where  he  developed  a talent  for  the  gro- 
tesque. Beginning  in  1842,  he  contributed,  chiefly  to  Gharimri  (the  Punch  of  Prance), 
an  immense  number  of  caricatures,  and  some  sketches,  under  the  signature  of  “ Cham.” 
His  political  cartoons  are  singularly  sharp  and  effective.  He  has  also  written  many 
vaudevilles. 

CHA'MA,  a genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mollusks.  The  shell  consists  of  two  unequal 
valves,  having  two  hinge-teeth  in  the  one  valve,  and  one  in  the  other.  * The  general  form 
of  the  shell  approaches  to  orbicular.  The  shell  is  generally  thick,  and  is  foliated  with 
leaf-like  projections,  which  arise  in  a somewhat  regular  manner  from  its  surface;  these 
and  the  colors  of  some  of  the  species  combining  to  make  them  very  beautiful.  The 
shells  of  the  chamce  are  often  called  clams  or  clamp  shells,  a name  which  they  share  with 
some  of  the  pectens,  spondyli,  etc.  They  are  found  only  in  the  seas  of  warm  climates, 
none  further  n.  than  the  Mediterranean.  The  Linnsean  genus  C.  contained  many  speciea 
now  removed  to  other  families,  but  the  restricted  genus  C.  is  the  type  of  a family  chamidoe. 
Thirty  fossil  species  have  been  referred  to  C.,  4 from  the  cretaceous  period,  and  26  from 
the  tertiary. 

CHAMADE'.  See  Parley. 

CHAM.S:'ROFS,  a genus  of  palms,  with  fan-shaped  leaves,  less  exclusively  tropical  than 
palms  are  in  general,  and  of  which  one  species,  G.  humilis,  is  the  only  palm  truly  indige- 
nous to  Europe.  It  extends  as  far  n.  as  to  the  neighborhood  of  Nice.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Palmetto.  The  flowers  are  in  spathes  about  6 to  8 in.  long;  the  fruit  is  a 
triple  blackish  spongy  drupe,  which  is  eaten,  as  are  also  the  young  shoots.  This  palm 
is  so  tolerant  of  a cold  climate,  that  a specimen  has  lived  in  the  open  air  in  the  botanic 
garden  of  Edinburgh  for  more  than  50  years,  with  the  protection  of  matting  in  very 
severe  winters.  In  its  native  regions,  the  leaves  are  much  used  for  thatching,  and  for 
making  brooms,  hats,  chair-bottoms,  etc.  They  abound  in  an  excellent  fiber,  which  the 
Arabs  mix  with  camel’s  hair,  and  make'  into  tent  covers:  cordage,  and  sometimes  sail- 
cloth, are  made  of  it  in  Spain;  it  is  imported  into  Prance,  and  used  for  making  carpets, 
under  the  name  of  African  hair.  The  French  in  Algeria  make  paper  and  pasteboard  of 
it;  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  may  prove  a valuable  commercial  commodity,  as  a mgtterial 
for  paper-making. — Other  species  of  the  genus  abundant  in  India,  China,  etc.,  serve 
similar  purposes,  and  deserve  attention  in  connection  with  paper. — To  this  genus  belongs 
also  the  West  Indian  palm,  which  yields  the  material  for  chip  hats  (see  Brazilian  Grass)  ; 
and  the  palmetto  (q.v.)  of  North  America  is  by  some  botanists  referred  to  it. 

CHAMALA'RI,  a peak  of  the  Himalaya  between  Thibet  and  Botan,  in  lat.  28°  4'  n., 
and  long.  90°  e.,  said  to  have  an  elevation  of  27,200  ft.,  or  more  than  5 m.  and  a furlong. 

CHAMBA,  a feudatory  state  of  n.  India,  subordinate  to  the  Punjab  government, 
between  32°  and  33°  9'  n.,  and  75°  54'  and  76°  30'  east.  A range  of  mountains  separate 
C.  from  Kashmir.  C.  is  about  65  by  50  m.  in  length  and  breadth;  pop.  140,000.  The 
agricultural  products  are  wheat  and  millet,  and  among  other  productions  are  timber, 
nuts,  wax,  honey,  lime,  and  slate. 

CHAMBER,  of  a piece  of  artillery,  or  small  arm,  is  a contracted  part  of  the  bore,  at 
the  breech  end.  The  C.  contains  the  charge  of  powder,  but  is  too  small  to  contain  the 
shot  or  shell.  Some  of  these  cavities  are  spherical,  some  cylindrical,  some  conical  with 
a hemispherical  termination,  and  some  pear-shaped.  Carronades  and  shell  guns  are 
usually  chambered.  The  charge  just  fits  the  C.,  and  the  ball  or  shell  comes  in  contact 
with  it.  Chambered  guns  are  more  slow  to  load  and  fire  than  those  which  are  not  cham- 
bered; and  therefore  the  adoption  of  this  form  depends  very  much  on  the  kind  of  ser- 
vice in  which  the  weapon  is  to  be  employed.  Its  primary  use  is  in  kinds  of  ordnance 
in  which  the  charge  is  small  compared  with  the  caliber,  and  in  which,  consequently. 


Chamber. 

Chamberlain. 


664 


there  would  be  great  loss  of*  power  unless  the  charge  were  confined  within  a compara- 
tively limited  space  at  the  time  of  the  explosion. 

CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE,  a body  of  merchants  and  traders,  associated  for  the  pur- 
pose of  promoting  the  interests  of  its  own  members,  of  the  town  or  district  to  which  the 
society  belongs,  and  of  the  community  generally,  in  so  far  as  these  have  reference  to 
trade  and  merchandise.  Of  the  means  by  which  these  objects  are  sought  to  be  accom- 
plished, the  following  may  be  mentioned  as  the  most  prominent:  1.  By  representing  and 
urging  on  the  legislature  the  viws  of  their  members  in  mercantile  affairs;  2.  By  aiding 
in  the  preparation  of  legislative  measures  having  reference  to  trade,  such,  for  example, 
as  the  bankrupt  acts;  3.  By  collecting  statistics  bearing  upon  the  staple  trade  of  the 
district;  4.  In  some  places,  by  acting  as  a sort  of  court  of  arbitration  in  mercantile 
questions;  5.  By  attaining  by  combination  advantages  in  trade  which  might  be  beyond 
the  reach  of  individual  enterprise. 

These  institutions  are  of  continental  origin,  and,  like  so  many  others  which  England 
has  borrowed  from  that  source,  were  first  introduced  into  Scotland.  The  oldest  C.  of  C. 
in  France  is  that  of  Marseille,  which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  14th  or  commencement 
♦f  the  15th  century.  This  chamber  was  invested  with  very  remarkable  powers.  It 
shared  in  the  municipal  jurisdiction,  and  in  the  administration  of  justice  in  mercantile 
questions.  It  was  several  times  suppressed  and  re-established,  and  it  was  not  till  1650 
that  its  powers  were  fixed,  and  that  it  received  its  ultimate  organization.  The  second 
chamber  in  France  was  that  of  Dunkerque,  which  was  established  in  1700.  The  same 
year  a council-general  of  commerce  was  instituted  at  Paris,  which,  in  addition  to  six 
councilors  of  state,  consisted  of  twelve  merchants  or  traders,  delegated  by  the  principal 
commercial  towns  of  the  kingdom,  an  arrangement  which  led  within  the  next  few  years 
to  the  formation  of  chambers  of  commerce  everywhere  in  France.  We  thus  find  that  the 
chamber  at  Lyon  was  instituted  in  1702,  those  of  Rouen  and  Toulouse  in  1703,  of  Mont- 
pellier in  1704,  of  Bordeaux  in  1705,  etc.  By  an  order  of  council  of  Aug.  30, 1702,  a 
direct  relation  was  established  between  these  various  chambers  and  the  central  council 
of  commerce.  These  chambers  were  all  suppressed  by  a decree  of  the  national  assem- 
bly in  1791,  but  they  were  re-established  by  a consular  edict  in  1802,  which  fixed  the 
population  of  the  towns  in  which  they  might  be  established,  and  the  number  of  their 
members,  who  were  to  be  chosen  from  amongst  the  merchants  who  had  carried  on  trade 
in  person  for  a period  of  not  less  than  ten  years.  Sixty  of  the  best  known  merchants, 
presided  over  by  the  prefect  or  the  maire,  were  charged  to  elect  the  members  of  these 
new  chambers.  They  then  presented  to  the  government  two  candidates  for  the  office  of 
member  of  the  general  council  of  commerce,  instituted  at  Paris  under  the  minister  of  the 
interior.  This  organization  was  again  modified  in  1832,  and  still  later  by  the  ordon- 
nances  of  Sept.,  1851,  and  Aug.,  1852,  by  which  these  bodies  are  now  regulated.  In 
accordance  with  that  decree,  the  members  of  these  bodies  are  now  elected  by  the  chief 
merchants  of  each  town  chosen  for  that  purpose  by  the  prefect.  Their  number  cannot 
be  less  than  9,  nor  more  than  21.  They  hold  office  for  six  years,  one  third  of  their  num- 
ber being  renewed  every  two  years,  but  the  members  resigning  being  re-eligible.  The 
functions  now  assigned  to  these  chambers  in  France  are — to  give  to  the  government 
advice  and  information  on  industrial  and  commercial  subjects;  to  suggest  the  means  of 
increasing  the  industry  and  commerce  of  their  respective  districts,  or  of  improving  com- 
mercial legislation  and  taxation;  to  suggest  the  execution  of  works  requisite  for  the 
public  service,  or  which  may  tend  to  the  increase  of  trade  or  commerce,  such  as  the 
construction  of  harbors,  the  deepening  of  rivers,  the  formation  of  railways,  and  the  like. 
On  these  and  similar  subjects,  the  advice  of  the  chambers,  when  not  volunteered,  is 
demanded  by  the  government.  In  most  of  the  other  countries  of  continental  Europe 
there  are  similar  institutions  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  information  and  advice  to  the 
central  government,  and  making  it  acquainted  with  local  feelings  and  interests  in  com- 
mercial matters. 

The  oldest  C.  of  C.  in  Great  Britain  is  believed  to  be  that  of  Glasgow,  which  was 
instituted  1st  Jan.,  1783,  and  obtained  a royal  charter,  which  was  registered  at  Edin- 
burgh on  the  31st  of  the  same  month.  That  of  Edinburgh  was  instituted  in  1785,  and 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1786.  The  Edinburgh  C.  of  C.  was  the  first  public 
body  which  petitioned  for  the  abolition  of  the  corn  laws,  and  the  adoption  of  free-trade 
principles;  and  stood  almost  alone  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  advocating  the  Suez  canal 
project.  It  also  originated  the  movement  that  government  should  undertake  the 
telegraph  service  in  connection  with  the  post-office.  Six  hundred  of  the  bankers,  mer- 
chants, and  ship-owners  of  Edinburgh  and  Leith  constitute  the  chamber.  The 
Manchester  chamber,  since  so  famous  for  its  exertions  in  the  cause  of  free-trade,  was 
not  established  till  1820,  and  for  many  years  it  continued  to  be  the  only  institution  of 
the  kind  in  England.  Its  members  number  about  400.  In  Hull  there  has  been  a C.  of 
C.  since  1837,  but  those  of  Liverpool,  Leeds,  and  Bradford,  notwithstanding  the  great 
trading  and  manufacturing  interests  of  these  towns,  were  not  established  till  1850,  in 
which  year,  strangely  enough,  a similar  institution  was  established  in  s.  Australia. 
The  Liverpool  C.  of  C.  numbers  nearly  600.  The  annual  income  of  the  Manchester 
chamber  is  upwards  of  £600,  that  of  Liverpool  about  £800,  contributed  entirely  by 
the  subscriptions  of  members,  amounting  generally  to  £1  Is.  a year.  There  are  now 


665 


Chamber. 

Chamberlain. 


chambers  of  commerce  in  all  the  ^eat  mercantile  towns  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  in  1860  there  was  established  an  “ Association  of  Chambers  of  Commerce  of  the 
United  Kingdom.”  In  Canada,  there  is  a Dominion  board  of  trade,  which  consists  of 
the  chambers  of  commerce,  or  boards  of  trade,  as  they  are  indifferently  called,  of  a 
dozen  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the  Dominion. 

CHAMBER  OP  COMMERCE,  ante.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York  city 
Is  the  oldest  existing  institution  of  the  kind  in  America,  organized  in  1768,  and  incorpo- 
rated by  royal  charter  Mar.  13,  1770,  under  the  name  of  The  Corporation  of  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  of  the  City  of  New  Toi'k  in  America.  When  the  state  government  was 
established  the  charter  was  renewed  by  the  legislature.  It  was  composed  at  first  of  24 
of  the  most  prominent  merchants  of  the  city,  who  established  an  exchange  which  has 
been  ever  since  kept  up,  though  not  recently  under  control  of  the  body.  The  objects 
of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  are  to  encourage  and  promote  commerce,  support  industry, 
adjust  disputes  relative  to  trade,  and  procure  such  laws  and  regulations  as  may  b« 
found  necessary  for  the  benefit  of  trade  in  general.  The  membership  is  about  800, 
including  nearly  all  the  leading  merchants,  financiers,  and  business  men  of  the  city. 
Several  years  ago  a court  of  arbitration  was  established,  by  which  differences  between 
members  are  adjusted,  and  much  litigation  in  courts  avoided.  Meetings  are  held  once 
a month.  In  the  rooms  of  the  chamber  is  a vast  collection  of  commercial  and  other 
statistics.  Similar  bodies  exist  in  other  large  American  cities. 

CHAMBEB-COUNSEL,  a barrister  or  advocate  who  gives  opinions  in  his  own  chambers, 
but  does  not,  or  rarely  does,  plead  in  court. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  Lord,  or  King’s  C.,  as  he  was  formerly  called,  has  been  one  of  the 
principal  officers  of  state  from  very  early  times,  and  for  centuries  he  was  an  influential 
member  of  the  government.  He  has  the  function  of  indorsing  the  king’s  answer  on 
petitions  presented  to  him,  and  very  often  of  communicating  his  majesty’s  pleasure  to 
parliament  and  to  the  council.  He  was  always  a member  of  the  council  himself , ex  officio. 
Though  he  has  long  ceased  to  have  any  share  in  the  responsibilities  of  government, 
the  C.  is  still  an  officer  of  very  high  standing  in  the  royal  household.  He  has  control 
over  all  the  officers  and  servants  of  the  royel  chambers,  except  those  of  the  bedchamber, 
over  the  establishment  attached  to  the  chapel  royal,  the  physicians,  surgeons,  and 
apothecaries  of  the  household.  The  C.  has  further  the  oversight  of  the  queen’s  musicians, 
comedians,  trumpeters,  messengers,  etc. ; and  all  tradesmen  and  artificers  in  her  service 
are  appointed  by  him.  When  the  office  of  keeper  of  the  great  wardrobe  was  abolished 
in  1782,  the  duties  of  providing  the  state-robes  of  the  royal  family,  the  household,  and 
officers  of  state,  devolved  on  the  lord  chamberlain.  All  theaters  in  towns  in  which  a 
royal  palace  is  situated,  require  to  be  licensed  by  the  Lord  C.,  and  no  new  play  can  be 
performed  anywhere  without  his  license.  All  persons  desiring  to  be  presented  at  levees 
or  drawing-rooms,  require  to  send  their  cards  to  the  Lord  C.,  and  it  is  his  duty  to  see 
that  the  persons  thus  applying  are  entitled  by  station  and  character  to  be  presented  to 
the  queen.  The  C.  also  issues  her  majesty’s  invitations  to  balls,  parties,  etc.  In 
accordance  with  ancient  custom,  the  Lord  C.  is  still  a member  of  the  privy  council. 
His  salary  is  £2,000  a year,  but  his  tenure  of  office  depends  on  that  of  the  political  party 
to  which  he  belongs. 

The  Vice-chamberlain  is  the  deputy  and  assistant  of  the  Lord  C.,  and  in  his  absence 
exercises  the  full  authority  which  belongs  to  his  principal.  His  office  existed  in  the 
time  of  Richard  II.  He  is  also  dependent  on  the  administration,  and  is  usually  a member 
of  the  privy  council.  His  salary  is  £924  per  annum. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  The  Lord  Great,  is  a hereditary  officer  of  great  antiquity,  and 
formerly  of  great  importance.  He  has  the  government  of  the  palace  at  Westminster, 
and,  upon  solemn  occasions,  the  keys  of  Westminster  hall  and  of  the  court  of  requests 
are  delivered  to  him.  At  these  times,  the  gentleman  usher  of  the  black  rod,  the 
yeoman  usher,  and  the  doorkeepers,  are  under  his  orders.  At  coronations,  state-trials, 
banquets,  and  the  like,  the  fitting-up  of  the  hall  devolves  on  him.  When  the  queen 
goes  to  parliament,  he  delivers  the  sword  of  state  to  any  member  of  the  administration 
whom  he  chooses,  to  be  borne  before  her  majesty,  he  himself  walking  on  her  right  hand. 
During  the  sitting  of  parliament,  he  has  charge  of  the  house  of  lords,  and  issues  tickets 
of  admission  on  the  opening  or  prorogation  of  parliament.  Some  fees  and  perquisites 
belong  to  him.  This  office,  conferred  by  Henry  I.  on  Alberic  de  Vere,  was  inherited  by 
female  succession  from  the  De  Veres,  earls  of  Oxford,  by  the  Berties,  and  is  now  held 
conjointly  by  lady  Willoughby  de  Eresby  and  the  marquis  of  Cholmondeley,  in  right  of 
their  mothers,  sisters  and  co-heirs  of  Robert,  fourth  duke  of  Ancaster.  They  discharge 
the  duties  alternately  in  each  succeeding  reign,  a lady  acting  by  deputy.  Lord  Aveland 
is  at  present  deputy  great  chamberlain. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  Joshua  L.,  lii.d.,  b.  Me.,  1828;  a graduate  of  Bowdoin  college. 
During  the  civil  war  he  served  with  distinction,  was  six  times  wounded,  and  left  the 
service  with  the  rank  of  maj.gen.  From  1866  to  1870,  he  was  governor  of  Maine,  and 
in  1871  was  chosen  president  of  Bowdoin  college.  When  the  democrats  and  fusionists 
under  the  lead  of  gov.  Garcelon,  in  1879-80  undertook  to  get  possession  of  the  state 
government,  and  there  was  some  dariger  of  civil  war,  C.  was  general-in-chief  of  the 


(Thambers. 

Chambord. 


666 


militia  of  the  state.  He  adhered  to  the  regularly  elected  legislature,  as  sustained  by  the 
unanimous  opinion  of  the  supreme  court,  and  by  a quiet  but  firm  hold  of  his  lawful 
power,  without  any  display  of  military  force,  prevented  the  intended  violence  and 
usurpation. 

CHAMBERS,  Practice  before  a Judge  or  Vice-chancellor  at.  It  is  to  appli- 
cations to  the  court  in  banc  alone  that  the  name  of  motions  is  properly  given.  But 
there  are  certain  matters  of  subordinate  importance,  regarding  which  applications  are 
made  to  a single  judge  at  chambers,  who  decides  in  a summary  way  on  the  pleadings. 

CHAMBERS,  a co.  in  e.  Alabama,  on  the  Georgia  border,  intersected  by  the  Atlantic 
and  West  Point  railroad.  Before  a division  was  made  to  form  Lee  co.,  the  area  was 
775  sq.m.;  pop. ’80,  23,440 — 12,078  colored.  It  is  partly  bounded  by  the  Chattahooche 
river,  and  is  intersected  by  the  Tallapoosa.  Productions,  cotton,  corn,  wheat,  and  sweet 
potatoes.  Co.  seat,  Lafayette. 

CHAMBERS,  a co.  in  s.e.  Texas,  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  bounded  on  the  w.  by  Gal- 
veston bay,  and  intersected  by  Trinity  river;  900  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  2187 — 693  colored. 
The  surface  is  mainly  prairie;  productions,  corn,  cotton,  and  sweet  potatoes.  Co.  seat, 
Wallisville. 

CHAMBERS,  Ephraim,  the  compiler  of  the  first  English  encyclopaedia.  He  was  b. 
at  Kendal  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  c.,  and  began  life  as  an  apprentice  to  a globe- 
maker  in  London,  where  he  conceived  the  idea  of  his  encyclopaedia.  The  first  edition 
of  the  work,  in  2 vols.  folio,  appeared  in  1728;  ten  years  later,  the  2d  appeared;  and  in 
the  year  following,  the  3d.  The  4th  was  issued  in  1741,  a year  after  the  editor’s  death. 
A 5th  appeared  in  1746,  and  a 6th,  with  new  matter,  in  1750.  This  work  forms  the 
basis  of  Dr.  Rees’s  Cyclopaedia  in  45  quarto  vols.,  and  may  be  considered  as  the 
forerunner  of  the  now  countless  publications  of  an  encyclopaedic  character  (see 
Encyclopedia). 

CHAMBERS,  George,  1803-40;  an  English  painter.  When  a boy  he  followed  the 
sea,  where  he  made  sketches  of  vessels,  which  so  pleased  his  master  that  he  canceled  the 
boy’s  indentures.  C.  then  apprenticed  himself  to  an  old  woman  who  kept  a i)aint-shop, 
and  began  house-painting.  Finally  he  got  employment  as  assistant  in  painting  the 
panorama  of  London  for  the  Colosseum,  and  then  became  scene-painter  in  a theater. 
His  best  works  are  naval  battles,  such  as  “ The  Bombardment  of  Algiers,”  and  “ The 
Capture  of  Porto  Bello,”  both  in  the  Greenwich  hospital. 

CHAMBERS,  William  and  Robert,  the  editors  and  publishers  of  this  Encyclopmdia 
and  other  works;  b.  at  Peebles,  W.  in  1800,  R.  in  1802.  Bearing  up  against  the  diffi- 
culties of  his  early  life,  W.  C.  began  business  as  a bookseller  in  Edinburgh,  1819; 
afterwards  adding  printing  to  his  business.  Between  1825  and  1830,  he  wrote  the 
Gazetteer  of  Scotland,  1 vol. ; and  the  Book  of  Scotland,  1 vol.  R.  C.  also  began  business  as 
a bookseller  in  Edinburgh,  and  from  1823  to  1830  wrote  successively  the  Traditions  of 
Edinburgh,  2 vols. ; Popular  Rhymes  of  Scotland,  1 vol. ; Picture  of  Scotland,  2 vols. ; and 
Histories  of  Rebellions  in  Scotland,  and  Life  of  James  L,  5 vols.  Next,  he  edited  Scottish 
Ballads  and  Songs,  3 vols. ; and  Biography  of  Distinguished  Scotchmen,  4 vols.  His  2'ra- 
ditions  of  Edinburgh  procured  him  the  friendship  of  sir  Walter  Scott,  w’ho  contributed 
various  memoranda  for  the  work.  W.  C.  projected  Chambers's  Edinburgh  Journal,  and 
that  periodical  was  commenced  on  the  4th  of  Feb.,  1832,  about  six  weeks  in  advance  of 
the  Penny  Magazine,  and  may  be  considered  the  pioneer  of  that  class  of  cheap  and 
popular  periodicals  of  a wholesome  kind  now  so  generally  diffused.  The  success  of  the 
Journal  was  materially  promoted  by  the  essays,  moral  and  humorous,  of  R.  C.,  who 
from  the  first  was  an  able  collaborateur.  United  from  this  period  in  the  peculiar  pro- 
fession of  writing,  editing,  printing,  and  publishing,  W.  and  R.  C.  issued  a series  of 
works  designed  for  popular  instruction,  including  the  Journal  (now  amounting,  in  its 
different  series,  to  65  vols.).  Among  these  works  are  Chambers's  Information  for  the 
People,  2 vols. ; Chambers's  Educational  Course,  150  vols. ; Cyclopoedia  of  English  Literature, 
2 vols. ; Miscellany  of  Useful  and  Entertaining  Tracts,  20  vols. ; Papers  for  the  People,  12 
vols. ; and  the  present  Encyclopcedia,  10  vols.  In  conducting  these  laborious  under- 
takings, they  necessarily  depended  on  a number  of  accomplished  literary  assistants. 
In  1849,  W.  C.  acquired  the  estate  of  Glenormiston  in  Peeblesshire,  and  a few  years 
afterwards  he  founded  and  endowed  an  Institution  in  his  native  town  for  purposes  of 
social  improvement  (see  Peeblesshire).  His  later  productions  are — Things  as  they  are 
in  America,  1 vol.  (the  result  of  a visit  to  the  United  States  in  1853);  the  Youth's  Com- 
panion, and  Counselor,  1 vol.;  History  of  Peeblesshire,  1 vol.  8vo  (1864);  pamphlets  on 
Improved  Dwellings  and  Co-operation  among  the  Working  Classes;  Winteririg  at  Mentone, 
written  from  personal  knowledge  of  the  place  during  two  successive  visits;  France:  its 
History  and  Revolutions,  1 vol  (1871);  Memoir  of  Robert  chambers,  with  Autobiographic 
Reminiscences:  and  Ailie  Gilroy,  a story.  More  lately.  Stories  of  Remarkable  Persons, 
Stories  of  Old  Families,  and  the  Story  of  St.  Giles'  (1879).  Twice  elected  lord  provost  of 
Edinburgh,  W.  C.  occupied  that  office  for  four  years  (1865-69),  during  which  hepremoted 
several  important  public  acts,  including  one  for  the  improvement  of  the  older  part  of  the 
city.  R.  C.  latterly  wrote  a work  on  Ancient  Sea  Margins;  after  which  appeared  his 
Domestic  Annals  of  Scotland,  3 vols.  He  also  edited  the  Life  and  Works  of  Robert  Burns,  4 


667 


Chambers. 

Chambord. 


Tols.  A collection  of  his  historical  and  miscellaneous  papers  was  issued  under  the  title 
of  Select  Wntings  of  Robert  Chambers,  7 vols.  His  latest  production  was  the  Booh  of  Days, 
a most  elaborate  and  exhaustive  work  in  two  large  volumes,  the  preparation  of  which 
so  injured  his  health,  that  he  relinquished  all  further  literary  exertion.  In  1863,  he 
received  from  the  university  of  St.  Andrews  tlio  honorary  distinction  of  ll.d.  R.  C. 
died  at  St.  Andrews,  17th  Mar.,  1871,  leaving  a high  character  for  literary  application, 
integrity,  and  geniality  of  disposition.  In  1872,  W.  C.  received  the  honorary  distinction 
of  LL.D.  from  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Engaged  in  miscellaneous  literary  labor, 
he  remains  head  of  the  firm  of  W.  and  R.  C.,  which  owns  an  extensive  printing  and 
publishing  establishment  in  Edinburgh,  and  a publishing  establishment  in  London. 
The  whole  of  the  works  issued  by  W.  and  R.  C.  aim  at  popular  instruction,  free  of  all 
political  or  sectarian  bias.  Perhaps  their  greatest  effort  in  these  respects  has  been  the 
present  Encydopcedia. 

CIIAMBERSBURQ,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Franklin  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  Cumberland 
valley  railroad,  52  m.  s.w.  of  Harrisburg;  pop.  ’70,  6,308.  C.  is  in  the  midst 
of  a populous  and  well-cultivated  region,  and  has  manufactories  of  cotton,  wool, 
iron,  paper,  etc.  The  village  is  w'ell  built.  A great  part  of  it  was  burned  July  30, 1864, 
by  the  confederates  under  gen.  Early.  C.  is  the  seat  of  Wilson  college  for  young 
women. 

CHAMBERTHST,  a vineyard  in  the  department  of  Cote  d’Or,  France,  6 m.  s.s.w.  of 
Dijon.  It  covers  about  60  acres,  and  produces  a red  wine  notable  for  excellence. 

CHAMBERY,  a t.  of  Savoy,  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  beautifully  situated  in  a rich 
vine-clad  valley,  between  two  ridges  of  hills,  about  45  m.  w.s.w.  of  Geneva.  Though 
situated  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  1000  ft.  above  the  sea,  the  climate  of  C.  is  mild ; the 
scenery  around,  with  the  river  Leysse  flowing  through  the  valley,  is  exceedingly  fine. 
The  town  itself,  however,  is  dull  and  uninteresting.  Some  towers  and  other  fragments 
of  the  old  castle  of  the  dukes  of  Savoy,  which  dates  from  the  13th  c.,  still  remain.  C. 
has  manufactures  of  silk-gauze,  soap,  leather,  hats,  lace,  and  a trade  in  silk,  wine,  etc. 
Pop.  ’76,  16,486.  From  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.  to  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713,  C.  was 
under  the  dominion  of  France;  and  again  from  the  revolution  to  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
1815,  when  it  was  restored  to  the  house  of  Savoy;  but  in  1860,  by  the  cession  of  Savoy, 
it  has  again  come  under  the  rule  of  France. 

CHAMBLY,  a s.w.  co.  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  St.  Lawrence, 
opposite  Montreal;  190  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71,  10,498.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Montreal  and 
Richelieu  rivers,  and  by  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Champlain  and  Montreal  railroads, 
and  the  Chambly  canal.  Chief  town,  Chambly. 

CHAMBORB,  a celebrated  jpyal  castle  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Loir-et-Cher, 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a vast  walled  park  21  m.  in  circumference,  about  12  ra.  e.  of 
Blois.  Its  foundation  was  laid  in  1526,  by  Francis  I.,  who  employed  1800  men  con- 
stantly in  its  erection  until  his  death.  The  work  was  continued  with  less  zeal  by  his 
successors,  Henri  II.,  Henri  III.,  Charles  IX.;  and  Louis  XIY.  and  Louis  XV.  also 
made  some  additions  to  it.  The  building,  which  marks  the  transition  between  the 
fortified  castle  and  Italian  palace,  is  surmounted  by  a vast  number  of  turrets,  minarets, 
and  cones;  its  most  prominent  features,  however,  being  six  enormous  round  towers, 
each  60  ft.  in  diameter.  The  double  spiral  staircase  in  the  central  tower  is  of  great 
architectural  interest,  being  so  contrived  that  parties  pass  up  and  down  without  meeting 
each  other.  The  castle  has  no  less  than  440  chambers.  C.  was  the  scene  of  the  gallant- 
ries of  Francis  I.  Here  Henri  II.,  Louis  XIII.,  and  Louis  XIV.  resided;  and  at  one  of 
the  brilliant  f6tes  given  at  the  castle  by  the  latter,  Moliere  performed,  for  the  first  time, 
his  play  of  the  Bourgeois  Oentilhomme.  Among  the  other  occupants  of  C.  were  marshal 
Saxe,  Stanislaus,  king  of  Poland,  and  marshal  Berthier,  upon  whom  it  was  bestowed 
by  Napoleon  I.  It  was  bought  from  Berthier’s  widow  by  a number  of  legitimists,  and 
presented  to  the  due  de  Bordeaux,  who  is  hence  called  comte  de  C.  (q.v.). 

CHAMBORB  (Henri  Charles  Ferdinand  Marie  Dieudonne  d’Artois,  dug  de 
Bordeaux),  Comte  de,  the  representative  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
and  of  its  claims  to  the  French  throne,  was  b.  in  Paris,  Sept.  29,  1820.  He  is  the 
grandson  of  Charles  X.,  and  the  son  of  the  duke  of  Berri  who  was  murdered  by  Louvel, 
Feb.  14,  1820.  The  duke  of  Angoul6me,  Charles  X.’s  eldest  son,  being  childless,  the  duke 
of  Berri  was  heir-presumptive;  and  as,  at  his  death,  he  left  only  a daughter,  the  joy  was 
great  when,  seven  months  after,  his  widow  gave  birth  to  a prince,  who  received  the 
title  of  duke  of  Bordeaux — that  of  comte  de  C.,  by  which  he  has  latterly  been  known, 
being  derived  from  the  castle  of  C.  (q.v.),  presented  to  him  at  his  baptism.  He  was 
baptized,  amid  circumstances  of  great  pomp,  with  water  brought  by  M.  de  Chateaubri- 
and from  the  river  Jordan,  and  received  the  appellation  of  V enfant  du  miracle  C‘  t\ie 
miraculous  child  ”).  When  Charles  X.  abdicated  the  crown  at  the  revolution  in  1830, 
he  did  so  in  favor  of  his  grandson,  the  duke  of  Bordeaux.  The  people,  however,  insisted 
on  the  “citizen  king,”  and  the  elder  Bourbons  were  banished.  On  the  death  of  Charles 
X.,  the  duke  of  Angoul6me  assumed  the  title  of  Louis  XIX,  and  another  party  pro- 
claimed the  duke  of  Bordeaux  king;  but  at  last  a reconciliation  was  brought  about  by 
prince  Metternich.  In  1839,  the  prince  visited  Italy,  accompanied  by  his  mother,  and 


Chambord. 

Chamfort. 


668 


was  received  by  the  petty  courts  with  great  distinction.  After  the  death  of  the  duke 
-of  Angoul§me,  in  1844,  the  heads  of  the  different  fractions  of  legitimists  met  to  pay  their 
united  homage,  and  the  duke  of  Bordeaux  made  a “pilgrimage  to  Belgrave  square”  to 
receive  it.  In  1846,  he  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Modena,  who  had 
never  acknowledged  the  monarchy  of  July.  After  the  revolution  of  1848,  many  legiti- 
mists were  returned  to  the  national  assembly.  In  1850,  the  duke  of  Bordeaux,  or  count 
of  C.,  as  he  styles  himself,  appeared  at  Wiesbaden,  where  a congress  of  his  adherents 
assembled  to  consult  as  to  their  future  policy.  As  the  count  of  C.  is  without  heirs,  a 
union,  or  “fusion,”  as  it  is  called,  of  the  partisans  of  the  elder  Bourbons  with  the 
Orleanists  was  effected,  but  no  attempt  made  to  carry  out  the  arrangement.  After  the 
capitulation  of  Paris  in  1871,  the  count  of  C.  returned  to  France,  and,  under  the  title  of 
Henry  V.,  issued  a proclamation,  in  which  he  promised,  if  placed  by  the  nation  at  the 
head  of  its  affairs,  to  maintain  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  Neither  this  nor  subse- 
quent manifestoes  have  induced  the  French  people  to  accept  of  him  as  their  king. 

CHAMBORD,  Marie  Therese  Beatrice  Gaetane,  Countess  de.  Archduchess  of 
Austria;  b,  July  14,  1817;  wife  of  the  Bourbon  who  calls  himself  Henry  V of  France, 
and  eldest  daughter  of  Francis  IV.,  duke  of  Modeua.  Her  sister  was  the  wife  of  Don 
Juan  de  Bourbon,  and  mother  of  Don  Carlos,  duke  of  Madrid.  She  won  great  reputa 
tion  and  respect  for  her  care  of  sick  and  w'ounded  French  soldiers  during  the  German 
war. 

CHAMBRE  ARDENTE  (“ the  fiery  chamber”),  a name  given  at  different  times  in 
France  to  an  extraordinary  court  of  justice,  probably  on  account  of  the  severity  of  the 
punishments  wdiich  it  awarded,  the  most  common  being  that  of  death  by  fire.  In  the 
year  1535,  Francis  I.  established  an  inquisitorial  tribunal,  and  a chambre  ardente.  Both 
were  intended  for  the  extirpation  of  heresy.  The  former,  of  wiiich  the  pope  was  a corres- 
ponding member,  searched  out,  by  means  of  spies,  cases  of  heresy,  and  instructed  the 
processes;  while  the  latter  both  pronounced  and  executed  the  final  judgment.  Under 
Henri  II.,  the  activity  of  the  C.  A.  received  a new  impulse,  the  entrance  of  that  mon- 
arch into  Paris  on  the  4th  July,  1549,  being  signalized  hy  the  burning  of  several  heretics. 
But  Francis  himself,  gallant  and  gay,  as  courtly  history  represents  him,  also  seemed  to 
relish  a spectacle  of  this  kind,  for  on  various  occasions  he  and  his  mistress  presided  at 
a burning.  By  and  by,  the  C.  A.  relaxed  in  its  penalties,  and  a cry  was  got  up  among 
the  more  bigoted  Roman  Catholics  that  it  was  conniving  at  heresy.  This  seems  to  have 
roused  the  “ lurking  devil  ” in  its  members,  and,  in  order  to  wipe  away  the  reproach, 
they  commenced  a series  of  unheard-of  cruelties,  which,  along  with  other  events,  con- 
tributed to  originate  the  religious  war  of  1560.  In  1679,  Louis  XIV.  employed  it  for  a 
new  and  more  praiseworthy  purpose — viz.,  to  investigate  the  numerous  reports  of 
poisoning  cases  which  the  trial  of  the  marchioness  Brinvilliers  (q.v.)  caused  to  be  cir- 
culated. Many  persons  of  the  first  rank,  such  as  the  marechal  de  Luxembourg,  and  the 
princess  Louise  of  Savoy,  were  examined  on  suspicion,  but  no  one  was  executed  except 
the  pretended  sorcerer,  Voisin  (1680),  after  whose  time  the  C .A.  ended  its  activity. 

CHAMBRE  INTROXJVABLE  (Fr.  unfindable  chamber;  i.e.,  the  chamber  the  like  of 
which  is  not  to  be  found  again)  was  the  name  sarcastically  given  to  that  chamber  of 
deputies  in  France  which  met  after  the  second  return  of  Louis  XVHI.  (July,  1815),  and 
which,  by  its  fanatical  royalty,  began  to  throw  the  country  and  society  anew  into  com 
motion.  The  former  chamber,  which  had  shown  much  moderation,  had  been  dissolved 
under  the  influence  of  the  court  party;  and  the  ministry,  led  by  Talleyrand,  had  done 
everything  to  procure  for  the  ruling  party  at  least  a manageable  chamber  adapted  for 
business.  The  number  of  the  deputies  was  arbitrarily  raised  from  259  to  392;  and  to 
secure  the  victory  of  a complete  restoration,  all  rushed  forward  who  saw  in  the  consti 
tutional  charter  an  encroachment  on  their  privileges  and  pretensions.  When  it  is  con- 
sidered, in  addition,  that  the  elections,  at  least  in  the  departments  of  the  south,  took  place 
under  terror  and  the  sanguinary  outrages  of  a populace  in  a state  of  political  and  relig- 
ious excitement,  that  the  press  was  stifled,  and  the  people  deprived  of  all  freedom  of 
expression  by  the  foreign  armies,  ultra-royalism  could  not  fail  to  be  completely  triumph 
ant.  When  the  ministers  saw  this  startling  result,  they  did  not  venture  to  open  the 
session ; they  resigned,  and  gave  place  to  the  Richelieu  ministry  Then  broke  out  the 
most  frightful  excesses  in  the  southern  provinces.  At  the  elections  in  Nimes  (22d  A»g.), 
more  than  100  persons  were  killed  by  the  royalist  bands.  At  last,  on  7th  Oct.,  the  king 
opened  the  chamber,  on  which  he  enjoined  quietness  and  moderation;  and  it  appeared 
as  if  it  did  take  this  advice  to  heart  for  an  instant.  But  when,  in  one  of  the  first  sit- 
tings, Boyer  d’Argenson  asked  for  the  intervention  of  the  chamber  in  behalf  of  the  Prot- 
estants, who  were  being  slaughtered  in  the  south  by  the  ultra-royalist  bands,  the  speaker 
was  called  to  order,  and  the  chamber  from  that  time  ceased  to  observe  any  bounds  or 
moderation.  The  fanatical  legislation  of  this  chamber  inspired  the  ministers,  the  king, 
and  especially  the  emperor  Alexander,  with  so  much  aversion  and  apprehension,  and 
also  met  so  decidedly  with  the  disapprobation  of  all  peaceful  and  sincere  friends  of  the 
throne,  that  the  news  of  its  dissolution,  on  5th  April,  1816,  was  received  with  universal 
rejoicing.  The  electoral  law  of  5th  Feb.,  1817,  prevented  the  return  of  a similar  cham- 
ber; and  it  was  not  till  by  the  modified  electoral  law  of  1820  that  ultra-royalism 
regained  a predominating  influence  in  parliament.  It  is  said  that  Louis  XVIII.  first 


669 


Chambord* 

Cbamfort. 


(used  the  epithet  chcmJbre  introwooMe  in  an  ironical  sense,  and  that  the  majority  of  the 
chamber  took  it  seriously  as  a compliment. 

CHAMBURE,  Auguste  Lepelletier  de,  1789-1832;  a French  soldier,  whose 
daring  at  Dantzic  in  1813,  and  in  other  places  during  Napoleon’s  wars,  earned  for  him 
the  name  of  “ the  devil.”  He  was  a prisoner  for  a time,  but  was  released,  and  restored 
to  military  command  in  France.  After  Louis  Philippe  came  to  the  throne,  C.  became 
one  of  the  staff  of  Soult,  minister  of  war. 

CHAME'LEON,  a southern  constellation  within  the  antarctic  polar  circle,  and  con- 
taining nine  stars. 

CHAMELEON,  GJiamadeo,  a genus  of  saurian  reptiles,  constituting  a distinct  family, 
of  very  peculiar  form  and  structure,  and  on  various  accounts  highly  interesting.  The 
body  is  much  compressed;  the  dorsal  line  sharp,  in  some  of  the  species  rising  into  an 
elevated  crest ; the  back  of  the  head  is  also  elevated  into  a sort  of  cone.  The  neck  is 
very  short,  and  does  not  admit  of  the  head  being  turned,  for  which,  however,  compen- 
fiation  is  found  in  the  remarkable  powers  of  motion  possessed  by  the  large  prominent 
eyes,  which  move  independently  of  one  another,  and  are  covered  with  a membrane 
pierced  only  with  a small  hole  for  the  pupil  to  look  through.  There  are  no  external 
•ears.  The  skin  is  not  covered  with  scales,  but,  like  shagreen,  rough  with  granules. 
The  legs  raise  the  body  rather  higher  than  in  most  of  the  saurians ; the  toes,  both  of  the 
fore  and  hind  feet,  are  divided  into  two  sets,  one  directed  forward,  and  the  other  back- 
ward, so  that  each  foot  has  the  power  of  grasping  like  a hand.  The  tail  is  long  and 
prehensile.  The  lungs  are  very  large,  and  are  connected  with  air-cells  that  lie  among 
the  muscles  and  beneath  the  skin,  so  that  the  animal  has  a remarkable  power  of  inflating 
itself  with  air.  The  tongue  is  remarkably  extensile,  and  is  the  organ  by  which  the 
animal  seizes  the  insects  which  constitute  its  food,  being  darted  at  them  with  unerring 
aim,  whilst  a viscous  saliva  causes  them  to  adhere  to  it,  and  they  are  carried  with  it 
into  the  mouth.  Chameleons  are  slow  in  their  movements,  except  those  of  the  eyes 
and  tongue,  and  remain  long  fixed  in  one  spot,  awaiting  the  approach  of  insects,  which 
they  seize  on  their  coming  within  reach.  They  all  live  among  the  branches  of  trees. 
Their  power  of  fasting  is  great,  and  along  with  their  gulping  of  air  in  respiration, 
and  their  habit  of  inflating  themselves  with  air,  gave  rise  to  the  fable,  current  among 
the  ancients  and  until  recent  times,  of  their  living  on  air.  Their  celebrated  power  of 
changing  color  is  not  equally  fabulous,  and  perhaps  it  would  be  rash  in  the  present  state 
of  knowledge  on  the  subject  to  assert  how  far  it  has  been  exaggerated.  It  is  probably 
in  part  under  the  control  of  volition,  and  may  be  used,  as  has  been  asserted,  to  render 
the  animal  less  easy  of  observation,  by  assimilating  it  to  the  color  of  surrounding 
objects;  it  may  depend  in  part  on  the  action  of  light;  it  is  certainly  connected  with  the 
fear  and  other  passions  of  the  creature.  Milne  Edwards  has  discovered  that  it  depends 
upon  the  presence  of  two  differently  colored  layers  of  pigment  in  the  skin. 

Chameleons  are  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  the  old  world,  but  are  most  abundant 
in  Africa.  One  species  is  found  in  some  parts  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  as  near  Cadiz.  The 
whole  number  of  known  species  is  small. — When  brought,  as  they  frequently  are,  to 
O-reat  Britain,  they  soon  die,  apparently  from  the  coldness  of  the  climate. 

The  fables  which,  in  former  times,  were  current  regarding  the  C.  were  extremely 
numerous  and  ridiculous.  It  supplied  not  a few  of  those  medicines  to  which  absurd 
credulity  ascribed  the  most  marvelous  powers. 

CHAM’PERING.  In  architecture,  an  angle  which  is  slightly  pared  off,  is  said  to  be 
chamfered.  The  chamfer  is  sometimes  made  slightly  concave,  in  which  case  it  is  called 
R hollow  chamfer.  Chamfers,  in  Gothic  architecture,  have  frequently  ornamental  ter- 
minations of  various  kinds.  The  term  C.  is  applied  to  wood-work  as  well  as  stone. 

CHAMFORT,  Sebastien  Roch-Nicolas,  1741-94;  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
and  among  the  first  of  French  Bohemians,  or  brilliant  but  thriftless  authors,  or  wits. 
He  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a strolling  actress,  and  never  knew  his  father.  Starting 
in  life  with  only  the  name  “Nicolas,”  he  found  his  way  to  Paris,  got  into  the  college 
des  Grassins,  worked  hard,  and  won  nine  prizes  out  of  ten  in  two  years.  Much  dis- 
gusted with  the  Latin  hexameters  that  crowned  his  college  reputation,  he  considered  the 
time  wasted  which  he  had  spent  over  them,  summarizing  his  opinion  in  the  contemptu- 
ous epigram,  “What  I know  I do  not  know ; what  I do  not  know  I guess.”  He  assumed 
the  name  of  C.,  and  began  writing  for  the  press  for  bread  and  renown.  Being  repelled 
alike  by  booksellers  and  editors,  he  took  to  writing  sermons  at  a louis  each  for  lazy  or 
incompetent  priests.  Having  successfully  competed  for  one  of  the  academy  prizes,  the 
salons  of  the  upper  world  were  opened  to  him,  and  he  became  fashionable.  He  w^ent 
on  with  alternate  success  and  failure,  always  poor,  and  living  for  the  most  part  upon 
eleemosynary  dinners  and  suppers,  repaying  countenance  and  sustenance  with  his  always 
brilliant  but  cynical  and  sarcastic  conversation.  He  was  entertained  at  Sevres  for 
som«  years  by  Mme.  Helvetius,  and  Chabanon  gave  him  his  pension  of  1200  livres  in 
the  Mercure  de  France.  C.  also  took  two  more  academy  prizes,  won  a hundred  livres 
from  Necker,  and  obtained  an  enormous  reputation.  He  wrote  little  and  talked  much; 
his  reputation  increased,  and  finally,  under  the  protection  of  the  duchesse  de  Grammont, 
he  went  to  court,  where  the  prince  de  Conde  made  him  his  secretary.  He  was  now 


Chamier. 

Chamond. 


070 


about  40  years  old,  ana  last  Rowing  misanthropic.  He  resigned  his  secretaryship  and 
retired  into  solitude  at  Auteuil,  where  he  fell  in  love  and  married  a lady  attached  to  the 
household  of  the  duchesse  de  Maine.  She  was  a clever,  amusing  woman  of  the  world; 
but  in  six  months  she  left  C.  a widower.  Then  he  traveled  in  Holland,  where  he  lived 
awhile  with  M.  de  Narbonne.  Then,  returning  to  Paris,  he  received  the  chair  in  the 
academy  left  vacant  by  the  death  of  Sainte  Pelaye  in  1781.  He  haunted  the  court  and 
made  himself  loved  in  spite  of  his  withering  and  uncontrollable  irony ; but  in  conse- 
quence of  an  unfortunate  love  affair  he  left  the  court  and  was  received  into  the  house 
of  M.  de  Vaudreuil;  about  which  time  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mirabeau,  whom 
he  assisted  with  orations,  and  whom  he  followed  heart  and  soul  into  the  storm  and 
tumult  of  the  revolution.  He  forgot  his  old  friends;  he  frequented  the  clubs,  and  was 
for  a time  secretary  of  that  of  the  Jacobins;  he  became  a street  orator;  was  among  the 
first  of  the  storming  party  to  enter  the  Bastile;  and  worked  fora  royalist  journal  in 
which  he  depreciated  kingships.  With  the  fall  of  the  Girondins  his  political  life  came 
to  an  end;  but  he  could  not  restrain  the  tongue  that  had  made  him  famous:  he  no  more 
spared  the  convention  than  he  had  spared  the  court.  This  rashness  was  the  cause  of  his 
arrest,  and  he  was  threatened  with  a second  arrest,  whereupon  he  attempted  suicide 
with  pistol  and  poignard;  and,  shockingly  hacked  and  shattered,  dictated  to  those  who 
came  to  arrest  him  the  well-known  declaration:  “I,  Sebastien  Roch-Nicolas  Chamfort, 
declare  that  I would  sooner  suffer  death  as  a free  man  than  be  conducted  as  a slave  to 
prison.”  He  did  not  die  immediately,  but  lingered  awhile  in  charge  of  a gendarme.  To 
the  abbe  Sieyes  he  had  given  fortune  in  the  title  of  a pamphlet.  What  is  tlie  Third 
Estate?  Everything.  What  has  it?  Nothing.  And  to  Sieyes  also  he  spoke  the  famous  sar- 
casm: “At  last  I am  about  to  leave  the  world,  where  the  heart  must  be  broken  or  be 
changed  to  brass,”  As  a writer,  0.  left  little  of  value.  It  was  as  a conversationist,  and 
especially  for  his  epigrammatic  wit  and  cynicism,  that  he  won  a world-wide  fame. 

CHAMIEB,  Frederic,  an  English  novelist,  was  b.  in  London,  1796.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  a midshipman  in  1809,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  American  war.  He  left 
the  service  in  1833.  The  success  of  Marryat  in  depicting  sea-life  led  C.  to  try  the  same 
field,  in  which  he  was  not  without  success,  though  in  invention  and  humor  he  falls  short 
of  his  model.  His  best  romances  are — Life  of  a Sailor  (3  vols.,  Lond.  1834);  Ben  Brace 
(3  vols.,  Lond.  1835);  The  Arethusa  (3  vols.,  Lond.  1836);  Trevor  Hastings  (3  vols.,  1841); 
Passion  and  Pi'inciple  (3  vols.,  1843);  Tom  Bowline  (3  vols.,  1839);  Jack  Adams  (3  vols., 
1888),  etc.  All  his  novels  have  been  translated  into  German.  C.  wrote  a Review  of  the 
French  Revolution  of  1848  (Lond.  1849),  in  which  he  gives  a rather  prejudiced  view  of 
some  of  the  prominent  actors.  He  died  on  the  1st  of  Nov.,  1870. 

CHAMISSO,  Adelbert  von,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  German  lyric  poets,  was 
b.  in  1781,  at  the  castle  of  Boncourt,  in  Champagne,  His  parents  settling  in  Prussia  in 
1790,  he  became  a page  of  the  queen,  and  entered  upon  a military  career.  But  when 
the  campaign  of  1806  broke  out,  he  returned  to  France,  for  though  no  admirer  of  Napo- 
leon, he  was  unwilling  to  fight  against  his  native  land.  At  this  time,  he  was  thrown 
into  the  circle  of  Madame  de  StaSl  at  Coppet,  and  there  began  that  study  of  natural 
philosophy  which  he  afterwards  pursued  at  Berlin.  In  1814,  count  Rumjanzow,  chan- 
cellor of  the  Russian  empire,  prepared  an  exploring  expedition  round  the  world  at  his  own 
expense ; C.  accompanied  it  as  naturalist.  He  embarked  at  Cronstadt  under  capt.  Otto 
von  Kotzebue,  chief  of  the  expedition,  which,  however,  failed  in  its  main  object — that  of 
discovering  a north-east  passage.  Subsequently, he  obtained  a situation  in  the  botanical  gar- 
den of  Berlin,  was  made  a member  of  the  academy  of  science;  and  after  a happy  domestic 
life,  died  there  in  1838,  universally  loved  and  honored.  He  wrote  several  works  on  natural 
history,  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  poetical  productions.  As  early  as  1804-1806, 
he,  together  with  Varnhagen  von  Ense,  published  a Musen  Almanach.  In  1813,  he  wrote 
his  original  and  amusing  fiction  called  Peter  Schlemihl,  the  story  of  the  man  who  loses 
his  shadow,  which  has  been  translated  into  almost  all  the  languages  of  Europe.  The 
character  of  his  poetry  is  wild  and  gloomy,  and  he  is  fond  of  rugged  and  horrible  sub- 
jects. In  his  political  songs,  he  succeeds  well  in  humor  and  irony;  nor  is  he  deficient 
in  deep  and  genuine  feeling.  Indeed,  several  of  his  ballads  and  romances  are  master- 
pieces in  their  way.  We  may  instance  one  of  his  longest  poems,  Salas  y Gomez,  written 
in  terza  rima,  as  a proof  how  peculiarly  German  the  cast  of  C.’s  mind  was,  despite  his 
French  origin.  His  collected  works,  in  six  volumes,  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  183^39. 

CHAMOIS,  Antilope  rupicapra,  Ger.  gemse,  a species  of  antelope  (q.v.)  inhabiting  the 
Alps  and  other  high  mountains  of  central  and  southern  Europe,  as  the  Pyrenees,  the 
Carpathians,  and  the  mountains  of  Greece;  also  those  of  some  of  the  Mediterranean 
islands,  Caucasus,  Taurus,  and  other  mountains  of  the  w,  of  Asia.  It  is  one  of  the  ante- 
lopes sometimes  designated  capi'iform  or  goatlike,  because  of  their  departure  from  the 
typical  or  true  antelope  form,  and  approach  to  that  of  the  goats.  The  C.  is  about  the 
size  of  a large  goat,  but  the  neck  is  longer  in  proportion,  and  the  body  shorter;  the  horns 
seldom  more  tliaff  6 or  7 in.  long,  black,  rising  nearly  straight  up  from  the  forehead, 
and  so  bent  back  at  the  tip  as  to  form  a hook.  The  color  is  brown,  deeper  in  winter 
than  in  summer;  the  tail  is  black;  the  head  is  of  a pale-yellow  color,  with  a dark-brown 
band  along  each  cheek. 

The  usual  summer  resort  of  the  C.  is  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  mountains  which  it 


671 


Chamier. 

Chamoud. 


inhabits,  not  far  from  the  snow-line,  and  it  is  often  to  be  seen  lying  on  the  snow.  In 
winter  it  descends  to  the  higher  forests.  The  aromatic  and  bitter  plants  of  the  moun- 
tain-pastures are  its  favorite  food.  It  is — like  the  ruminants  generally — very  fond  of 
€alt;  “ and  many  stones  are  met  with  in  the  Alps,  hollowed  out  by  the  continual  licking 
of  the  C.,  on  account  of  the  saltpeter  with  which  they  abound.”  It  is  gregarious : flocks 
of  100  are  sometimes  seen;  but  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  where  the  numbers  have  been  much 
reduced  by  hunting,  the  flocks  are  generally  very  small,  and  often  consist  only  of  a few 
individuals.  Old  males  often  live  solitarily.  The  C.  produces  one  or  two  young  at  a 
birth,  in  the  month  of  Mar.  or  April. 

It  is  an  animal  of  extraordinary  agility,  and  flocks  may  often  be  observed  sporting 
in  a remarkable  manner  among  the  rocky  heights.  It  can  leap  over  ravines  of  16  to  18 
ft.  wide;  a wall  of  14  ft.  high  presents  no  obstacle  to  it;  and  it  passes  readily  up  or  down 
precipices  which  almost  no  other  quadruped  could  attempt.  It  is  said  to  descend 
obliquely  almost  perpendicular  precipices  of  more  than  20  ft.,  striking  its  feet  once  or 
twice  against  the  rock,  as  if  to  stajjr  and  guide  its  descent,  and  alighting  securely,  often 
on  a very  narrow  ridge  of  rock,  with  its  hind  feet  first,  and  bringing  the  forefeet  almost 
into  contact  with  them. 

The  hunting  of  the  C.  is  an  occupation  attended  with  great  hardships  and  much 
danger,  but  of  which,  nevertheless,  some  of  the  Swiss  peasants  become  passionately 
fond.  The  hunter  sometimes  goes  out  on  the  adventurous  chase  alone ; but  more  fre- 
quently several  go  out  together,  dividing  into  parties;  and  whilst  the  flock  of  C.  flee 
from  those  whose  approach  they  first  descry,  an  opportunity  of  using  the  rifle  is  obtained 
by  their  comrades.  The  scent  of  the  0.  is  extremely  keen;  and  when  by  this  sense  it  is 
apprised  of  the  approach  of  the  hunter,  it  becomes  alarmed  and  restless  until  it  sees  him, 
upon  which  it  rushes  hastily  in  an  opposite  direction,  and  so  falls  into  the  ambuscade. 
When  a flock  of  C.  is  feeding,  one  is  always  on  the  watch,  and  by  a sort  of  whistle, 
announces  apprehended  danger. — The  flesh  of  the  C.  is  highly  esteemed.  Its  skin  is 
made  into  leather,  and  from  it  the  original  shammoy,  or  shammy  leather,  so  much  prized 
for  softness  and  warmth,  was  obtained,  although  the  name  has  now  become  common 
also  to  leather  prepared  from  the  skins  of  other  animals.  See  Leather. — When  taken 
young,  the  C.  is  easily  tamed. — The  C.  of  the  Persian  mountains  is  smaller  and  of  a 
paler  color  than  the  European  variety,  and  its  horns  bend  from  the  base. 

CHAM'OMILE,  or  Camomile,  Anthemis,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  compos- 
itm,  sub-order  corymUfercs,  distinguished  by  imbricated  bracts,  a scaly  conical  receptacle, 
a ray  of  one  row  of  female  florets,  those  of  the  disk  hermaphrodite,  the  achaenia  obscurely 
four-cornered,  and  destitute  of  pappus.  The  species  are  annual  and  perennial  herba- 
ceous plants,  chiefly  natives  of  Europe  and  other  temperate  parts  of  the  world.  Several 
are  found  in  Britain,  amongst  which  is  the  Common  C.  {A.  noMUs),  the  most  important 
species  of  the  genus,  well  known  for  its  medicinal  virtues,  a perennial  plant  with  a stem 
about  a foot  long,  procumbent  and  much  branched,  each  branch  terminated  by  a flower 
(head  of  flowers)  more  than  an  inch  broad,  with  yellow  disk  and  white  ray,  the  whole 
plant  intensely  bitter  and  highly  aromatic.  Its  medicinal  virtues  are  ascribed  to  the 
essential  oil  which  it  contains,  oil  of  chamomile,  which  abounds  most  of  all  in  the  invo- 
lucre. This  oil  is  of  a greenish-yellow  color,  and  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  some 
medicines.  The  dried  flowers  are  often  administered  in  the  form  of  an  infusion,  as  a 
stimulant  of  the  nerves  of  the  abdomen,  an  alterative  and  antispasmodic ; or  are  applied 
to  the  skin  as  an  anodyne,  and  on  account  of  their  power  of  promoting  absorption  and 
suppuration.  The  infusion  also  acts  as  an  emetic,  and  is  often  used  to  assist  the  action 
of  other  emetics.  C.  flowers  find  a place  in  the  pharmacopoeia,  and  are  also  amongst 
the  most  esteemed  of  domestic  medicines,  the  plant  being  extensively  cultivated  for  their 
sake,  and  very  generally  finding  a place  even  in  cottage-gardens.  Yet  they  ought  to  be 
used  with  caution,  as  they  have  been  known  to  produce  congestion  in  the  brain,  and  are 
very  apt  to  aggravate  any  malady  of  this  kind  already  existing.  A double-flowering 
variety  of  C.  is  more  generally  cultivated  than  the  single,  to  supply  the  C.  flowers  of  the 
shops,  the  flowers  being  whiter  and  more  bulky,  but  it  is  otherwise  rather  inferior.  C. 
is  easily  propagated  by  parting  the  roots.  It  delights  in  a dry  and  rather  poor  soil. — Th« 
name  Wild  C.  is  given  to  a very  similar  plant,  also  a native  of  Britain  {matricaria  cham' 
fomilla),  an  annual  belonging  to  a genus  closely  allied  to  anthemis.  It  may  readily  be 
distinguished  by  the  want  of  scales  on  the  receptacle.  Its  medicinal  virtues  resemble 
those  of  common  C.,  and  although  now  disused  in  Britain,  it  is  in  some  parts  of  Europe 
preferred  for  internal  use,  because  it  is  less  bitter,  less  nauseous,  and  generally  milder 
and  more  agreeable  in  its  operation. — No  small  quantity  of  common  C.  is  illegally  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  beer  in  England,  and  is  imported  from  Germany  for  this  purpose. 
Yet  this  plant  is  so  abundant  in  some  parts  of  the  s.  of  England  as  to  form  a principal 
part  of  the  pasture  in  sheep-walks,  and  to  fill  the  whole  air  with  its  scent.  The  other 
British  species  of  C.  {anthemis)  are  mere  weeds;  one  of  them,  called  stinking  C-  {A. 
€otula),  is  so  acrid  as  to  blister  the  fingers,  if  much  handled.  But  the  flowers  of  the 
Ox-eye  C.,  or  Dyer’s  C.  {A.  tinctoria),  a native  of  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
yield  a beautiful  yellow  dye,  on  account  of  which  the  plant  is  often  cultivated. 

CHAUOND,  St.,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Loire,  situated  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Gier  and  the  Ban,  about  7 m.  n.e.  of  St.  Etienne,  on  the  railway  between  that 


Chamoreril. 

Champarty. 


672 


place  and  Lyon.  It  is  a flourishing  well-built  town,  with  extensive  manufactures  of 
ribbons  and  stay-laces.  C.  has  also  several  silk-mills  and  numerous  iron  furnaces  and 
foundries;  and  extensive  coal-mines  exist  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  76,  14,420. 

CHAMOBEBIL,  a lake  of  Ladakh  or  Middle  Thibet,  in  lat.  32°  55'  n,,  and  long.  78° 
15'  e.  It  lies  at  a height  of  15,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  plateau  between  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Sutlej  and  of  the  Indus,  girt  by  mountains  which  rise,  at  some  points, 
5,000  ft.  above  its  own  level.  Though  it  is  beyond  the  recognized  limits  of  perpetual 
congelation,  yet  it  freezes  only  in  winter,  and  is  hence  supposed  to  be  of  great  depth. 
Necessarily  receiving  much  water  from  the  surrounding  mountains,  it  is  without  any 
visible  outlet — evaporation  alone,  even  at  this  elevation,  appearing  to  maintain  one  uni- 
form surface  on  a length  of  15  m. , and  a width  of  2^. 

CHAMOTJNI,  or  Chamonix  (Lat.  Campus  munitus),  is  the  name  of  a wild  and  roman- 
tic valley  and  village  among  the  Alps  in  Savoy.  It  lies  at  a distance  from  all  the  high- 
roads, at  an  elevation  of  about  3,400  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  more  than  2,000 
ft.  above  that  of  the  lake  of  Geneva.  The  valley  is  about  13  m.  long,  and  about  2 broad, 
and  is  traversed  by  the  Arve.  It  is  bounded  at  the  e.  end  by  the  Col  de  Balme,  over 
which  there  is  a mule-path  to  Martigny,  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Rhone,  and  from  tho 
other  end  issues  the  road  to  Geneva,  which  lies  at  a distance  of  53|  m.  from  Chamouni, 
On  the  n.  side  lies  mont  Breven  and  the  chain  of  the  Aiguilles  Rouges,  and  on  the  s., 
the  giant  group  of  mont  Blanc,  from  which  enormous  glaciers  or  rivers  of  ice  slide 
down,  even  in  summer,  almost  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  The  chief  of  these  glaciers 
are  the  Glacier  des  Bossons,  des  Bois,  d’Argenti^re,  and  du  Tour.  By  ascending  to  a point 
called  Montanvert,  we  come  upon  the  upper  course  of  a glacier,  where  it  expands  into 
a great  mountain-lake  of  ice  called  the  Mer  de  Glace,  in  which  there  is  a solitary  rock  or 
oasis  called  Le  Jardin,  about  seven  acres  in  extent,  and  covered  with  the  most  beautiful 
herbage.  The  excursion  to  the  Jardin  is  one  of  the  most  striking  excursions  within  the 
range  of  Chamouni.  Until  1741,  the  valley  was  almost  unknown;  the  region  was  con- 
sidered a wilderness,  and  knowm  by  the  name  of  Les  Montagnes  Maudites,  or  “ accursed 
mountains.”  In  the  above  year,  it  was  visited  by  two  Englishmen,  Pocock  and  Wynd- 
ham,  who  ascended  as  far  as  Montanvert;  and  a granite  block  there  still  bears  the 
name  of  the  Englishmen’s  stone.  It  was  only,  however,  in  1775,  that  the  attention  of 
travelers  was  effectually  called  to  it  by  Saussure  and  Bourrit.  The  valley  is  rich  in  pecu- 
liar plants,  and  furnishes  an  aromatic  and  perfectly  white  honey.  The  village  of  C.  owes 
its  origin  to  the  Benedictine  convent  founded  between  1088  and  1099.  The  pop.  of  the 
village  is  about  2,400,  who  depend  partly  upon  the  strangers  who  visit  the  valley,  and 
partly  upon  the  pastures  and  upon  hunting.  There  are  several  good  hotels,  and  the  best 
guides  are  to  be  found  here  for  the  neighboring  Alps.  It  is  from  C.  that  mont  Blanc  is 
usually  ascended. 

CHAMP  AC,  Michelia  champaca,  an  Indian  tree,  possessing  great  beauty  both  of 
foliage  and  flowers,  and  much  venerated  both  by  Brahmanists  and  Buddhists.  Images 
of  Buddha  are  made  of  its  wood.  Its  flowers  have  a pale-yellow  tint,  and  a sweet 
oppressive  perfume,  much  celebrated  in  the  poetry  of  the  Hindus. 

CHAMPAGNE,  formerly  a province  of  France,  now  forming  the  departments  of 
Seine-et-Marne,  Aube,  Yonne,  Haute-Saone,  and  Ardennes.  The  province  was  about 
180  m.  long  by  150  broad,  its  surface  presenting  extensive  plains  with  ranges  of  hills, 
especially  in  the  north  and  east.  Upon  these  hills  is  grown  the  famous  Champagne 
wine. 

In  ancient  times,  C.  was  known  as  a part  of  Gallia,  was  subjugated  by  Caesar,  and 
afterwards  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  established  by  the  Franks.  After  the  11th  c., 
it  had  its  own  dukes,  who  were  vassals  of  the  French  kings.  By  the  marriage  of 
Philippe  IV.  with  Joanna,  heiress  to  the  kingdom  of  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie» 
C.,  in  1284,  came  to  the  French  crown,  and  was  incorporated  by  Philippe  VI.,  in  1328. 
During  the  campaign  of  1792,  the  eastern  part,  and,  in  the  campaign  of  1814,  th« 
western  part,  of  C.  was  the  chief  arena  of  warfare. 

CHAMPAGNE,  or  CHAMPAIGNE,  Philippe  de,  1602-74;  a painter  of  Brussels, 
born  of  a poor  family.  He  was  a pupil  of  Fouquier,  and  in  1621  was  employed  with 
Nicholas  Poussin  to  paint  in  the  Luxemburg  palace.  His  best  work  is  in  Vincennes, 
and  in  the  Carmelite  church  in  Paris,  where  may  be  seen  his  celebrated  crucifix.  He 
became  first  painter  to  the  queen  of  France,  and  rector  of  the  Paris  academy. 

CHAMPAGNE  WINE  is  the  produce  of  vineyards  in  the  above-mentioned  province  of 
Champagne.  There  are  white  and  red  champagnes;  the  white  is  either  sparkling  or 
still.  Sparkling  or  effervescent  {mousseux)  C.  is  the  result  of  a peculiar  treatment  dur- 
ing fermentation.  In  Dec.,  the  wine  is  racked  off,  and  fined  with  isinglass,  and  in 
Mar.  it  is  bottled  and  tightly  corked.  The  fermentation  being  incomplete  when  the 
wine  is  bottled,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  generated  in  a confined  space  dissolves  in  the  wine, 
and  communicates  the  sparkling  property  to  champagne.  To  clear  the  wine  of  sedi- 
ment, the  bottles  are  first  placed  in  a sloping  position  with  the  necks  downward,  so 
that  the  sediment  may  be  deposited  in  the  necks  of  the  bottles.  When  this  sediment 
has  been  poured  off,  some  portion  of  a liqueur  (a  solution  of  sugar-candy  in  cognac)  is 
added  to  the  wine,  and  every  bottle  is  filled  up  with  bright  clarified  wine,  and  securely 


673 


Chamorerll. 

Cliampartj. 


jc-corked.  The  effervescence  of  the  wine  thus  prepared  bursts  many  bottles,  in  some 
cases  10  per  cent;  and  in  seasons  of  early  and  sudden  heat,  as  many  as  20  and  25  per 
cent  have  been  burst.  Wine-buyers  estimate  the  value  of  wine  according  to  the  break- 
age, that  which  breaks  most  bottles  being  considered  best.  Still  or  non-effervcscent  C. 
is  first  racked  off  in  the  Mar.  after  the  vintage.  Creaming  or  slightly  effervescent  C. 
{demi-mouaseux)  has  more  alcohol,  but  less  carbonic  acid  gas  than  sparkling  champagne. 

The  best  varieties  of  this  wine  are  produced  at  Rheims  and  Epernay,  and  generally 
on  a chalky  soil.  Among  white  Champagnes  of  the  first  class,  the  best  are  those  of  Sillery, 
which  are  of  a fine  amber  hue,  di  y spirituous,  and  possessing  a superior  bouquet;  those  of 
Ay  and  Mareuil  are  less  spirituous,  but  are  sparkling,  with  a pleasant  bouquet.  Other 
white  wines  of  first  class  are  those  of  Hautvilliers,  Dizy,  Epernay,  and  Pierry. 

In  the  first  class  of  red  C.,  or  Montagne,  we  have  the  varieties  of  Verzy,  Verzenay, 
Mailly,  St.  Basle,  Bouzy,  and  Thierry;  all  having  fine  color,  clearness,  good  body,  suffi- 
cient spirit,  and  a pleasant  bouquet.  The  trade  in  Champagne  wines  is  chiefly  carried  on 
in  Rheims,  Avise,  Epernay,  and  Chalons-sur-Marne.  The  cellars  in  which  the  vintages 
are  stored  are  cut  out  of  the  calcareous  rock.  The  fact  that  the  sale  of  C.  is  very  exten- 
sive and  lucrative,  has  naturally  given  rise  to  adulterations.  Sugar,  and  the  juices  of 
pears  or  gooseberries,  or  birch- juice,  etc.,  have  been  used  for  making  spurious  Cham- 
pagne. It  may  fairly  be  reckoned  that  not  even  a third  part  of  the  wine  sold  for  C.  in 
Paris  is  genuine.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  readily  manufactured  by  simply  charging 
other  light  wines  with  carbonic  acid  gas.  Recently,  the  German  purveyors  have  suc- 
ceeded in  preparing  light  wines — such  as  Rhenish,  Main,  Neckar,  Meissner,  and  Naum- 
burg— so  much  like  genuine  C.,  as  to  deceive  even  the  connoisseur.  Altogether,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  district  produces  1,100,000  hectolitres  (24,200,000  gallons)  of  genuine 
C.,  of  which,  however,  the  finest  growths  make  but  a small  part. 

CHAMPAIGN,  a co.  in  e.  Illinois,  intersected  by  the  Toledo,  Wabash  and  Western, 
the  Chicago  branch  of  the  Illinois  Central,  and  the  Illinois,  Bloomington  and  Western 
railroads;  880  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  40,870.  The  surface  is  level,  and  the  chief  productions 
are  corn,  broom-corn,  oats  potatoes,  wheat,  hay,  cheese,  butter,  wool,  and  so;|;ghum 
molasses.  Co.  seat,  Urbana. 

CHAMPAIGN,  a co.  in  w.  Ohio,  intersected  by  Mad  river,  and  by  the  Cincinnati, 
Sandusky  and  Cleveland,  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Atlantic  and 
Great  Western  railroads;  390  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,27,817.  The  chief  productions  are  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  butter,  and  wool.  There  are  also  a number  of  important 
manufactories.  Co.  seat,  Urbana. 

CHAMPAIGN,  a city  in  Champaign  co.,  111.,  on  the  Illinois  Central  and  the  Indian- 
apolis, Bloomington  and  Western  railroads,  128  m.  s.s.w.  of  Chicago.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Illinois  Industrial  university.  Champaign  is  a handsome  and  growing  place,  2 m.  from 
Urbana,  the  county  seat,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  horse  railroad.  Pop.  ’70,  4,625. 

CHAMPARAN,  a district  in  India,  in  the  Behar  province,  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal ; 26°  and  28°  n.  and  84°  and  86°  east.  The  district  is  a 
wast  level  except  in  the  n.  and  n.w.,  where  it  is  undulating  and  rugged  as  it  nears  the 
mountains  of  Nepaul.  The  s.  and  w\  portions  are  well  cultivated,  and  have  a dense 
population.  The  whole  population  in  1872  was  1,440,815,  of  whom  86  in  a hundred 
were  Hindus,  14  Mohammedans,  7 unspecified,  and  one  in  a hundred  Christians.  There 
are  only  twm  towns  of  consequence:  Bettiah,  pop.  19,708;  and  Motihari,  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  district,  pop.  8,266.  The  principal  crops  are  rice,  corn,  barley,  sugar-cane, 
opium,  and  indigo;  and  the  mineral  products,  gold,  copper,  and  limestone.  Indigo, 
saltpeter,  and  rope  are  the  only  manufactures. 

CHAM'PARTY,  or  Champerty  (Fr. , from  Lat.  campi  partitio,  a division  of  lands),  an 
offense  known  to  the  law  of  England,  which  consists  in  a bargain  between  the  plaintiff 
or  defendant  in  a suit,  and  a third  party,  generally  a lawyer,  that  the  latter  shall  have 
part  of  the  land,  debt,  or  other  thing  sued  for,  in  the  event  of  success,  and  that  in  the 
meantime  he  shall  carry  on  the  suit  at  his  own  expense.  This  practice  has  been  strictly 
forbidden  by  statute  in  England  from  very  early  times  (3  Edward  I.  c.  25;  13  Edward 
I.  c.  49 ; etc. ) ; and  in  Scotland  the  rule  of  the  civil  law  by  which  the  pactum  de  quotd 
litis  (q.v.)  was  held  to  be  2^ pactum  illicitum  (q.v.),  and  as  such  void,  has  all  along  been 
part  of  the  common  law.  Such  practices  were  also  forbidden  by  statute  to  members 
of  the  college  of  justice  (1594,  c.  216).  There  is  this  difference  between  the  laws  of  the 
two  countries,  however,  that  whereas  in  England  the  offense  has  always  been  punished 
criminally,  in  Scotland  the  only  penalty  which  it  entails  beyond  nullity  of  the  bargain, 
is  deprivation  of  office.  In  former  times,  the  evil  chiefly  apprehended  from  C.  prob- 
ably was,  that  the  honesty  of  judges  might  be  tampered  with  by  advocates  who  were 
generally  their  friends,  and  not  unfrequently  their  very  near  relatives,  if  permitted  to 
be  personally  interested  in  the  issue  of  the  causes  in  which  they  were  professionally 
cinployed.  In  our  own  day,  the  chief  danger  consists  in  the  encouragement  which 
might  thus  be  given  to  dishonest  and  oppressive  litigation,  and  the  facilities  which 
would  be  afforded  for  nefarious  transactions  between  the  agents  on  the  opposite  sides. 
‘That  practices  closely  analogous  to  C.,  though  unnamed,  are  not  unknown  in  the  lower 
strata  of  the  legal  profession  in  all  countries,  is  but  too  probable.  The  necessities  of 
U.  K.  111.-43 


Champ  de  Mars. 
Champollion. 


674 


trade  have  further  introduced  considerable  equitable  modifications  into  the  law  of  C,.. 
which  will  be  explained  under  Chose  in  Action. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS,  originally  Champ  de  Mai,  the  title  given  to  annual  meetingsr 
of  the  Franks  of  Gaul  in  the  5th  c.  and  later.  They  were  national  assemblies  in  which 
the  chief  men  gathered  to  pay  obeisance  to  their  chief ; or  were  special  meetings  called 
by  the  king,  to  deliberate  upon  important  matters;  or  military  reviews.  One  of  the 
Carlovingians  changed  the  time  of  regular  meeting  from  Mar.  to  May,  whence  the 
name.  The  Romans  called  them  plactia. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS,  a great  parallelogram  in  the  environs  of  Paris,  between  the 
Seine  and  the  Ecole  Militaire,  used  especially  for  military  purposes  and  drills.  It  is 
1093  yards  long  and  537  wide,  with  four  rows  of  trees  on  either  side,  flanked  by 
ditches,  and  entered  by  five  gates.  It  has  been  the  site  of  many  remarkable  political 
and  other  demonstrations,  from  that  against  the  legislative  assembly  in  1791,  to  the- 
more  peaceful  universal  expositions  of  1867  and  1878. 

CHAMPE,  John,  1752-98;  a soldier  in  the  revolutionary  army,  who  was  sent  as  a. 
spy  to  New  York  with  a view  to  carry  off  Arnold,  who,  after  the  discovery  of  his 
treason,  had  taken  refuge  in  the  British  lines.  C.  discovered  that  Arnold  was  in 
the  habit  of  walking  in  his  garden  at  a late  hour  every  night,  and  arranged  to  seize  and 
hurry  him  to  a boat  and  across  the  Hudson;  but  on  the  appointed  night  Arnold 
had  changed  his  head-quarters  and  failed  to  appear.  C.  immediately  escaped  and 
rejoined  the  patriot  army,  but  he  was  at  once  honorably  discharged  from  service,  lest  if 
taken  prisoner  he  should  lie  summarily  hanged  as  a spy. 

CHAMPFLEURY  (real  name  Jules  Fluery),  b.  1821,  Beginning  as  a clerk  with  a 
Parisian  book-publisher,  he  speedily  acquired  reputation  by  such  books  as  Confessions  of 
Sylvius;  Adventures  of  Mariette;  Stories  of  Winter,  Spring,  and  Autumn;  and  a number  of 
pantomines.  He  is  one  of  the  founders  of  UEvenement  newspaper;  and  an  author 
of  Les  Oies  du  Noel  for  Proudhon’s  Voice  of  the  People.  A satire  on  country  life,  Le» 
Bourgeois  de  Molinchart,  added  to  his  fame.  His  works  have  been  published  with  illus- 
trations, including  the  History  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Caricature. 

CHAMPION  (from  a Gothic  root  signifying  to  contend,  fight;  Ang.-Sax.  camp„ 
fight).  In  the  judicial  combats  of  the  middle  ages,  it  was  allowed  to  women,  children, 
and  aged  persons,  except  in  cases  of  high  treason  or  of  parricide,  to  appear  in  the  lists 
by  a representative.  Such  a hired  combatant  was  called  a champion.  Those  who  fol- 
lowed this  profession  were  generally  of  the  lowest  class,  and  were  held  disreputable ; 
for  besides  the  perils  of  the  combat,  they  were  liable  to  be  executed  as  well  as  their 
clients.  They  were  obliged  to  wear  a peculiar  dress  of  leather,  and  peculiar  armor, 
which  was  also  held  disreputable.  They  were  not  allowed  to  fight  on  horseback,  and 
appeared  in  the  lists  with  their  hair  and  nails  cut  short.  Champions  are  mentioned  as 
early  as  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne ; and  Otto  I.  employed  them  in  deciding  the  suc- 
cession to  the  empire.  At  a later  period,  in  the  age  of  chivalry,  the  word  C.  came  to 
have  a more  dignified  acceptation,  and  signified  a knight  who  entered  the  lists  on 
behalf  of  an  injured  lady,  of  a child,  or  of  any  one  incapable  of  self-defense.  In  Eng- 
land, the  crown  even  had  its  C.,  who,  mounted  on  horseback  and  armed  to  the  teeth, 
challenged,  at  every  coronation  at  Westminster,  all  who  should  deny  the  king  to  be  the- 
lawful  sovereign  of  the  three  realms.  This  practice  is  understood  to  have  been  first 
introduced  under  Richard  II.,  and  it  continues  to  make  a part  of  the  ceremonial  of 
an  English  coronation  to  this  day.  The  name  of  C.  was  also  given  to  the  knight  who, 
during  a tournament,  had  charge  to  see  that  no  injury  or  insult  should  be  offered  to  the 
assembled  ladies. 

CHAMPION  HILLS,  in  Hinds  co.,  Miss.,  where.  May  16,  1863,  a confederate  force 
under  gen.  Pemberton  had  a short  fight  with  gen.  Grant’s  forces,  then  marching  upon 
Vicksburg.  The  confederates  were  beaten  and  forced  to  retreat  to  Big  Black  river. 

CHAMPLAIN,  Lake,  separating  the  states  of  New  York  and  Vermont,  and  penetrat 
ing,  at  its  n.  end,  about  6 m.  into  Lower  Canada.  It  empties  itself  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence, about  45  m.  below  Montreal,  by  the  Sorel  or  Richelieu.  It  is  navigable  through- 
out for  vessels  of  about  100  tons,  having  its  communications  improved  by  one  canal  oiy 
its  own  river,  and  by  another  to  the  Hudson.  It  stretches  in  lat.  from  43°  30'  to  45°  6' 
n.,  and  in  long,  from  73°  to  73°  30'  w. ; its  extreme  breadth,  however,  never  exceeding 
15  miles.  Its  principal  towns  are  Whitehall  at  the  s.,  Plattsburg  on  the  w.,  and  Bur- 
lington on  the  east.  Both  lake  C.,  and  its  tributary,  lake  George,  have  been  prominent 
in  the  history  of  the  country — during  the  rivalry  of  France  and  England  before  the 
conquest  of  1759-60;  during  the  revolutionary  struggle  of  1775-82;  and  lastly,  during 
the  war  of  1812-14,  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

CHAMPLAIN,  Lake  {ante),  discovered  by  Samuel  Champlain  in  1609,  the  year  in 
which  Henry  Hudson  discovered  New  York  bay  and  the  North  river.  The  possession 
of  this  lake  was  a matter  of  importance  in  the  war  between  the  United  States  and. 
Great  Britain  in  1812-15.  In  Aug.,  1814,  an  English  army  of  12,000,  led  by  sir  George 
Prevost,  passed  up  the  w.  side  of  the  lake  to  Plattsburg,  accompanied  by  a squadron 
of  16  vessels,  95  guns,  and  1,000  men.  The  Americans  had  a hastily  constructed  fleet 
in  Plattsburg,  comprising  14  vessels,  86  guns,  and  850  men.  A fierce  engagement  took. 


675 


Champ  de  Mars. 
Champolllon 


place  Sept.  11,  in  the  beginning  of  which  the  English  had  the  advantage,  but  the  vic- 
tory was  with  the  Americans.  The  British  land  forces  abandoned  the  design  of  invasion, 
and  under  cover  of  darkness  and  a storm  hastily  retraced  their  steps  toward  Canada, 
abandoning  their  sick  and  wounded,  and  a part  of  their  baggage.  There  are  in  the 
lake  about  50  islands,  the  largest  of  which  are  North  and  South  Hero,  and  Isle  La 
Motte.  The  lake  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  scenery,  and  is  a favorite  resort  for  summer 
tourists. 

CHAMPLAIN,  a co.  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  bordering  on  the  n.w.  bank 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  about  midway  between  Montreal  and  Quebec;  229  sq.m. ; pop.  ’71, 
S,167.  It  is  intersected  by  the  St.  Maurice  and  other  rivers.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
there  is  abundance  of  good  timber.  Besides  ordinary  agricultural  crops,  tobacco  and 
maple  sugar  are  raised.  Chief  town,  Batiscan. 

CHAMPLAIN,  a township  in  Clinton  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Canada  border,  forming 
the  extreme  n.e.  point  of  the  state.  It  has  a village  of  the  same  name;  pop.  of  township, 
’75,  5,306.  The  village  is  on  the  Ogdensburg  and  Lake  Champlain  railroad,  114  m.  e.  of 
Ogdensburg. 

CHAMPLAIN,  Samuel  DE,  1567-1635;  the  son  of  a sea  captain,  and  when  young 
in  the  army  of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  He  accompanied  the  Spanish  fleet  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  on  his  return  wrote  an  account  of  the  voyage.  In  1603,  he  was  sent  to  Can- 
ada by  De  Chaste,  on  whom  the  king  had  bestowed  some  of  the  new  territory.  From 
1604  to  1607,  he  was  engaged  in  exploring  the  coasts  and  seeking  a desirable  place  for  a 
settlement.  The  next  year  he  made  a third  voyage,  and  began  a settlement  at  Quebec. 
After  many  misfortunes  and  struggles  the  settlement  became  prosperous.  In  1629,  it 
was  captured  by  some  English  adventurers,  and  C.  was  taken  to  London,  but  was  set  at 
liberty  in  1632.  The  next  year  he  returned  to  Canada,  and  died  there.  C.  was  in  fact 
the  governor  of  the  settlement  from  its  commencement  until  his  death. 

CHAMPLIN,  James  Tift,  d.d.,  b.  Conn.,  1811;  a graduate  of  Brown  university, 
:and  tutor  therein;  from  1838-41  pastor  of  a Baptist  church  in  Portland,  Me.;  1841-57, 
professor  of  ancient  languages  in  Waterville  college,  and  from  1857-72,  president  of 
of  the  same  institution,  now  known  as  Colby  university.  He  has  published  a number 
of  college  text-books. 

CHAMPNEY,  Benjamin,  b.  N.  H.,  1817;  an  artist  noted  for  landscape  painting  of 
Alpine  and  White  mountain  scenery.  In  early  life  he  was  a lithographer  in  Boston. 

CHAMPNEY,  James  Wells,  b.  Mass.,  1843;  learned  the  business  of  wood 
■engraving,  taught  drawing,  and  studied  painting  in  Europe.  He  served  as  a volunteer 
in  the  civil  war. 

CHAHPOLIION,  Jean  FRANqois,  an  illustrious  name  in  modern  Egyptian  archasol- 
ogy,  was  b.  Dec.  23,  1790,  at  Figeac,  in  the  department  of  Lot,  France.  In  1801,  he 
was  introduced  to  Baron  Fourier,  secretary  to  the  Institut  d'Egypte,  who  initiated  him 
into  the  science  of  Egyptian  antiquities.  In  1807,  C.  went  to  Paris,  in  order  to  pursue, 
with  more  advantage,  his  oriental  studies;  and,  in  1809,  was  appointed  professor  of  his- 
tory in  the  lyceum  of  Grenoble.  In  1811,  he  published  his  work,  VEgypte  sous  les  Pha- 
raons,  intended  as  the  forerunner  of  a more  elaborate  work  on  Egypt,  of  which  only  the 
geographical  section  appeared,  in  1814.  In  his  endeavor  to  decipher  the  Rosetta  stone, 
C.  labored  under  the  error  of  supposing  that  in  this  inscription  the  hieroglyphics  were 
wholly  ideographic,  and  the  demotic  and  hieratic  characters  wholly  phonetic.  After- 
wards, he  was  led  to  believe  that  the  hieratic  characters  were  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
hieroglyphic,  and  this  conviction  he  expressed  in  a communication  made  to  the  Acade- 
mie  des  Imcriptioris,  in  Aug.,  1821.  In  the  same  year  he  published  his  essay,  Sur  VEcri- 
ture  Hieratique  des  Anciens  Egyptiens  (Grenoble),  a work  which  is  now  scarce.  In  this 
essay  he  continued  to  assert  the  common  ideographic  nature  of  both  hieroglyphic  and 
hieratic  characters.  Meanwhile  C.  had  been  made  acquainted  with  the  conclusions  of 
the  acqte  mathematician.  Dr.  Thomas  Young  (q.v.),  respecting  the  phonetic  use  of  hier- 
oglyphic signs.  Without  doubt,  it  was  this  important  discovery,  of  which  Dr.  Young, 
however,  made  no  great  use,  that  set  C.  on  tho  right  track  of  investigation,  and  led  to 
those  brilliant  results  which  were  regarded  by  Niebuhr  as  constituting  the  greatest  dis- 
•covery  of  the  century.  By  a comparison  of  the  name  of  Ptolemy  on  the  Rosetta  stone 
with  that  of  Cleopatra  on  the  Philensian  obelisk,  he  was  enabled  to  lay  the  foundation 
of  an  alphabet,  which  he  continued  to  elaborate  until  it  now  forms  the  basis  of  modern 
Egyptian  archaeology.  His  first  decisive  discoveries  were  made  known  in  his  celebrated 
Lettre  d Mons.  Bader  (Par.  1822),  which  was  followed  by  the  Freds  du  Systeme  Hiero- 
^lypTiique  (Paris,  1824;  second  ed.  1828);  but  his  principal  work,  the  Orammaire  Egyp- 
tienne,  was  posthumously  published  in  1836. 

In  1824,  appeared  his  Pantheon  Egyptien;  and,  in  1825,  his  celebrated  letters  to  the 
due  de  Blacas.  in  which  he  explains  the  names  and  titles  of  many  of  the  Pharaohs,  writ- 
ten on  the  monuments  in  Drovetti’s  Egyptian  collection  at  Turin,  and  attempts  to  class 
them  into  dynasties.  His  theory  of  interpretation  was  much  controverted  at  first,  but  its 
importance  was  recognized  by  such  distinguished  scholars  as  Rosellini,  Bunsen,  sir 
William  Gell,  and  others. 

In  1828,  he  was  appointed  b}’^  Charles  X.  to  accompany  a scientific  expedition  to 


Champollion-Figeao. 

Chancellor. 


676 


Egypt,  of  which  the  results  were  given  by  Rosellini  in  the  Monumens  de  VEgypte  etdela 
Ii/ubie  (Par.  1835-45).  On  his  return  to  Paris,  1830,  C.  was  made  a member  of  the  Acad- 
eirde  des  Inscriptions,  etc.;  and,  in  the  following  year,  was  appointed  to  the  new  chair  of 
Egyptian  antiquities  in  the  college  of  France;  but  soon  after  the  commencement  of  his 
intended  course  of  lectures,  in  May,  1831,  befell  ill,  and  died.  Mar.  4,  1832.  According 
to  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  “few  men,  since  the  birth  of  letters,  have  rendered  to  erudition 
services  equal  to  those  which  have  consecrated  to  immortality  the  name  of  Champollion.” 

CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC,  Jean  Jacques,  a distinguished  French  archaeologist,  wash. 
1778,  at  Figeac,  in  the  department  of  Lot.  After  holding  in  Grenoble  the  offices  of 
librarian  and  professor  of  Greek  literature,  he  was  appointed,  in  1828,  conservator  of 
MSS.  in  the  imperial  library  in  Paris;  but,  after  the  Feb.  revolution,  was  deposed 
from  office  by  Carnot.  In  1849,  he  was  appointed,  by  Louis  Napoleon,  librarian  of  the 
palace  of  Fontainebleau.  Besides  the  Antiquites  de  Grenoble  (1807),  his  chief  works 
include  the  Annales  des  Lagides  and  Egypte  Ancienne  (forming  a part  of  L'  Unirers  Pit- 
toresque)\  Les  Tournois  du  Boi  Rene,  a splendid  work,  with  lithographs  by  Motte,  and 
several  publications  of  old  French  documents.  After  the  death  of  his  younger  and  more 
celebrated  brother,  C.  was  employed  in  editing  the  MSS.  left  by  that  distinguished 
scholar,  and  has  given  an  account  of  them  in  the  Notice  sur  les  Manuscrits  Autographes 
de  Champollion  le  Jeune  (Par.  1842).  He  died  May,  1867. 

His  son,  Aimb  Champollion-Figeac,  follows  the  same  path  of  historical  antiqua- 
rianism,  and  has  published  several  interesting  and  useful  works. 

CHANAK'-KALESSI'  (Turkish,  “Pot  Castle”),  a t.  of  Anatolia,  deriving  its  name 
from  its  manufactures  of  crockery,  is  situated  on  the  Dardanelles,  about  28  m.  s.w.  of 
Gallipoli.  Its  castle  is  the  most  important  on  the  Dardanelles,  which  name  is  sometimes 
given  to  the  town  itself.  Pop.  some  3,000  or  4,000. 

CHANCE,  in  its  original  and  strict  meaning,  may  be  defined  as  that  which  determines- 
the  course  of  events,  in  the  absence  of  law,  ordinary  causation,  or  providence.  Strictly 
speaking,  it  is  an  idea  which  few  would  now  be  disposed  to  admit  as  corresponding  to 
anything  which  really  exists;  the  religious  mind  excluding  it  as  inconsistent  with  the 
belief  in  the  divine  government,  and  the  philosophical  mind  rejecting  it  as  inconsistent 
with  a recognition  of  universal  laws  of  causation.  As  a word,  however,  it  has  always 
been,  and  always  will  be  popularly  accepted ; and  its  use  is  correct  so  far  as  we  over- 
look, or  choose  for  the  moment  to  throw  out  of  view,  the  more  universal  connection  of 
events,  and  regard  them  as  their  emergence,  on  a superficial  view,  appears  to  be  deter- 
mined. The  idea  of  C.,  as  referring  to  some  apparently  capricious  or  at  least  inexpli- 
cable cause  of  an  event,  distinguishes  it  from  the  word  probability,  or  the  degree  with 
which  the  expectation  of  an  event  approves  itself  to  a particular  mind,  the  first  express- 
ing what  metaphysicians  would  call  an  objective,  and  the  second  a subjective  idea.  It 
is  clear  that  C.,  being  only  legitimate  as  an  expression  in  popular  parlance — or  if  admit- 
ted as  a term  in  philosophy,  one  that  would  at  once  lead  into  the  most  inextricable  pro- 
blems— is  a term  which  is  much  too  indefinite  to  admit  of  any  kind  of  measurement; 
while  what  we  call  probability,  or  the  degree  with  which  an  expectation  approves  itself, 
owing  to  certain  data  presented  to  the  mind,  does,  as  we  shall  hereafter  see,  admit  of  a 
kind  of  measurement  which  leads  to  very  important  consequences.  For  these  reasons, 
the  consideration  of  what  is  sometimes  called  the  doctrine  of  chances,  but  what  is  more 
properly  the  theory  of  probabilities,  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Probability. 

CHANCEL  (Lat.  cancellus,  a screen).  The  C.,  choir,  or  eastern  part  of  a church,  was- 
often  separated  from  the  nave  by  a screen  of  lattice-work,  so  as  to  prevent  general  access 
thereto,  though  not  to  interrupt  either  sight  or  sound.  As  it  was  in  this  part  of  the  C. 
that  the  service  was  always  performed  previous  to  the  reformation,  the  clergy  were  held 
to  have  a special  right  to  it,  in  return  for  which  its  repairs  in  general  still  fall  on  the 
impropriator,  rector,  or  vicar,  and  not  on  the  parish.  The  chief  pew  in  the  C.  belongs- 
to  the  rector  or  impropriator,  but  the  disposal  of  the  seats  in  the  church,  with  this 
exception,  belongs  to  the  ordinary,  or,  practically,  to  the  churchwardens,  to  whom  the 
authority  of  the  ordinary  is  delegated.  No  monument,  moreover,  can  be  set  up  with- 
out the  ordinary’s  consent.  The  term  C.  is  usually  confined  to  parish  churches  which 
have  no  aisles  around  the  choir,  or  chapels  behind  it  or  around  it;  and  in  this  case  the 
C.  and  the  choir  have  the  same  signification.  But  in  larger  churches  there  are  some- 
times chancels  at  the  ends  of  the  side  aisles,  and  this  whether  the  choir  has  the  char- 
acter of  a choir  in  the  larger  sense,  or  of  a chancel.  See  Church. 

CHANCELLOR  (Lat.  cancellarius).  It  is  said  that  the  chief  notary  or  scribe  of  the 
Roman  emperor  was  called  C.,  either  because  he  was  intrusted  with  the  power  of  obliter- 
ating, cancelling,  or  crossing  out  {cancellare,  to  make  lattice-work)  such  expressions  in  the 
edicts  of  the  prince  as  seemed  to  him  to  be  at  variance  with  the  laws,  or  otherwise 
erroneous;  or  because  he  sat  intra  cancellos,  within  the  lattice- work  or  railings  {cancelUy 
which  were  erected  to  protect  the  emperor  from  the  crow’ding  of  the  people  when  he 
sat  in  judgment.  Neither  the  title  nor  the  office  of  C.  is  at  all  peculiar  to  England. 
The  C.  of  France  (chancelier  de  France),  from  a very  early  time,  was  an  officer  of  state 
of  great  power  and  dignity,  under  Avhom  several  other  officers,  bearing  also  the  titles 
of  C.,  were  employed  in  the  administration  of  justice  and  in  the  defense  of  the  public 


677 


Champollion-Figeac* 

Chancellor. 


order,  llie  C.  of  France  was  the  constitutional  interpreter  of  the  will  of  the  sovereign; 
his  functions  being,  on  the  whole,  analogous  to  those  exercised  by  the  C.  of  England. 
As  an  instance  in  the  change  of  the  value  of  money,  not  more  remarkable  than  many 
which  could  be  cited  in  our  own  country,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  1290,  the 
salary  of  this  high  official  was  six  sous  a day,  with  the  privilege,  to  him  and  his,  of 
eating  at  the  court.  When  he  was  at  Paris,  and  ate  at  his  own  lodgings,  he  had  20 
sous  a day.  The  office  was  abolished  at  the  revolution ; and  though  it  was  restored  by 
ttie  Bourbons,  and  even  under  the  first  Napoleon  the  higher-sounding  title  of  archi- 
chancelier  was  revived,  many  of  the  functions  of  the  old  C.  were  transferred  to  the 
minister  of  justice,  and  have  ever  since  been  held  by  him. 

In  most  of  the  other  countries  of  Europe  there  are  officers  of  state  who  bear  this,  or 
analogous  titles,  though  their  powers  and  duties  are  very  various.  The  chief  function- 
ary in  the  Austrian  empire  has  often  been  termed  C. ; and  on  the  reconstitution  of  the 
German  empire,  prince  Bismarck  was  made  “ C.  of  the  empire”  {Reichskanzler).  Besides 
these  state-chaucellors,  there  were  offieers  in  many  other  capacities  to  whom  the  title 
was  given.  Every  bishop  has  his  'C.  in  the  church  of  Rome,  and  there  are  still  law 
chancellors  of  cathedrals,  dioceses,  universities,  etc. 

CHANCELLOR  {ante).  The  constitutions  of  some  of  the  United  States  create  this 
officer  and  define  his  power  by  legislative  statute.  In  New  York,  the  officer  was  recog- 
nized with  others  of  colonial  (English)  appointment  in  the  first  and  second  constitutions, 
but  in  the  constitution  of  1846  the  court  of  chancery  was  abolished,  and  the  C. 
passed  out  of  office.  The  tendency  of  late  years  is  to  merge  the  courts  of  chancery 
into  the  superior  law  courts.  Separate  chancery  or  equity  courts  exist  in  only  a few 
states;  in  others  the  courts  of  law  sit  also  as  courts  of  equity;  in  some  equity  relief  is 
administered  under  the  forms  of  the  common  law;  and  in  others  still  the  distinction 
between  law  and  equity  has  been  formally  abolished.  The  federal  courts  exercise 
equity  jurisdiction  whether  the  state  courts  in  the  district  are  courts  of  equity  or  not. 

CHANCELLOR,  Lord.  It  is  usually  said  that  the  existence  of  the  office  in  England, 
as  in  the  other  states  of  Europe,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  influence  which  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Roman  empire  had  on  the  constitutions  of  the  modern  nations. 
This  influence  was  exercised  in  no  small  measure  through  the  medium  of  the  church, 
the  profession  of  the  law  being  generally  exercised  by  ecclesiastics;  and  it  is  for 
this  reason,  probably,  that  the  bishop  and  the  king  are  furnished  with  officers  bearing 
the  same  title,  and  exercising  analogous  functions.  The  C.  is  always  the  confidential 
adviser  of  the  sovereign  in  state  affairs.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  he  has  been  called 
the  keeper  of  his  conscience,  and  that  in  England  it  is  to  him  that  the  duty  was  intrusted 
of  presiding  over  a court  which  acted  on  what  were  called — by  way  of  contradistinc- 
tion— equitable  considerations.  It  is  in  this  latter  prerogative  that  the  chief  distinction 
exists  between  the  C,  and  all  other  judges;  for,  whilst  they  are  held  by  the  letter  of  the 
law,  he  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  act  rather  juxla  honum  et  cequum.  In  certain  more 
special  points  of  view, there  is  a similarity  between  the  functions  of  the  chancellors  in 
different  states.  “In  all  of  them  he  seems  to  have  had  the  supervision  of  all  charters, 
letters,  and  such  other  public  instruments  of  the  crown  as  were  authenticated  in  the 
most  solemn  manner;  and  therefore,  when  seals  came  into  use,  he  had  always  the  cus- 
tody of  the  sovereign’s  great  seal.” — Stephen’s  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  398.  It  is  from 
this  last-mentioned  circumstance  that  the  office  of  C.,  or  keeper  (q.v.),  which,  by  5 Eliz- 
abeth, c.  18,  is  declared  to  be  exactly  the  same,  is  created  without  writ  or  patent,  by  the 
mere  delivery  of  the  great  seal,  and  that  the  C.,  if  a baron,  takes  precedency  of 
every  temporal  lord  not  a member  of  the  royal  famil}’’,  and  of  all  bishops  except  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  The  C.  is  a privy-councillor  by  his  office,  a member  of  the 
cabinet,  and  prolocutor,  or  speaker  of  the  house  of  lords,  by  prescription.  Though  the 
form  in  which  his  tenure  of  office  is  terminated,  is  by  the  resumption  of  the  great  seal 
by  the  sovereign,  the  C.  practically  resigns  office  with  the  party  to  which  he  is  attached. 
He  has  the  appointment  of  all  justices  of  the  peace  throughout  the  kingdom,  but  this 
privilege  he  exercises  generally  on  the  recommendation  of  the  lord-lieutenants.  But 
the  most  important,  and,  as  it  now  seems,  somewhat  anomalous  branch  of  his  patron- 
age, arises  out  of  his  having  been  originally  an  ecclesiastic.  Though  the  last  bishop 
who  held  the  office  was  John  Williams,  archbishop  of  York,  who  was  lord  keeper  from 
July  10,  1621,  to  Nov.  1, 1625,  the  C.  still  continues  to  be  patron  of  all  the  crown  livings 
of  the  value  of  £20  per  annum,  or  under  (though  in  1863  about  300  were  sold  to  aug- 
ment the  incomes  of  those  sold  and  those  retained),  and  visitor  of  all  hospitals  and  col- 
leges of  the  king’s  foundation.  As  representing  the  paternal  character  of  the  sovereign, 
again,  the  C.  is  the  general  guardian  of  all  infants,  idiots,  and  lunatics,  and  has  the 
supervision  of  all  charitable  uses  in  the  kingdom.  As  regards  his  judicial  patronage, 
the  arrangement  is,  that  the  C.  appoints  in  general  all  the  judges  of  the  superior  courts, 
except  the  two  chief-justices,  who  are  nominated  by  the  prime-minister  of  the  day.  Of 
inferior  appointments,  the  latter  also  has  reserved  to  him  the  commissioners  of  bank- 
ruptcy and  the  judges  of  the  county  courts.  All  these  functions  the  C.  performs  in 
addition  to  his  extensive  duties  as  the  supreme  judge  of  the  court  of  chancery,  both  as 
an  ordinary  court  of  common  law  and  of  record,  and  as  an  extraordinary  court  of 
equity.  Much  inconvenience  had  arisen  from  the  accumulation  of  duties  in  the  single 


Chancellor. 

Chancery. 


678 


person  of  this  high  dignitary,  and  various  expedients  had  been  devised  for  lessening  the 
evil.  Vice-chancellors  had  been  appointed,  and  the  duties  of  the  master  of  the  rolls  had 
been  extended.  In  1875,  a considerable  change  was  made  by  consolidating  all  the  vice- 
chancellors’  courts  into  one  division,  called  the  chancery  division  of  the  high  court. 
And  the  C.’s  duties  in  the  house  of  lords  as  the  highest  appeal  court  were  lightened  in 
1876.  The  proposal  of  a minister  of  justice  has,  however,  not  yet  found  favor.  The 
salary  of  the  C.  is  £10,000  a year,  and  he  has  an  annuity  of  £5,000  on  his  retirement 
from  office.  The  style  of  the  C.,  since  the  union  with  Scotland,  has  been  lord  high 
chancellor  of  Great  Britain ; but  he  has  scarcely  any  jurisdiction  in  Scotland,  and  in 
Ireland  there  is  a separate  C. , having  powers  in  most  respects  the  same  as  those  of  the 
C.  of  Great  Britain.  To  slay  the  C.  is  treason  under  25  Edward  III.  c.  2. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  A CATHEDRAL  is  an  officer  who  superintends  the  arrangements 
for  the  celebration  of  the  religious  services.  His  office  is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  the 

CHANCELLOR  op  a DIOCESE,  who,  as  vicar-general  to  the  bishop,  is  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal judge,  appointed  to  assist  the  bishop  in  questions  of  ecclesiastical  law,  and  hold  his 
courts  for  him.  By  37  Henry  VIII.  c.  17,  it  is  provided  that  the  C.  of  a diocese  may 
be  a layman,  whether  married  or  single,  provided  he  be  doctor  of  the  civil  law,  law- 
fully create  and  made  in  some  university.  By  the  canons  of  1603,  he  must  be  a bache- 
lor of  law,  at  the  least,  or  a master  of  arts.  There  are  certain  cases,  however,  in  which 
the  bishop  must  sit  in  person.  In  case  of  complaint  against  a clerk  in  holy  orders,  for 
any  ecclesiastical  offense  against  the  church  discipline  act  (3  and  4 Viet.  c.  86),  the 
bishop  is  to  hear  the  cause,  assisted  by  three  assessors ; of  whom  the  dean  of  his  cathe- 
dral, or  one  of  his  archdeacons,  or  his  chancellor,  must  be  one;  and  a serjeant-at-law, 
or  advocate  who  has  practiced  5 years  in  the  court  of  the  archbishop  of  the  province,  or 
barrister  of  7 years’  standing,  another. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  THF  EXCHEQUER.  See  Exchfqufr. 

CHANCELLOR  op  SCOTLAND.  Previous  to  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  in  1707, 
when  the  office  was  abolished,  the  C.  of  S.  performed  functions  in  many  respects  analo- 
gous to  those  which  belong  to  the  lord  high  chancellor  of  Great  Britain.  He  presided 
in  parliament,  and  was  the  head  of  all  the  courts  of  judicature;  he  was  the  chief  coun- 
selor of  the  king,  and  keeper  of  the  great  seal.  From  the  fact  of  the  distinction 
between  law  and  equity  in  the  English  sense  never  having  been  recognized  in  Scotland, 
the  C.  had  no  judicial  functions  separate  from  those  of  the  ordinary  courts  of  law,  but 
he  had  the  principal  direction  of  the  chancery,  the  constitution  of  which  is  described 
below.  In  early  times,  the  C.  of  S.,  as  of  England,  was  very  frequently  an  ecclesiastic; 
but  the  first,  Constantine,  earl  of  Fife,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.,  and  the  last,  the 
earl  of  Seafield,  who  held  the  office  at  the  union,  were  both  laymen ; and  many  other 
nobles,  earls  of  Argyle,  Angus,  Huntly,  etc.,  appear  in  the  lists  given  in  Crawford’s 
Officers  of  State,  and  Chalmers’s  Caledonia.  On  the  abolition  of  the  office,  a keeper  of 
the  great  seal  was  appointed,  who  acts  merely  ministerially  in  affixing  it  to  the  writs 
which  pass  under  it.  See  Great  Seal. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE,  Battle  op,  in  Spottsylvania  co.,  Va.,  between  the  union 
army  under  Gen.  Hooker  and  the  confederate  forces  under  Gen.  Lee,  May  2,  1863. 
Hooker  had  succeeded  Burnside  in  command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  and  after 
nearly  three  months’  work  brought  it  into  a state  of  efficiency.  He  had  132,000  men, 
13,000  of  whom  were  cavalry.  This  army,  in  seven  corps,  lay  on  the  Rappahannock 
opposite  to  Fredericksburg.  On  the  heights  on  the  other  (right)  bank  the  confederate 
army  was  strongly  intrenched;  it  numbered  62,000  men,  of  whom  about  3,000  were  cav- 
alry. Hooker  resolved  to  turn  the  confederate  left  flank,  first  sending  nearly  all  his 
cavalry  to  destroy  communication  with  Richmond.  April  27th,  Hooker  sent  36,000 
men  up  the  left  bank  of  the  river  beyond  the  confederate  line,  and  they  crossed  safely. 
The  objective  point  was  C.  a solitary  brick  dwelling-house  in  a wide  and  bar- 
ren region.  Before  sunset,  on  the  30th,  48,000  union  soldiers  had  reached  the  place. 
Another  considerable  union  force  had  crossed  the  Rappahannock  below  Fredericksburg, 
and  were  making  demonstrations  in  the  confederate  front.  Lee  appears  to  have  been 
unaware  of  these  movements  until  the  evening  of  the  30th.  At  midnight  his  men  were 
in  motion,  and  before  noon  of  May  1st  he  was  in  line  of  battle  in  Hooker’s  front.  At 
daybreak  “ Stonewall”  Jackson,  with  30,000  confederates,  moved  behind  the  shelter  of 
a dense  forest  (the  “ Wilderness”),  and  at  3 p.m.,  after  a march  of  15  m.,  fell  upon  the 
union  army  while  the  men  were  preparing  their  dinner,  with  arms  stacked  and  their 
intrenchments  unguarded.  The  union  forces  fled  without  making  a stand,  and  pushed 
towards  C.  There  they  were  with  difficulty  brought  to  a stand.  Jackson, 
who  had  pursued  them  closely,  rode  out  to  reconnoiter,  when  he  was  fired  on  by 
his  own  men  who  mistook  his  escort  for  a union  company.  He  died  the  next  day. 
Thus  far  the  greatest  damage  suffered  by  the  federals  was  the  temporary  disorganization 
of  Howard’s  corps,  which  was  the  weakest  corps  in  the  field ; and  this  was  more  than 
supplied  by  the  arrival  during  the  night  of  a large  corps  from  Washington.  On  the 
morning  of  May  3d  (Sunday),  Hooker  was  still  on  the  defensive.  The  confederates 
began  the  attack,  and  it  was  hotly  continued  until  10  o’clock,  both  sides  suffering 
severely.  While  Sickles  was  bearing  the  brunt  of  Stuart’s  attack,  the  ammunition 


679 


Chancellor. 

Chancery. 


failed,  and  Sickles  sent  for  aid.  At  the  moment  the  message  came  to  Hooker,  he  was 
struck  by  a spent  ball  and  fell  insensible  to  the  ground;  so  there  was  no  one  to  send  aid 
to  Sickles,  and  he  was  obliged  to  fall  back.  The  weight  of  some  half-dozen  assaults 
fell  upon  his  division,  until  he  was  overpowered  and  his  lines  destroyed.  The  day 
passed  in  desultory  fighting  and  strategic  movements,  in  which,  on  the  union  side,  there 
was  much  indecision  and  loss  of  opportunity.  During  Monday  night  Hooker  resolved 
to  abandon  his  position,  and  threw  up  intrenchments  to  cover  his  bridges.  A storm 
came  on  Tuesday  afternoon,  but  during  the  night  the  union  forces  crossed  the  river,  and 
the  battle  was  over.  The  losses,  as  set  forth  in  ofllcial  reports,  were  : on  the  union  side, 
17,000,  of  whom  12,000  were  killed  and  wounded  and  500  missing;  on  the  side  of  the 
confederates  about  13,000,  of  whom  10,300  were  killed  and  wounded  and  2,700  missing. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  A UNIVERSITY.  The  highest  honorary  office  connected  with  a 
university  is  generally  that  of  chancellor.  See  University. 

CHANCE-MEDLEY,  AND  Chaud-Medley,  or  Melle  (Fr.  chaud,  hot;  and  mMee,  a 
fray),  as  it  is  called  in  Scotland,  are  French  expressions  borrowed  by  our  law.  Though 
often  spoken  of  as  synonymous,  they  are,  in  reality,  distinct  in  meaning— the  one 
signifying  a casual  affray;  the  other,  an  affray  in  the  heat  of  blood  or  passion.  Both 
are  in  this  country,  and  in  mbst  others,  recognized  as  pleas  in  mitigation  of  the  offense 
of  homicide  (q.v.).  See  also  Sanctuary. 

CHANCERY  (Lat.  cancellaria).  As  the  Roman  emperors,  and  after  them  the  various 
sovereigns  who  divided  the  vast  inheritance  of  the  empire,  had  each  a chancellor  (q.v.), 
so  in  every  European  kingdom  there  was  an  establishment  called  a G.,  where  these 
officers  performed  their  functions.  If  we  imagine  a large  chamber  divided  by  lattice- 
work  {cancelli),  the  outer  half  devoted  to  the  people,  the  inner  occupied  by  the  chancellor 
and  his  subordinates,  engaged  in  framing  edicts,  letters  of  nobility,  and  the  like,  and 
engrossing  them  on  parchment,  and  sealing  them  with  the  king’s  own  seal  in  proof  of 
their  authenticity,  and  then  handing  them  through  the  railings  to  the  people  without, 
we  shall  have  a pretty  good  conception  of  the  C.  in  its  earliest  form. 

In  France,  as  there  were  subordinate  chancellors  attached  to  the  parliaments  of  the 
respective  provinces,  so  there  were  subordinate  chanceries;  but  the  grand  C.  of  France, 
which  followed  the  person  of  the  king,  was  alone,  in  strictness,  entitled  to  the  name. 

The  apostolic  C.  at  Rome,  in  which,  in  addition  to  the  documents  pertaining  to  his 
temporal  sovereignty,  the  bulls  and  briefs  of  the  pope  are  authenticated,  is  presided  over 
by  a cardinal,  with  the  title  of  vice-chancellor. 

CHANCERY,  or  Chancellary,  of  Scotland,  is  a public  office  in  the  general  register 
house  at  Edinburgh,  managed  by  the  director  of  C.  and  his  deputes,  in  which  all  char- 
ters, patents  of  dignities,  gifts  of  offices,  remissions,  legitimations,  presentations,  com- 
missions, brieves,  retours,  and  other  writs  appointed  to  pass  the  great  and  quarter  seals 
are  recorded.  See  Great  Seal. 

CHANCERY,  Court  of,  in  England.  Besides  the  functions  pertaining  to  the  chan- 
cellor in  other  countries,  the  chancellor  of  England  had  early  assigned  to  him  the  office 
of  a judge;  and  the  English  C.  consequently  became  a court  of  law,  the  peculiar  charac- 
ter of  which  will  be  rendered  intelligible  by  the  following  considerations:  In  assigning 
judicial  functions  to  the  chancellor’s  department,  it  was  not  intended  that  it  should  inter 
fere  with  that  other  department  of  government  which  has  everywhere  been  distinguished 
both  from  the  legislative  and  the  executive — viz.,  the  judicial.  But  in  all  departments, 
according  to  the  imperial  theory  from  which  the  idea  of  the  C.  at  least  was  derived,  the 
sovereign  was  supreme,  and  to  his  will,  or  to  his  sense  of  justice,  there  was  consequently 
an  appeal  in  judicial,  as  in  other  matters.  His  chancellor,  however,  was  his  adviser  in 
all  matters  whatsoever;  and  thus,  though  not  a judge  in  the  stricter  sense,  it  is  manifest 
that  his  counsel,  in  judicial  matters  of  the  highest  importance,  would  constantly  be 
called  in.  But  further,  the  king  governed  by  laws,  even  before  he  was  governed  by 
them;  and  for  the  sake  of  order  and  his  own  convenience,  he  would  naturally  add 
to  or  supplement  the  law  which  he  had  established,  only  where  it  could  be  shown  to  him 
that  it  did  not  meet  the  substantial  justice  of  the  particular  case.  He  would  con- 
sequently be  a judge,  not  of  the  interpretation  or  application  of  the  law,  which  he 
would  leave  to  his  ordinary  judges,  but  of  its  adequacy  to  circumstances  which  had 
changed,  or  had  not  been  anticipated;  and  when  he  interfered,  it  would  be  to  some 
extent  in  the  character  of  a legislator,  as  well  as  of  a judge.  The  king  would  thus  be 
a judge  in  equity,  in  the  popular  and  intelligible  sense  of  that  word;  and  acting  in  this 
capacity  himself,  it  would  be  in  this  capacity  that  he  would  call  in  the  aid  of  his  chan- 
cellor. It  is  not  mysterious,  then,  how  in  early  times  the  court  of  C.  came  to  be  a 
court  of  equity;  and  the  chief  difficulty  regarding  its  origin  seems  to  attach  to  the 
other  of  the  two  great  departments  into  which  it  is  divided,  and  in  which  it  exercises 
jurisdiction  as  a court  of  common  law.  But  as  the  free  constitution  of  England 
developed  itself,  it  soon  became  apparent  that  equity,  in  the  old  despotic  or  patriarchal 
sense — in  which  it  was  not  so  much  the  administration  as  the  making  or  modifying  of 
law — was  consistent  with  its  principles,  whether  it  proceeded  from  a judge  or  from  the 
monarch  himself.  The  popular  sense  of  equity  was  consequently  abandoned;  and  a 
technical  sense,  unknown  to  the  jurisprudence  of  every  other  nation,  was  given  to  it. 


Chancre. 

Chandler. 


6$0 


The  proceedings  of  the  court  of  C.  “ on  its  equity  side,”  which  had  hitherto  been  a mere 
supplement  to  law,  came  now  to  be  hedged  in  by  rules  and  precedents  as  closely  as  those 
of  any  court  of  common  law.  What  henceforth  continued  to  be  the  distinction  in  prin- 
ciple between  law  and  equity,  or  between  the  functions  of  the  courts  of  common  law  and 
the  court  of  C.,  or  even  of  the  two  great  departments  of  this  court  itself,  it  is  perhaps 
impossible  to  state.  The  arbitrary  line  which  has  been  drawn  between  the  class  of 
cases  assigned  to  the  one  set  of  courts  and  to  the  other,  will  be  considered  under 
Equity. 

The  judicial  duties  of  the  chancellor  have  long  been  shared  by  the  master  of  the 
rolls,  an  officer  of  high  rank,  who  was  originally  appointed  only  for  the  superintendence 
of  the  writs  and  records  appertaining  to  the  common  law  departments  of  the  court,  but 
who  was  accustomed  also  to  sit  as  a separate  though  subordinate  judge  on  the  equity 
side.  The  disputes  which  had  arisen  regarding  his  powers  were  set  at  rest  by  3 Geo.  II. 
c.  30,  which  declares  that  all  orders  made  by  him,  except  such  as  by  the  course  of  the 
court  are  appropriated  to  the  great  seal  alone,  shall  be  valid,  subject  nevertheless  to  be 
discharged  or  altered  by  the  lord  chancellor,  and  so  as  that  they  shall  not  be  enrolled 
till  they  are  signed  by  his  lordship.  By  3 and  4 Will.  IV.  c.  94,  the  master’s  powers  are 
further  increased,  and  he  may  now  hear  motions,  pleas,  and  demurrers,  as  well  as  causes 
generally.  The  salary  of  the  master  of  the  rolls  (q.v.)  is  £6,000  a year.  The  vast 
increase  of  business,  and  the  still  greater  increase  of  arrears,  during  the  previous  half- 
century,  rendered  it  necessary,  in  1813  (53  Geo.  III.  c.24),  to  appoint  another  assistant 
to  the  chancellor,  under  the  title  of  the  vice-chancellor  of  England;  and  in  1841,  when 
the  equity  business  of  the  exchequer  was  transferred  to  the  C.,  two  more  vice-chancel- 
lors were  added.  Each  of  these  judges  sits  separately  from  the  lord  chancellor,  and 
their  functions  extend  to  both  departments  of  the  court.  Their  salaries  are  £5,000  a 
year.  Another  important  addition  (14  and  15  Viet.  c.  83)  was  that  of  the  lords  justices 
of  the  court  of  appeal  for  all  courts.  This  court  consisted  of  the  lord  chancellor,  together 
with  these  judges;  but  the  lords  justices,  when  sitting  without  the  chancellor,  possess 
the  same  jurisdiction  which  belongs  to  him,  and  their  existence  does  not  prejudice  his 
right  to  sit  alone.  The  lords  justices  possess  the  same  authority  in  matters  of  lunacy 
as  the  chancellor;  and  they,  sitting  together,  constitute,  without  the  chancellor,  the 
court  of  appeal  in  bankruptcy.  An  appeal,  which  may  also  be  entertained  by  the  lord 
chancellor  sitting  alone,  lies  to  this  court  from  all  the  separate  courts  of  the  chancery 
division ; and  from  this  appellate  jurisdiction  there  is  an  appeal  in  turn  to  the  house 
of  lords.  The  lords  justices  may  also  take  up  original  causes,  though  these,  in  prac- 
tice, are  mainly  confined  to  the  divisional  courts  of  the  high  court.  Till  recently,  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the  court  of  C.  were  confided  to  the  masters 
in  ordinary  (see  Masters  in  Chancery)  and  the  accountant  general.  The  office  of  the 
masters  has  been  abolished,  but  that  of  the  accountant  continues  to  be  one  of  the  most 
important  connected  with  the  court.  Besides  these  more  important  officers,  the  court 
of  C.  has  always  had  a large  body  of  subordinates,  registrars,  taxing-masters,  and  a 
staff  of  record  and  writ  clerks  attached  to  it. 

The  subdivision  of  courts  into  those  of  equity  and  common  law  had  long  been  found 
mischievous,  inasmuch  as  it  in  some  cases  doubled  the  expense  to  the  suitor,  by  sending 
him  from  one  court  to  another  for  instalments  of  the  justice  which  he  sought.  For 
many  years  this  anomalous  arrangement  had  been  given  upas  indefensible;  and  bills 
from  time  to  time  were  introduced  into  parliament,  in  order  to  rearrange  the  courts,  so 
as  to  administer  entire  justice  in  every  case.  Great  changes  were  necessary  in  this 
department  of  the  law,  and  the  only  question  was  at  last  reduced  to  the  best  mode  of 
settling  the  details  of  the  high  court  of  justice,  which  was  to  supersede  the  previously 
existing  courts.  For  the  changes  ultimately  carried  through  under  the  judicature  acts 
of  1873-76,  and  the  constitution  of  the  new  high  court  of  justice,  see  Common  Laws. 
The  C.  court  is  now  the  chancery  division  of  the  reconstituted  high  court. 

In  various  colonies  of  the  British  empire,  local  courts  have  been  established  in  imita- 
tion of  the  high  court  of  C.,  an  institution  which,  from  its  cumbrous,  anomalous,  and 
unscientific  character,  scarcely  merited  imitation ; but  in  America,  though  the  distinction 
between  law  and  equity  was  at  first  adopted  and  long  adhered  to  with  the  tenacity  with 
which  Englishmen  cling  to  their  native  customs,  it  has  been  abolished  in  the  state  of 
Kew  York,  and  law  and  equity  there,  as  elsewhere  in  the  world,  now  constitute  one  sys- 
tem, administered  in  one  series  of  tribunals  of  original  and  appellate  jurisdiction.  On 
the  continent,  the  English  court  of  C.  has  always  been  a subject  of  ridicule;  and  a recent 
French  writer,  in  speaking  of  it,  says;  “Nothing  ever  comes  to  an  end  in  it;  and  the 
unhappy  man  who  has  a process  there,  can  be  sure  of  but  one  thing — viz.,  that  whether 
he  gains  it  or  loses  it,  his  ruin  is  certain.”  The  acts  by  which  evils  which  were  insep- 
arable from  the  constitution  of  the  court  of  C. — and  which  spring  from  the  distinction 
between  law  and  equity,  on  which  its  very  existence  depended — had  been  mitigated, 
were  the  following:  15  and  16  Viet.  oc.  80,  86,  and  87,  21  and  22  Viet.  c.  27,  23  and  24 
Viet.  cc.  38,  128,  25  and  26  Viet.  c.  2. 

CHANCERY,  Court  of  {ante),  in  this  country  exists  only  in  a few  of  the  states; 
some  never  established  the  court  at  all,  and  a number  which  inherited  it  from  English 
colonial  times  or  established  it  in  their  first  constitutions  have  abolished  it  and  given 
the  equity  duties  to  the  courts  of  law.  According  to  latest  authority,  the  court  of  chan- 


681 


Chancre. 

Chandler. 


eery  exists  in  Alabama,  Delaware,  Florida,  Mississippi,  New  Jersey,  Tennessee,  and 
Vermont;  but  in  most  of  these  states  the  court  of  chancery  is  held  by  a justice  of  the 
supreme  court. 

CHAN  CRE.  See  Syphilis. 

CHANDAH,  a t.  of  India,  on  the  s.w.  frontier  of  the  territory  of  Nagpore,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Eraee,  near  its  junction  with  the  Wurda,  90  m.  s.  of  the  town  of  Nag- 
pore. Its  walls,  built  of  cut  stone,  and  surrounded  by  a high  parapet,  are  6 m.  round, 
from  15  to  20  ft.  high,  and  flanked  with  round  towers  large  enough  for  the  heaviest 
guns.  Within  the  place,  and  almost  equidistant  from  the  n.  and  s.  faces,  is  a citadel; 
the  rest  of  the  interior  consists  of  straggling  streets,  detached  houses,  and  plantations. 
It  is  well  supplied  with  water.  In  1818,  C.  was  taken  by  the  British.  Pop.  16,233.  C. 
is  capital  of  a British  administrative  district  having  an  area  of  9,700  sq.m.,  and  a pop.  of 
534,431. 

CHANDAL'A,  the  lowest  of  the  impure  classes  in  Hindu  caste.  Besides  the  four 
pure  classes  there  are  various  mixed  and  more  or  less  impure  classes,  some  of  which, 
the  C.  for  instance,  are  so  vile  that  their  shadow  is  pollution,  and  no  true  Hindu  will 
take  shelter  under  the  same  roof  or  tree  with  them. 

CHANDELEUR  ISLANDS,  in  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  between  the  mainland  of  Missis- 
sippi and  the  mouth  of  the  river.  There  is  a light  on  the  n.  end  of  the  most  northerly 
island,  in  30°  8'  n.,  and  88°  52'  west. 

CHANDERNAGORE',  a French  city,  with  a scanty  territory  of  about  2000  acres,  on 
the  right  or  w.  bank  of  the  Hoogly,  21  m.  above  Calcutta  by  railway,  on  the  opposite 
shore,  in  lat.  22°  50'  n.,  and  long.  88°  23'  east.  The  population,  estimated  at  about  30,- 
000,  consists  of  a few  Europeans  and  Eurasians,  the  great  bulk  being  natives  of  unmixed 
blood.  Independently  of  political  considerations,  the  place  has,  through  the  gradual 
silting  up  of  the  river,  lost  some  of  its  commercial  advantages.  Within  100 years  back, 
ships  of  the  line  ascended  to  C. ; now,  however,  vessels  even  of  far  inferior  burden  sel- 
dom get  above  Diamond  Harbor,  which  is  nearly  50  m.  further  down.  C.  was  estab- 
lished in  1676,  and  for  awhile  rivaled  Calcutta.  It  was  captured  by  Clive  in  1757, 
but  finally  restored  to  the  French  in  1816. 

CHANDHAIREE',  or  Chanderi,  a t.  of  Gwalior,  India,  in  a hilly  and  jungly  dis- 
trict, near  a tributary  of  the  Jumna.  It  is  at  present  much  decayed,  on  account  of 
Mahratta  oppression,  the  scourge  of  war,  and  the  decay  of  its  manufactures,  which  are 
undersold  by  the  cheaper  fabrics  of  Britain;  but  the  extent  and  architectural  excel- 
lence of  its  ruins  indicate  its  splendor  and  importance  in  former  times,  when  it  is  said  to 
have  contained  14,000  stone  houses,  384  markets,  360  caravanserais,  and  12,000  mosques. 
The  fort  of  C.,  formerly  deemed  impregnable,  consists  of  a strong  rampart  of  sand- 
stone, flanked  by  circular  towers,  and  is  situated  on  a high  hill.  Among  other 
remains  of  former  greatness,  is  a pass  cut  through  a solid  rock  100  ft.  high.  Dur- 
ing the  native  wars,  being  a place  of  importance,  C.  was  frequently  besieged.  Under 
Mahratta  sway,  it  became  a haunt  of  freebooters,  very  troublesome  to  the  native  dis- 
tricts under  British  rule  or  protection ; and  on  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  1844,  it 
was,  among  other  lands,  assigned  for  the  maintenance  of  the  increased  Gwalior  contin- 
gent, commanded  by  British  officers. 

CHANDLER,  Charles  Frederick,  ph.d.,  ll.d.,  b.  Mass.,  1836;  educated  at  Har- 
vard, Berlin,  and  Gottingen.  In  1857,  he  had  charge  of  the  chemical  department  of 
Union  college,  and  in  1864,  was  made  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  school  of  mines  of 
Columbia  college.  In  1858,  he  held  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  the  New  York  college  of 
pharmacy.  He  is  a member  of  the  chemical  societies  of  Berlin,  Paris,  and  London.  In 
1870,  with  his  brother  he  established  The  American  Chemist.  Recently  he  has  been  the 
chief  officer  of  the  board  of  health  of  New  York  city,  and  has  paid  much  attention  to 
sanitary  reforms.  He  is  the  author  of  many  important  scientific  papers,  the  greater 
number  of  which  can  be  found  in  his  magazine. 

CHANDLER,  Dr.  Richard,  a scholar  and  antiquary  of  considerable  eminence  of  the 
last  century,  was  b.  at  Elson,  in  Hampshire,  in  1738,  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He  first 
became  known  as  the  editor  of  the  magnificent  work,  Marmora  Oxoniensia,  published  by 
the  Oxford  university  in  1763.  He  afterwards  traveled  through  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
with  Reyett,  an  architect,  and  Pars,  a painter,  at  the  instance  of  the  then  flourishing 
Dilettanti  society,  with  a view  to  collect  information  regarding  the  former  state  of  these 
countries,  and  to^  procure  exact  descriptions  of  the  ruins.  The  result  of  their  united 
labors  appeared  in  1769,  in  2 vols.,  entitled  Ionian  Antiquities.  C.  also  published  a val 
uable  account  of  the  ancient  inscriptions  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece;  and  his  account  of 
his  travels  in  these  countries,  issued  in  1765-76,  is  still  a standard  work.  He  also  pub- 
lished a History  of  Troy.  He  died  in  Feb.,  1810. 

CHANDLER,  Samuel,  d.d.,  1698-1766;  a dissenting  minister  of  Berkshire,  England, 
the  son  of  an  eminent  non-conformist  divine.  He  studied  at  Gloucester  and  Leyden,  and 
held  life-long  friendship  with  bishop  Butler  and  archbishop  Seeker.  He  was  a fellow  of 
the  royal  and  antiquarian  societies,  and  received  offers  of  high  preferment  in  the  estab- 
lished church,  but  these  he  positively  refused  and  remained  until  his  death  a Presby- 


Chandler. 

Channing^. 


682 


terian  minister.  He  was  forty  years  pastor  of  the  meeting  house  in  the  Old  Jewry.  He 
left  many  sermons,  commentaries,  and  other  works  pertaining  to  religious  and  church 
matters. 

CHANDLER,  Zachariah,  b.  N.  H.,  1813;  d.  Chicago,  1879.  He  was  educated  in  a 
common  school  and  seminary.  At  the  age  of  22,  he  went  to  Michigan  and  settled  in 
Detroit,  where  he  became  a wealthy  and  prosperous  merchant.  He  was  an  early  and 
active  member  of  the  whig  party,  and  in  1851  was  elected  mayor  of  the  city.  The 
next  year  he  was  nominated  for  governor,  but  was  defeated.  When  the  republican 
party  was  organized,  he  took  an  active  part,  and  was  by  it  chosen  U.  S.  senator 
in  1856.  In  the  senate  he  was  a firm  opponent  of  all  schemes  for  the  extension  of 
slavery,  and  stood  side  by  side  with  Benjamin  Wade  of  Ohio,  and  others  who  resisted 
the  arrogant  tone  of  the  extreme  pro-slavery  senators.  When  the  civil  war  broke  out. 
Chandler  was  one  of  the  foremost  in  favor  of  a vigorous  prosecution,  and  had  little 
respect  for  those  whom  he  denounced  as  traitors.  In  1875,  he  was  defeated  for  senator, 
but  was  at  once  appointed  secretary  of  the  interior,  where  his  business  talent  soon 
became  manifest  in  the  improved  administration  of  the  department.  In  1868,  and 
again  in  1876,  he  was  chairman  of  the  republican  national  committee,  having  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  party  canvass.  The  day  before  he  died  he  made  a powerful 
speech  to  a great  mass-meeting.  * 

CHANDLER  SCIENTIFIC  DEPARTMENT.  See  Dartmouth  College. 

CHANBORE',  a t.  and  fort  in  the  district  of  Nassick  (q.v.),  presidency  of  Bombay,  its 
lat.  and  long,  being  20°  20'  n.  and  74°  14'  east.  C.  is  a flourishing  place,  with  a pop. 
of  (1872)  5,662.  The  fort,  which  commands  an  important  pass  on  the  route  between 
Candeish  and  Bombay,  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  a hill  naturally  inaccessible  every- 
where but  at  the  gateway.  It  surrendered  to  the  British  in  1804;  and  being  subse- 
quently restored  to  Holkar,  was  finally  ceded  by  him  in  1818. 

CHANBOS  CLAUSE.  During  the  discussion  of  the  clauses  of  the  reform  bill  (q.v.)  in 
1831,  the  marquis  of  Chandos  (tory),  afterwards  duke  of  Buckingham,  proposed  the 
insertion  of  a clause  giving  the  county  franchise  to  tenants  at  will  occupying  lands  for 
which  they  paid  an  annual  rent  of  £50.  This  was  opposed  by  the  ministers  on  the 
ground  that  the  class  proposed  to  be  enfranchised  would  be  subject  to  the  coercion  of 
the  landowners,  who  would  thus  virtually  determine  the  elections.  The  amendment, 
however,  was  supported  by  many  of  the  radicals,  who  at  that  time  regarded  any  exten- 
tion  of  the  suffrage  as  a boon,  and  was  carried  by  a majority  of  84.  The  clause  was 
incorporated  in  the  bill  of  the  following  year,  and  was  finally  carried  by  a majority  of 
272  to  32.  The  result  proved  a material  accession  to  the  conservative  element  in 
CQunties.  Under  the  reform  act  of  1867,  occupants  of  lands  of  a rateable  value  of  £12 
are  entitled  to  the  county  franchise. 

CHANBPOOR',  a t.  of  British  India,  in  the  n.w.  provinces,  district  of  Bijnour,  about 
930  miles  n.w.  of  Calcutta,  and  80  n.e.  of  Delhi.  It  is  of  considerable  size,  and  has  a 
p.  (1872)  of  12,033. 

CHANFRON.  See  Charger. 

CHANGARNIER,  Nicolas  Anne  Theodule,  a French  general,  was  born  at  Autun 
in  1873 — and  received  his  education  at  the  military  school  of  Saint-Cyr.  In  1830,  he 
went  as  lieut.  to  Algeria,  where  he  distinguished  himself,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  gen. 
of  division.  After  the  proclamation  of  the  republic  in  1848,  he  was  appointed  gover- 
nor-general of  Algeria,  in  the  room  of  Cavaignac;  but  being  chosen  a member  of  the 
national  assembly,  he  returned  to  Paris,  when  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  garrisons  of  Paris  and  of  the  national  guard.  He  held  this  double  office  till  the 
middle  of  May,  1849,  and  again  for  some  time  after  the  insurrectionary  movement  of 
June  of  that  year.  C.  was  a member  of  the  legislative  assembly,  where  he  held  a sort 
of  neutral  position  between  the  orleanists  and  legitimists  and  opposed  to  the  bona- 
partists.  At  the  coup  d'etat  in  December,  1851,  after  being  imprisoned  in  Ham,  he  went 
into  exile  till  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  when  he  offered  his  services  to  Napoleon  III. 
He  was  in  Metz  with  Bazaine;  and,  on  its  capitulation,  retired  to  Brussels.  He  returned 
to  France  in  1871,  entered  the  assembly,  and  assisted  M.  Thiers  in  reorganizing  the  army. 
He  died  in  February  1877. 

CHANG-CHOW-FOO,  a city  of  China,  and  capital  of  a department  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  province  of  Fuh-keen,  in  24°  31'  n.  lat.,  and  1°  24'  long.  e.  of  Pekin. 

CHANG-CHOW-FOO,  or  Chaou-chow,  a city  of  China,  and  capital  of  a department 
of  the  same  name,  in  the  province  of  Keang-"su,  in  31°  50'  n.  lat.,  and  3°  24'  long.  e.  of 
Pekin. 

CHANGELING.  It  was  at  one  time  a common  superstition,  that  infants  were  taken 
from  their  cradles  by  fairies,  who  left  instead  their  own  weakly  and  starveling  elves. 
The  children  so  left  were  called  changelings,  and  were  known  by  their  peevishness,  and 
their  backwardness  in  walking  and  speaking.  As  it  was  supposed  that  the  fairies  had 
no  power  to  change  children  that  had  been  christened,  infants  were  carefully  watched 
imtil  such  time  as  that  ceremony  had  been  performed.  This  superstition  is  aUuded  to 


683 


Chandler. 

Channing. 


by  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  and  other  poets;  and  it  has  not  yet  quite  died  out  of  some  of 
the  rural  districts  in  Britain. 

CHANG-SHA-FOO,  a city  of  China,  capital  of  the  province  of  Hoo-nan,  in  28°  20'  n. 
lat, 

CHANK-SHELL,  the  popular  name  of  the  shell  of  several  species  of  turbinella,  a genus 
of  gasteropodous  mollusks  of  the  group  siphonostomata  (q.v.),  natives  of  the  East  Indian 
seas.  These  shells  are  obtained  chiefly  on  the  coasts  of  the  s.  of  India  and  Ceylon,  and 
form  a considerable  article  of  trade  to  Calcutta.  They  are  much  used  as  ornaments  by 
Hindu  women,  the  arms  and  legs  being  encircled  with  them ; and  many  of  them  are 
buried  with  the  bodies  of  opulent  persons.  Those  which  are  thrown  up  on  the  beach, 
after  the  death  of  the  mollusk,  and  have  become  whitened,  are  little  valued,  but  fresh 
shells  readily  find  purchasers.  The  commercial  returns  show  an  exportation  of  chank- 
shells  from  Madras  amounting  to  2,460,727  in  one  year,  1853-54,  the  value  of  which 
was  about  £10,000.  The  quantity  ordinarily  exported  is  smaller.  A chank-shell  open- 
ing to  the  right  is  rare,  and  is  highly  prized  in  Calcutta,  so  that  a price  of  £50,  or  even 
£100,  is  sometimes  paid  for  one. 

CHANNEL,  English — the  mare  Britannicum  of  the  ancients — is  that  arm  of  the 
Atlantic  ocean  which  divides  England  from  France,  gradually  narrowing  to  the  strait 
of  Dover.  It  is  often  called  simply  the  channel ; and  the  fleet  stationed  in  it  for  the 
protection  of  the  English  coast,  the  channel  fleet.  The  greatest  river  which  falls  into 
it  is  the  Seine.  It  forms  bays  both  on  the  English  and  on  the  French  coast;  but  the 
larger  ones  are  those  on  the  French  coast,  whilst  the  best  harbors  are  on  the  English. 

CHANNEL  ISLANDS,  a group  of  islands  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  lying  off  then.w. 
coast  of  France,  between  Normandy  and  Brittany.  'They  are  about  120  m.  s.w.  of  South- 
ampton, and  the  nearest  distance  from  the  French  coast  is  about  10  miles.  The  C.  I.  are 
the  only  parts  of  the  dukedom  of  Normandy  now  belonging  to  the  English  crown,  to 
which  they  have  been  attached  since  the  conquest.  King  John,  about  the  year  1200, 
lost  all  Normandy,  except  these  isles.  The  chief  islands  of  the  group  are  Jersey, 
Guernsey,  Alderney,  and  Sark.  The  area  of  the  whole  is  112  sq.m.,  and  the  pop.  in 
1871  was  90,596.  They  are  more  particularly  described  under  Jersey. 

CHANNING,  Edward  Tyrrel,  ll.d.,  1790-1856;  brother  of  William  Ellery  Chan- 
ning, D.D. ; a lawyer  of  Boston  who  devoted  his  attention  chiefly  to  literature.  In 
1817  to  19,  he  edited  the  North  American  Review,  and  was  a regular  contributor  to  it 
through  a large  part  of  his  life.  He  was  professor  of  rhetoric  and  oratory  in  Harvard 
college  until  1851.  A volume  of  his  lectures  has  been  published. 

CHANNING,  Walter,  1786-1876;  a physician,  native  of  Rhode  Island,  brother  of 
William  Ellery  Channing,  d.d.  He  studied  medicine  in  Boston  and  Philadelphia,  and 
in  Edinburgh  and  London.  In  1815,  he  was  professor  of  obstetrics  and  medical  juris- 
prudence in  Harvard,  resigning  in  1854.  He  was  also  for  20  years  physician  of  the 
Massachusetts  general  hospital.  Among  his  writings  are  Etherization  in  Ghildhirth;  A 
Physician's  Vacation,  or  a Summer  in  Europe;  Professional  Reminiscences  of  Foreign 
Travel;  Old  and  New;  Reformation  of  Medical  Science;  and  a volume  of  poems. 

CHANNING,  William  Ellery,  d.d.,  a celebrated  Unitarian  preacher  and  author, 
was  b.  7th  April,  1780,  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  the  United  States,  entered  Harvard 
university  at  the  age  of  14,  and  took  his  degree  in  1798.  In  1803,  he  was  ordained  min- 
ister of  a church  in  Boston.  During  the  earlier  years  of  his  ministry,  his  theological 
peculiarities  had  little  prominence  in  his  discourses,  and  in  consequence  he  stood  upon 
friendly  terms  with  his  brethren  in  more  orthodox  churches.  In  1819,  however,  he 
preached  a sermon  at  the  ordination  of  the  Rev.  Jared  Sparks,  in  which  he  advocated 
the  Unitarian  doctrine  with  so  much  zeal  and  ability,  that  he  was  termed  the  “apostle 
of  Unitarianism.”  This  involved  him  in  controversy,  a thing  which  he  naturally  loathed. 
Nevertheless,  to  the  end  of  his  life,  he  preserved  a devoutly  Christian  heart,  shrinking 
with  the  delicate  instinct  of  a pious  nature  from  everything  cold,  one-sided,  and  dog- 
matic, whether  Unitarian  or  Trinitarian.  As  late  as  1841,  he  wrote  . “ I am  little  of  a 
Unitarian,  have  little  sympathy  with  the  system  of  Priestley  and  Belsham,  and  stand 
aloof  from  all  but  those  who  strive  and  pray  for  clearer  light.”  It  1821,  he  received  the 
title  of  D.D.  from  Harvard  university,  on  account  of  the  high  talent  he  had  exhibited  m 
his  tractate  on  the  Evidences  of  Christianity,  his  Address  on  War,  and  his  Sermons  In 
1822,  he  visited  Europe,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  several  great  English  authors, 
such  as  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge,  both  of  whom  were  strongly  impressed  in  his 
favor.  Coleridge  said  of  him:  “He  has  the  love  of  wisdom  and  the  wisdom  of  love.” 
In  1823,  he  published  an  Essay^  on  National  Literature;  in  1826,  Remarks  on  the  Character 
and  Writings  of  John  Milton;  in  1829,  the  Character  and  Writings  of  Fenelon;  m 1835,  a 
work  in  opposition  to  Negro  Slavery;  and  in  1838,  an  essay  on  ^If-  Culture.  Besides 
these,  he  wrote  a variety  of  other  essays  and  treatises,  all  characterized  by  vigor, 
eloquence,  pure  taste,  and  a lofty  tone  of  moral  earnestness.  He  died  Oct,  2,  1842,  at 
Bennington,  Vt.  An  interesting  memoir  of  him  has  been  published  by  his  nephew. 
William  Henry  Channing  (3  vols. , London,  1848). 

CHANNING,  William  Ellery,  b.  Mass,,  1818;  a son  of  Dr.  Walter  Channing 
He  studied  in  Harvard,  but  did  not  graduate.  In  1839,  he  went  to  Illinois,  and 


Channing. 

Chap. 


684 


in  1840  to  Cincinnati,  where  he  was  for  a time  connected  with  the  Gazette.  In  1844-45, 
he  was  one  of  the  editorial  corps  of  the  New  York  Tribune;  visited  Europe  soon  after- 
ward, and  in  1855  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Mercury  of  New  Bedford.  He  has 
published  three  volumes  of  verse,  and,  in  prose.  Conversations  in  Rome  and  Thoreau, 
the  Poet-Naturalist. 

CHANNING,  William  Henry,  b.  Mass.,  1810;  nephew  of  William  Ellery  Chan- 
ning,  D.D.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1829,  at  Cambridge  divinity  school  in  1833, 
and  w-as  ordained  in  charge  of  a Unitarian  church  at  Cincinnati  in  1835.  After 
filling  several  pastorates  in  this  country  he  succeeded  James  Martineau  as  minister  of 
the  Hope  street  Unitarian  chapel,  Liverpool,  England.  On  the  commencement  of  the 
rebellion  he  returned  and  took  charge  of  the  Unitarian  church  in  Washington.  He  was 
one  of  the  early  supporters  of  the  socialistic  movement  in  this  country,  was  editor  of  The 
Present  and  The  Harbinger,  and  in  1848  presided  over  a socialistic  association  in  Boston. 
He  has  been  a prolific  writer,  contributing  to  the  North  American  Review,  The  Dial,  The 
Christian  Examiner,  and  other  serials.  Among  his  larger  works  are  a translation  of 
Jouffroy’s  Ethics;  Memoir  of  William  Ellery  Ghanning;  Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  James  H. 
Perkins;  Memoirs  of  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli;  and  a work  on  The  Christian  Church  and 
Social  Reform. 

CHANT  (see  Ambrosian  Chant,  and  Gregorian  Chant,  ante),  a modification 
between  singing  and  recitative  especially  used  for  litanies  and  psalms  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Episcopal  service.  The  chant  is  the  ancient  style  of  church- 
song,  certainly  as  old  as  Christianity,  which  seems  to  have  inherited  it  from  the  Jewish 
church.  St.  Paul  exhorts  believers  to  sing  (to  chant)  psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs;  and  Pliny  the  younger  mentions  the  early  morning  assembling  of  Christians  to 
chant  hymns  to  Christ.  As  rhymed  and  metrical  hymns,  now  so  common,  were  the 
product  of  a later  art,  so  the  tunes  accompanying  them  are  modern  as  compared  with 
chants. 

CH ANTAL,  Jeanne  Fran^oise  Frbmiot,  1572-1641 ; a daughter  of  the  president  of 
the  parliament  of  Dijon.  Her  husband  was  killed  in  hunting,  whereupon  she  took  the 
vows  of  celibacy,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  education  of  her  children  and  the  care  of 
the  sick  and  poor.  She  was,  under  the  direction  of  St.  Fran9ois  de  Sales,  the  founder 
of  the  order  of  the  visitation  at  Annecy.  She  was  canonized  in  1767.  One  of  her  sons 
was  the  father  of  Madame  de  Sevigne. 

CHANTILLY,  an  estate  in  Fairfax  co.,  Va.,  20  m.  w.  of  Washington,  where.  Sept. 
1,  1862,  a battle  occurred  between  the  right  of  the  union  army  under  Pope  and  the  con- 
federates under  Jackson.  The  battle  continued,  in  spite  of  a severe  thunder-storm,  until 
dpk,  but  without  important  results.  The  unionists  suffered  the  loss  of  two  generals 
killed,  Philip  Kearny  and  Isaac  I.  Stevens. 

CHANTILLY,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Oise,  about  23  m.  n.n.e.’  of  Paris. 
Being  one  of  the  most  beautiful  places  in  the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis,  it  attracts  thence 
immense  numbers  of  visitors.  Apart  from  its  natural  beauty,  it  is  interesting  as  the 
place  where  the  great  Conde  spent  the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  the  society  of  such  men 
as  Boileau,  Racine,  and  Bossuet.  The  magnificent  chateau  in  which  he  resided  was 
pulled  down  at  the  revolution  of  1793;  but  a lesser  chateau,  one  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  the  renaissance  in  France,  still  remains.  The  park  and  grounds  are  very  charming. 
C.  is  also  noted  for  its  extensive  manufacture  of  the  blonde  lace.  Pop.  (1876)  3,476. 

CHANTREY,  Sir  Francis,  an  eminent  English  sculptor,  was  b.  at  Jordanthorpe,  in 
Derbyshire,  on  7th  April,  1781,  not  1782,  as  has  been  generally  said.  His  father,  who 
was  a carpenter,  and  rented  a small  farm,  died  when  C.  was  only  12  years  of  age,  leav- 
ing his  mother  in  narrow  circumstances.  It  is  said  that  she  gave  him  “as  liberal  an 
education  as  her  limited  means  would  admit;”  but  much  cannot  be  meant  by  the  phrase, 
if  it  be  true,  as  asserted  by  Holland  in  his  Memorials,  that  his  attendance  at  the  little 
lane-school  was  very  irregular,  and  that  “for  a while  he  certainly  drove  an  ass  daily, 
with  milk-barrels,  between  Norton  and  Sheffield.”  C.’s  mother  married  a second  time, 
and  the  boy  was,  in  1797,  apprenticed  for  7 years  to  a carver  and  gilder  in  Sheffield 
called  Ramsay.  It  was  in  this  humble  department  that  C.  acquired  the  rudiments  of 
his  future  art.  It  was  during  this  period  that  his  first  attempts  at  modeling  in  clay 
were  made,  and  that  by  the  help  of  casts  taken  from  the  faces  of  his  fellow-apprentices 
and  his  own,  he  began  the  work  of  portraiture,  in  which  his  great  eminence  ultimately 
consisted.  C.’s  apprenticeship  was  canceled  two  years  before  its  expiry;  but  his  sub- 
sequent career  is  not  very  accurately  known.  It  is  certain  that  he  visited  both  London 
and  Dublin  in  1802,  probably  in  the  capacity  of  a journeyman  carver  and  gilder;  and  in 
that  year  he  seems  to  have  received  instruction  as  a pupil  of  the  royal  academy.  It  was 
probably  then  that  he  commenced  seriously  to  prepare  himself  for  the  work  of  his  future 
life.  In  the  earlier  part  of  his  career  as  an  artist,  C.  is  said  to  have  been  under  great 
obligations  to  Nollekens,  who  had  the  shrewdness  to  see,  and  the  generosity  to  see  with- 
out envy,  his  great  promise  in  the  branch  in  which  he  himself  was  eminent.  In  1816,  C. 
was  elected  an  associate,  and  in  1818  a member  of  the  royal  academy;  and  in  1819  he 
visited  Italy  for  the  first  time.  Like  the  lives  of  many  other  eminent  men,  that  of  C. 
presents  few  claims  on  our  interest  after  his  early  struggles  were  ended.  As  an  ideal 


685 


Channin|f4 

Chap. 


artist,  he  never  attained  a high  rank,  and,  in  comparison  with  Flaxman,  he  possessed 
little  reputation  in  this  country  and  none  abroad.  But  he  executed,  with  much  truth  to 
nature,  as  it  presented  itself  to  his  eye,  an  endless  variety  and  almost  countless  number 
of  works  of  individual  portraiture,  so  that  there  is  scarcely  any  town  of  importance  in 
Great  Britain  which  cannot  show  specimens  of  his  skill.  As  a result  of  his  diligence 
in  this  department  of  art,  C.  accumulated  a very  considerable  fortune,  the  greater  part 
of  which,  after  providing  for  his  widow,  he  bequeathed  for  artistic  purposes.  In  this 
respect,  he  formed  a remarkable  contrast  to  Flaxman,  w^hose  modest  savings  were 
sworn  under  £4,000;  whilst  Nollekens,  whose  name  is  almost  forgotten,  realized  the 
enormous  sum  of  £150,000,  it  is  even  said  £200,000.  C.  died  childless  on  the  25th 
Nov.,  1841,  and  was  buried  in  a tomb  prepared  by  himself  at  Norton.  Lady  C.  died  in 
Jan.,  1875,  and  the  interest  of  her  husband’s  gift  to  the  royal  academy,  amounting  to 
about  £3,000  a year,  is  now  at  the  disposal  of  the  council,  for  the  “promotion  of 
British  art.” 

CHANTRY  (Fr.  chantererie,  from  chanter,  to  sing).  The  term  C.  is  applied  alike  to 
endowments  or  benefices,  to  provide  for  the  chanting  of  masses,  and  to  the  chapels  in 
which  the  chanting  takes  place.  These  endowments  were  commonly  made  in  the  form 
of  testamentary  bequests,  the  object  being  to  insure  the  erection  of  a chapel  near  or 
over  the  spot  where  the  testator  was  buried,  and  to  remunerate  the  priests  for  saying 
masses  in  it  for  the  benefit  of  his  soul,  or  of  the  souls  of  others  named  in  his  will.  Many 
such  chantry  chapels  are  still  to  be  seen  in  English  parish  churches;  but  they  were  more 
common  in  abbeys  and  monastic  establishments,  in  which  it  was  considered  a privilege 
to  be  buried,  and  where  some  such  offering  to  the  brotherhood  was,  in  a measure,  the 
price  of  sepulture.  These  chapels,  which  have  generally  the  tomb  of  the  founder  in  the 
middle  of  them,  are  separated  from  the  aisles  or  nave  of  the  church  by  open  screen- 
work,  a circumstance  which  has  sometimes  led  to  their  being  called  chancels  (q.v.). 
Sometimes,  again,  they  are  separate  erections,  projecting  from  the  church  externally; 
but  in  cathedrals  and  the  hirger  churches  they  are  generally  constructed  within  the 
church,  often  between  the  piers.  Many  chantries  are  lavishly  enriched  with  sculpture 
and  tracery  of  all  descriptions,  and  some  of  them  are  adorned  with  gilding  and  painting. 

CHANZY,  Antoine  Eug^jne  Alfred,  b.  1823;  a French  gen.  who  first  served  as 
an  apprentice  in  the  navy.  In  1843,  he  graduated  from  the  Paris  military  school  as 
sub-lieut.  of  zouaves.  He  served  in  Algeria,  Italy,  and  Syria,  and  again  in  Algeria. 
In  1868,  he  became  gen.  of  brigade,  and  early  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  rose  to 
commander-in-chief  of  the  second  army  of  the  Loire.  During  the  supremacy  of  the  ' 
commune,  he  narrowly  escaped  death.  In  1872,  he  was  elected  to  the  national  assembly, 
where  he  acted  vuth  the  left-center  party.  In  Dec.,  1875,  he  was  chosen  senator  for  life, 
and  in  1878  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

CHA'OS  signified,  in  the  ancient  cosmogonies,  that  vacant  infinite  space  out  of  which 
sprang  all  things  that  exist.  Some  poets  make  it  the  single  original  source  of  all;  others 
mention  along  with  it  Gaea,  Tartaros,  and  Eros.  By  some  also  only  the  rough  outlines 
of  heaven  and  earth  were  supposed  to  have  proceeded  from  C.,  while  the  organization 
and  perfecting  of  all  things  was  the  work  of  Eros.  Still  later  cosmogonists,  such  as 
Ovid,  represent  it  as  that  confused,  shapeless  mass  out  of  which  the  universe  was 
formed  into  a kosmos,  or  harmonious  order.  Hesiod  makes  C.  the  mother  of  Erebus  and 
Nox. 

CHAOS  or  BIRD  ISLANDS,  is  the  name  given  to  several  rocky  islets  situated  at  the 
entrance  of  Algoa  bay.  South  Africa,  about  35  m.  e.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  It  was  on  one 
of  these  islands  that  Bartholomew  Diaz,  the  navigator,  died  in  1500. 

CHAOU-CHOW-FOO,  a city  of  China,  and  capital  of  a department  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  province  of  Kwang-tung,  in  23°  36'  6”  n.  lat.,  and  0°  46'  40”  long.  w.  of  Pekin. 

CHAOU-KING-FOO,  a city  and  capital  of  a department  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
province  of  Kwang-tung,  50  m.  w.  of  Canton,  in  23°  4'  48”  n.  lat.,  and  4°  24'  30”  long, 
w.  of  Pekin. 

CHAFA'LA,  the  largest  lake  in  Mexico,  containing  about  1300  sq.miles.  It  is  about 
lat.  20°  20'  n.,  and  ranges  in  w.  long,  from  102°  to  103°  25'.  It  is  merely  an  expansion 
of  the  Rio  Grande  de  Lerma,  which  enters  the  Pacific  at  San  Blax.  C.  lies  on  the 
table-land  of  Anahuac,  and  has  many  islands. 

CHAP  BOOKS,  the  name  given  to  a variety  of  old  and  scarce  tracts  of  a homely  kind, 
which  at  one  time  formed  the  only  popular  literature.  In  the  trade  of  the  bookseller, 
they  are  distinguishable  from  the  ordinary  products  of  the  press  by  their  inferior  paper 
nnd  typography,  and  are  reputed  to  have  been  sold  by  chapmen  (see  Chapman)  or 
peddlers;  hence  their  designation.  The  older  C.  B.  issued  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th 
are  printed  in  black  letter,  and  are  in  the  form  of  small  volumes.  Those  of  a later 
date  are  in  the  type  now  in  use,  but  are  equally  plain  in  appearance.  Of  either  variety, 
they  were  mostly  printed  in  London;  many  being  without  dates.  They  were  of  a mis- 
cellaneous kind,  including  theological  tracts,  lives  of  heroes,  martyrs,  and  wonderful 
personages,  interpretations  of  dreams,  fortune-telling,  prognostications  of  the  weather, 
stories  of  giants,  ghosts,  hobgoblins,  and  witches,  histories  in  verse,  and  songs  and  bal- 
lads. See  Notices  of  Fugitim  Tracts  and  Chap  Books,  also  Descriptive  Notices  of  Popula/r 


Chapel. 

Chapman. 


686 


English  Histones;  both  by  J.  O.  Halliwell,  printed  for  the  Percy  society.  An  inferior 
class  of  tracts  succeeded  these  books  for  the  common  people,  and  are  best  known  as 
Penny  Chap  Books.  For  the  most  part  they  consisted  of  a single  sheet,  duodecimo,  or 
24  pages.  Besides  the  title,  the  first  page  usually  contained  a coarse  wood-cut  embel 
lishment.  The  paper  was  of  the  coarsest  kind  adapted  for  printing,  and  the  price,  as 
the  name  imports,  was  a penny  each.  The  subjects  besides  being  of  a similar  nature 
to  the  above,  included  stories  of  roguery  and  broad  humor.  These  penny  C B.  were 
issued  by  an  obscure  class  of  publishers  in  London  and  several  English  prpvincial  towns, 
of  which  we  might  particularize  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  They  were  also  issued  from  the 
presses  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Falkirk,  and  Paisley.  It  is  a curious  fact,  that  nearly 
ail  ihe  penny  C.  B.  of  this  very  homely  kind  which  were  latterly  popular,  were  written 
by  Dougald  Graham,  who,  previous  to  his  death  in  1779,  filled  the  ofifice  of  bellman  or 
town -crier  of  Glasgow.  The  most  reputable  production  of  this  humble  genius  was  a 
History  of  the  Rebellion  in  a Hudibrastic  meter,  which  was  a great  favorite  with  sir  Wal- 
ter Scott,  and  is  now  scarce;  see  Chambers’s  Journal,  first  series,  vol.  x.  p.  84;  also 
the  Paisley  Magazine  (1829),  an  extinct  publication  of  great  rarity,  in  which  is  given  a 
biographic  sketch  of  Dougald  Graham,  with  a list  of  his  productions.  In  some  parts  of 
Scotland  and  the  n.  of  England,  Graham’s  penny  C.  B.  are  still  seen  on  stalls  at  mar 
kets;  but  the  general  advances  in  taste,  along  with  the  diffusion  of  an  improved  litera 
ture,  have  displaced  them  in  almost  all  other  quarters.  Collections  of  the  older  C.  B 
are  now  found  only  in  the  libraries  of  bibliomaniacs,  by  whom  they  have  been  picked 
up  at  extravagant  prices  from  dealers  in  second-hand  books.  In  various  continental 
countries,  there  are  numerous  varieties  of  C.  B.  at  exceedingly  small  prices.  The 
French  government  being  desirous  to  substitute  a wholesome  class  of  tracts  of  this  kind 
for  what  are  generally  objectionable  on  the  scoae  of  taste  and  morality,  have  latterly,, 
through  commissioners,  taken  some  steps  on  the  subject.  See  Histoire  des  Livres  Popu- 
laires,  on  de  la  Litterature  du  Colportage,  by  M.  Nizard.  w.  c. 

CHAPEL  (Fr.  chapelle),  a word  derived  from  ca/pa,  which  originally  signified  a case, 
or  chest  in  which  were  contained  the  relics  of  a saint,  and  afterwards  the  place  where 
the  chest  was  kept.  The  term  now  signifies  a building  erected  for  the  purposes  of  pub- 
lic worship,  but  not  possessing  the  full  privileges  and  characteristics  of  a church.  In 
this  sense,  all  places  of  worship  erected  by  dissenters  are  now  called  chapels  in  England, 
and  the  term  is  also  applied  to  supplementary  places  of  worship,  even  though  in  connec- 
tion with  the  established  church — such  as  parochial  chapels,  chapels  of  ease,  free  chap- 
els, and  the  like.  In  former  times,  it  was  applied  either  to  a domestic  oratory,  or  to  a 
place  of  worship  erected  by  a private  individual,  or  a body  corporate.  In  the  latter 
sense  we  speak  of  chapels  in  universities  and  colleges.  But  its  earliest  signification  was 
that  of  a separate  erection,  either  within  or  attached  to  a large  church  or  cathedral,  sepa 
rately  dedicated,  and  devoted  to  special  services.  See  Chantry.  Chapels  had  no  bury- 
ing-ground  attached  to  them,  and  the  sacrament  of  baptism  was  not  usually  administered 
in  them. 

CHAPEL  HILL,  a village  in  Orange  co.,  N.  C.,  28  m.  n.w.  of  Raleigh;  pop.  '80,  3124. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  university  of  North  Carolina. 

CHAFELiiE,  LA,  the  name  of  several  places  in  France,  the  most  important  of  which 
forms  a northern  suburb  of  Paris.  Chemicals,  salt,  starch,  liquors,  etc.,  are  manufac- 
tured. 

CHAPELLE  DE  FEE.  See  Helmet. 

CHAFEEON,  a hood  or  cap  worn  by  knights  of  the  garter.  Such  a hood  was  at  one 
time  in  general  use,  but  was  lately  appropriated  to  doctors  and  licentiates  in  colleges. 
A person  who  acts  as  a guide  and  protector  to  a lady  at  public  places,  is  called  a C., 
probably  from  this  particular  piece  of  dress  having  been  used  on  such  occasions.  The 
name  was  also  applied  to  devices  which  were  placed  on  the  heads  of  horses  at  pompous 
funerals. 

CHAPIN,  Aaron  Lucius,  d.d.,  b.  Conn.,  1817;  a graduate  of  Yale,  and  Union 
(N.  Y.)  theological  seminary.  In  1838,  he  was  a professor  in  the  New  York  institution 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In  1844,  he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  church  in 
Milwaukee,  Wis. ; and  in  1850,  was  chosen  first  president  of  Beloit  college,  an  oflfice 
which  he  still  holds.  He  was  for  some  years  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Congregational 
Review. 

CHAPIN,  Edwin  Hubbell,  d.d.,  1814-1880,  b.  Washington  co.,  N.  Y. ; educated  at  a 
seminary  in  Bennington,  Vt.,  and  commenced  preaching  in  Richmond,  Va.,  to  a congre 
gation  of  Unitarians  and  Universalists.  In  1846,  he  went  to  Massachusetts,  and  in  1848, 
to  New  York,  where  he  became  minister  of  the  Fourth  Universalist  church.  He  has 
ever  since  remained  over  this  congregation,  which,  from  a small  beginning  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  city,  has  grown  to  rank  among  the  largest,  occupying  a prominent  church 
edifice  in  Fifth  avenue,  known  as  the  Church  of  the  Divine  Paternity.  Besides  his  reg- 
ular sermons  he  has  delivered  a great  number  of  lectures,  and  has  published  several 
volumes,  among  which  are  Duties  of  Young  Men;  Duties  of  Young  Women;  Characters 
in  the  Gospels;  Communion  Hours;  Discourses  on  the  Loi'd’s  Prayer;  Crown  of  Thorns; 


Chapel. 
Chapman. 

The  Beatitudes;  Moral  Aspects  of  City  Life;  True  Manliness;  and  Discourses  on  the  Book 
•of  Proverbs;  besides  sermons. 

CHAPLAIN  was  originally  the  title  of  the  ecclesiastic  who  accompanied  an  army,  and 
carried  the  relics  of  the  patron  saint.  See  Chapel.  It  has  now  come  to  signify  a clergy- 
man not  having  charge  of  a parish,  but  employed  to  officiate  at  court,  in  the  household 
of  a nobleman,  or  in  an  army,  garrison,  ship,  etc.  Such  officials  began  early  to  be 
^appointed  in  the  palace  of  the  Byzantine  emperors.  The  practice  afterwards  extended 
to  the  western  empire,  and  to  the  courts  of  petty  princes  and  even  of  knights,  and  con- 
tinued to  subsist  after  the  reformation.  Forty-eight  clergymen  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land hold  office  as  chaplains  of  the  queen  in  England,  four  of  whom  are  in  attendance 
each  month.  Six  clergymen  of  the  church  of  Scotland  have  a similar  title  in  Scotland; 
but  their  only  duty  is  to  conduct  prayer  at  the  elections  of  Scottish  representative  peers. 
A statute  of  Henry  VIII.  limits  the  right  of  nominating  private  chaplains  in  England: 
thus,  an  archbishop  may  have  eight,  a duke  six,  a baron  three ; and  chaplains  so  appoint<»d 
have  certain  privileges,  and  may  hold  two  benefices  with  cure  of  souls. 

An  Army  Chaplain  is  a clergyman  whose  services  are  retained  especially  by  the 
government  for  the  soldiery  of  the  army.  There  have  been  such  chaplains  for  many 
generations,  and  the  office  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  a salable  perquisite ; but  the 
system  was  reorganized  and  improved  in  1796.  In  recent  years,  Roman  Catholic  and 
Presbyterian  chaplains  have  also  been  appointed,  a practice  which  indicates  the  progress 
of  toleration.  The  chaplains  belong,  not  to  regiments,  but  to  the  staff  of  the  army,  so  as 
to  be  generally  available.  At  home,  they  are  attached  to  the  military  stations;  but  in 
the  field  they  are  located  at  headquarters,  at  the  hospitals,  and  with  the  divisions.  The 
officers  at  the  stations  usually  arrange  for  the  men  to  attend  divine  service  at  the  nearest 
parish  church ; but  this  still  leaves  the  chaplains  many  duties  to  fulfill.  Where,  as  some- 
times happens,  there  is  no  regular  church  or  chapel  near  at  hand,  the  C.  reads  and 
preaches  to  as  many  men  as  can  conveniently  group  themselves  around  him  at  one  time, 
and  thus  serves  many  different  congregations  at  different  times  of  the  Sunday.  He  visits 
the  sick  at  the  hospitals,  and  examines  and  encourages  the  regimental  schools.  Among 
the  wooden  huts  at  Aldershott  camp,  a church  has  been  built,  which  is  .rendered  avail- 
able for  chaplains  of  different  religious  denominations  in  succession. 

When  the  system  of  army-chaplains  was  remodeled  in  1796,  a chaplain- general  was 
appointed;  this  office  was  abolished  by  the  duke  of  Wellington  soon  after  the  termina- 
tion of  the  great  war,  but  revived  by  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  in  1846.  The  C.-gen.,  who 
receives  £1000  per  annum,  has  duties  partaking  somewhat  of  those  of  an  archdeacon. 
He  assists  the  war  office  in  selecting  chaplains,  and  in  regulating  the  religious  matters 
of  the  army,  so  far  as  church  of  England  matters  are  concerned.  His  office  forms  one 
of  the  8 departments  under  the  new  organization  of  the  war  office.  There  are  78  chap- 
lains on  the  staff,  besides  officiating  clergymen  (not  belonging  to  the  army),  and  chapel- 
clerks.  The  commissioned  chaplains  receive  from  10s.  to  22s.  Qd.  per  day,  besides 
allowances;  and  there  are  always  some  on  half-pay;  while  the  officiating  clergymen 
receive  head-money  for  the  troops  attending  their  ministrations.  The  whole  expendi- 
ture for  chaplains,  and  other  charges  connected  with  divine  service,  figures  in  the  army 
estimates  at  near  £50,000  annually. 

Navy  Chaplain.  Every  ship  in  commission,  down  to,  and  including  fifth-rates, 
has  a chaplain.  The  navy  estimates  provide  for  above  80  commissioned  chaplains,  at 
stipends  varying  from  £219  to  £401  per  annum.  The  chaplains  perform  divine  service 
at  stated  times  on  shipboard,  visit  the  sick  sailors,  and  assist  in  maintaining  moral 
discipline  among  the  crews. 

CHAPLAIN  {ante),  in  the  United  States  officially  known  only  as  the  chaplain  of  the 
senate  and  of  the  house  of  representatives,  and  in  the  army  and  the  navy.  In  some  of 
the  states  there  are  chaplains  for  one  or  both  of  the  legislative  bodies.  In  the  army 
there  are  both  post  and  regimental  chaplains;  and  there  is  usually  a chaplain  in  every 
regiment  of  militia,  though  they  are  not  always  ordained  clergymen.  In  the  navy  there 
are  a certain  number  of  chaplains,  according  to  the  number  of  vessels  in  commission. 
It  is  usual,  also,  to  appoint  chaplains  to  state  prisons,  to  reformatory  institutions,  and 
to  asylums.  Where  there  are  radical  differences  of  religious  belief  to  any  considerable 
extent,  as  in  the  institutions  of  New  York  city,  chaplains  of  Protestant,  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  Jewish  faith  are  employed  or  permitted  to  officiate. 

CHAPLET,  a garland  or  head-band  of  leaves  and  flowers.  In  heraldry,  a C.  is  always 
composed  of  four  roses,  the  other  parts  being  leaves. 

CHAPLIN,  Jeremiah,  d.d.,  1776-1841;  a native  of  Massachusetts,  graduated  at 
Brown  university,  and  for  some  years  a tutor  there.  He  was  for  16  years  pastor  of  a 
Baptist  church  in  Danvers,  Mass.,  and  from  1820-32  president  of  Waterville  college. 

CHAPMAN,  a trader,  but  popularly  applied  in  a more  limited  sense  to  a dealer  in  small 
articles,  who  travels  as  a peddler  or  attends  markets.  C.  is  from  chap,  equivalent  to 
tdieap,  a word  which  in  its  origin  signified  a market  or  place  for  trading;  hence  Cheap- 
»ide,  Eastcheap.  See  Chap  Books.  ' 

CHAPMAN,  George,  dramatist  and  translator,  was  b.  in  1557,  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford,  and  was  the  cotemporary  and  friend  of  Spenser,  Jonson,  and  Shake- 


687 


Chapman. 

Character* 


688 


speare.  His  first  play,  entitled  The  Blind  Beggar  of  Alexandria,  was  printed  in  159S 
Up  to  1620,  he  supplied  the  theater  with  tragedies  and  comedies,  and  some  of  these, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  time,  were  written  in  conjunction  with  other  dramatists.  As  a 
writer  for  the  stage,  C.  does  not  rank  high.  Despite  many  nervous  passages,  his  plays 
want  the  irradiation  of  a constant  genius,  and  his  characters  are  unnatural.  His  trans- 
lation of  Homer  is  the  most  vigorous  that  has  yet  been  executed  in  England,  and  in 
reading  it,  many  have  felt  with  Keats — 

Like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a new  planet  swims  into  his  ken. 

C.  seems  to  have  led  a long,  temperate,  and  happy  life,  unblasted  by  poetic  fire.  He 
died  in  1634.  Swinburne,  the  poet,  published  an  edition  of  C.’s  works,  with  a critical 
introduction,  in  1875. 

CHAPMAN,  James,  a.m.,  d.d.,  b.  N.  H.,  1830;  graduated  at  Waterville  college,  and 
in  1855  became  a Methodist  minister.  He  has  occupied  pulpits  in  several  New  England 
towns,  in  Boston,  and  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

CHAPMAN,  John  Gadsby,  b.  Va.,  early  in  this  century.  He  studied  art  in 
Rome,  and  returned  to  New  York,  wdiere  he  had  a studio,  but  not  long  afterwards  went 
back  to  Rome,  where  he  now  resides.  Among  his  paintings  are  “The  Baptism  of 
Pocahontas”  (for  the  capitol  in  Washington);  “An  Etruscan  Girl;”  “The  Israelites 
Spoiling  the  Egyptians;”  “The  First  Italian  Milestone;”  “A  Donkey’s  Head;”  and 
“ The  Last  Arrow.” 

CHAPPE,  Claude,  1763-1805;  an  engineer,  and  the  inventor  of  the  first  working 
telegraph  of  any  importance.  His  invention  consisted  of  an  upright  post,  on  the  top  of 
which  was  fixed  a transverse  bar,  and  at  the  ends  of  the  bar  two  smaller  arms  movable 
on  pivots.  The  position  of  the  bars  represented  letters  or  words;  and  by  means  of  such 
machines  placed  at  remote  but  easily  visible  points,  messages  were  conveyed  fifty  leagues 
in  a quarter  of  an  hour.  Until  almost  the  period  of  electric  telegraphy,  the  machine 
was  used  especially  for  noting  the  arrival  of  ships.  C.  was  so  much  annoyed  by  charges 
that  he  had  copied  his  invention  from  others,  that  he  committed  suicide. 

CHAPPED  HANDS  AND  CHILBLAINS,  a lesser  and  a greater  form  of  disease  of  the 
skin,  produced  by  undue  exposure  to  extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  and  affecting  chiefly 
the  most  exposed  joints,  the  skin  over  which  swells  and  cracks,  with  itching,  pain,  and 
heat;  in  the  most  severe  cases  there  is  ulceration,  which  is  difficult  to  heal  in  proportion 
to  the  length  of  time  the  disease  has  been  neglected.  Chilblains  may  generally  be 
avoided  if  the  hands  are  washed  always  with  tepid  water,  and  not  habitually  exposed  ta 
great  cold,  or  when  cold,  to  the  heat  of  a fire.  When  formed,  they  may  be  treated  with 
oxide  of  zinc  ointment;  or  with  a dilute  solution  of  borax  in  glycerine  and  water;  or 
with  glycerine  alone,  slightly  diluted  with  water;  the  hands  being  in  any  case  habitually 
covered  with  woolen  gloves  in  cold  weather. 

CHAPSAL,  Charles  Pierre,  1787-1858;  a French  grammarian,  joint  author  (with 
Francois  Joseph  Noel)  of  the  Nouvelle  Orammaire  Franqaise,  avec  Exerciees,  one  of 
the  most  widely  adopted  of  all  grammars  of  that  language.  The  proceeds  of  the  book 
gave  him  a fortune,  much  of  which  was  given  to  charities,  among  which  was  one 
bequest  of  80,000  francs  to  the  teachers  in  the  environs  of  Paris. 

CHAPTAL,  Jean  Antoine,  1756-1882,  count  of  Chanteloup,  a French  chemist  and 
statesman.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  Montpellier,  where  he  taught  the  doctrines 
of  Lavoisier  instead  of  those  of  Stahl.  By  the  death  of  an  uncle,  C.  acquired  capital, 
which  he  employed  in  manufacturing  mineral  acids,  alum,  white  lead,  soda,  and  other 
chemical  wares.  After  the  revolution  of  Nov.  9, 1799,  he  was  made  a councilor  of  state 
by  Napoleon,  and  succeeded  Lucien  Bonaparte  as  minister  of  the  interior,  in  which 
capacity  he  established  a school  of  arts,  and  a society  of  industries.  He  also  reorganized 
the  hospitals,  introduced  the  metrical  system  of  weights  and  measures,  and  otherwise 
greatly  encouraged  arts  and  sciences.  On  Napoleon’s  return  from  Elba,  C.  was  made 
director-general  of  commerce  and  manufactures,  and  minister  of  state.  The  downfall 
of  the  empire  sent  C.  to  private  life,  but  he  kept  his  interest  in  science,  and  in  1816  was 
named  member  of  the  academy. 

CHAPTER-HOUSE  (Fr.  chapitre),  the  building  in  which  the  monks  and  canons  of  monaa-  . 
tic  establishments,  and  the  dean  and  prebendaries  of  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches, 
meet  for  the  management  of  the  affairs  of  their  order  or  society.  See  Cathedral. 
Chapter-houses  frequently  exhibit  the  most  elaborate  architectural  adornment,  as,  for 
example,  those  at  York,  Southwell,  and  Wells.  The  original  stained-glass  windows 
remain  at  York,  and  are  of  exquisite  beauty.  On  the  walls  of  that  at  Westminster,  the 
original  painting  has  been  discovered.  Chapter-houses  are  of  various  forms:  those  at 
York  and  Westminster  are  octagonal;  those  at  Oxford,  Exeter,  Canterbury,  Gloucester, 
etc,,  are  parallelograms;  Lichfield  is  an  oblong  octagon;  Lincoln,  a decagon;  and 
Worcester,  a circle.  They  are  always  contiguous  to  the  church,  and  are  generally  placed 
to  the  west  of  the  transepts.  They  generally  either  open  into  the  church,  or  are  entered 
by  a passage.  Chapter-houses  were  often  used  as  places  of  sepulture,  and  have  some 
times  crypts  under  them,  as  at  Wells  and  Westminster. 


689 


Cbapman. 

Character. 


CHAPU,  a maritime  t.  in  the  province  of  Che-keang,  China,  50  m.  n.w.  of  Chinhai, 
in  one  of  the  richest  districts  in  the  country.  It  is  the  port  of  Hang-Chow,  with  which 
it  has  canal  communication,  and  it  was  formerly  the  only  Chinese  port  trading  with 
Japan.  It  is  about  5 m.  in  circuit,  exclusive  of  the  suburbs.  It  was  attacked  and 
much  injured  by  the  British,  who  captured  it  in  1842,  but  it  was  immediately  abandoned 
by  them. 

CHAPUL'TEPEC,  a fortress  on  a mound  of  rock  about  200  ft.  high,  2 m.  s.w.  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  In  the  war  with  the  United  States  this  fortress,  one  of  the  chief 
defenses  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  was  taken  (Sept.  12,  1847)  by  gen.  Scott,  and  the  city 
itself  was  captured  the  next  day. 

CHABA'CEA:,  aquatic  plants,  forming,  according  to  some  botanists,  a distinct  natural 
order  of  acotyledonous  plants;  according  to  others,  a sub-order  of  algce.  Their  stems  are 
tubular,  consisting  either  of  a single  tube,  or  of  parallel  tubes,  a central  one  with  smaller 
ones  applied  to  its  surface;  they  are  either  pellucid  or  incrusted  with  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a mere  accidental  incrustation,  but  belongs  to  their 
proper  structure ; and  they  have  whorls  of  symmetrical  tubular  branches.  They  grow 
in  stagnant  waters,  both  fresh  and  salt,  are  always  submersed,  and  often  completely 
conceal  muddy  bottoms.  A number  of  species  are  natives  of  Britain,  all  belonging  to 
the  genus  chara.  The  organs  of  reproduction  are  of  two  kinds — lateral  globules,  and 
nucules.  These  organs  have  caused  no  little  difficulty  to  botanists;  the  nature 
and  use  of  the  globules  in  particular  being  by  no  means  well  understood.  The  simple 
cellular  structure  of  the  C.,  apart  from  all  consideration  of  their  reproductive  organs, 
associates  them  with  the  lower  algje,  rather  than  with  phanerogamous  plants.  None  of 
them  is  of  any  known  use.  It  was  in  the  C.  that  the  beautiful  phenomena  of  cyclosis 
(q.v.)  were  first  observed.  Sir  David  Brewster  discovered  that  each  of  the  minute 
calcareous  particles  incrusting  the  C.  possesses  double  refraction,  and  has  regular  neutral 
and  depolarizing  axes. 

Fossil  Characece. — The  calcareous  incrustation  which  covers  the  organs  of  repro- 
duction, as  well  as  the  stems  of  some  C.,  has,  from  its  power  of  resisting  decomposition, 
caused  the  abundant  preservation  of  this  order  in  the  tertiary  fresh-water  strata.  The 
nucules  originally  described  under  the  name  of  gyrogonites,  and  supposed  to  be  foram- 
iniferous  shells,  have  been  noticed  by  E.  Forbes  in  strata  as  old  as  the  middle  Purbeck 
beds.  No  remains  of  these  have  been  observed  in  newer  deposits,  until  we  find  them 
in  the  tertiaries.  The  nucules,  associated  with  lymnoea  and  planorbis,  are  very  abun- 
dant in  the  eocene  Bembridge  beds  (q.v.). 

CHABAGIN'IDiE.  See  Salmonid^. 

CHABACTEB  (Gr.  charasso  or  charatto,  which  signifies  to  scrape,  cut,  or  engrave) 
means  what  is  engraven  on  an  object,  either  physically  by  the  action  of  another  exter- 
nal object  or  objects,  or  morally  by  the  passions,  the  affections,  by  good  or  evil  fortune, 
and  b)T  what  we  designate  generally  as  “ circumstances.”  In  art,  the  expression  of  C., 
either  in  animate  or  inanimate  objects,  is,  after  correct  delineation,  the  most  important 
matter  to  be  attended  to.  Though,  properly  speaking,  all  distinguishing  marks  are 
included  under  it,  it  is  more  generally  used  to  designate  those  which  mark  individual 
from  individual,  than  species  from  species,  or  genus  from  genus. 

CHABACTEBISTIC.  See  Logarithms. 

CHABACTEB  TO  SEBVANT.  The  master  is  under  no  legal  obligation,  either  in  Eng- 
land or  in  Scotland,  to  give  a character  to  his  servant,  however  long,  faithfully,  or  effi- 
ciently he  may  have  served  him ; the  duty  of  bearing  testimony  in  his  favor  being  one 
which,  however  binding  in  morality,  it  has  not  been  found  convenient  to  enforce  by 
positive  law;  but,  if  given,  the  character  must  be  strictly  true,  or,  at  all  events,  in 
accordance  with  the  master’s  belief,  otherwise  he  may  be  exposed  to  an  action  of  dam- 
ages, either  by  the  servant  whom  he  has  calumniated,  or  by  a subsequent  employer 
whom  he  has  deceived.  If  true,  however,  the  fact  of  its  being  prejudicial  will  expose 
the  master  to  no  risk.  In  order  to  justify  the  giving  of  a bad  character,  however,  it 
must,  in  general,  be  asked  for  by  the  servant,  as  the  master  is  not  entitled  needlessly  to 
publish  the  servant’s  defects.  In  that  case,  it  will  lie  with  the  servant  to  prove  its 
falsehood,  not  with  the  master  to  prove  its  truth.  The  case  of  the  servant  being  known 
by  the  master  to  have  committed  a felony  while  in  his  service,  is,  however,  an  exception  to 
this  rule,  as,  in  a case  so  extreme,  the  master  is  at  liberty  to  warn  others  against  taking 
him  into  their  employment.  Even  though  strictly  true,  the  character,  if  prejudicial, 
must  not  be  more  so  than  the  circumstances  render  necessary.  Acts  of  petty  dishonesty, 
such  as  are  too  common  amongst  servants,  will  not  warrant  the  master  in  branding 
him  as  a thief.  The  safe  course,  in  such  a case,  is  to  state  the  offense,  and  not  to 
describe  it  by  a general  epithet,  which  may  convey  an  erroneous  impression  of  its  mag- 
nitude. 

It  is  probable  that,  partly  from  thoughtless  good-nature,  and  partly  from  a selfish 
desire  to  get  rid  of  a bad  servant  in  the  most  comfortable  manner,  false  characters  are 
given  in  favor  of  servants  very  much  more  frequently  than  to  their  prejudice.  It  is 
desirable  that  masters  and  mistresses  should  have  in  view  that  they  may  render  them- 
selves liable  in  reparation  of  any  damage  which  can  be  shown  to  be  the  direct  result  of 
U.  K.  III. -44 


Charade. 

Charge. 


690 


thus  inflicting  on  a stranger  a wrong  which  is  unquestionably  within  the  reach  of  the 
law. 

By  32  George  III.  c.  56,  personating  a master,  and  thus  giving  a false  character  to  a 
servant,  or  asserting  in  writing  that  a servant  has  been  hired  for  a period  of  time,  or  in 
a station,  etc.,  contrary  to  truth;  and  any  person  offering  himself  as  a servant,  pretend- 
ing to  have  served  where  he  has  not  served,  or  producing  a false  certificate,  or  alter- 
ing a certificate,  or  pretending  not  to  have  been  in  any  former  service,  etc.,  are  offenses 
at  common  law,  punishable  on  conviction  before  two  justices  with  a fine  of  £20.  This 
statute  does  not  extend  to  Scotland. 


CHABADE,  or  “ syllable-puzzle”  as  the  Germans  call  it,  is  an  amusement  which  con- 
sists in  dividing  a word  of  one  or  more  syllables  into  its  component  syllables,  or  into  ils 
component  letters,  predicating  something  of  each ; and  then,  having  reunited  the  whole, 
and  predicated  something  of  that  also,  the  reader  or  listener  is  asked  to  guess  the  word. 
As  a specimen  of  the  C.  depending  upon  syllables,  we  adduce  the  following: 

“ My  first  is  plowed  for  various  reasons,  and  grain  is  frequently  buried  in  it  to  little  purpose.  My 
3econai^  neither  riches  nor  honors,  yet  the  former  would  generally  be  given  for  it,  and  the  latter  are 
often  tasteless  without  it.  My  whole  applies  equally  lo  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter;  and 
both  fish  and  flesh,  praise  and  censure,  mirth  and  melancholy , are  the  better  for  being  in  it.  Ana. 
Season.'’' 


As  a specimen  of  the  second  class  of  charades,  we  take  the  following  happy  example 
from  the  French: 

“ Quatre  membres  font  tout  mon  bien, 

Mon  dernier  vaut  mon  tout,  et  mon  tout  ne  vaut  rien.” 


The  word  is  zero.  It  is  composed  of  four  letters,  of  which  the  last — viz.,  o,  is  equal  to 
zero;  the  whole,  zero  itself,  being  equal  to  nothing. 

But  besides  charades  of  this  nature,  there  is  another  kind  rather  popular  at  evening- 
parties — the  acted  C. : the  character  of  which  is  entirely  dramatic.  Half  a dozen  or  so 
of  the  company  retire  to  a private  apartment,  and  there  agree  to  select  a certain  word, 
as  the  subject  of  the  C. ; let  us  suppose  Innkeepek.  - The  next  thing  done  is  to  take 
the  first  syllable.  Inn,  and  arrange  a little  scene  and  dialogue,  each  member  taking  a 
certain  part.  This  being  accomplished,  the  amateur  actors  return  to  the  drawing-room, 
and  commence  their  performance,  the  rest  of  the  company  constituting  the  spectators. 
Care  is  taken  to  mention  conspicuously,  and  yet  not  obtrusively,  in  the  course  of  the 
dialogue,  the  word  Inn,  which  is  the  subject  of  the  scene.  On  its  conclusion,  they  again 
retire,  and  devise  a new  series  of  incidents  for  the  word  Keeper,  generally  something  in 
connection  with  a menagerie  or  a madhouse.  This  being  also  represented,  they  retire 
for  a third  time,  to  contrive  the  final  scene,  into  which  both  words,  or  rather  the  whole 
word,  Innkeeper,  must  be  dexterously  introduced  at  an  odd  moment  when  the  spec- 
tators are  thought  to  be  off  the  scent.  The  company  are  then  asked  to  guess  the  word. 
In  order  to  the  effective  performance  of  a C.  of  this  sort,  the  actors  must  possess  a good 
share  of  inventiveness,  self-possession,  and  ready  talk,  as  the  greater  portion  of  the  dia- 
logue has  to  be  extemporized. 

CHABADBI'ADA:,  a large  family  of  birds,  of  the  order  grallatores,  and  tribe  pressirostres, 
chiefly  abounding  in  the  temperate  parts  of  the  old  world,  and  generally  frequenting 
sandy  unsheltered  shores  and  open  moors  and  downs.  They  have  a short  bill,  generally 
soft  at  the  base,  hard  and  often  a little  inflated  towards  the  tip ; long  and  powerful 
wings;  long  legs;  and  short  toes,  generally  only  three  in  number,  and  all  directed  for- 
ward, but  sometimes  they  have  also  a very  small  hinder  toe.  They  run  with  great 
swiftness;  they  generally  congregate  in  flocks,  at  least  during  certain  parts  of  the  year; 
many  of  them  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits;  many  are  migratory.  The  plovers  {cTiaar- 
drius)  have  given  their  name  to  the  family,  which  includes  also  lapwings,  pratincoles, 
oyster-catchers,  turnstones,  sanderlings,  etc. 

CHARBAR,  or  Choubar  Bay,  a harbor  in  the  Indian  ocean  on  the  coast  of 
Beloochistan ; 25°  16'  n.,  60°  35'  east.  The  town  of  Charbar  at  the  entrance  is  garrisoned 
by  the  sultan  of  Oman.  Near  by  are  the  ruins  of  the  early  Portuguese  settlement  of 
Tees. 

CHARBON  ROUGE,  or  Red  Charcoal,  is  a variety  of  charcoal  obtained  by  subject- 
ing wood  to  the  action  of  heated  air  from  furnaces,  or  of  steam,  which  has  been  raised 
to  a temperature  of  572°  F.  Air-dried  wood,  by  the  ordinary  process  of  charring,  yields 
at  the  best  21  to  26  per  cent  of  black  charcoal ; but  when  acted  on  by  heated  air  or 
steam,  as  mentioned  above,  36  or  42  per  cent  of  C.  R.  is  obtained.  It  is  now  prepared 
largely  in  France  and  Belgium,  and  is  used  in  stoves  for  heating,  and  in  the  preparation 
of  gunpowder.  It  has  a dark-red  color,  and  consists  of  about  75  per  cent  pure  carbon, 
and  25  per  cent  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

CHARCAS.  See  Chuquisaca,  ante. 

CHARCOAL  is  a popular  term  applied  to  charred  wood,  or  coal  produced  by  charring 
wood.  There  are  several  other  varieties  of  C.,  however,  for  which  see  Carbon,  ANiMAi 
Charcoal,  Wood  Charcoal,  Coke,  Black-lead,  etc. 

CHARCOAL  BLACKS  are  made  both  from  animal  and  vegetable  substances — e.g., 
burnt  ivory,  bones,  vine-twigs,  peach-stones,  nut  and  other  shells,  the  smoke  of  rosin 


691 


Charade 

Charge. 


condensed,  etc.  Those  which  are  derived  from  vegetable  substances,  when  mixed  with 
white,  are  usually  of  a blue  tint.  See  Lamp-black. 

CHARDIN,  Sir  John,  1643-1713;  a native  of  Paris,  the  son  of  a jeweler,  and  bred 
to  the  same  business;  but  preferring  adventure  he  traveled  in  Persia  and  India  in  1665-69. 
Two  years  later  he  made  a second  and  more  extended  journey  of  four  years.  In  1681,  he 
settled  in  London,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  II.  In  1686,  he  published  a portion  of  the 
Travels  of  Sir  John  Chardin  into  Persia  and  the  East  Indies,  etc.  The  complete  account 
of  his  travels,  however,  did  not  appear  until  1711. 

CHABENTE,  a considerable  river  in  the  w.  of  France,  rises  in  the  department  of 
Haute-Vienne,  about  14  m.  n.w.  of  Chains.  It  first  flows  n.w.  to  Civray,  where  it 
turns  southward  into  the  department  of  Charente  to  Angoul^me,  thence  it  flows  west- 
ward past  Chateauneuf,  Jarnac,  and  Cognac,  and  entering  Charente-Inferieure,  it  runs 
n.w.  past  Saintes,  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic  below  Rochefort,  and  opposite  the  islands 
Oleron  and  Aix.  This  river  gives  its  name  to  two  departments,  both  remarkable  for 
the  productiveness  of  their  vineyards;  but  the  wines  are  mostly  used  in  the  preparation 
of  brandy  and  liquors. 

CHARENTE,  a department  of  France,  formed  chiefly  out  of  the  old  province  of 
Angoumois,  and  situated  in  lat.  45°  10'  to  46°  8'  n.,  and  long.  0°  50'  e.  to  0°  30'  west. 
Area,  about  2,200  sq.  miles.  Pop.  ’76,  373,950.  It  is  generally  hilly,  and  is  watered 
by  the  river  Charente,  above  noticed,  and  its  tributaries,  the  Tardouere  and  the  Bandiat, 
with  the  rivers  Vienne  and  Dronne.  The  highest  chain  of  hills  in  the  n.  of  C.  is  a con- 
tinuation of  the  heights  of  Limousin,  forming  the  watershed  towards  the  Loire. 
Remains  of  marine  productions  show  that  the  basin  of  the  C.  was  once  filled  by  the 
ocean.  The  soil  is  mostly  limestone,  here  and  there  interrupted  by  banks  of  clay  and 
gravel.  Only  a portion  of  the  arrondissement  Confolens  has  a rich  vegetable  clay- 
mold.  The  clay-soil  is  cool  and  moist,  while  the  limestone  district  is  d^ry  and  hot. 
The  hills  are  in  many  places  clad  with  chestnut  forests.  The  climate  is  generally  mild 
and  healthy.  The  wines  grown  are  spirituous  and  fiery  in  flavor,  and  are  chiefly  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  Cognac,  which  forms  the  most  important  of  the  exposts.  Truffles 
grow  abundantly  in  several  parts.  Industry  is  in  rather  a backward  condition.  C.  is 
divided  into  the  five  arrondissements  of  Angoul6me,  Cognac,  Ruffec,  Barbezieux,  and 
Confolens. 

CHARENTE-INFERIEURE,  a maritime  department  of  France,  which  includes  the 
former  province  of  Angoumois,  with  the  greater  part  of  Saintonge,  and  a small  portion 
of  Poitou.  It  lies  in  lat.  45°  5'  to  46°  19'  n.  and  long.  0°  7'  e,  to  1°  13'  west.  The  bay  of 
Biscay  washes  its  western  boundary — the  coast-line,  which  is  very  broken,  measuring 
about  100  miles.  Area,  2,740  sq.  miles.  Pop.  ’76,  465,628.  It  is  watered  on  its 
boundaries  by  the  S^vre-Niortaise  and  the  Gironde,  and  in  the  center  by  the  navigable 
Charente  and  the  coast-stream  Sendre.  The  surface  is  level;  and  the  soil — near  the 
coast,  intersected  by  ridges  of  rock  and  sand-banks,  and  protected  from  the  sea  by  dikes — 
is  mostly  chalky  and  sandy,  but  very  fertile,  producing  hemp,  flax,  saffron,  and  wine  in 
great  quantities.  The  commerce,  facilitated  by  the  structure  of  the  coast,  and  by  canals 
in  the  interior,  is  considerable,  consisting  chiefly  of  brandy  and  sea-salt,  which  is  found 
in  the  department  in  great  abundance.  The  oyster  and  pilchard  fisheries  are  important. 
The  chief  harbors  are  those  of  Rochefort  and  La  Rochelle,  the  latter  of  which  is  the 
chief  town.  C.  is  divided  into  the  six  arrondissements  of  La  Rochelle,  Rochefort,  Mar- 
ennes,  Saintes,  Jonzac,  and  St.  Jean-d’Angely. 

CHARENTON-LE-FONT,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Seine,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Marne,  5 m.  s.e.  of  Paris.  The  bridge  over  the  river,  which  is  impor- 
tant from  a military  point  of  view,  being  considered  one  of  the  keys  of  the  capital,  and 
which  has  frequently  been  the  scene  of  conflicts,  is  defended  by  two  forts,  forming  a 
part  of  the  fortifications  of  Paris.  At  the  other  side  of  the  river  is  the  national  lunatic 
asylum,  formerly  called  Charenton  St.  Maurice,  and  now  St.  Maurice  simply.  Pop.  ’76, 
8,744. 

CHA'RES,  4th  c.  b.c.,  an  Athenian  general  who  relieved  the  Philasians  from  the 
siege  of  the  Argives  and  Arcadians;  fought  against  Oropus;  lost  the  island  of  Corcyra 
to  Athens;  commanded  jointly  with  Chalnas  in  the  social  war,  and  made  a successful 
attack  upon  Chios,  in  which  Chalnas  was  killed ; led  an  expedition  against  and  captured 
Sestos;  commanded  in  Thrace,  where  his  main  business  was  private  plundering;  and 
in  338  was  one  of  the  Athenian  commanders  in  the  battle  of  Chseronea. 

CHA'RES,  a Grecian  artist  in  bronze,  a native  on  Lindus,  and  the  designer  of  the 
colossus  of  Rhodes,  lived  in  the  3d  c.  b.c.  He  was  a pupil  of  Lysippus. 

CHARGE.  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  a C.  is  a command  to  perform  an  act,  conveyed 
in  the  letters  of  the  sovereign.  The  same  term  is  applied  to  a messenger’s  copy  for 
service,  requiring  the  person  to  obey  the  order  contained  in  the  letters — e.g.,  a C.  on 
letters  of  horning,  or  a C.  qgainst  a superior. 

CHARGE,  in  heraldry.  The  figures  represented  on  a shield  are  called  charges,  and  a 
shield  with  figures  upon  it  is  said  to  be  charged  (Fr.  charge).  The  charges  in  a shield 
ought  to  be  few  in  number,  and  strongly  marked,  both  as  regards  their  character  and 


Charge. 

Charlatan. 


692 


the  mode  of  their  representation.  The  family  shield,  belonging  to  the  head  of  the 
house,  almost  always  is  simpler,  i.e.,  has  fewer  charges,  than  the  shields  of  collaterals, 
or  even  of  junior  members. 

CHARG-E,  in  military  warfare,  is  a sudden  and  impetuous  attack  on  the  enemy,  by 
horse  or  foot,  or  both.  Its  object  usually  is  to  drive  the  enemy  from  a particular 
position;  but  if  made  with  a much  stronger  force,  it  may  result  in  his  actual  destruc- 
tion. 

CHARGE,  in  military  pyrotechny,  is  sufficient  combustible  material  for  one  firing  or 
discharge.  It  is  applicable  to  all  kinds  of  firings,  fireworks,  and  explosions;  but  the 
name  is  generally  given  to  the  quantity  of  gunpowder  requisite  for  firing  off  a gun,  etc. 
In  cannon,  this  varies  greatly,  from  | to  of  the  weight  of  the  shot;  some  of  the  rifled 
ordnance  now  coming  into  use  are  remarkable  for  the  smalloess  of  the  C.  with  which 
they  are  fired.  The  quota  of  C.  will  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  various  kinds 
of  fire-arms  described  in  the  Encydopc&dia.  In  breaching  a wall,  a greater  C.  is  necessary 
than  in  attacking  a ship  or  a column  of  troops,  even  with  the  same  kind  of  gun  and 
projectile. 

CHARGER  is  a name  sometimes  given  to  a war-horse,  accustomed  to  the  din  of  battles, 
and  reliable  under  circumstances  of  confusion  and  danger.  In  the  middle  ages,  when 
armor  was  used,  and  gunpowder  unknown,  the  military  horses  were  barbed  or  barded 
when  ridden  by  men-at-arms — that  is,  they  were  nearly  covered  with  armor.  The  face, 
the  head,  and  the  e.ars  were  covered  with  a mask  called  a chanfron,  to  prevent  fright 
when  charging  the  enemy;  and  an  iron  spike  projected  from  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 
The  neck  was  defended  by  small  plates  called  crinieres;  the  breast  by  a poitrinal;  and 
the  buttocks  and  hauuches  by  croupieres.  These  various  pieces  of  armor  were  mostly 
made  of  metal,  but  sometimes  of  tough  leather.  The  horse  was  occasionally  covered 
with  chain-mail;  and  in  other  instances  with  a of  stuffed  and  quilted  cloth. 

The  man-at-arms  generally  rode  another  horse  when  not  charging,  to  relieve  the  C,  from 
his  great  burden.  The  barbed  or  barde  horse  received  its  name  from  an  old  French  word 
implying  covered,  clothed,  or  armed.  A war-horse  is  still  called  a C.,  though  not  armed 
as  in  ancient  times. 

CHARGES  D’AFFAIRES  are  fourth-class  diplomatic  agents,  accredited,  not  to  the 
sovereign,  but  to  the  department  for  foreign  affairs;  they  also  hold  their  credentials 
only  from  the  minister,  and  are  sometimes  only  empowered  by  an  ambassador  to  act  in 
his  absence. 

CHARIOT,  in  ancient  times,  was  a kind  of  carriage  used  either  for  pleasure  or  in 
war.  According  to  the  Greeks,  it  was  invented  by  Minerva;  while  Virgil  ascribes  the 
honor  to  Erichthonius,  a mythical  king  of  Athens,  who  is  said  to  have  appeared  at  the 
Panathenaic  festival  founded  by  him,  in  a car  drawn  by  four  horses.  The  ancient  C. 
had  only  two  wheels,  which  revolved  upon  the  axle,  as  in  modern  carriages.  The  pole 
was  fixed  at  its  lower  extremity  to  the  axle,  and  at  the  other  end  was  attached  to  the 
yoke,  either  by  a pin  or  by  ropes.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  seem  never  to  have  used 
more  than  one  pole,  but  the  Lydians  had  carriages  with  two  or  three.  In  general,  the 
C.  was  drawn  by  two  horses.  Such  was  the  Roman  biga  (q.v.),  but  we  also  read 
of  a triga,  or  three-horse  C.,  and  a quadriga,  or  four-horse  one.  The  last  was  that  in 
which  the  Roman  generals  rode  during  their  triumphal  entrance  into  the  city,  and  was 
often  adorned  with  splendid  art.  The  war-chariot  held  two  persons — the  soldier  himself 
and  the  driver,  the  latter  of  whom  usually  occupied  the  front;  but  the  chariots  used  by 
the  Romans  in  their  public  games  held  only  the  charioteer. 

The  oldest  war-chariots  of  which  we  read  are  those  of  Pharaoh  (Exodus  xiv.  7).  All 
the  eastern  nations  used  them,  while  we  learn  from  Caesar  {Be  Bell.  Gall.,  v.  19)  that  the 
Britons  also  were  familiar  with  their  use. 

CHARIS'TICARIES,  officers  (in  Greek  ecclesiastical  history)  who  had  full  power 
over  the  revenues  of  hospitals  and  monasteries. 

CHARITABLE  USES  and  Law  of  Charities.  The  law  of  England  has  always 
anxiously,  though  too  often  ineffectually,  sought  to  provide  for  the  preservation  and 
proper  application  of  the  public  and  private  endowments  in  that  country  for  charitable 
purposes.  The  preceding  efforts  of  the  legislature  in  this  direction  may  now  be  said  to 
have  been  superseded  by  the  charitable  trusts  acts  (16  and  17  Viet.  c.  137,  18  and  19 
Viet.  c.  124,  23  and  24  Viet.  c.  136,  and  32  and  33  Viet.  c.  110).  See  Charity  Com 
MissiONERS.  As  these  statutes  now  contain  a species  of  code  of  charity-law,  it  will  here 
only  be  necessary  to  mention  certain  general  principles  which  govern  the  law  of  Eng- 
land in  its  relation  to  charities.  The  courts  of  equity  are  those  which  in  general  take 
cognizance  of  all  charitable  uses,  or  trusts  of  a public  description.  Under  the  authority 
of  these  tribunals — or  in  cases  in  which  the  annual  income  does  not  exceed  £50,  in 
accordance  with  the  act  just  quoted,  under  that  of  the  county  courts  of  the  district — 
trustees  may  be  called  to  account  for  the  funds  committed  to  their  charge,  or  new  trus- 
tees may  be  appointed,  improvident  alienations  may  be  rescinded,  schemes  for  carrying 
the  donor’s  object  into  effect  may  be  judieially  considered  and  adopted,  and  every 
species  of  relief  afforded  which  such  institutions  require.  Where  the  management  of 
l^e  charity  has  been  confided  by  the  donor  to  governors  and  other  functionaries,  the  law 


693 


Cliarge. 

Charlatan. 


Avill  not  interfere  with  their  proceedings  unless  they  can  he  shown  to  be  squandering 
the  revenues  or  otherwise  abusing  the  trust.  Where  the  crown  is  founder,  the  lord 
•chancellor  is  visitor,  but  in  his  personal  character  only,  and  not  as  judge  of  the  court 
of  chancery.  As  regards  the  nature  of  the  trusts  to  which  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of 
the  chancery  extends,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that  the  word  charitable  here  includes 
institutions  for  the  advancement  of  learning,  science,  and  art,  and,  indeed,  for  all  useful 
public  purposes,  as  well  as  for  the  support  of  the  poor.  It  also  comprises  all  donations 
for  pious  and  religious  objects,  under  which  are  included  all  those  which  tend  to  the 
benefit  of  the  church  of  England,  or  of  any  body  of  dissenters  sanctioned  by  law. 
Roman  Catholics  were  admitted  into  this  category  by  2 and  3 Will.  c.  115,  and  Jews  by 
9 and  10  Viet,  c,  59,  s.  2.  The  charity  or  other  benevolent  purpose,  however,  must  be 
public;  “for  if  a sum  of  money  be  bequeathed,  with  direction  to  apply  it  to  such  pur- 
poses of  benevolence  and  liberality  as  the  executor  shall  approve,”  or  even  “ in  private 
•charity,”  the  law  will  take  no  notice  of  such  a trust. 

Legacies  to  pious  or  charitable  uses  are  not  by  the  law  of  England  entitled  to  a pref- 
erence, though  such  was  the  doctrine  of  the  civilians;  but  where  a deficiency  of  assets 
arises,  they  are  abated  in  proportion  with  the  others. 

CHARTTON,  a co.  in  n.  central  Missouri,  lying  n.  and  e.  of  the  Missouri  and  w.  of 
Grand  river,  and  intersected  by  the  North  Missouri  railroad;  740  sq.m.;  pop.  '80, 
25,224—3958  colored.  The  surface  is  rolling  prairie  and  forest,  with  fertile  soil. 
Coal  and  limestone  are  found.  Chief  productions,  wheat,  oats,  corn,  hay,  tobacco,  and 
butter.  Co.  seat,  Keytesville. 

CHARTTON,  or  Grand  Chariton,  a river  rising  in  s.  central  Iowa,  and  flowing  s.e. 
into  Missouri,  thence  s.  joining  the  Missouri  river  in  Chariton  co. ; 250  m.  long,  and 
navigable  about  50  miles. 

CHAEITY,  Sisters  op.  See  Sisters  op  Charity. 

CHARITY  COMMIS'SIONERS.  A body  of  commissioners  was  created  in  1853,  by  the 
•charitable  trusts  act,  16  and  17  Viet.  c.  137  (see  Charitable  Uses),  with  power  to 
inquire  into  all  charities  in  England  and  Wales,  with  reference  to  their  nature,  objects, 
and  administration,  and  the  amount  and  condition  of  the  property  belonging  to  them. 
The  commissioners  have  power  to  call  for  the  production  of  accounts  and  documents 
from  trustees,  and  to  appoint  inspectors  to  visit  and  report  on  their  management.  The 
statute  does  not  extend  to  Scotland  or  Ireland,  to  the  English  universities,  or  to  the  city 
cf  London.  An  annual  report  of  their  proceedings  must  be  laid  before  parliament  by 
the  commissioners. 

CHARIVARI  is  a French  term  used  to  designate  a wild  tumult  and  uproar,  produced 
by  the  beating  of  pans,  kettles,  and  dishes,  mingled  with  whistling,  bawling,  groans, 
and  hisses,  and  got  up  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  a general  dislike  to  the  person 
against  whom  it  is  directed.  The  etymology  of  C.  is  obscure;  the  Germans  translate  it 
by  Katzenmusik,  the  English  of  which  is  caterwauling.  In  France,  during  the  middle 
ages,  a C.  was  generally  raised  against  persons  contracting  second  nuptials,  in  which 
case  the  widow  was  specially  assailed.  On  these  occasions,  the  participators  in  it,  who 
were  masked,  accompanied  their  hubbub  by  the  singing  of  satirical  and  indecent  verses, 
and  would  not  cease  till  the  wedding' couple  had  purchased  their  peace  by  ransom.  C. 
answers  to  the  English  concert  upon  “ marrow-bones  and  cleavers,”  with  which  it  was 
customary  to  attack  a married  couple  who  lived  in  notorious  discord.  It  was  also  got  up 
against  an  unequal  match,  such  as  where  there  was  great  disparity  in  age  between  the 
bride  and  bridegroom. 

Similar  customs  seem  to  have  existed  under  different  names  in  all  parts  of  Europe, 
and  sometimes  they  were  of  such  a licentious  and  violent  character  as  to  require  mili- 
tary interference  to  put  them  down.  Even  as  early  as  the  14th  c.,  the  church  found 
itself  forced  to  threaten  punishment,  and  even  excommunication,  against  those  who 
participated  in  them.  In  more  recent  times,  the  C.  has  taken  a purely  political  coloring; 
as,  for  example,  during  the  restoVation  in  France,  at  which  time,  however,  the  popular 
voice  began  to  seek  vent  by  casting  its  satirical  darts  against  public  men  through  the 
press.  The  papers  published  for  this  purpose  were  called  C.,  the  most  famous  among 
which  is  the  Charivari,  which  was  established  in  Paris,  Dec.  2,  1832,  corresponding  te 
the  English  publication.  Punch  (q.v.). 

CHARKOV'.  See  Kharkov. 

CHARLATAN,  a mountebank,  quack-doctor,  or  empiric,  and  hence  any  one  who 
makes  loud  pretensions  to  knowledge  or  skill  that  he  does  not  possess.  The  word  seems 
to  be  derived  from  the  Ital.  ciarlare,  to  babble  or  talk,  the  chief  art  of  the  C.  consist- 
ing in  talk.  Charlatanism  abounds  in  all  departments  of  life,  and  manifests  itself  in 
various  ways  according  to  the  subject  and  character  of  the  person.  It  changes  also  in 
form  with  the  spirit  of  the  time.  The  medical  C.  no  longer  appears  on  a stage  in  the 
guise  of  Dr.  Ironbeard,  but  as  a fine-dressed  gentleman,  receiving  grateful  acknowledg- 
ments through  the  newspapers,  and  publishing  popular  medical  books,  with  the  address 
of  the  author,  and  recommendations  to  apply  to  him.  It  has  not  unfrequently  hap- 
pened, however,  that  extraordinary  men  who  were  so  far  before  their  age  as  not  to  be 
understood  by  it,  such  as  Paracelsus,  have  passed  for  charlatans  until  more  justly  esti- 


Charlemagne. 

Charles. 


694 


mated  by  later  times.  Several  books  have  been  written  on  the  charlatanism  of  scholars, 
J.  B.  Mencke’s  satire,  De  Gharlaianeria  Eruditorum  (Leip.  1715),  is  a classical  work, 
which  has  been  continued  by  Bilschel  in  his  book,  Ueber  die  Gharlatanerie  der  Gelehrten- 
seit  MencJce. 

CHABLEUAGNE,  i.e.,  Charles  the  great,  king  of  the  Franks  (768-814  a.d.),  and 
Roman  emperor  (800-814  a.d.),  was  b.  on  2d  April,  742,  probably  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
and  was  the  son  of  Pepin  the  short,  the  first  Carlo vingian  (q.v.)  king  of  the  Franks,  and 
grandson  of  Charles  Martel  (q.v.).  On  Pepin’s  death  in  768,  he  and  his  brother  Carlo- 
man  jointly  succeeded  to  the  throne.  By  Carloman’s  death,  and  the  exclusion  of  both 
his  sons  from  the  throne,  C.  became  sole  king.  In  772,  it  was  resolved  in  the  diet  at 
Worms  to  make  war  against  the  Saxons,  for  the  security  of  the  frontiers,  which  they 
continually  threatened,  and  for  the  extension  of  the  Christian  religion.  C.  advanced 
as  far  as  the  Weser  in  772,  securing  his  conquests  by  castles  and  garrisons.  Pope  Adrian 
I.  now  called  him  to  his  aid  against  Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards.  C.  had  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Desiderius,  and  had  sent  her  back  to  her  father  because  she  bore 
him  no  children,  and  married  Hildegarde,  daughter  of  the  Swabian  duke,  Godfrey. 
Desiderius  had  sought  revenge  by  urging  the  pope  to  crown  the  sons  of  Carloman,  and 
on  the  pope’s  refusal,  had  laid  waste  the  papal  territory.  C.  crossed  the  Alps  from 
Geneva,  with  two  armies,  by  the  great  St.  Bernard  and  mont  Cenis,  in  773,  and  over- 
threw the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in  774.  The  Lombard  dukes  acknowledged  him 
as  their  king,  and  he  secured  the  pope’s  favor  by  confirming  the  gift  which  Pepin  had 
made  to  the  papal  see,  of  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  In  775,  he  was  again  employed 
in  the  most  northerly  part  of  his  dominions,  reducing  the  Saxons  to  subjection ; in  776, 
he  suppressed  an  insurrection  in  Italy;  in  777,  he  so  completed  his  victory  over  the 
Saxons,  that  their  nobles  generally  acknowledged  him  as  their  sovereign  in  an  assembly 
at  Paderborn^  Being  now  invited  to  interpose  in  the  wars  of  the  Arabs  and  Moors  in 
Spain,  he  hastened  to  that  country  in  778,  and  added  to  his  dominions  the  regions 
between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro.  From  Spain  he  was  summoned  in  haste  by  a new 
insurrection  of  part  of  the  Saxons,  who  had  advanced  almost  to  Cologne,  but  whom  he 
drove  back  to  the  Elbe.  In  781,  he  went  to  Italy,  where  the  pope  crowned  his  second 
son,  Pepin,  king  of  Italy,  and  his  third  son,  Louis,  an  infant  of  three  years  old,  king  of 
Aquitaine.  The  Saxons  once  more  rising  in  arms,  defeated  and  destroyed  a Frankish 
army  on  the  Siintel  in  782,  which  C.,  after  a new  victory,  fearfully  revenged  by  causing 
no  fewer  than  4,500  prisoners  to  be  executed  as  rebels  in  one  day.  A more  general 
rising  of  the  Saxons  followed,  but  in  783-85,  the  Frankish  monarch  succeeded  iu 
reducing  them  completely  to  subjection,  and  in  persuading  their  principal  chiefs  to  sub- 
mit to  baptism,  and  to  become  his  faithful  vassals.  Subsequent  insurrections  and  wars 
in  Germany,  between  this  year  and  800,  resulted  in  victories  over  the  Bulgarians  and 
Huns,  and  in  the  further  consolidation  and  extension  of  his  empire,  the  eastern  boundary 
of  which  now  reached  to  the  Raab. 

In  800,  C.  undertook  an  Italian  campaign,  which  was  attended  with  the  most  impor- 
tant consequences.  Its  immediate  purpose  was  to  support  pope  Leo  III.  against  the 
rebellious  Romans.  When  C. , on  Christmas  day,  800,  was  worshiping  in  St.  Peter’s 
church,  the  pope  unexpectedly,  as  it  appeared,  set  a crown  upon  his  head,  and,  amidst 
the  acclamations  of  the  people,  saluted  him  as  Carolus  Augustus,  emperor  of  the  Romans. 
Although  this  added  nothing  directly  to  his  power,  yet  it  greatly  confirmed  and 
increased  the  respect  entertained  for  him,  such  was  still  the  luster  of  a title  with  which 
were  associated  recollections  of  all  the  greatness  of  the  Roman  empire.  A scheme  for 
the  union  of  the  newly  revived  western  empire  with  the  empire  of  the  east,  by  C.’s 
marriage  with  Irene  (q.v.),  the  Byzantine  empress,  failed  by  reason  of  Irene’s  overthrow. 
After  this,  C.  still  extended  and  confirmed  his  conquests  both  in  Spain  and  in  Germany. 
He  labored  to  bring  the  Saxons  to  a general  reception  of  Christianity,  and  founded 
bishoprics  for  this  purpose.  To  the  end  of  his  reign,  he  was  incessantly  engaged  in 
wars,  and  insurrections  were  always  apt  to  break  out  in  the  frontier  parts  of  his  domin- 
ions; which  he  endeavored  to  secure,  however,  not  only  by  military  power  and  arrange- 
ments, but  by  improvements  in  political  and  social  institutions.  His  views  were  liberal 
and  enlightened  to  a degree  rare  for  many  subsequent  ages.  Whilst  he  made  the  power 
of  the  central  government  to  be  felt  to  the  utmost  extremities  of  his  empire,  he  recog- 
nized in  his  subjects  civil  rights,  and  a limitation  of  monarchic  power  by  their  assem- 
blies. He  zealously  endeavored  to  promote  education,  agriculture,  arts,  manufactures, 
and  commerce.  He  projected  great  national  works,  one  of  which  was  a canal  to  con- 
nect the  Rhine  and  the  Danube;  but  he  deemed  nothing  beneath  his  attention  which 
concerned  the  interests  of  his  empire  or  of  his  subjects.  He  required  his  subjects  to 
plant  certain  kinds  of  fruit-trees,  the  cultivation  of  which  was  thus  extended  northward 
in  Europe.  His  own  domains  were  an  example  of  superior  cultivation.  He  had  a 
school  in  his  palace  for  the  sons  of  his  servants.  He  built  sumptuous  palaces,  particu- 
larly at  his  favorite  residences,  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Ingelheim — for  he  had  no  fixed 
capital — and  many  churches.  Learned  men  were  encouraged  to  come  to  his  court.  He 
himself  possessed  an  amount  of  learning  unusual  in  his  age ; he  could  speak  Latin  and 
read  Greek.  He  attempted  to  draw  up  a grammar  of  his  own  language.  C.  was  of 
more  than  ordinary  stature,  and  of  a noble  and  commanding  appearance.  He  was  fond 


695 


Charlemagrne. 

Charles. 


of  manly  exercises,  particularly  of  hunting.  He  was  too  amorous,  but  in  eating  and 
drinking  he  was  very  moderate.  His  fame  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  world ; in  768, 
Harun-al-Raschid  sent  ambassadors  to  salute  him.  He  enjoyed  good  health  till  shortly 
before  his  death,  28th  Jan.,  814.  He  was  buried  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (q.v.),  in  a church 
which  he  had  built  there.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis,  styled  Louis  le  Debon- 
naire,  the  only  one  of  his  sons  who  survived  him;  but  the  greatness  of  his  dynasty  ter- 
minated with  his  own  life.  C.  is  styled  Charles  I.  in  the  enumeration  both  of  the 
French  kings  and  of  the  German  or  Roman  emperors.  Besides  his  capitularies  (q.v.), 
there  are  extant  letters  and  Latin  poems  ascribed  to  him.  His  life  was  written  by  his 
secretary,  Eginhard. 

CHARLEMONT.  See  Givet,  ante. 

CHABLEBOI,  a Belgian  t.  and  fortress  in  the  province  of  Hainaut,  stands  on  the 
Sambre,  between  Mons  and  Namur,  on  the  line  of  the  Brussels  and  Namur  railway. 
The  pop.  is  (1873)  12,150,  who  carry  on  considerable  manufactures  in  hardware,  glass, 
woolen-yarn,  etc.  The  district  is  rich  in  coal,  and  the  number  of  smelting-furnaces  and 
nail-factories  in  the  neighborhood  is  very  great.  The  ironworks  of  Couillet,  which  yield 
^ third  of  all  the  cast-iron  produced  in  Belgium,  lie  within  a mile  or  two  of  the  town, 
G.  possesses  considerable  historical  and  political  interest  as  a fortress.  The  fortifica- 
tions were  begun  by  the  Spaniards  in  1666,  but  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  French  next 
year,  they  were  completed  by  Vauban.  After  six  exchanges  of  masters  between  the 
French  and  Spaniards,  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1748,  left  C.  in  the  possession  of 
Austria.  In  1794,  after  a protracted  and  desperate  resistance,  it  was  surrendered  to  the 
French  by  capitulation,  when  the  fortifications  were  demolished.  The  importance  of 
the  place  in  a strategic  point  of  view  having  become  apparent  during  the  campaign  of 
1815,  the  fortifications  have  been  since  restored. 

CHARLES,  a co.  in  s.w.  Maryland,  between  the  Potomac  and  Pawtucket  rivers; 
450  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80, 18,548 — 10,852  colored.  Surface  uneven,  with  forests  of  locust,  oak, 
.ash,  chestnut,  and  cedar.  Tobacco  is  the  main  production.  Co.  seat.  Port  Tobacco. 

CHABLES  I.,  King  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  (1625-49),  was  b.  at  Dunferm- 
line, 19th  Nov.,  1600,  and  was  the  second  son  of  James  I.  of  England  (VI.  of  Scotland). 
On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Henry,  in  1612,  he  became  prince  of  Wales,  and  heir- 
apparent  to  his  father  s throne;  to  which  he  succeeded  in  1625,  but  found  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  a contest  in  progress  between  king  and  people.  He  had  inherited 
from  his  father  the  most  extreme  notions  of  kingly  prerogative,  and  he  mistook  the 
general  movement  in  the  public  mind  for  an  agitation  amongst  a few  disaffected  persons. 
He  had  deeply  imbibed  his  father’s  notion,  that  an  Episcopal  church  was  the  most  con- 
sistent with  the  proper  authority  of  kings;  and  he  adopted  severe  and  persecuting 
measures  against  the  Puritans  in  England  and  the  Presbyterians  in  Scotland.  He  mar- 
ried a Roman  Catholic,  Maria  Henrietta  of  France,  a marriage  most  displeasing  to  the 
nation;  and  even  so  far  despised  public  opinion  as  to  make  his  father’s  favorite,  the 
duke  of  Buckingham,  his  prime  minister  and  chief  adviser.  The  English  parliament, 
which  he  assembled  in  1625,  was  resolved  upon  the  vindication  of  the  national  liberties, 
and  was  therefore  very  sparing  in  its  grants  of  subsidies,  while  that  of  1626,  instead  of 
freely  granting  supplies,  resolved  upon  the  impeachment  of  Buckingham;  whereupon 
the  king  threw  into  prison  two  of  the  boldest  members,  Elliot  and  Digges;  dissolved 
parliament;  and,  to  procure  money,  had  recourse  to  the  arbitrary  measures  of  forced 
loans,  and  a tax  upon  the  seaports  {ship-money),  imposed  by  the  mere  exercise  of  royal 
authority.  By  all  this,  public  feeling  was  more  and  more  embittered.  In  1628,  C. 
found  it  necessary  again  to  summon  a parliament;  and  the  parliament,  very  resolute  to 
maintain  the  liberties  of  the  nation,  presented  the  petition  known  in  history  as  the  Peti- 
tion of  Bight  (q.v).  C.  temporized,  conceded,  and  finally,  although  the  assassination  of 
Buckingham  had  removed  one  cause  of  strife,  assumed  a threatening  tone,  and  dissolved 
the  parliament,  10th  Mar. , 1629.  He  even  caused  some  of  the  leading  members  of  the  house 
of  commons  to  be  imprisoned.  He  now  governed  for  11  years  without  a parliament,  hav- 
ing Laud  (q.v.)  and  Strafford  (q.v.)  for  his  chief  advisers,  and  obtaining  for  his  edicts 
the  semblance  of  a legal  sanction  by  means  of  the  star  chamber  (q.v.).  All  this  while, 
the  storm  was  gathering,  the  love  of  liberty  increased,  and  republican  principles  were 
developed  and  extended.  The  policy  which  C.  adopted  was  that  of  more  severe  repres- 
sion. At  length,  in  1638,  Scotland  assumed  an  attitude  of  determined  resistance  to  the 
imposition  of  a liturgy  and  of  Episcopal  church-government.  The  national  covenant 
(q.v.)  was  subscribed,  Presbyterianism  was  completely  restored;  and  in  1639,  the  king 
having  assembled  an  army  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  Scotland  to  subjection,  the  Scot- 
tish covenanters  also  took  up  arms,  and  advanced  to  the  English  border,  many  of  the 
English  regarding  their  approach  with  joy.  Civil  war  was,  however,  prevented  for 
the  time,  by  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  king.  Unable  to  do  without  supplies  any 
longer,  C.  summoned  an  English  parliament  in  1640,  which,  instead  of  listening  to  his 
demands,  began  to  draw  up  a statement  of  public  grievances.  C.  soon  dissolved  the  par- 
liament, and  assembled  an  army  to  resist  the  Scots,  who  had  again  taken  up  arms  and 
entered  England;  but  his  army  was  defeated  by  them  at  Newburn-upon-Tyne,  and  they 
advanced  southward,  with  the  sympathy  and  good  wishes  of  no  small  part  of  the  king’s 
English  subjects.  Much  against  his  will,  C.  was  now  compelled  again  to  call  a parlia- 


Charles. 


696 


ment,  whose  memorable  sittings  began  on  3d  Nov.,  1640.  Both  houses  were  resolute  in 
their  opposition  to  his  despotism.  They  began  by  the  impeachment  of  the  ministers  and 
high  officers  of  state,  and  declared  the  decrees  of  the  star  chamber  and  court  of  high 
commission  to  be  null  and  void.  They  passed  a bill  in  favor  of  triennial  parliaments; 
and  the  king,  in  trepidation,  gave  it  his  assent.  He  also  consented,  although  against  hia 
own  convictions,  to  the  execution  of  Strafford;  and  even  gave  his  assent  to  an  act  which 
provided  that  the  present  parliament  should  not  be  dissolved,  prorogued,  or  adjourned, 
without  its  own  consent.  Hoping  to  win  the  favor  of  the  Scots,  he  now  visited  Scot- 
land; but  whilst  he  was  there,  a rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland,  accompanied  with  a 
fearful  massacre  of  Protestants.  The  prospect  of  a peaceful  accommodation  was  now 
almost  destroyed;  the  English  parliament  enlarged  its  demands;  the  king,  after  seeming 
to  yield,  took  the  extraordinary  step  of  suddenly,  on  4lh  Jan.,  1642,  appearing  in  the 
house  of  commons,  accusing  five  members — Pym,  Hampden,  Hollis,  Hazelrig,  and 
Stroud — of  high  treason,  and  demanding  that  they  should  be  delivered  up  to  him.  Both 
houses  of  parliament  espoused  their  cause,  and  the  city  of  London  showed  a determina- 
tion to  defend  them  by  arms.  C.  left  London  with  his  family,  and  the  parliament 
declared  the  kingdom  in  danger.  Civil  war  began;  the  royalists  had  at  first  the  advan- 
tage, but  the  national  feeling  was  with  the  parliament.  Negotiations  were  from  time  to 
time  opened  or  renewed,  but  always  in  vain.  After  the  battle  of  Naseby,  on  15th 
June,  1645,  in  which  his  army  was  almost  annihilated  by  the  parliamentary  troops  under 
Fairfax  and  Cromwell,  C.  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  the  Scottish  camp.  Nego- 
tiations still  proving  fruitless,  he  was  delivered  up  to  the  English  parliamentary  army. 
Negotiations  were  still  attempted  with  C.  in  his  captivity;  but  resulted  in  nothing. 
Finally,  C.  fled,  was  taken,  refused  the  ultimatum  of  the  army,  and  so  enraged  Crom- 
well and  the  Independents,  that  parliament  was  obliged  to  pass  an  act  declaring  all 
negotiation  with  the  king  to  be  treason.  The  Presbyterians  of  England  and  the  Scots, 
who  were  always  haunted  by  the  idea  that  there  was  something  sacred  and  inviolable  in 
monarchy,  thought  to  rescue  the  king  from  the  hands  of  the  Independents,  but  were 
defeated,  and  all  the  Presbyterians  were  forcibly  expelled  from  the  English  house  of 
commons,  which  now  consisting  only  of  about  60  members — the  Rump  parliament — 
appointed  a court  composed  of  persons  from  the  army,  the  house  of  commons,  and  the 
city  of  London,  to  try  the  king.  The  court  was  opened  with  great  solemnity  in  West- 
minster hall  on  20th  Jan.,  1649.  About  70  members  took  part  in  its  proceedings. 
On  the  27th  of  Jan.,  C.  was  condemned  to  death  as  a tyrant,  murderer,  and  enemy  of  the 
nation.  The  Scots  protested,  the  royal  family  entreated,  and  the  court  of  France  and 
states-general  of  the  Netherlands  interceded,  but  in  vain.  On  30th  Jan.,  1649,  he 
was  beheaded  in  front  of  the  palace  of  Whitehall.  In  his  last  hours  he  showed  great 
calmness  and  presence  of  mind.  In  his  private  character,  C.  was  a man  of  cultivated 
mind,  kind,  and  of  irreproachable  life;  but  in  political  affairs  he  was  unscrupulous,  and 
had  recourse  to  dissimulation  and  falsehood  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  purposes. 
In  the  estimation  of  many  who  do  not  condemn  it  on  moral  grounds,  his  execution  was 
a great  political  blunder.  From  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  the  30th  of  Jan.  was 
observed  in  the  church  of  England  with  special  religious  services,  as  the  day  of  king 
Charles  the  martyr.  This  commemoration,  offensive  to  great  part  of  the  community, 
and  of  the  members  of  the  established  church  itself,  was  abolished  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment in  1859. 

CHARLES  II.,  King  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  (1649-85),  the  eldest  son  of 
Charles  I.,  was  b.  29th  May,  1630,  and  went  with  his  mother  to  France  during  the  civil 
war.  He  was  at  the  Hague  at  the  time  of  his  father’s  execution,  and  immediately 
assumed  the  title  of  king.  He  meditated  an  expedition  to  Ireland  for  the  assertion  of 
his  claims,  when  the  Scots  offered  him  their  crown  in  1650,  and  proceeding  to  Scotland, 
he  was  crowned  at  Scone  in  the  beginning  of  1651.  The  limitations,  however,  under 
which  he  received  the  crown,  were  disagreeable  to  him,  and  he  hated  the  restraint  put 
upon  his  inclinations  by  the  Presbyterian  clerg3^  After  the  defeat  of  the  Scots  at  Dun- 
bar, he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  their  army,  in  hope  of  rousing  the  royalists  of  Eng- 
land to  his  support;  but  was  completely  defeated  by  Cromwell,  at  Worcester,  on  3d 
Sept.,  1651.  He  made  his  escape,  amidst  many  dangers,  to  France,  where  his  situation 
was  by  no  means  agreeable,  and  from  which  he  went  to  Cologne,  and  afterwards  to  the 
Netherlands.  After  Cromwell’s  death,  the  desire  of  the  English  for  a settled  govern- 
ment leading  to  the  restoration  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  he  landed  at  Dover,  on  26th  May, 
1660,  was  received  with  acclamation  by  the  people,  and  ascended  the  throne  almost 
untrammeled  by  a single  condition.  He  was  surrounded  by  men  of  extreme  party -feeling, 
among  whom  the  most  influential  was  the  chancellor.  Clarendon  (q.v.).  The  persons 
immediately  concerned  in  the  death  of  Charles  I.  were  brought  to  the  scaffold;  Episco- 
pacy was  restored;  and  the  Presb^derians  and  other  non-conformists,  both  in  England 
and  Scotland,  were  subjected  to  great  hardship  and  persecution.  The  king  was  extrava- 
gant, and  soon  found  himself  in  want  of  money;  he  married  the  princess  Catharine  of 
Portugal,  for  the  sake  of  her  large  dowry;  he  shamefully  sold  Dunkirk  and  Mardyke 
to  the  French;  and  for  a pecuniary  consideration,  agreed  to  make  war  against  the 
united  provinces,  although  such  a war  was  contrary  to  all  the  feelings  of  the  English 
people  and  the  interests  of  English  commerce.  The  Dutch  fleet,  under  De  Ruyter, 


697 


Charles. 


entered  the  Thames,  and  C.  was  compelled  to  make  an  ignominious  peace.  After 
the  fall  of  Clarendon,  the  ministry  known  as  the  Cabal  (q.v.)  ministry  came  into 
power — a ministry  hateful  to  the  country,  composed  of  unprincipled  men,  and  bent 
upon  the  restoration  of  popery  and  absolute  monarchy.  C.  sought  to  conciliate  the 
people  by  the  triple  alliance,  in  May,  1668,  with  Sweden  and  the  states-general;  but  the 
French  court  soon  found  means  to  persuade  him  again  to  make  war  against  the  united 
provinces.  He  basely  accepted  pecuniary  gifts  and  a pension  from  the  French  govern- 
ment; and,  as  even  this,  with  all  that  he  could  get  from  his  parliament,  was  insufficient 
for  his  expenses,  he  had  recourse  to  illegal  means  of  raising  money.  The  story  of  the 
popish  plot  (q.v.)  against  the  life  of  the  king  caused  prodigious  excitement  amongst  the 
people,  and  lord  Stafford  and  many  other  persons  were  most  unjustly  brought  to  the 
scaffold.  The  parliament  of  1679,  very  much  against  the  will  of  the  court,  enacted 
the  celebrated  habeas  corpus  act  (q.v.):  and  a bill  was  under  consideration  for  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  king’s  brother,  the  duke  of  York,  from  the  throne,  on  account  of  his  avowal 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  The  king,  at  this  period  of  his  reign,  had,  however, 
completely  crushed  the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  and  was  more  absolute  than  any  of 
his  predecessors  had  been  on 'either  of  the  British  thrones.  Most  arbitrary  measures 
were  adopted.  The  city  of  London  was  deprived  of  its  privileges,  because  of  the  elec- 
tion of  a sheriff  disagreeable  to  the  court.  The  B,y e-house  plot  (q.v.),  a widely-extended 
conspiracy,  and  in  which  the  king’s  natural  son,  the  duke  of  Monmouth  (q.v.),  was  con- 
cerned, was  discovered  in  1683,  and  cost  the  lives  of  a number  of  persons,  amongst 
whom  were  lord  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney.  C.,  however,  appears  to  have  recog- 
nized the  necessity  of  a more  liberal  policy,  when  he  was  unexpectedly  carried  off  by 
death,  on  6th  Feb.,  1685.  In  his  dying  hours,  he  called  in  the  assistance  of  a Roman 
Catholic  priest,  although  he  had  not  previously  avowed  his  attachment  to  that  religion. 
His  reign  was  full  of  events  dishonorable  to  his  country,  and  of  which  he  himself  was 
generally  the  cause.  His  life  was  most  dissolute;  his  adulteries,  and  the  profligacy  of 
his  court,  scarcely  paralleled  in  British  history.  He  had  an  affability,  however,  which 
won  for  him  a certain  sort  of  popularity. 

CHARLES  I.,  THE  Bald,  823-77;  King  of  France  and  emperor  of  the  Romans,  son 
of  Louis  le  Debonnaire  by  his  second  wife,  Judith.  The  father,  in  order  to  furnish 
C.  a kingdom,  took  away  portions  of  the  territory  of  the  other  sons,  and  war  among 
them  followed,  which  ended  in  leaving  C.  in  possession  of  a large  kingdom  in  the 
w.  part  of  the  empire.  When  Louis  died,  C.  undertook  to  succeed  him  as  the 
emperor,  and  made  an  alliance  with  his  brother  Louis,  the  German.  In  841,  C. 
defeated  his  rival  and  eldest  brother,  Lothaire.  In  843,  the  treaty  of  Verdun  confirmed 
C.  in  possession  of  the  kingdom,  which  comprised  all  France  west  of  the  Meuse, 
Saone,  and  Rhone,  and  Spain  from  the  Ebro  to  the  Pyrenees.  But  the  government  of 
C.  was  weak;  the  Norsemen  pillaged  the  country  almost  without  resistance;  and. 
finally  the  people,  in  despair  of  relief,  called  in  the  aid  of  his  brother  Louis,  who  drove 
C.  from  the  country  for  a time.  But  C.  had  the  church  on  his  side,  being  entirely 
under  control  of  the  bishops,  and  in  875  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  the  pope.  Louis 
was  too  strong  for  him,  however,  and  he  never  to  any  great  extent  recovered  his  power. 
He  died  in  877,  near  mont  Cenis,  while  on  his  M-ay  against  the  Saracens  at  the  request  of 
the  pope. 

CHARLES  II.,  THE  Fat,  832-88;  King  of  the  Franks  and  emperor  of  the  Romans, 
third  sou  of  Louis  the  German.  From  his  father,  C.  inherited  Swabia;  in  880,  the 
death  of  his  brother  Carlonian  of  Bavaria  made  him  king  of  Italy;  in  881,  he  was 
crowned  emperor;  the  death  of  Louis  of  Saxony  in  882,  also  a brother,  brought  him 
all  Germany;  and  that  of  Carloman,  the  French  king,  in  885,  left  him  all  France;  and 
so  by  no  effort  of  his  own,  but  by  natural  causes  solely,  C.  became  sovereign  of  all  the 
dominions  of  Charlemagne.  But  he  was  a weak,  gluttonous  creature,  more  intent  upon 
the  pleasures  of  the  table  than  upon  matters  of  state.  The  Norsemen  sailed  up  the 
Seine  and  laid  siege  to  Paris,  and  C.,  instead  of  making  even  an  attempt  at  resistance, 
bought  them  off  with  700  pounds  of  silver  and  a free  passage  to  the  upper  Seine  and 
Burgundy,  where  they  might  ravage  at  will.  In  887,  C.  wasTleposed  by  his  people,  and 
died  the  next  year  in  a cloister. 

CHARLES  III.,  THE  Simple,  879-929;  King  of  France;  posthumous  son  of  Louis 
the  stammerer.  By  the  death  of  his  rival,  Charles  the  fat,  in  887,  he  obtained  possession 
of  the  whole  kingdom.  The  most  conspicuous  act  of  his  reign  was  the  cession  to  the 
harassing  Norsemen  of  the  territory  afterwards  known  as  Normandy,  on  condition  that 
the  heathen  should  be  baptized,  that  Rollo  (Hrolf  Ganger,  or  Ralph  the  walker,  a Danish 
pirate  chief,  and  the  ancestor  of  William  the  conqueror,  of  England)  should  marry 
Charles’s  sister,  and  become  a duke  and  vassal  of  the  crown.  In  922,  the  barons  rebelled 
against  Charles,  and  elected  Robert,  brother  of  the  previous  king,  in  his  place;  but 
Robert  was  killed  by  Charles’s  own  hand  in  the  battle  of  Soissons,  though  that  did  not 
secure  to  him  the  victory.  The  barons  then  chose  for  king  Raoul,  duke  of  Burgundy. 
After  many  failures,  misfortunes,  and  a long  imprisonment,  Charles  died  at  Peronne. 

CHARLES  IV.,  THE  Fair,  1294-1328;  King  of  France  and  Navarre;  third  son  of 
Philip  the  fair,  succeeded  his  brother  Philip  V.,  in  1322.  The  chief  purposes  of  his 
policy  were  to  free  the  country  from  the  Lombards,  and  from  the  exactions  of  the  barons 


Charles. 


698 


and  the  judges.  He  also  did  something  towards  improving  the  condition  of  the  Jews» 
and  assisted  his  sister  Isabella  in  her  contest  with  her  husband,  Edward  II.  of  England. 
In  1325,  being  supported  by  the  pope,  Charles  made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  attain  the 
imperial  crown. 

CHARLES  V.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  King  of  France  (1364^80),  was  the  son  of  king 
John,  and  was  b.  on  21st  Jan.,  1337.  His  father  being  made  prisoner  by  the  English  at  the 
battle  of  Poiptiers,  on  19th  Sept,,  1356,  he  assumed  the  regency.  The  most  signifi- 
cant events  which  occurred  under  his  rule,  were  the  vigorous  efforts  of  the  bourgeoisie 
to  deliver  themselves  from  the  tyranny  of  the  nobles  and  the  court,  and  the  peasant  war 
called  the  Jacquerie  (q.v.).  His  father  dying,  8th  April,  1364,  C.  ascended  the  throne, 
and  by  his  cautious  policy  rescued  the  kingdom  from  some  of  its  troubles,  and  re-estab- 
lished the  power  of  the  crown,  which  had  been  much  shaken.  War  with  England  raged 
for  a number  of  years,  but  with  results  highly  favorable  to  C.,  who  stripped  his  enemies 
of  all  their  conquests  in  France,  except  a few  fortified  places.  He  died  16th  Sept.,  1380. 
C.  was  fond  of  books  and  the  company  of  learned  men,  but  was  not  above  the  natural 
weakness  of  kings  for  outward  pomp  and  magnificence. 

CHARLES  VI,,  King  of  France  (1380-1422),  b.  at  Paris,  3d  Dec,,  1368,  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Charles  V.  He  was  only  13  years  of  age  when  his  father  died.  For  sev- 
eral years,  his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Anjou,  acted  as  regent.  In  1388,  C.  took  the  reins  of 
government  into  his  own  hand,  but  during  his  life-time  was  so  often  afflicted  with 
insanity,  that  party  strife  raged  without  much  check.  The  two  great  families  whose 
infiuence  divided  the  nation,  were  those  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy.  It  was  the  Orleans 
party  which  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  English,  and  brought  about  the  battle  of 
Agincourt,  so  disastrous  to  the  French  nation.  Subsequently  the  Burgundians  allied 
themselves  to  the  English,  who  laid  waste  the  whole  of  northern  France.  In  the  midst 
of  these  calamities,  C.  died,  21st  Oct.,  1422. 

CHARLES  VII.,  King  of  France  (1422-61),  the  son  and  successor  of  Charles  VI.,  was 
b.  on  22d  Feb.,  1403.  On  his  father’s  death  he  ^ras  at  the  head  of  an  army,  with  which 
he  held  possession  of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  kingdom ; Paris  and  the  north  being 
in  the  hands  of  the  English,  who  proclaimed  Henry  VI.  of  England  king  of  France,  and 
appointed  the  duke  of  Bedford  regent.  For  some  time  the  events  of  war  were  unfavor- 
able to  C.,  who  was  compelled,  in  1424,  to  evacuate  Champagne,  and,  in  1425,  Maine. 
In  1426,  the  count  Dunois  gained  the  first  victory  over  the  English  at  Montargis;  but  in 
the  year  following  they  besieged  Orleans,  a place  of  great  importance  to  C.,  as  securing 
a connection  with  the  north,  and  he  was  roused  to  fresh  energy.  At  this  time,  also,  Joan 
of  Arc  (q.v.),  the  maid  of  Orleans,  by  her  wonderful  courage  and  confidence  of  a 
heavenly  mission,  roused  the  fervor  both  of  nobles  and  people.  The  siege  of  Orleans 
was  raised  in  May,  1429;  the  English  retired  disheartened,  and  gradually  lost  their  acquisi- 
tions in  France.  A treaty  between  the  French  king  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  greatly 
advanced  the  French  cause.  In  1436,  C.  entered  Paris;  and  during  the  further  progress 
of  the  war,  the  English  lost  all  their  strongholds  except  Calais.  In  1452,  they  were 
finally  defeated  at  Castillon.  After  he  was  established  on  his  throne,  C.  devoted  him- 
self to  the  reorganization  of  the  government,  in  which  everything  had  fallen  into  con- 
fusion, but  showed  a strong  anxiety  to  frame  it  according  to  a scheme  of  perfect 
despotism,  and  for  this  purpose  to  provide  himself  with  a pow'erful  and  well-disciplined 
standing  army,  which  caused  some  discontentment  among  the  nobles  of  his  kingdom. 
His  government,  however,  was  mild,  and  under  it  France  recovered  in  some  measure  from 
the  effects  of  the  terrible  calamities  which  it  had  endured.  His  last  years  w^ere  embit- 
tered by  the  conduct  of  his  son,  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XI. ; and  his  apprehen- 
sion that  his  son  would  poison  him  was  so  strong,  that  his  consequent  abstinence  from 
food  is  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Melun  on  22d  July, 
1461. 

CHARLES  VIII.,  King  of  France  (1483-98),  was  b.  at  Amboise  on  30th  June,  1470. 
and  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Louis  XI.  For  soine  time  the 
government  was  carried  on  under  the  regency  of  his  sister,  Anne  of  Beaujeu.  When 
C.  attained  his  21st  year,  he  took  the  royal  power  into  his  own  hand,  and  soon  devel- 
oped a bold  and  ambitious  spirit.  The  most  important  incident  of  his  career  was  liis 
conquest  of  Naples  in  1495,  to  the  throne  of  which  he  believed  he  had  a claim.  The 
Italian  princes  and  other  European  potentates  were  alarmed  by  his  success.  A league 
was  hastily  formed  between  the  pope,  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  the 
republic  of  Venice,  and  Sforza,  duke  of  Milan,  to  oppose  his  return  to  France.  C., 
however,  gallantly  broke  through  the  allied  forces  near  Piacenza,  and  effected  a retreat 
to  his  own  country.  It  was  with  difficulty  he  was  hindered  by  his  councilors  from 
resuming  his  warlike  designs  on  Italy.  C.  is  also  said  to  have  meditated  the  expulsion 
of  the  Turks  from  Europe,  and  making  himself  emperor  of  Constantinople;  having 
received  from  Andreas  Palaeologus,  the  grandson  of  the  last  Grecian  emperor,  a trans- 
ference of  his  claims  to  the  Byzantine  throne.  He  died  7th  April,  1498. 

CHARLES  IX.,  King  of  France  (1560-74),  the  second  son  of  Henry  II.  and  of  Catha- 
rine de’  Medici  (q.v.),  was  b.  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye  on  27th  June,  1550,  and  on  5th 
Dec.,  1560,  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  Francis  II.  His  char- 


699 


Charles. 


acter  was  a compound  of  passion,  acuteness,  heartlessness,  and  cunning.  Although 
only  24  years  of  age  when  he  died,  so  well  had  his  detestable  mother  trained  him  to  a 
love  of  perfidy  and  cruelty,  that  he  found  time,  with  her  assistance  and  that  of  the 
Guises,  to  perpetrate  an  act  so  hideously  diabolical,  that  all  civilized  Europe  still  shud- 
ders at  the  recollection.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew’s  (q.v.),  24th  Aug.,  1572, 
was  the  culmination  of  a series  of  treacheries  towards  the  Huguenots,  which  disgraced 
his  reign.  The  result  was,  that  civil  war  broke  out  anew,  and  assumed  a very  threat- 
ening character,  as  political  malcontents  associated  themselves  with  the  Protestants. 
C.  died  May  30,  1574. 

CHARLES  X.,  King  of  France  (1824-30),  third  son  of  the  dauphin  Louis,  and  grand- 
son of  Louis  XV.,  was  b.  at  Versailles,  9th  Oct.,  1757.  He  received  the  title  of  count 
d’Artois,  and  in  1773  married  Maria  Theresa  of  Savoy.  After  the  events  of  14th  July, 
1789,  he  and  the  prince  of  Conde  took  the  lead  of  the  emigration.  In  1796,  he  sailed 
from  England  with  a squadron  under  commodore  Warren,  on  an  expedition  to  the 
western  coasts  of  France,  whereupon  twenty  departments  rose  in  insurrection;  but  he 
had  not  courage  to  land  and  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgents,  whom  he  basely 
left  to  the  vengeance  of  the  republicans.  Detested  now  by  the  royalists  of  France,  and 
despised  by  the  British,  he  lived  in  obscurity  until  the  allies  entered  Paris  in  1814,  when 
he  appeared  in  France  as  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,  and  issued  a proclamation 
announcing  the  end  of  despotism,  of  conscriptions,  and  of  oppressive  taxes.  After  the 
second  restoration,  he  took  little  open  part  in  politics,  but  lived  surrounded  with  priests, 
Jesuits,  and  nobles  of  the  old  school;  and  in  this  circle  originated  the  tyrannical  and 
unconstitutional  measures  to  which  even  Louis  XVIII.  made  considerable  opposition, 
but  which  at  this  time  disgraced  the  government  of  France.  The  d^^ath  of  Louis,  on 
16th  Sept.,  1824,  brought  C.  to  the  throne.  He  took  the  oath  of  adherence  to  the  char- 
ter, but  soon  displayed  his  intention  of  restoring  as  much  as  possible  the  absolutism  of 
the  old  French  monarchy.  Popular  discontent  rapidly  increased.  A royal  speech, 
of  a threatening  character,  on  2d  Mar.,  1830,  was  followed  by  an  address  of  remonstrance, 
signed  by  221  deputies,  upon  which  the  king  dissolved  the  chambers.  The  deputies 
who  signed  the  address  were  all  re-elected,  but  the  court  taking  fresh  courage  from  the 
success  of  the  expedition  to  Algiers,  the  celebrated  ordinances  of  25th  July  were  signed 
by  the  king,  putting  an  end  to  the  freedom  of  the  press,  already  largely  curtailed, 
appointing  a new  mode  of  election,  and  dissolving  the  recently  elected  chamber.  The 
capital  took  up  arms,  the  guards  refused  to  act,  and  the  king  soon  found  himself  com- 
pelled to  fiee.  As  a last  resource,  he  abdicated  the  throne,  on  2d  Aug.,  1830,  in  favor 
of  his  grandson,  Henry,  duke  of  Bordeaux,  the  dauphin  also  consenting  to  this  act. 
But  it  was  too  late;  the  revolution  was  accomplished,  and  Louis  Philippe,  duke  of 
Orleans,  was  chosen  king  of  the  French.  C.  made  his  escape  to  England,  resided  for 
some  time  at  Holyrood,  and  afterwards  at  Prague,  He  took  no  part  in  the  political 
intrigues  and  attempts  of  the  duchess  de  Berri.  He  died  of  cholera  at  Gorz,  on  6th  Nov., 
1836.  His  only  surviving  descendant,  in  the  male  line,  is  his  grandson,  the  count  of 
Chambord  (q.v.). 

CHARLES  IV.,  German  emperor  (1346-78),  was  b.  at  Prague  in  1316,  and  was  the 
son  of  king  John  of  Bohemia,  of  the  house  of  Luxembourg,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Crecy.  At  the  instigation  of  pope  Clement  VI. , to  whom  he  had  previously  taken  an 
oath  of  humiliating  submission  at  Avignon,  he  was  elected  emperor  by  a portion  of 
the  electors  on  11th  July,  1346,  although  Louis  IV.  then  actually  filled  the  imperial 
throne.  But  even  after  the  death  of  Louis,  it  was  not  without  difficulty  that  he 
obtained  secure  possession  of  it.  He  was  crowned  king  of  Italy  at  Milan  in  1354, 
and  emperor  at  Rome  in  1355.  In  1356,  he  issued  the  golden  bull  (q.v.),  the  funda- 
mental law  concerning  the' election  of  German  emperors;  in  defiance  of  the  very  letter  of 
which  he  afterwards,  by  large  bribes,  secured  for  his  own  son,  Wenceslaus,  the  succes- 
sion to  the  empire.  He  died  at  Prague,  29th  Nov.,  1378.  C.  was  an  artful  politician, 
but  destitute  of  true  greatness.  He  sought  the  support  of  the  clergy  by  undue  con- 
cessions, sold  rights  and  privileges  in  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  empire  for  money, 
and  cared  chiefly  for  the  prosperity  of  his  hereditary  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 

CHARLES  V.,  German  emperor,  was  b.  at  Ghent  on  24th  Feb.,  1500.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Philip,  archduke  of  Austria,  and  of  Joanna,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain.  Philip’s  parents  were  the  emperor  Maximilian  and  Maria,  daugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Charles  the  bold,  duke  of  Burgundy.  On  the  death  of  his  grand- 
father, Ferdinand,  in  1516,  C.  took  possession  of  the  throne  of  Spain  by  the  title  of 
Charles  I.,  his  mother  Joanna  being  of  disordered  intellect  and  incapable  of  reigning. 
He  was  not,  however,  very  favorably  received  by  the  Spanish  nobles,  who  were  doubt- 
ful of  his  right,  and  jealous  of  the  followers  whom  he  brought  from  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, where  he  had  been  educated.  All  the  abilities  of  his  famous  minister  Ximenes 
(q.v.)  were  requisite  to  prevent  an  open  revolt.  On  the  death  of  Maximilian  in  1519, 
C.  was  elected  German  emperor  from  amongst  a number  of  competitors,  chiefly  through 
the  influence  of  the  elector  Frederic  of  Saxony.  In  his  earlier  years  he  had  been 
frivolous  and  dissolute,  but  he  now  became  mindYul  of  the  duties  and  dignity  of  his 
high  position.  On  22d  Oct.,  1520,  he  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  received 
from  the  pope  the  title  of  Roman  emperor.  He  ascended  the  imperial  throne  at  a 


Charles. 


700 


time  when  Germany  was  in  a state  of  unprecedented  agitation  concerning  the  doctrines 
proclaimed  by  Luther.  To  restore  tranquillity,  a great  diet  was  held  at  Worms  in  1521, 
Luther’s  declaration  of  his  principles  before  which  forms  a well-known  and  important 
passage  in  the  history  of  the  reformation.  In  1522,  he  reduced  to  subjection  the  towns 
of  Castile,  which  had  leagued  themselves  together  for  the  maintenance  of  their  ancient 
liberties.  He  was  likewise  successful  in  his  war  against  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the 
great.  C.  was  involved  also  in  a struggle  of  long  duration  with  France,  in  which,  after 
many  alternations  of  fortune,  his  armies  at  last  drove  the  French  from  the  greater  part 
of  their  conquests  in  Italy;  and  Francis  I.  of  France  fell  into  his  hands  as  a prisoner, 
after  a battle  by  which  the  siege  of  Pavia  was  raised  on  24th  Feb.,  1525. 

The  pope,  however,  began  to  grow  alarmed  at  his  victories,  and  therefore  allied  him- 
self with  France  and  the  principal  Italian  states,  and  released  the  king  of  France  from 
the  obligations  under  which  he  had  come  by  his  treaty  with  Charles.  It  was  the  pope’s 
object  to  exclude  C.  from  all  dominion  in  Italy;  but  the  emperor’s  forces  under  Charles 
of  Bourbon,  the  former  constable  of  France,  took  Rome  itself  by  storm,  plundered  it, 
and  made  the  pope  prisoner.  C.  pretended  great  regret  for  this,  went  into  mourning 
with  all  his  court,  and  caused  prayers  to  be  said  for  the  pope’s  liberation,  whilst  by 
his  own  directions  the  pope  was  kept  for  seven  months  a captive.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded in  1529,  on  terms  most  favorable  for  the  emperor.  He  now  thought  to  put  an 
end  to  the  religious  differences  in  Germany,  and  to  repel  the  Turks,  who  had  overrun 
Hungary  and  laid  siege  to  Vienna.  But  the  diet  at  Augsburg  in  1530,  proved  how  vain 
was  the  hope  of  restoring  the  former  state  of  things  in  Germany;  and  the  emperor 
refusing  to  recognize  the  confession  of  the  Protestants,  they  refused  to  help  him  against 
the  Turks.  In  1531,  the  Protestant  princes  formed  the  league  of  Smalcald  (q.v.),  and 
allied  themselves  with  France  and  England  for  their  own  protection.  This,  and  the 
continued  assaults  of  the  Turks,  compelled  the  emperor  to  yield  in  some  measure  to 
the  demands  of  the  Protestants.  In  1535,  C.  undertook  an  expedition  from  Spain 
against  the  pirate  Barbarossa,  who  had  established  himself  in  Tunis,  and  whose  vessels 
did  prodigious  injury  to  the  commerce  of  Spain  and  Italy.  In  this  expedition  he  was 
completely  successful,  and  set  free  no  fewer  than  22,000  Christians,  who  had  been  held 
as  slaves.  War  again  broke  out  with  France;  an  armistice  for  ten  years  was  con- 
cluded in  1538;  and  C.  even  visited  Paris,  where  he  was  magnificently  entertained. 
But  the  war  broke  out  afresh  in  1542,  and  terminated  in  favor  of  the  emperor;  who 
also  triumphed  in  the  battle  of  Muhlberg,  25th  April,  1547,  over  the  Protestant  princes 
of  Germany,  and  deprived  the  elector  John  Frederic  of  Saxony  of  his  territories.  But 
he  showed  so  plainly  his  intention  of  converting  the  German  empire  into  a hereditary 
possession  of  his  family,  that  new  opposition  arose,  and  C.  was  compelled  to  flee  before 
the  arms  of  duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  and  the  Protestants,  and  in  1552  to  promise  them 
the  peaceful  exercise  of  their  religion,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  diet  at  Augsburg 
in  1555.  Henry  II.  of  France  also  took  from  C.  some  parts  of  Lorraine.  His  health 
failing,  C.  now  declared,  in  an  assembly  of  the  states  of  Louvaine,  his  resolution  to 
seek  repose,  and  devote  the  remainder  of  his  days  to  God.  He  resigned  the  govern- 
ment of  his  dominions  to  his  son,  for  whom,  however,  he  vainly  sought  to  secure  the 
imperial  throne;  and  having  relinquished  to  him  the  crown  of  Spain  on  15th  Jan., 
1556,  he  retired  to  the  monastery  of  Yuste,  in  Estremadura,  where  he  spent  two  years 
partly  in  mechanical  amusements,  partly  in  religious  exercises,  which  are  said  to  have 
assumed  a character  of  the  most  gloomy  a.sceticism,  and  died  on  21st  Sept.,  1558.  By 
his  wife  Isabella,  daughter  of  king  Emmanuel  of  Portugal,  he  had  one  son,  his  succes- 
sor, Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  two  daughters.  His  brother  Ferdinand  succeeded  him  in 
the  empire. 

CHARLES  VI.,  German  emperor,  1711^0,  the  last  of  the  proper  male  line  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg,  was  the  second  son  of  the  emperor  Leopold  I.,  and  b.  1685.  His 
father  intended  for  him  the  crown  of  Spain;  but  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  yielding  to 
French  intrigues,  assigned  it  by  testament  to  Philip  of  Anjou,  whereupon  arose  the 
great  war  of  the  Spanish  succession — Britain  and  Holland  taking  part  with  the  emperor 
against  France,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe.  C.  was 
acknowledged  liy  the  allies  as  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  but  had  not  succeeded  in  obtaining 
permanent  possession  of  the  kingdom,  when  the  death  of  his  brother,  the  emperor 
Joseph  I.,  recalled  him  to  Germany  in  1711;  and  as  he  now  became  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, Britain  and  Holland  concluded  the  peace  of  Utrecht  with  France  in  1713.  C. 
continued  the  war  for  some  time  longer;  but  was  at  last  obliged  to  give  up  his  claim 
to  Spain,  being  confirmed,  however,  in  possession  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  and  of 
the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy.  Success  attended  his  arms  in  a war  against  the  Turks, 
and  in  a war  with  Spain,  which  arose  out  of  the  project,  of  the  Spanish  minister  Albe- 
roni,  and  in  which  ihe.  quadruple  alliance  was  formed — France,  Britain,  and  Holland  join- 
ing the  emperor  against  Spain.  But  C.,  having  lost  his  only  son,  and  being  very  anxious 
to" secure  the  throne  to  his  own  descendants,  named  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa  (q.v.), 
as  his  heiress,  by  a pragmatic  sanction  (q.v.),  to  wliich  he  had  much  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing the  consent  of  some  of  the  German  states  and  some  foreign  powers;  and  to  accom- 
plish this  object  he  gave  up  Tuscany,  Parma,  and  Piacenza,  and  afterwards  Naples, 
Sicily,  Lorraine,  and  some  parts  of  Milan.  Meanwhile,  he  was  unsuccessful  in  wars 


701 


Charles^ 


with  France  and  Spain,  and  with  the  Turks,  who  compelled  him,  in  1739,  to  resign  his 
former  conquests.  He  died  20tli  Oct.,  1740.  He  was  of  a mild  and  benevolent  dispo- 
sition, but  full  of  superstition  and  of  prejudices  in  favor  of  feudalism  and  ecclesiastical 
domination. 

CHARLES  VII.,  German  emperor  (1742-45),  was  b.  at  Brussels  in  1697,  and  was  tho 
son  of  Maximilian  Emmanuel,  elector  of  Bavaria,  and  for  some  time  governor  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.  After  the  conquest  of  the  Bavarian  territories,  and  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  ban  of  the  empire  against  his  father  by  the  emperor  Joseph  I.,  he 
was  for  some  time  the  emperor’s  prisoner;  but  after  the  decease  of  Joseph,  he  married 
his  youngest  daughter;  and  having,  in  1726,  succeeded  his  father  as  elector  of  Bavaria, 
refused  his  consent  to  the  pragmatic  sanction  (see  preceding  article);  and  on  the  death 
of  Charles  VI.  in  1740,  advanced  a claim  to  the  Austrian  dominions  in  right  of  his- 
wife,  and  upon  the  further  ground  of  a testament  of  Ferdinand  I.  Success  at  first 
attended  his  arms;  he  was  acknowledged  as  archduke  of  Austria,  and  then  as  king  of 
Bohemia,  upon  which  he  was  also,  in  1742,  elected  emperor.  But  the  tide  of  fortune  now 
turned  against  him.  The  Hungarians  rose  in  favor  of  Maria  Theresa,  and  he  was 
driven  from  Austria  and  from  Bohemia,  and  for  a time  even  from  his  Bavarian  capital, 
Munich.  Disease  and  calamities  combined  to  cause  his  death,  20th  Jan.,  1745,  shortly 
before  which  he  said,  “ Misfortune  will  never  leave  me  till  I leave  it.” 

CHARLES,  Count  of  Anjou  and  Provence,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  about 
1220-85.  He  was  the  ninth  son  of  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  and  wedded  Beatrice,  heiress 
of  Provence,  after  scattering  his  rivals  by  the  aid  of  an  army  furnished  by  his  brother, 
Louis  IX.  His  next  adventure  was  on  a crusade  to  the  Holy  Land  in  company  with  his 
brother,  when  both  w^ere  taken  prisoners.  Returning  to  Provence,  Charles  resumed  his 
authority,  and  began  to  cherish  high  ambitions.  He  first  assisted  Margaret  of  Flanders, 
in  a plan  to  set  aside  the  children  of  her  husband  by  a former  wife,  for  the  aggrand 
izement  of  her  own  offspring,  for  which  Charles  was  to  receive  the  province  of  Haim 
ault;  but  Louis  interfered  and  Charles  was  compelled  to  relinquish  Hainault  for  a 
sum  of  money.  About  this  time  the  pope.  Urban  IV.,  requested  Charles  to  assume  the 
crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  to  assist  in  the  overthrow  of  the  bastard  Manfred,  the 
Ghibelline  king;  and  in  1265,  Charles  was  crowned  at  Rome;  a crusade  was  preached 
against  Manfred,  who  was  taken  and  killed;  Conradin,  the  legitimate  heir,  was  also- 
betrayed,  captured,  and  murdered;  a like  fate  was  dealt  out  to  many  Italian  nobles; 
estates  were  confiscated  to  reward  the  French  mercenaries;  and  they  established  over 
Sicily  an  arbitrary  and  brutal  rule.  Charles  aimed  at  becoming  the  head  of  the  eastern 
empire.  With  this  intent  he  accompanied  his  brother  on  another  crusade;  but  the  ven- 
ture failed  in  consequence  of  a great  storm  and  the  breaking  out  of  the  plague. 
Charles  also  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  pope,  Nicholas  II. , by  refusing  to  accept  the 
hand  of  his  niece  for  Charles’s  grandson;  so  Nicholas  went  over  to  the  Ghibellines, 
and  took  from  Charles  his  titles.  But  Nicholas  died  in  1280,  and  Charles  procured  the 
election  of  a Frenchman,  Martin  IV.,  to  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  in  return  for  which 
Charles  was  made  senator  of  Rome,  and  his  rival,  the  emperor  Michael  Palseologus, 
was  excommunicated.  Another  expedition  was  ready  for  the  east,  when  news  was- 
brought  of  the  rebellion,  afterwards  known  as  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (see  ante)  \ the  people 
of  Sicily  had  risen  against  their  conquerors,  and  on  Easter  Monday,  1282,  nearly  exter- 
minated the  French  in  all  Sicily.  Charles  at  once  sent  his  fleet  against  IVlessina,  refus- 
ing all  offers  of  capitulation;  but  the  city  held  out  until  assistance  came  from  Don  Pedra 
of  Aragon,  and  (Charles’s  fleet  was  burned.  Despairing  of  other  means  of  success, 
Charles  challenged  Don  Pedro  to  single  combat;  the  latter  accepted,  but  only  Charles 
appeared  in  the  list.  Soon  afterwards  Charles’s  son  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner;  and 
in  1285,  Charles  himself  fell  ill  and  died  at  Poggia. 

CHARLES  III.,  OP  Dukazzo,  1345-87;  King  of  Naples  and  Hungary.  His  father, 
who  had  rebelled  against  the  queen,  Joanna  I.  of  Naples,  died  in  prison;  and  the 
queen  adopted  the  son,  but  afterwards  displaced  him  in  favor  of  Louis  of  Anjou,  the 
father  of  Charles  V.  of  Prance.  Charles  made  an  alliance  with  the  king  of  Hungary, 
and  set  out  to  invade  Naples.  At  Rome  he  was  crowned  king  by  the  pope;  thence  he 
went  to  Naples,  captured  the  queen,  and  had  her  assassinated.  Three  years  later  he 
was  invited  to  accept  the  crown  of  Hungary  by  the  nobles,  who  were  dissatisfied  with 
the  rule  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  crowned  on  the  last  day  of  the  year  1386.  Five 
weeks  afterwards  Elizabeth  caused  him  to  be  murdered  in  her  own  presence.  As  he 
and  his  kingdom  of  Naples  were  under  papal  interdict,  his  body  remained  unburied  for 
five  years. 

CHARLES  I.,  b.  1839;  Prince  of  Roumania,  second  son  of  prince  Charles  Anthony 
of  Hohenzollern.  In  1866,  Charles  was  elected  president  of  Roumania  by  an  almost 
unanimous  vote.  He  found  the  country  in  a wretched  condition,  the  treasury  empty, 
education  unprovided  for,  and  the  people  divided  into  warring  political  factions.  By 
energy  and  good  statesmanship  he  greatly  improved  matters,  and  when  the  Russo-Turk- 
ish  war  began  he  seized  the  occasion  to  proclaim  Roumania’s  entire  independence  of 
Turkey,  and  such  a declaration  was  officially  made  by  the  chambers.  In  1869,  Charles 
married  princess  Elizabeth  of  Wied. 


CTharles. 


702 


CHARLES  II.,  1661-1700;  King  of  Spain;  son  of  Philip  IV.  He  was  but  four 
years  old  when  his  father  died,  the  regency  being  in  the  hands  of  the  queen,  Anna 
Maria  of  Austria.  During  her  rule,  Spain  was  much  weakened  by  an  unsuccessful  war 
with  France  and  by  the  loss  of  Sicily.  In  1675,  Charles  assumed  the  government, 
taking  for  his  chief  adviser  Don  John,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  late  king.  By  mar- 
rying Louise  of  Orleans,  a niece  of  Louis  XIV.,  Charles  maintained  harmony  with 
France  for  several  years.  After  her  death,  Charles  married  a sister  of  the  emperor, 
Leopold  I.,  and  in  1694  he  joined  Leopold  in  a war  against  France.  The  war  was  speedily 
concluded  by  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  1697,  and  as  Charles  was  childless  there  was  a long 
negotiation  concerning  the  succession,  ended  through  the  influence  of  the  pope,  who 
secured  the  crown  for  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV. , Philip  Bourbon,  who  ruled  Spain 
as  Philip  V. 

CHARLES  III.,  1716-88;  King  of  Spain,  second  son  of  Philip  V.,  and  great-grand- 
son of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Tuscany  having  fallen  to  Spain, 
Charles,  at  the  age  of  15,  was  furnished  with  an  army  and  given  rule  over  those  coun- 
tries. At  18  he  conquered  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  emperor  was  obliged  to  acknowledge 
him  as  king.  On  the  death  of  his  brother,  Charles  succeeded  to  the  Spanish  throne,  in 
1759.  He  was  a man  of  ability  and  liberal  ideas,  and  made  many  reforms,  especially  in 
financial  administration.  The  Jesuits  were  banished,  and  an  unsuccessful  effort  was 
made  to  bring  the  inquisition  under  the  control  of  the  civil  power.  He  endeavored  to 
put  a stop  to  brigandage  and  to  Algerine  piracy ; and  interested  himself  in  the  develop- 
ment of  commerce,  and  arts  and  sciences.  In  1763,  he  ceded  Florida  to  England  in 
exchange  for  Cuba,  and  some  years  later  he  joined  France  in  sending  assistance  to  the 
American  colonies,  then  engaged  in  the  war  for  independence.  At  the  close  of  the  war, 
Florida  was  again  given  to  Spain.  He  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  rescue  Gibraltar 
from  the  English.  Charles  died  in  Madrid  after  a reign  of  29  years. 

CHARLES  IV.,  1748-1819;  King  of  Spain,  son  and  successor  of  Charles  III.  When  very 
young,  Charles  married  his  cousin,  Maria  Louise  of  Parma,  who  soon  acquired  great  influ- 
ence over  him.  The  government  was  conducted  chiefly  by  Manuel  Godoy,  a handsome 
guardsman  who  gained  the  friendship  of  both  the  queen  and  her  husband,  and  was  made 
duke  of  Alcudia,  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Godoy  concluded  peace  with  the 
French  republic  in  1795,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  king  to  assist 
his  relative,  Louis  XVI.  Soon  after  this  peace  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  was 
made  with  France,  and  Spain  speedily  became  involved  in  war  with  Portugal  and  also 
with  England,  the  main  event  of  which  was  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  fleet  by  Nel- 
son at  Trafalgar  in  1805.  In  1807,  Charles  made  with  Napoleon  a secret  treaty  according 
to  which  Portugal  was  to  be  seized  by  the  French  and  Spanish,  and  the  greater  part  to 
be  divided  between  Godoy  and  the  queen  of  Etruria,  and  Charles  was  to  assume  the  title 
of  emperor  of  Amercia;  at  the  same  time,  16,000  Spanish  troops  were  to  be  sent  to  the 
assistance  of  the  French  in  Denmark.  While  this  was  going  on,  Napoleon  was  intriguing 
with  Don  Ferdinand,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  who  was  soon  after  discovered  in  a plot  to 
assassinate  his  father.  Though  pardoned,  Ferdinand  continued  to  do  all  that  he  could 
to  arouse  ill  feeling  against  the  court,  and  in  1808,  Charles  was  so  alarmed  at  disturbances 
in  Madrid,  that  he  abdicated  in  Ferdinand’s  favor.  Charles  declared  immediately  that 
this  act  was  not  voluntary;  but  the  matter  was  decided  by  a meeting  with  Napoleon  at 
Bayonne,  urged  by  Godoy,  who  was  moved  by  fear  of  Ferdinand,  and  also  by  the  queen. 
Charles  surrendered  the  crown  to  Napoleon  (who  gave  him  a pension  of  six  millions  of 
francs,  and  the  castle  and  grounds  of  Chambord),  refusing  again  to  assume  authority, 
although  he  might  have  done  so,  his  son  being  very  unpopular. 

CHARLES  IX.,  1550-1611;  King  of  Sweden,  the  fourth  son  of  Gustavus  Vasa.  The 
Swedish  crown  belonged  to  Charles’s  nephew,  Sigismund,  king  of  Poland;  but  as  he 
was  a Roman  Catholic,  Charles  was  appointed  to  direct  the  government  till  Sigismund 
signed  a decree  establishing  the  Lutheran  religion  in  Sweden.  After  many  attempts  at 
accommodation,  Sigismund  was  formally  deposed  in  1604,  and  Charles  was  elected 
king.  He  had  wars  with  Poland,  Russia,  and  Denmark,  and  when  60  years  old  he 
challenged  the  king  of  Denmark  to  single  combat,  but  the  Dane  did  not  respond. 
Charles  founded  the  university  of  Gothenburg,  and  made  a new  code  of  laws.  He 
wrote  a rhymed  chronicle  of  the  war  with  Poland. 

CHARLES  X.,  or  Chakles-Gustavus,  king  of  Sweden,  was  b.  at  Nykoping,  8th 
Nov.,  1622.  After  studying  at  the  university  of  Upsala,  he  traveled  through  France, 
Germany,  and  Switzerland,  joined  the  army  of  Torstensohn  (q.v.)  in  1642,  fought  at  the 
battles  of  Yankovitz  and  Leipzig;  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  the  representative  of 
queen  Christina  at  the  conferences  which  were  held  for  giving  effect  to  the  treaty  of 
Westphalia.  On  the  abdication  of  Christina,  Charles-Gustavus,  who  was  the  son  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus’  eldest  sister  Catharine  and  John  Casimir,  the  palatine  of  Zwey- 
bruck  in  Clerburg,  succeeded  as  next  heir,  17th  June,  1654,  to  the  throne  of  a kingdom 
which,  after  his  accession,  he  discovered  to  be  in  an  almost  bankrupt  condition.  There 
was  a debt  of  10,000,000,  while  the  revenue  did  not  amount  fco  800,000  crowns,  out  of 
which  one  fourth  was  granted  as  a pension  to  the  ex-queen,  whose  carelessness  and 
extravagance  had  brought  about  this  deplorable  state  of  matters,  and  who,  in  the  words 
of  the  aged  chancellor  Oxeustierna,  “ had  cost  Sweden  dearer  than  ever  an  enemy  did.” 


703 


Charles. 


She  had  taken  away  everything  belonging  to  the  royal  residences  which  was  portable : 
and  C.  was  forced  at  first  to  borrow  even  a set  of  kitchen  utensils.  C.  was  the  second 
of  the  three  great  warrior-monarchs  of  Sweden,  but  unlike  his  uncle,  who  could  plead 
religious  grounds,  and  his  grandson,  who  was  at  first  forced  to  fight  for  self-preserva- 
tion, C.  seemed  to  make  war  principally  for  war’s  sake.  First,  he  attacked  Poland  in 
July,  1655,  because  the  Polish  monarchs  had  not  resigned  their  claim  to  the  Swedish 
throne;  captured  in  the  same  year  Warsaw,  Cracow,  Thorn,  Elbing,  Posen,  and  Kaliez; 
and  drove  the  king  to  take  shelter  in  Silesia;  he  then  assailed  the  Danes,  who  had 
declared  war  against  him,  crossed  the  belts  on  the  ice,  and  speedily  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  all  the  continental  possessions  of  Denmark.  Next  marching  from  isle  to  isle  over 
the  frozen  sea,  he  ultimately,  by  menacing  Copenhagen,  compelled  the  treaty  of  Ros- 
kild  (7th  Mar.,  1658),  which  gave  to  Sweden,  Holland,  Scania,  Bleckingen,  Bornholm, 
and  the  other  Danish  possessions  beyond  the  sound,  and  emancipated  Sweden  from  the 
sound  dues.  Charles,  however,  still  cherished  enmity  against  the  Danes;  and  after 
fruitlessly  proposing  to  the  Dutch  and  English,  a partition  of  Denmark,  he  invaded 
Zeeland,  and  attacked  Copenhagen  in  1659.  The  capital,  however,  defended  itself  vali- 
antly, aided  by  succor  from  the  Prussians  and  Dutch;  and  the  Swedish  monarch  waa 
compelled  to  abandon  the  siege.  Soon  after,  while  laboring  to  effect  a complete  recon- 
ciliation with  Poland  in  order  to  be  free  to  attack  the  Danes  in  Norway,  he  died 
suddenly  at  Gothenburg,  Feb.  23,  1660. 

CHARLES  XI.,  one  of  the  ablest  kings  of  Sweden,  was  the  son  of  king  Charles  (X.> 
Gustavus,  and  was  b.  Nov.  24,  1655.  While  he  was  little  more  than  four  years  old  at 
his  father’s  death,  the  government  was  committed  to  his  mother  Hedwig  as  regent,  and 
a council.  The  peace  of  Oliva  (May  3,  1660)  with  Poland,  by  which  Sweden  obtained 
Esthonia,  part  of  Livonia,  and  Oesel,  and  the  Polish  monarch  renounced  all  pretensions 
to  the  Swedish  crown ; and  that  of  Copenhagen  (June  6,  1660),  generally  confirmatory 
of  the  treaty  of  Roskild  with  Denmark,  were  the  first  important  acts  of  the  government. 
A treaty  with  Russia  on  the  basis  of  the  status  quo  followed  in  1661 ; and  from  this 
period  till  1672,  the  kingdom  was  free  from  foreign  wars.  In  Dec.,  1672,  C.  (whose 
education  had  been  so  ill  attended  to  that  he  had  reached  manhood  before  he  could 
read)  took  the  reins  of  government,  and  by  the  allurements  of  France,  was  induced  to 
make  war  on  Brandenburg.  This  unprovoked  attack  was  disastrous  to  the  Swedes,  for 
they  suffered  a severe  defeat  from  the  elector  at  Fehrbellin  (1675);  and  though  C. 
revenged  himself  by  defeating  the  Danes  (who  were  allied  with  Prussia)  at  Halmstadt, 
Lemd,  and  Landskrona,  his  fleet  was  defeated  by  the  Dutch  near  Oeland,  and  again  by 
the  Danes  at  Bleking  and  Kioge;  and  many  of  Sweden’s  recent  acquisitions  were  wrested 
from  her.  These,  however,  were  restored  by  the  peace  of  Saint-Germain-en-Laye  (17th 
Sept.,  1679),  which  closed  this  needless  and  unfortunate  contest.  In  1680,  a struggle 
commenced  between  the  crown,  supported  by  the  burghers  and  peasants,  on  one  hand, 
and  the  nobles  on  the  other;  and  a considerable  diminution  of  the  power  of  the  nobles 
was  the  consequence.  The  resumption  of  all  the  crown  lands  which  had  been  alienated 
since  1609,  was  a fatal  blow  to  the  preponderating  power  of  the  nobles;  and  by  a volun- 
tary declaration  of  the  states,  Dec.  9,  1682,  the  king  was  invested  with  absolute  authority. 
This  voluntary  erection  of  a despotism  by  the  people,  a thing  of  rare  occurrence  in  the 
world’s  history,  is  yet  more  extraordinary  at  the  close  of  the  17th  c. ; and  it  speaks 
highly  for  C.  that  he  never  employed  his  unlimited  authority  otherwise  than  for  the 
best  interests  of  his  kingdom.  By  a judicious  administration  of  the  revenues,  he  was 
enabled  to  extinguish  the  public  debt  (1686),  reorganize  the  fleet  and  army,  and  by  1693 
to  dispense  with  the  calling  up  of  extraordinary  subsidies.  Though  absolute,  he  never 
imposed  a tax  but  with  consent  of  the  states;  and  he  every  year  published  a detailed 
account  of  revenue  and  expenditure.  In  1693,  he  was  formally  declared  absolute  by  an 
act  of  the  diet.  The  foreign  policy  of  the  country  was  also  conducted  in  a manner 
equally  satisfactory  and  effective.  Deux-Ponts  fell  to  him  as  heir  to  his  cousin  Fried- 
rich-Ludwig,  the  last  palatine,  in  1681 ; the  attempts  of  the  Danes  upon  Holstein  were 
rigorously  repressed,  and  many  small  outlying  territories  were  brought  under  his  sway. 
His  anxiety  for  his  subjects’  welfare  was  particularly  shown  by  commercial  and  mari- 
time regulations  superior  to  any  that  then  existed  in  Europe ; and  by  his  numerous 
journeys  to  all  parts  of  his  dominions  to  examine  for  himself  into  the  remote  details  of 
the  administration.  A codification  of  the  laws  was  commenced  but  was  unfinished  at 
his  death,  which  took  place  at  Stockholm,  15th  April,  1697. 

CHARLES  XII.,  King  of  Sweden  (1697-1718),  was  the  son  of  Charles  XI.,  and  was 
b.  at  Stockholm  on  the  27th  June,  1682.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1697,  he  ascended 
the  throne,  and  notwithstanding  his  youth,  the  states  declared  him  of  age  to  assume  the 
reins  of  government.  The  neighboring  powers  thought  this^a  favorable  time  to  humble 
Sweden,  then  the  great  power  of  the  n. ; and  Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark,  Augustus  II. 
of  Poland,  and  the  czar  Peter  I.  concluded  a league  for  this  object.  The  Danes  began 
by  invading  the  territory  of  the  duke  of  Holstein  Gottorp,  who  had  married  C.’s  eldest 
sister,  and  who  applied  to  him  for  assistance.  The  young  king  immediately  resolved  on 
the  most  active  measures,  and  approached  Copenhagen  with  such  a force  as  presently 
compelled  the  Danes  to  make  peace.  C.  now  hastened  to  meet  the  Russians;  and 
although  they  lay  in  an  intrenched  camp  beneath  the  walls  of  Narva,  50,000  strong,  he 


Charles. 


704 


stormed  their  camp  on  30th  Nov.,  1700,  with  8,000  Swedes,  and  defeated  them  with 
great  slaughter.  He  next  dethroned  Augustus  II.,  and  procured  the  election  of  Stanis- 
laus Leszczynski  as  king  of  Poland.  Augustus  supposed  himself  safe  at  least  in  Saxony, 
his  hereditary  dominion,  but  was  followed  thither,  and  humbling  terms  of  peace  were 
dictated  at  Altranstadt  in  1706.  C.  obtained  from  the  emperor  liberty  of  conscience  for 
the  Protestants  of  Silesia.  Leaving  Saxony  with  an  army  of  43,000  men  in  Sept.,  1707, 
he  proposed  to  advance  direct  upon  Moscow;  but  at  Smolensk  he  was  induced,  by  the 
representations  of  the  Cossack  hetman,  Mazeppa,  to  change  his  plan  and  proceed  to  the 
Ukraine,  in  hope  of  being  joined  by  the  Cossacks.  In  this  hope,  however,  he  was  disap- 
pointed, and  after  enduring  many  hardships,  he  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Pul- 
towa,  on  the  27tli  June,  1709,  and  fled  to  Bender  in  the  Turkish  dominions. 

Augustus  II.  now  revoked  the  treaty  of  Altranstadt,  and  the  czar  and  the  king  of 
Denmark  assailed  the  Swedish  territories.  But  the  regency  in  Stockholm  adopted 
measures  of  effective  and  successful  resistance,  and  C.  prevailed  with  the  porte  to 
declare  war  against  Russia,  in  which  Peter  seemed  at  first  likely  to  have  suffered  a severe 
defeat.  But  Russian  agents  succeeded  in  inspiring  the  Turks  with  suspicions  concern- 
ing the  ultimate  designs  of  C.,  who  was  conveyed  to  Adrianople,  but  after  some  time 
escaped,  and  made  his  way  through  Hungary  and  Germany,  pressing  on  by  day  and 
night  with  extraordinary  speed  till  he  reached  Stralsund,  where  he  was  received  with 
great  joy,  on  11th  (22d)  Nov.,  1714.  He  was  soon,  however,  deprived  of  Stralsund  by 
the  allied  Danes,  Saxons,  Prussians,  and  Russians.  After  he  had  adopted  measures  for 
the  security  of  the  Swedish  coasts,  his  passion  for  war  led  him  to  attack  Norway.  Suc- 
cess appeared  again  to  attend  his  arms,  when,  in  the  siege  of  Friedrichshald,  on  30th 
Nov.,  1718,  he  was  killed  by  a musket-bullet.  On  his  death,  Sweden— exhausted  by  his 
wars — ceased  to  be  numbered  among  the  great  powers.  He  was  a man  capable  of  com- 
prehensive designs,  and  of  great  energy  in  prosecuting  them.  His  abilities  apppeared 
not  merely  in  military  affairs,  but  in  his  schemes  for  the  promotion  of  trade  and  manu- 
factures. His  self-willed  obstinacy,  however,  amounted  almost  to  insanity;  in  fact,  he 
has  been  termed  “ a brilliant  madman.”  His  habits  were  exceedingly  simple:  in  eating 
and  drinking,  he  was  abstemious;  and  in  the  camp,  he  sought  no  luxuries  beyond  the 
fare  of  the  common  soldier. 

CHARLES  XIII., King  of  Sweden  (1809-1818),  b.  Oct.  7,  1748,  was  the  second  son  of 
king  Adolphus  Frederick,  and  of  the  sister  of  Frederick  the  great  of  Prussia.  He  was 
trained  for  naval  command,  and  was  long  the  high  admiral  of  Sweden,  in  which  capacity 
he  distinguished  himself  by  a great  victory  over  the  Russians  in  the  gulf  of  Finland  in 
1788,  and  b}^  bringing  back  his  fleet  safe  to  Carlscrona  in  the  most  perilous  season  of 
the  year.  He  was  on  several  very  important  occasions  called  to  an  active  part  in  politi- 
cal affairs — in  the  revolution  of  1772,  when  he  was  made  governor-general  of  Stockholm 
and  duke  of  Sodermanland;  after  the  assassination  of  his  brother  Gustavus  III.  in  1792, 
when  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  regency;  and  after  the  revolution  of  1809,  when 
he  became  administrator  of  the  kingdom,  and  subsequently  king.  The  Swedish  mon- 
archy now  became  limited  instead  of  despotic.  Having  no  child,  C.  concurred  with 
the  states  of  the  kingdom  in  choosing  as  his  successor  the  French  general,  Bernadotte, 
who  became  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  and  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of  C.,  Feb. 
5,  1818.  The  prudence  of  the  king  and  crown-prince  secured  the  union  of  Norway  with 
Sweden  in  1814,  as  a compensation  for  Finland. 

CHARLES  XIV.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway  (1818-1844),  originally  Jean  Baptiste 
Jules  Bernadotts,  was  b.  at  Pau,  in  the  s.  of  France,  Jan.  26,  1764.  He  w^as  the  son 
of  a lawyer.  He  entered  the  French  army  as  a common  soldier;  became  an  ardent  par- 
tisan of  the  revolution;  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  and  soon 
attained  the  highest  military  rank.  But  he  was  distrusted  by  Bonaparte,  whose  ambi- 
tious schemes  he  took  no  part  in  promoting;  and  Napoleon  having  taken  offense  at  his 
•conduct  after  the  battle  of  W agram,  Bernadotte  left  the  army  in  disgust,  and  returned 
to  Paris,  He  was  afterwards  sent  by  the  ministerial  council  to  oppose  the  British,  who 
had  landed  at  Walcheren,  but  the  breach  between  the  emperor  and  him  grew  wider.  In 
1810,  he  was  elected  crown-prince,  and  heir  to  the  throne  of  Sweden,  Almost  the  only 
condition  imposed  on  him  was  that  of  joining  the  Protestant  church.  He  changed  his 
name  to  Charles  John;  and  the  health  of  the  Swedish  king,  Charles  XIII,,  failing  in  the 
following  year,  the  reins  of  government  came  almost  entirely  into  his  hands.  He  refused 
to  comply  with  the  demands  of  Napoleon,  which  were  opposed  to  the  interests  of 
Sweden,  particularly  as  to  trade  with  Britain,  and  was  soon  involved  in  war  with  him. 
He  commanded  the  army  of  the  allies  in  the  n.  of  Germany,  and  defeated  Oudinot  at 
Grossbeeren,  and  Ney  at  Dennewitz.  He  showed  great  reluctance,  however,  to  join  in 
the  invasion  of  France,  an^  was  tardy  in  his  progress  southward. — He  became  king  of 
Sweden  on  the  death  of  Charles  XIII.,  Feb.  5,  1818.  He  won  for  himself  the  character 
of  a wise  and  good  king.  Education,  agriculture,  manufactures,  commerce,  and  great 
public  works,  as  well  as  the  military  strength  of  the  kingdom,  were  promoted  by  his 
care.  He  died  Mar.  8,  1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Oscar. 

CHARLES  XV.,  1826-72;  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  succeeding  his  father, 
Oscar  I. , who  was  a son  of  Charles  XIV.  The  rule  of  C.  was  liberal  and  popular.  The 
most  important  event  was  the  change  (in  1866)  in  the  constitution  of  the  parliament. 


705 


Charles. 


which  from  that  time  has  consisted  not  of  four,  but  of  two  chambers,  one  elected  by 
the  provincial  representatives  and  the  other  by  the  people.  Charles’s  kindly  nature  was 
shown  in  his  firm  refusal  to  sanction  capital  punishment.  He  had  a taste  for  literature 
and  art,  and  published  a volume  of  poems.  In  1850,  he  married  Louisa,  daugliter  of 
the  king  of  the  Netherlands,  by  whom  he  had  one  daughter,  who  became  the  wife  of 
prince  Frederick  of  Denmark. 

CHARLES,  Archduke  of  Austria,  third  son  of  the  emperor  Leopold  II.,  was  b.  at 
Florence,  5th  Sept.,  1771.  Whilst  yet  a youth,  he  pursued  military  studies  with  much, 
ardor;  and  after  having  greatly  distinguished  himself  as  a gen.  in  inferior  commands, 
he  was  intrusted,  in  1796,  with  the  chief  command  of  the  Austrian  army  on  the  liliiue. 
He  fought  with  great  success  against  Moreau  at  Rastadt,  defeated  Jourdan  in  several 
battles,  drove  the  French  over  the  Rhine,  and  concluded  his  victories  by  taking  Kehl  in 
the  winter.  In  1799,  he  was  again  at  the  head  of  the  army  on  the  Rhine,  v;as  several 
times  victorious  over  Jourdan,  protected  Suabia,  and  successfully  opposed  Massena.  In 
1800,  bad  health  compelled  him  to  retire  from  active  service;  but  being  appointed  gov, 
gen.  of  Bohemia,  he  formed  a new  army  there.  After  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden,  he 
was  again  called  to  the  chief  command,  and  succeeded  in  staying  the  rapid  progress  of 
Moreau,  but  almost  immediately  entered  into  an  armistice  with  him,  which  was  followed 
by  the  peace  of  Luneville.  In  1805,  he  commanded  the  army  opposed  to  Massena  in 
Italy,  and  fought  the  hard  battle  of  Caldiero ; but  upon  bad  tidings  from  Germany, 
retreated  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige  to  Croatia.  This  retreat  was  one  of  his  great- 
est military  achievements.  In  1809,  he  won  the  great  battle  of  Aspern,  wLich  first 
showed  to  Europe  that  Napoleon  was  not  invincible;  but  he  did  not  promptly  enough 
follow  up  his  victory,  and  Napoleon,  who  hastened  to  reinforce  his  army,  retrieved  hia 
fortunes  at  Wagram,  and  the  archduke  was  now  compelled  to  give  way  before  the 
enemy,  till  he  reached  Znaim,  where  an  armistice  was  concluded  on  12th  July.  In  the 
campaigns  of  1813  and  1814  he  had  no  part;  and  lived  in  retirement  till  his  death,  30th 
April,  i847. 

CHARLES,  Elizabeth  Rundle,  b.  about  1826;  the  wife  of  Andrew  P.  Charles,  of 
London.  She  has  written  Chronicles  of  the  Schonberg- Cotta  Family;  Diary  of  Mrs.  Kitty 
Trevylyan;  and  other  popular  works  of  fiction. 

CHARLES,  Jacques  Alexandre  Cesar,  1746-1823;  a French  physicist,  noted  for 
skill  in  experiments  and  public  demonstrations.  He  made  the  first  balloon  to  hold  hydro- 
gen gas,  with  which  a successful  ascent  was  made.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a number 
of  optical  instruments. 

CHARLES  ALBERT,  King  of  Sardinia  (1831-49),  b,  2d  Oct.,  1798,  was  the  son  of  the 
prince  Charles  Emmanuel  of  Savoy-Carignan,  and  in  1800,  succeeded  to  his  father’s  title 
and  estates  in  France  and  Piedmont.  In  1817,  he  married  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of 
the  archduke  Ferdinand  of  Tuscany.  When  the  revolutionary  movement  took  place  in 
Piedmont  in  1821,  he  was  made  regent,  upon  the  abdication  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  until 
Charles  Felix,  the  brother  of  the  late  king,  should  arrive  to  assume  the  sovereignty. 
He  displeased  both  the  liberal  party  and  their  opponents,  and  Charles  Felix  disallowed 
all  his  acts,  and  for  some  time  forbade  his  appearance  at  court.  In  1829,  he  was 
appointed  viceroy  of  Sardinia.  On  the  death  of  Charles  Felix,  27th  April,  1831,  he  as- 
cended the  throne.  The  liberals  had  great  expectations  from  him,  but  were  for  a long  time 
disappointed;  his  government  much  resembled  the  other  Jesuitic  and  despotic  Italian  gov- 
ernments, except  that  he  sought  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  country,  and  to  restrict 
the  influence  of  the  clergy  in  political  affairs.  It  was  not  till  after  the  elevation  of 
Pius  IX.  to  the  popedom,  when  a new  impulse  was  given  to  the  cause  of  reform,  that 
the  Sardinian  government  adopted  the  constitutional  and  liberal  policy  to  which  it  has 
since  adhered.  C.  A.  entered  warmly  into  the  project  of  Italian  unity,  and  evidently 
expected  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  whole  movement  and  of  the  new  kingdom 
of  Italy.  When  the  Lombards  and  Venetians  rose  against  the  Austrian  government,  he 
declared  war  against  Austria,  23d  Mar.,  1848,  and  at  first  was  exceedingly  successful, 
but  was  insufficiently  supported  by  the  Lombards,  and  finally  defeated  by  the  Austrians; 
so  that  after  the  fatal  battle  of  Novara,  23d  Mar.,  1849,  he  was  obliged,  for  the  preser- 
vation of  the  integrity  of  his  kingdom,  to  resign  the  crown  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor 
Emmanuel.  He  afterwards  retired  to  Portugal,  and  died  at  Oporto  on  28th  July  of  the 
same  year. 

CHARLES  AUGUSTUS,  1757-1828,  Grand  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar.  He  assumed 
the  government  in  his  eighteenth  .year,  and  the  next  year  entered  the  Prussian  army,  in 
which  he  remained  until  the  defeat  at  Jena  in  1806,  when  he  became  a member  of  the 
Rhenish  confederacy  and  furnished  aid  to  the  French.  In  1813,  he  joined  in  the  coali- 
tion against  Napoleon,  and  took  command  of  an  army  of  Saxons,  Hessians,  and  Rus- 
sians. He  fought  among  the  allies  in  1815,  and  the  congress  of  Vienna  rewarded  his 
services  b}’’ enlarging  his  principality  and  making  it  a grand  duchy.  Charles  was  an 
intimate  friend  of  Goethe,  Wieland,  and  other  men  of  letters. 

CHARLES  THE  BOLD, Duke  of  Burgundy  (1467-77),  son  of  Philip  the  good,  of  the  house 
of  Valois,  and  of  Isabella  of  Portugal,  was  b.  at  Dijon  onlOth  Nov.,  1435,  and  bore,  during 
his  father’s  life,  the  title  of  count  of  Charolais.  He  was  of  a fiery,  ambitious,  and  violent 
U.  K.  m.— 45 


Charles. 

Charleston* 


706 


disposition.  From  an  early  period  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  a declared  enemy  of 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  the  nominal  feudal  superior  of  Burgundy.  Louis  having  caused 
Philip  to  deliver  up  some  towns  on  the  Somme,  C.  left  his  father’s  court  and  formed  an 
alliance  with  the  duke  of  Bretagne  and  some  of  the  great  nobles  of  France  for  the  main- 
tenance of  feudal  rights  against  the  crown.  Their  forces  ravaged  Picardy  and  Isle-de- 
France,  they  threatened  Paris,  and  defeated  the  king  at  Moutlhery.  The  result  was 
a treaty  by  which  the  count  of  Charolais  obtained  the  towns  on  the  Somme  and  the 
counties  of  Bologne,  Guiiies,  and  Pouthieu  for  himself.  In  1467,  he  succeeded  his 
father  as  duke  of  Burguudy.  Richer  and  more  powerful  than  any  prince  of  that  time, 
he  conceived  the  design  of  restoring  the  old  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  and  for  this  purpose  of 
conquering  Lorraine,  Provence,  Dauphiny,  and  Switzerland.  Whilst  he  was  making 
preparations  for  war,  Louis  invited  him  to  a conference;  he  hesitated,  and  Louis  by  his 
agents  stirred  up  the  citizens  of  Liege  to  revolt.  Meanwhile  C.  consented  to  the  con- 
ference, and  the  news  coming  of  what  had  taken  place  at  Liege,  he  seized  the  king,  and 
if  he  had  not  been  withheld  by  his  councilor  Comines,  would  have  put  him  to  death. 
He  compelled  Louis,  however,  to  accompany  him  to  Liege,  and  apparently  to  sanction 
the  cruelties  which  he  inflicted  on  the  citizens.  War  raged  between  them  afterwards 
with  but  little  intermission  till  1475.  In  Sept,  of  that  year,  C.  found  himself  at  leisure 
to  attempt  the  prosecution  of  his  favorite  scheme  of  conquest,  and  soon  made  himself 
master  of  Lorraine.  In  the  following  year  he  invaded  Switzerland,  stormed  Grandson, 
and  hanged  and  drowned  the  garrison;  but  was  soon  after  terribly  defeated  by  the 
Swiss  near  that  place,  and  lost  his  baggage  and  much  treasure.  Three  months  after,  he 
appeared  again  in  Switzerland  with  a new  army  of  60,000  men,  and  laid  siege  to  Morat, 
where  he  sustained,  on  June  22,  1476,  another  and  more  terrible  defeat.  After  this  he 
sank  into  despondency,  and  let  his  nails  and  beard  grow.  But  the  news  that  the  young 
duke  Rene  of  Lorraine  was  attempting  to  recover  his  territories,  roused  him,  and  he  laid 
siege  to  Nancy.  His  army  was  small;  Italian  auxiliaries,  whom  he  had  hired,  went 
over  to  the  enemy;  and  in  the  battle  which  he  too  rashly  fought,  he  lost  his  life,  Jan.  5, 
1477.  His  daughter  and  heiress,  Maria,  married  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  With  his 
life  ended  the  long  successful  resistance  of  the  great  French  vassals  to  the  central  power 
of  the  monarchy. 

CHARLES  CITY,  a co.  in  s.e.  Virginia,  on  the  James  and  Chickahominy  rivers; 
184  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  5512 — B752  colored.  Productions,  corn,  wheat,  oats,  etc.  Co. 
seat,  Charles  City  Court  House. 

CHARLES  EMMA'NUEL  I.,  duke  of  Savoy  (1580-1630),  called  the  great,  was  b.  at  the 
castle  of  Rivoli,  12th  Jan.,  1562,  and  succeeded  his  father  Emmanuel  Philibert  in  1580. 
He  married  a daughter  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  at  first  allied  himself  politically  with 
Spain,  and  made  war  against  France  for  the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo  (or  Saluces),  which 
he  obtained  in  1601,  upon  the  cession  of  some  other  territories  to  France.  But  he  after- 
wards joined  France  and  Venice  to  oppose  the  preponderant  power  of  Spain  in  Italy; 
then  allied  himself  with  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  and  set  up  a claim  to  Montferrat,  but 
suffered,  in  consequence,  the  direst  calamities,  great  part  of  his  dominions  being  con- 
quered by  the  French,  and  in  their  hands  when  he  died,  26th  July,  1630.  He  was  a 
prince  of  vast  ambition,  and  for  whom  no  enterprise  was  too  bold. 

CHARLES,  surnamed  MARTEL — i.e.,  the  hammer — was  the  son  of  Pepin  of  Heristal, 
mayor  of  the  palace  under  the  last  Merovingian  kings,  and  was  b.  about  690  a.d.  After 
his  father’s  death  in  714,  he  was  proclaimed  mayor  of  the  palace  by  the  Austrasian  party. 
King  Chilperic  and  he  now  quarreled,  and  a civil  war  arose  which  ended  in  C. 
becoming  undisputed  mayor  of  the  palace  and  ruler  of  the  Franks.  During  the  latter 
years  of  his  life,  he  indeed  allowed  the  nominal  throne  to  remain  occupied  — the 
titular  kings  being  mere  puppets  in  his  hands.  He  was  much  engaged  in  wars  against 
the  revolted  Alemanni  and  Bavarians,  the  Saxons,  etc.,  but  his  importance  as  a his- 
toric personage  is  chiefly  due  to  his  wars  against  the  Saracens,  who,  having  conquered 
Septimania  from  the  western  Goths  in  720,  advanced  thence  into  Aquitaine,  conquered 
Bordeaux,  defeated  the  duke  of  Aquitaine,  crossed  the  Garonne,  advanced  to  the 
Loire,  and  threatened  Tours.  C.  defeated  them  between  Tours  and  Poitiers  in  732  in  a 
great  battle,  in  which  their  leader,  Abd-ur-Rahm^n,  fell,  and  a stop  was  put  to  their 
progress  in  Europe,  which  had  filled  all  Christendom  with  alarm.  He  defeated  them 
again  in  738,  when  they  had  advanced  in  the  Burgundian  territories  as  far  as  Lyon; 
deprived  them  of  Languedoc,  which  he  added  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks;  and  left 
them  nothing  of  their  possessions  n.  of  the  Pyrenees  beyond  the  river  Aude.  He  died 
on  the  22d  Oct.,  741,  at  Quiercy  on  the  Oise,  in  the  midst  of  his  victories,  his  projects, 
and  his  greatness,  leaving  the  government  of  the  kingdom  to  be  divided  between  his  two 
sons — Carloman,  and  Pepin  the  short. 

CHARLES  MIX,  a co.  in  s.e.  Dakota,  on  the  Missouri  river;  pop.  ’70,  153,  of  whom 
117  were  Indians.  Co.  scat,  Greenwood. 

CHARLES  RIVER,  a stream  rising  in  central  Massachusetts,  and  flowing  easterly 
to  Boston  harbor.  It  affords  valuable  water-power  in  many  places,  and  in  its  lower 
course  its  banks  are  lined  with  large  and  small  manufacturing  villages. 

CHARLES’S  WAIN,  a common  name  for  the  constellation  of  Ursa  Major  (q.v.). 


707 


Charles. 

Cliarleston^ 


CHARLESTON,  a co.  in  e.  South  Carolina,  on  the  ocean,  and  including  several 
islands;  1906  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  102,825 — 71,890  colored.  The  Santee  river  is  the  n.e. 
border,  and  the  Ashley,  Edisto,  and  Cooper  rivers  intersect  the  county.  I'he  surface  is  low 
and  level,  and  much  of  the  soil  is  very  rich,  producing  sea-island  and  short  staple  cotton, 
rice,  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  etc.  The  South  Carolina,  the  Savannah  and  Charleston,  and 
the  North-eastern  railroads  intersect.  Co.  seat.  Charleston. 

CHARLESTON,  a village  in  Coles  co.,  111.,  on  the  St.  Louis  and  Indianapolis  rail-, 
road,  85  m.  w.  of  Terre  Haute,  Ind.  It  is  the  county  seat,  and  has  a medical  college, 
some  manufactures,  and  the  trade  of  a productive  agricultural  district.  Pop.  ’70,  2,849. 

CHARLESTON,  the  chief  city  of  a district  of  its  own  name  in  South  Carolina,  and  the 
commercial  capital  of  the  state,  is  situated  in  lat.  32°  46'  n.,  and  long.  79°  57'  west. 
With  straight  and  regular  streets,  it  occupies  the  fork  of  the  Cooper  and  the  Ashley, 
which,  as  deep  tideways  of  the  respective  widths  of  1400  and  2,100  yards,  here  unite 
with  their  common  estuary  of  7 m.  in  length  to  form  Charleston  harbor.  Tliis  haven  is 
beset  to  seaward  by  a sand-bar,  which  has  its  uses,  however,  as  a breakwater  and  a 
bulwark.  The  more  practicable  of  its  two  passages — showing  16  ft.  at  ebb  and  22  at 
flood — is  commanded  % fort  Moultrie  and  fort  Sumter.  The  city  is  built  upon  ground 
raised  but  a few  feet  above  the  water.  In  1860,  the  pop.  of  C.  was  40,522;  (1870)  48,956; 
(1875)  56,540.  The  exports,  which  are  always  of  much  greater  value  than  the  imports, 
amounted  in  1858  to  $16,924,436;  in  the  year  ending  Mar.  31,  1875,  $19,532,393.  Cotton 
and  rice  are  the  chief  exports.  In  1878,  the  taxable  property  of  C.  was  worth  $26,591,- 
778.  The  public  debt  was  $4,716,754.  There  are  about  40  churches,  the  state  medical 
college,  a large  orphan  asylum,  etc.  C.  was  founded  in  1672,  receiving  from  France, 
about  1685,  a considerable  influx  of  Protestant  refugees.  It  was  prominent  for  zeal  and 
gallantry  in  the  revolutionary  war.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  civil  war,  the  city  was 
remarkable  for  its  suburban  character  and  verdant  surroundings,  and  its  inhabitants 
were  mainly  opulent  planters,  distinguished  for  hospitality  and  refinement.  It  was  in 
C.,  however,  that  the  first  open  movement  was  made  in  favor  of  secession;  and  the  city 
and  its  inhabitants  have  changed  since  then.  In  1860  and  1861,  the  harbor  was  the 
scene  of  several  conflicts;  and  in  1863,  fort  Sumter  was  reduced  to  ruins.  The  harbor 
was  blockaded  in  1861,  and  several  dismantled  hulks  of  vessels  were  filled  with  stones 
and  sunk,  in  order  to  prevent  passage.  In  spite  of  these  precautions,  however,  more 
British  blockade-runners  entered  this  than  any  other  southern  port.  In  Aug.,  1863,  the 
city  was  bombarded,  and  in  Feb.,  1865,  was  occupied  by  the  United  States  troops. 

CHARLESTON  {ante),  the  chief  city  of  South  Carolina  and  capital  of  Charleston 
co.,  stands  upon  a peninsula  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers, 
in  lat.  32°  45'  n.,  long.  79°  57'  w.,  7 m.  from  the  Atlantic  ocean.  The  harbor,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  two  rivers,  and  land-locked  on  three  sides,  wdth  a depth  of  water 
of  from  40  to  50  ft.,  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  coast.  It  is  defended  at  the  mouth  by 
four  fortresses,  fort  Moultrie,  fort  Sumter,  castle  Pinckney,  and  fort  Ripley.  The 
entrance  to  the  harbor,  on  account  of  shifting  sand-bars  and  the  uncertain  depth  of 
the  water,  would  sometimes  be  ditficult  were  it  not  for  the  floating  lights  and  bell-boats 
provided  by  the  government.  The  water  on  the  bar  is  only  18  ft.  deep,  but  the  channel 
is  being  deepened  by  the  government.  The  city  covers  an  area  of  more  than  5 sq,  m., 
has  nearly  10  m.  of  water  front,  and  more  than  50  m.  of  streets.  The  latter  intersect 
each  other  mostly  at  right  angles,  and  some  of  them  are  spacious.  The  houses,  instead 
of  being  built  in  blocks,  are  generally  separated  from  each  other  by  gardens,  shade  trees, 
and  shrubbery,  giving  the  city  a peculiarly  picturesque  appearance,  while  greatly 
increasing  its  area.  Charleston  was  founded  in  1680  by  an  English  colony.  Its  growth 
at  first  was  slow,  but  with  the  development  of  the  cotton  traffic  its  commercial  impor- 
tance was  greatly  increased.  The  pop.  ’60  was  48,409,  of  which  nearly  one-half  were 
colored.  The  war  of  the  rebellion,  which  begun  here  in  the  spring  of  1861  in  the  com- 
pulsory evacuation  of  Fort  Sumter  by  the  U.  S.  garrison  under  command  of  gen. 
Robert  Anderson,  and  a great  fire  which  occurred  a few  months  later,  paralyzed  the 
business  and  greatly  diminished  the  population  of  the  city.  Commerce  indeed,  between 
1860  and  1865,  was  utterly  destroyed.  The  wharves  decayed,  the  docks  were  filled  up, 
and  the  railroads  leading  into  the  interior  were  torn  up.  It  was  not  until  more  than  a 
year  after  the  peace  that  the  city  was  again  made  a port  of  entry;  but  from  that  time 
industry  and  commerce  revived  and  have  since  steadily  increased.  The  census  of 
1870  showed  a very  slight  increase  of  population  in  comparison  with  that  of  1860,  the 
proportion  of  colored  persons  to  white  being  about  the  same,  22  to  26.  The  population 
by  the  census  of  1880  was  49,999;  24,005  being  white,  and  25,994  being  colored.  A 
large  w’holesale  trade  is  carried  on  with  the  interior,  an  extensive  region  of  country 
drawing  its  supplies  of  merchandise  from  this  source.  The  overland  trade  with  St. 
Louis,  Chicago,  and  other  cities  of  the  north-west  in  fiour,  bacon,  grain,  etc.,  is  rapidly 
increasing.  Rice,  cotton,  lumber,  naval  stores,  and  phosphate  rock  are  the  principal 
exports.  In  the  extent  of  the  cotton  trade.  Charleston  ranks  next  to  New  York  and 
New  Orleans.  The  manufacture  of  fertilizers  from  marl  and  phosphate  rock  has  been 
developed  since  1868  and  is  very  extensive.  Early  vegetables,  grown  in  the  suburbs,  are 
exported  in  large  quantities  to  New  York,  Boston,  and  oilier  northern  cities.  The 
whole  amount  of  coastwise  imports  is  very  large  and  constantly  increasing.  Manu 


Cliarleston. 

Cliarlotte. 


708 


factures  of  iron,  wood,  and  phosphate,  employ  much  capital,  and  afford  occupation  for 
upwards  of  3,000  people.  There  are  several  large  mills  for  removing  the  husk  from 
rice  and  preparing  it  for  market.  A large  portion  of  the  rice  raised  in  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  is  cleaned  at  these  mills.  The  valuation  of  property  by  the  census  of  1870 
was  over  $50,000,000.  The  state  assessment  for  1872  was  less  than  this  by  $10,000,000; 
the  city  assessment  for  1873  was  less  by  more  than  $20,000,000.  In  1870  the  number  of 
dwellings  was  6,861;  the  number  of  families,  9,098;  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in 
mechanical  occupations,  18,705.  There  are  seven  banks  of  discount,  with  a capital  of 
more  than  $3,000,000,  and  five  savings  banks,  with  deposits  amounting  to  more  than 
$1,000,000.  The  public  squares  are  few  and  small,  the  battery  near  the  water’s  edge, 
being  the  principal  public  resort.  There  are  3 daily  and  5 weekly  newspapers,  and 
about  40  churches,  of  which  11  are  Episcopal,  8 Presbyterian,  5 Roman  Catholic,  5 
Methodist,  4 Baptist,  3 Lutheran,  and  1 Unitarian.  The  most  noted  church  edifice  is 
St.  Michael’s  (Episcopal),  built  in  1752.  It  has  a fine  chime  of  bells,  and  its  tower  can 
be  seen  far  out  at  sea.  St.  Philip’s  is  the  oldest  church  organization,  but  its  house  of 
worship  is  not  so  old  as  that  of  St.  Michael’s.  In  the  graveyard  adjoining  St.  Philip’s 
lie  the  remains  of  many  noted  persons,  including  Gadsden,  Rutledge,  Pinckney,  and 
Calhoun.  Magnolia  cemetery,  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the  city,  contains  many 
fine  monuments.  The  principal  benevolent  institutions  are  the  orphan  house,  with  an 
endowment  of  $190,000,  and  over  300  inmates;  the  Roman  Catholic  orphan  asylum, 
with  more  than  100  inmates;  the  almshouse;  the  asylum  for  the  aged  and  infirm;  the 
city  hospital ; and  an  asylum  for  colored  orphans,  supported  by  the  state.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  U.  S.  arsenal  and  citadel,  the  market,  city  hall,  court-house, 
orphan  house,  academy  of  music,  custom-house,  post-office.  Charleston  hotel,  and  Mills 
house.  Three  steam  railroads  have  their  center  here,  and  there  are  horse  railroads  con- 
necting the  different  parts  of  the  city  with  each  other.  The  streets  are  lighted  with 
gas,  and  many  of  them  are  well  paved.  The  schools  of  the  city  are  under  the  control 
of  commissioners  elected  by  the  people  and  a r^uperintendent  appointed  by  the  commis- 
sioners. In  1872,  there  were  8 public  schools  (5  grammar  and  3 primary);  number  of 
children  of  school  age,  12,727,  of  whom  5,068  were  enrolled;  number  of  teachers  68,  all 
but  four  of  them  males;  total  school  expenditures  over  $40,000  annually.  There  are 
also  a considerable  number  of  private  schools.  Charleston  college,  founded  in  1775. 
in  1872  had  5 instructors,  50  students,  and  a library  of  8,000  volumes.  The  state  med- 
ical college,  at  the  same  date  had  9 professors.  The  Charleston  library,  founded  in 
1748,  has  14,000  volumes,  and  the  apprentices’  library  is  a valuable  collection.  Charles- 
ton was  among  the  first  of  the  principal  places  in  the  south  to  enlist  in  the  revolutionary 
struggle  of  1776.  It  was  captured  May  12,  1780,  after  a siege  of  six  weeks,  by  12,000 
British  regulars  under  sir  Henry  Clinton,  and  evacuated  Dec.  14,  1782.  It  was  the 
center  of  the  nullification  movement  of  1830,  which  was  put  down  by  Andrew  Jackson; 
and  the  war  of  the  rebellion  had  its  beginning  here  in  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
which  aroused  the  northern  people  to  a stern  resistance.  The  city  remained  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  confederates  until  the  surrender  of  Columbia,  the  state  capital,  to  Sher- 
man, when  it  was  evacuated  by  the  confederate  forces,  and  all  the  public  buildings, 
stores,  cotton  warehouses,  shipping,  etc.,  were  fired  by  order  of  gen.  Hardee,  the  con- 
federate commander.  When  the  union  forces  took  possession,  Feb.  18,  1865,  they  did  all 
that  they  could  to  rescue  the  city  from  destruction.  During  the  war  many  buildings 
were  destroyed,  and  the  towers  and  steeples  of  the  churches  riddled  with  shot  and  shell. 

CHARLESTON  (Post  office,  Kanawha  Court-house),  the  capital  of  West  Virginia, 
on  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railroad  and  the  Kanawha  river,  at  the  junction  of  Elk 
river;  130  m.  s.w.  of  Wheeling;  pop.  ’70,  3,162.  The  Kanawha  is  navigable  to  the 
Ohio.  Charleston  is  in  a region  productive  of  timber,  coal,  iron,  and  salt,  and  is  an 
important  shipping  point.  The  salt  springs  are  just  above  the  city  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  and  more  salt  is  made  here  than  in  any  other  place  in  the  country  except  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.  The  State-house  is  the  most  conspicuous  building.  There  are  a Roman  Catholic 
seminary,  and  several  high  schools.  The  seat  of  the  state  government  was  fixed  here 
April  30,1870. 

CHARLESTOWN,  a seaport  of  Massachusetts,  in  lat  42°  2'  n.,  and  long.  71°  3'  w.  It 
occupies  a peninsula  about  2 m.  long,  immediately  to  the  n.  of  Boston,  the  capital  of 
the  state ; of  which,  connected  as  the  two  are  by  bridges,  it  is  virtually  a suburb. 
Pop.  in  1850,  17,126;  in  1860,  25,063;  in  1870,  28,323.  In  common  with  the  rest  of  the 
neighborhood,  the  peninsula  displays  an  unevenness  of  surface  which  renders  the 
streets,  otherwise  handsome,  somewhat  irregular.  Its  most  prominent  height  is  Bunker’s 
hill,  celebrated  as  the  first  battle-field  in  the  revolutionary  war,  and  surmounted,  in 
1825-43,  by  a granite  monument  of  220  ft.  in  height.  Besides  a state-prison  on  a large 
scale,  the  city  possesses  one  of  the  principal  navy-yards  of  the  general  government. 
This  establishment,  covering  60  acres,  contains  a magnificent  ropewalk  1300  ft.  long, 
and  a dry-dock  of  chiseled  granite  measuring  80  ft.  in  breath  by  30  in  depth.  C. 
was  incorporated  with  Boston  in  1874. 

CHARLESTOWN  {ante),  now  part  of  Boston,  formerly  a city  of  Middlesex  co., 
Mass.  It  is  situated  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Charles  river,  and  is  connected  with 
Boston  by  two  free  bridges.  The  Mystic  river,  which  unites  with  the  Charles  at  this 


709 


Charleston* 

Charlotte. 


point,  forms  the  boundary  on  the  e.  and  north.  The  pop.  in  1873,  when  the  city 
•was  annexed  to  Boston,  was  28,373.  From  the  territory  of  Charlestown,  originally  ver^ 
large,  several  towns  have  been  taken  on  its  northern  side.  The  surface  of  the 
remaining  portion  is  very  uneven,  two  eminences.  Bunker  and  Breed’s  hills,  rising  near 
the  center,  and  affording  many  fine  building  sites.  On  Bunker  hill  was  fought  a 
celebrated  battle  of  the  revolution,  June  17,  1775,  commemorated  by  a granite  shail 
erected  on  the  summit  and  rising  to  the  height  of  U20  feet.  The  corner-stone  of  this 
monument  was  laid  in  1825  by  gen.  Lafayette,  and  the  work  was  finished  in  1843. 
The  attempt  of  the  Massachusetts  committee  of  safety  to  fortify  this  eminence  was 
the  immediate  occasion  of  the  battle,  in  the  course  of  which  the  town  was  burned  1)3^ 
the  British,  being  set  on  fire  by  shells  from  Copp’s  hill  in  Boston,  and  by  men  who 
were  sent  across  the  Charles  for  that  purpose.  C.  is  well  built,  having  some  fine 
streets  and  residences.  It  has  an  abundant  supply  of  water  from  Mystic  lake,  excellent 
schools,  15  churches  of  various  denominations,  a public  library  of  15,000  volumes,  a 
fund  of  $23,000  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  and  a home  for  aged  and  indigent  women. 
The  state  prison  was  located  here  from  1805  to  a very  recent  period,  and  the  buildings 
used  for  that  purpose  are  still  standing,  A navy -yard  of  the  United  States,  covering 
more  than  70  acres  of  ground  and  having  all  the  appointments  required  for  such  an 
establishment,  has  existed  here  since  1798.  C.  is  also  a place  of  considerable  business. 
It  has  manufactories  of  steam  engines,  boilers  and  machinery,  of  stone  and  brass-ware, 
gas  fixtures,  mechanics’  tools,  leather,  draw-pipes,  sugar,  soap,  etc. 

CHARLESTOWN,  the  seat  of  justice  of  Jefferson  co.,  W.  Va.,  on  a branch  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad,  10  m.  s.w.  from  Harper’s  Ferry;  pop.  ’70,  1593.  It  is  in  a 
fine  agricultural  district.  It  was  in  this  village  that  John  Brown  was  tried,  condemned, 
:and  hanged  Dec.  2,  1859. 

CHARLET,  Nicolas  Toussaint,  a French  painter  and  engraver,  b.  in  Paris,  1792, 
was  for  some  years  employed  as  a clerk  in  a government  office,  but  lost  his  place  at  the 
restoration,  1815,  on  account  of  his  Bonapartism,  and  in  consequence  betook  himself  to 
art.  After  studying  awhile  under  Gros,  he  gradually  formed  for  himself  a style  in 
which  he  had  no  rival.  C.  is  the  Beranger  of  caricature,  but  without  the  political  bit- 
terness and  sarcasm  sometimes  found  in  the  poet.  His  genial  sketches  of  French  life 
and  manners  were  studied  with  equal  admiration  in  the  salons  of  the  aristocracy  and  in 
the  ateliers,  barracks,  taverns,  etc.,  of  the  lower  classes.  C.  was  especially  successful 
in  his  sketches  of  soldiers  and  children.  His  designs  are  free  from  exaggeration,  while 
full  of  spirit,  interest,  and  naivete;  and  his  titles  or  mottoes  were  often  so  witty  and 
suggestive,  that  dramatic  writers  have  founded  pieces  upon  them.  His  sketches  and, 
lithographs  are  very  numerous,  and  are  widely  distributed.  Among  his  paintings,  the 
most  remarkable  are — “An  Episode  in  the  Russian  Campaign”  (in  the  museum  at 
Yersailles);  “Moreau’s  Crossing  of  the  Rhine”  (at  Lyons);  and  a “Procession  of  the 
Wounded”  (at  Bordeaux).  C.  died  in  1845. 

CHARLEVILLE,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Ardennes,  about  a mile  from 
Mezieres,  with  which  it  communicates  by  a suspension  bridge  over  the  Meuse.  It  is  a 
thriving  place,  well  built,  with  clean  spacious  streets.  It  has  manufactures  of  hard- 
ware, leather,  and  beer,  and  the  Meuse  affords  facilities  for  considerable  trade  in  coal, 
iron,  slate,  wine,  and  nails.  Pop.  ’76,  12,881. 

CHARLEVOIX,  a co.  in  n.w.  Michigan,  on  lake  Michigan  and  Green  viver;  500 
«q.m. ; pop.  ’80,  5114.  Grand  Traverse  bay  bounds  the  county  on  the  w.,  and  Little 
Traverse  bay  on  the  north.  The  chief  business  is  agriculture.  Co.  seat,  Charlevoix. 

CHARLEY OIX,  a co.  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  forming  a triangle,  one  side 
of  which  runs  80  or  90  m.  along  the  n.w.  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  reaching  nearly  to 
the  Saguenay  river;  5,224  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71,  15,611,  of  whom  all  but  nine  were  Roman 
Catholics.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  not  well  adapted  to  agriculture.  It  is  inter- 
sected by  five  or  six  rivers  that  fall  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  one  that  joins  the  Sague- 
nay. Chief  town,  Baie  St.  Paul. 

CHARLEVOIX,  Pierke  Francois  Xavier  de,  1682-1761;  a French  Jesuit  who 
was  sent  as  a teacher  to  Quebec  in  1705.  After  about  five  years  he  returned  to  France, 
and  became  professor  of  belles-lettres.  He  returned  to  Canada  in  1720,  and  journeyed 
up  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes  and  down  the  Illinois  and  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans, 
and  thence  went  to  Paris.  His  principal  work  is  a valuable  History  of  New  France  (or 
Canada),  which  was  not  published  in  English  until  1865.  He  also  wrote  a history  of 
Christianity  in  Japan,  and  a history  of  Paraguay. 

CHARLOCK.  See  Mustard. 

CHARIOTS,  a village  of  the  Netherlands,  situated  on  the  Maas,  about  2 m.  s.s.w.  of 
Rotterdam.  It  is  memorable  on  account  of  a terrible  accident  which  occurred  here  in 
1512,  when  a religious  procession  crossing  the  ice  in  defiance  of  magisterial  prohibition, 
8,000  of  them  were  precipitated  into  the  Maas.  Pop.  2,000. 

CHARLOTTE,  a co.  in  s.  Virginia,  on  Staunton  river;  intersected  by  the  Atlantic, 
Mississippi  and  Ohio,  and  Richmond.  Danville  and  Piedmont  railroads;  550  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  16,653 — 10,908  colored.  Surface  hilly;  productions,  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and 

iobacco.  Co.  seat,  Mar^^sville. 


Charlotte. 

Charriere. 


710 


CHARLOTTE,  a co.  in  s.w.  New  Brunswick,  on  the  Maine  border  and  the  bay  of 
Fundy ; 1323  sq.m. ; pop.  ’71,  25,882.  The  county  is  traversed  by  the  New  Brunswick  and 
Canada,  and  the  Nortli  American  and  European  railroads.  Sliip-building  and  sea-fishing 
are  the  occupations  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  inhabitants.  Chief  town,  St.  Andrews, 
at  the  mouth  of  St.  Croix  river. 

CHARLOTTE,  the  seat  of  justice  and  an  incorporated  city  of  Eaton  co.,  Mich.,  20 
jm.  s.w.  of  Lan.sing,  on  Grand  River  Valley  division  of  the  Michigan  Central,  at  the 
[grossing  of  the  Peninsular  railroad;  pop.  about  3,000.  Lumber  and  agricultural  prod- 
|‘ucts  furnish  the  greater  part  of  its  trade. 

i CHARLOTTE,  a city  of  North  Carolina,  the  sert  of  justice  of  Mecklenburg  co  , on 
Sugar  creek,  and  the  Wilmington.  Charlotte  and  Rutherford  railroad,  at  the  terminus  of 
the  North  Carolina  division  of  the  Richmond  and  Danville,  and  the  Charlotte,  Columbia 
and  Augusta  railroads.  The  city  is  in  the  North  Carolina  gold  region,  and  a mint  was 
established  in  1838,  but  closed  in  1861  on  account  of  the  rebellion.  Up  to  that  date  more 
than  $5,000,000  in  gold  had  been  deposited  in  the  mint.  There  are  several  manufactories 
in  the  city.  It  w’as  here  that  the  “Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  Independence”  was 
adopted.  May  31,  1775. 

CHARLOTTE  AMALIE,  chief,  or  rather  only,  town  of  St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  Virgin 
group  of  the  Antilles,  in  lat.  18“  20'  n.,  long.  64“  55'  west.  It  contains  11,400  inhabi- 
tants, nearly  three  fourths  of  the  entire  population  of  the  colony.  It  has  a spacious 
harbor,  which,  besides  being  largely  visited  by  European  ships  in  general,  is  a principal 
station  for  the  mail-packets  between  Southampton  and  the  W est  Indies. 

CHARLOTTE  AUGUSTA,  1796-1817;  daughter  of  George  IV.  and  queen  Caroline 
of  England.  She  was  well  educated  under  the  care  of  the  bishop  of  Exeter  and  Lady 
Clifford.  It  was  desired  that  she  should  wed  the  prince  of  Orange,  but  she  loved  and 
married  prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who,  long  after  her  death,  became  king  of  Bel- 
gium. She  was  married  May  2,  1816;  was  delivered  of  a stiil-born  child  early  in  Nov. 
of  the  next  year,  and  died,  in  consequence  of  malpractice,  as  was  believed.  Her  offici- 
ating physician  committed  suicide.  Her  domestic  life  was  most  wretched,  as  her  pub- 
lished letters  show. 

CHARLOTTE  HARBOR,  or  Boca  Grande,  an  inlet  in  the  gulf  coast  of  Florida, 
25  m.  long,  and  8 to  10  m.  wide,  with  an  entrance  three  fourths  of  a mile  wide,  and  30 
to  40  ft.  deep.  There  is  a good  harbor,  sheltered  from  the  sea  by  a number  of  islands. 
Wild  fowl,  fish,  and  oysters  are  plentiful. 

CHARLOT'TENBURG,  a t.  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  is  situated  on 
the  Spree,  3 m.  w.  of  Berlin,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a road  leading  through  the 
Thiergarten,  and  affording  a favorite  promenade  to  the  Berliners.  C.  contains  a royal 
palace,  with  a fine  garden  and  splendid  orangery,  and  an  interesting  collection  of  anti- 
quities and  works  of  art.  In  a beautiful  part  of  the  park  a mausoleum,  designed  by 
Schinkel,  contains  the  remains  of  Frederick  William  III.  and  his  wife,  the  queen  Luise, 
with  their  statues  by  Rauch.  C.  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  hosiery.  Pop.  ’71, 
19,518;  ’75,  25,900. 

CHARLOTTESVILLE,  a village  in  Albemarle  co.,  Va.,  65  m.  n.w.  of  Richmond, 
on  the  Orange,  Alexandria  and  Manassas,  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railroads.  The 
place  is  the  seat  of  the  university  of  Virginia,  founded  by  Thomas  Jefferson;  and  Mon- 
ticello,  Jefferson’s  home,  is  but  3 m.  distant.  Pop.  ’70,  2,838. 

CHARLOTTE  TOWN,  the  capital  of  Prince  Edward  island,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
in  lat.  46“  15'  n.,  and  long.  63“  7'  west.  The  census  of  May,  ’71,  states  the  pop.  at  8,807. 
The  port  is  the  best  in  a colony  which,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  is  remarkat’-e  for  its 
navigable  facilities.  The  town  stands  on  the  s.e.  coast  at  the  bottom  of  Hillsborough 
bay,  and  at  the  confluence  of  three  rivers,  which  each  admit  the  largest  vessels  tor  sev- 
eral miles,  so  as  to  secure  them  from  all  weather.  The  harbor  is  rendered  stiK  more 
commodious  through  the  strength  of  the  tides,  which  enable  ships  to  work  out  and  in 
against  the  wind.  C.  T.  has  an  iron  foundry  and  a woolen  factory,  and  is  largely  engaged 
in  ship-building. 

CHARLTON,  a co.  in  s.e.  Georgia,  on  the  Florida  border,  including  a portion  of  the 
great  Okefenoke  swamp;  1000  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  2161 — 361  colored.  Productions,  rice, 
cotton,  tar,  and  turpentine.  Surface  level  and  soil  sandy.  Co.  seat.  Trader’s  Hill. 

CHARM  (Lat.  carmen,  a song),  properly,  a form  of  words,  generally  in  verse,  supposed 
to  possess  some  occult  power  of  a hurtful,  a healing,  or  a protective  kind.  Charms 
exert  their  influence  either  by  being  recited,  or  by  being  written  and  worn  on  the  per- 
son; and,  in  this  latter  case,  they  may  be  classed  with  amulets  (q.v.).  The  nature  of 
this  superstition  will  be  more  fully  considered  under  Incantation;  fiee  also  Magic. 

CHARNEL-HOUSE  (Fr.  charnier;  Lat.  caro,  flesh),  a chamber  situated  in  a churchyard 
or  other  burying-place,  in  which  the  bones  of  the  dead  wdiich  were  thrown  up  by  the 
grave-diggers  were  reverently  deposited.  The  C.  was  generally  vaulted  in  the  roof,  and 
was  often  a building  complete  in  itself,  having  a chapel  or  chantry  attached  to  it.  In 
such  cases,  the  charnel- vault  was  commonly  a crypt  under  the  chapel,  and  even  in 


^11  Cliarlotte. 

* Charriere. 

churches,  »t  was  not  uncommon  for  the  vault  or  crypt  to  be  employed  as  a charnel- 
house. 

CHARNOCK,  Stephen,  d.d.,  1628-80;  an  English  non-conformist  minister,  educated 
at  Cambridge.  He  began  to  preach  in  London,  and  went  thence  to  Dublin,  where  he 
was  successful.  In  1660,  he  was  silenced  by  the  act  of  uniformity,  and  returned  to  Lon- 
don; he  continued  15  years  in  and  near  that  city,  preaching,  but  without  a settled  con- 
gregation. Many  of  his  sermons  have  been  published,  and  his  work  on  the  Attributes 
of  God  is  still  highly  valued.  He  was  a vigorous  and  original,  as  well  as  judicious  thinker ; 
and  as  a writer  he  was  vivid  and  clear. 

CHARON,  in  classical  mythology,  the  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  is  first  mentioned  by 
the  later  writers  of  Greece.  His  duty  was  to  ferry  the  shades  of  the  buried  dead  across 
the  rivers  of  the  under- v/orld.  For  this  service,  he  exacted  an  obolus  from  each,  and  in 
consequence,  a coin  of  this  kind  was  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  dead.  If  this  rite  was 
neglected,  C.  refused  to  convey  the  unhappy  shade  across,  and  it  was  doomed  to  wan- 
der restlessly  along  the  shores  of  Acheron.  C.  is  generally  represented  as  a gloomy  old 
man,  with  a rough  beard  and  wretched  clothes.  In  the  Etruscan  monuments,  he  holds 
a hammer. 

CHARON'DAS,  a lawgiver  of  ancient  Greece,  by  some  supposed  to  have  been  a dis- 
ciple of  Pythagoras.  It  is  related  that  he  fell  a sacrifice  to  one  of  his  own  laws,  by  which 
it  was  made  a capital  offense  to  appear  armed  in  a public  assembly.  On  returning  from 
a military  expedition  he  hastened  to  quell  a tumult,  having  his  sword  at  his  side.  . Being 
reminded  by  a citizen  of  his  law,  he  replied,  “Then  I will  seal  it  with  my  blood,”  and 
immediately  plunged  his  sword  into  his  breast. 

CHAROST,  Armand  Joseph  de  Bethune,  Due  de,  1810-65;  a descendant  of  Sully, 
the  famous  marshal.  C.  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830  as  a republican,  and  in  1833 
was  made  a lieut.  Afterwards  he  served  in  Algeria,  and  after  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  appointed  under  secretary  of  state.  He  was  one  of  the  zealous  republicans  in  the 
national  assembly,  and  one  of  the  victims  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  being  imprisoned  at  Ham,  and 
afterwards  exiled  to  Belgium.  In  1854,  Napoleon  III.  expelled  him  from  France,  and 
he  went  to  Holland  and  afterwards  to  Switzerland.  He  wrote  a history  of  the  campaign 
of  1815,  in  which  he  severely  criticised  Napoleon’s  generalship,  and  a history  of  the  war 
in  Germany  in  1813. 

GHARR,  Salmo  umhla,  a fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  salmon,  occurring  in  the 
Jakes  of  Britain  and  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  abundant  in  the  lakes  of  Cum- 
berland and  Westmoreland,  and  in  some  of  those  of  Ireland,  of  the  n.  of  Scotland,  and 
of  Orkney,  but  in  the  greater  number  of  the  Scottish  lakes  it  is  not  found.  It  is  the 
celebrated  ombre  cheva,lier  of  the  lake  of  Geneva.  It  is  sometimes  found  weighing  more 
than  2 lbs.,  but  is  generally  under  1 lb.  in  weight.  It  has  only  the  anterior  part  of  the 
Domer  (the  middle  line  of  the  palate)  furnished  vrith  the  teeth,  agreeing  in  this  with  the 
salmon  and  bull-trout,  and  differing  from  the  common  trout,  salmon-trout,  etc.  The 
form  is  elongated,  the  greatest  depth  of  the  fish  about  one  fifth  of  the  entire  length;  the 
fins  are  rather  smill;  the  tail  deeply  forked;  the  color  of  the  back  dark  olive,  the  sides 
lighter  and  spotted  with  either  red  or  white,  according  to  the  condition  in  which  the  fish 
is  at  the  time,  the  belly  also  being  sometimes  deep  orange,  and  sometimes  of  a pale 
color;  these,  and  other  accidental  variations,  causing  the  fish  to  receive  different  names, 
such  as  c(i<^e  G.,  red  G.,  gilt  G.,  silver  G.,  and  having  led  some  naturalists  to  believe  in  the 
existence  of  different  species.  It  is  not  yet  quite  certain  whether  the  torgoch  or  red-belly 
of  Yf-dXQS  {salmo  salvelinas  of  some  authors)  ought  to  be  regarded  as  distinct  or  as  a mere 
accid'^ntal  variety.  Whilst  it  is  the  most  delicious  perhaps  of  the  snlmonidce,  the  C.  is 
also  the  most  beautiful:  its  rich  purple,  rosy,  and  crimson  tints  and  white  spots  render- 
ing it  indeed  a brilliant,  and  striking  object.  During  summer,  the  C.  haunts  chiefly  deep 
cool  water,  and  is  seldom  seen  at  the  surface  till  late  in  autumn.  It  feeds  on  insects 
and  minute  crustaceans.  In  the  end  of  autumn  or  beginning  of  winter,  it  ascends  rivers 
to  spawn,  always  choosing  those  which  have  a rocky  bottom.  Whether  in  lake  or 
stream,  it  is  only  to  be  found  in  clear  waters.  Unfortunately,  the  C.  of  the  English  lakes 
is  taken  in  great  numbers,  by  nets,  at  the  mouths  of  streams,  when  about  to  ascend  them 
in  order  to  spawn,  and  when  not  in  the  best  condition  for  the  table. 

On  some  lakes,  vast  quantities  are  then  caught  for  the  table,  particularly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  potting.  A 0.  is  now  and  then  taken  with  fly  when  the  angler  may  be  whipping 
a lake,  which  perhaps  abounds  with  them,  for  trout;  but  this  occurs  but  seldom.  The 
C.  will,  too,  occasionally  take  a minnow,  if  sunk  deep  and  trailed  slowly;  but  the  sport 
it  affords  is  of  the  most  precarious  nature,  C.  are  fast  diminishing  in  those  of  our 
English  lakes  which  they  still  inhabit,  owing  to  the  wholesale  and  indiscriminate 
slaughter  which  occurs  at  the  spawning  season.  A large  kind  of  C , sometimes  reach- 
ing 4 lbs.  in  weight,  is  found  in  some  of  the  more  northern  Swedish  lakes. 

CHARRIERE,  or  CHARRIERES,  Isabelle  Agnete  de  Saint-Hyacinthe  de, 
1740-1805;  a native  of  Holland,  daughter  of  a Dutch  baron,  and  married  to  a Swiss, 
who  had  been  her  brother’s  teacher.  In  1786,  appeared  her  most  important  book, 
CaUste,  or  Letters  Written  in  Lausanne.  She  traveled  in  France  and  England,  and  was 


Charron. 

Charter. 


712 


an  intimate  friend  of  Benjamin  Constant.  She  was  a brilliant  and  beautiful  woman, 
but,  owing  to  loss  of  her  estate,  the  latter  years  of  her  life  were  spent  in  strict  seclu- 
sion. 

CHARRON,  Pierre,  1541-1603;  a French  philosopher,  one  of  the  25  children  of  a 
bookseller  of  Paris.  He  studied  law  at  Bruges,  and  began  practice  in  Paris,  but  not 
having  immediate  success,  he  went  into  the  church,  and  rose  to  eminence  as  a preachei. 
At  Bordeaux  he  formed  a short  but  famous  and  important  friendship  with  Montaigne, 
who,  on  his  death  in  1592,  requested  C.  to  bear  the  arms  of  the  Montaigne  family. 
In  1394,  C.  published  Le  Trois  Verites,  in  which  he  seeks  to  prove  that  there  is  a 
God  and  a true  religion,  and  that  the  true  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic.  This  was 
followed  by  a book  of  sermons,  and  in  1601  came  his  most  remarkable  work,  De  Id 
Sagesse,  a complete  popular  system  of  moral  philosophy.  This  work  brought  upon  its 
author  the  most  violent  attacks,  but  a second  edition  w’as  soon  called  for.  This,  after 
much  opposition,  began  to  appear  in  1603,  but  only  a few  sheets  had  been  printed  when 
C.  died  suddenly  in  the  street. 

CHART,  a marine  or  hydrographical  map,  exhibiting  a portion  of  a sea  or  other 
water,  with  the  islands,  coasts  of  cotinguous  land,  soundings,  currents,  etc.  See  Map. 
In  the  English  service,  when  coasts  have  been  surveyed  by  the  admiralty,  charts  are 
engraved,  and  are  sold  at  various  prices,  from  3s.  down  to  Qd.  each.  This  price  is 
below  their  cost,  the  object  being  to  encourage  their  general  use  as  much  as  possible. 
Men-of-war  are  supplied  with  copies  of  every  available  C.  published,  relating  to  the 
regions  likely  to  be  visited.  There  is  a printed  list  for  every  station.  At  Gibraltar  and 
the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  there  are  depots  of  charts  to  supply  ships  whose  destination 
undergoes  a change.  All  the  charts  are  brought  home  again,  and  none  are  reissued  until 
revised  and  corrected.  The  navigating  charts,  showing  the  dangers  of  coasts,  with 
sufficient  clearness  to  enable  mariners  to  avoid  them,  are  generally  on  the  scale  of  half  an 
inch  to  a mile;  those  of  larger  size  show  all  the  intricacies  of  the  coast.  The  merchant- 
service  is  supplied  with  charts  by  agents,  who  receive  a stock  from  the  admiralty,  and 
keep  them  on  sale.  The  preparation  of  charts  is  part  of  the  duty  of  the  hydrographical 
department  of  the  admiralty.  In  the  financial  year  1879-1880,  a sum  of  no  less  than 
£11,000  was  provided  for  this  branch,  quite  irrespective  of  the  surveying  that  preceded 
the  engraving  of  the  charts,  which  always  costs  a much  larger  sum.  In  the  five  years 
ending  with  1875,  the  admiralty  sold  495,445  charts,  besides  supplying  the  queen’s 
ships. 

CHARTA,  Magna.  See  Magna  Charta. 

CHARTE  (Fr.  a charter;  Lat.  charta,  paper).  In  the  sense  in  which  we  have  adopted 
this  word  from  the  French,  and  in  which  it  may  be  now  said  to  form  part  of  our  lan- 
guage, it  signifies  a system  of  constitutional  law,  embodied  in  a single  document. 
Whether  any  system  of  positive  public  law  existed  in  ancient  France  is,  in  that  country, 
a subject  of  keen  dispute  amongst  constitutional  antiquaries.  If  any  such  there  was, 
there  seems  little  doubt  that  it  was  the  mere  embodiment  of  traditions,  and  not  the 
result  of  any  single  act  of  the  national  will.  Whilst  France  was  divided  into  provinces 
and  communes,  local  liberties  and  privileges  unquestionably  existed ; but  where  the 
nation  constituted  no  single  body,  a constitutional  charter  was  impossible.  The 
first  traces  of  such  a C.  appear  in  the  14th  c. ; and  it  is  known  in  the  history  of  the  pub- 
lic law  of  France  as  the  grand  charter,  or  the  charter  of  king  John.  Up  to  this  time,  the 
kings  had  called  together  only  partial  assemblies,  but  in  1355  deputies  from  the  whole 
kingdom  were  assembled  in  the  hall  of  *the  parliament  of  Paris.  The  nobility  and  clergy, 
secular  and  regular,  were  represented  by  400  deputies,  the  commons  or  third  estate  by  a 
like  number.  This  body  assumed  to  itself  the  initiative,  and  prepared  a species  of  con- 
stitution, which  was  accepted  by  the  king.  The  chief  triumph  of  the  third  estate  on 
this  occasion  consisted  in  carrying  through  the  doctrine,  that  the  decision  of  any  two 
estates  should  be  invalid  without  the  concurrence  of  the  third.  The  three  orders,  who 
seem  to  have  composed  but  one  assembly,  then  proceeded  to  impose  a series  of  restric- 
tions on  the  power  of  the  monarch,  which,  confirmed  by  the  dauphin  two  years  later, 
formed  the  foundation  for  the  liberties  subsequently  asserted  at  the  revolution. 

But  the  constitution  to  which  the  term  C.  is  most  frequently  applied  by  the  French 
and  by  us,  is  that  in  which  Louis  XVIII.  solemnly  acknowledged  the  rights  of  the  nation 
on  his  restoration  in  1814,  This  C.  has  ever  since  been  considered  the  fundamental  law 
of  constitutional  monarchy  when  that  form  of  government  has  existed  in  France.  In 
some  of  its  provisions,  however,  and  still  more  in  the  mode  of  its  acceptance  by  the 
monarch,  as  “ a voluntary  and  free  act  of  our  royal  authority,”  and  as  a “ concession 
made  to,”  not  a contract  entered  into  with,  his  subjects,  it  was  open  to  the  misconstruc- 
tions which  eventually  led  to  the  revolution  of  1830.  The  “ charte”  sworn  to  on  the 
29th  Aug.  of  that  year  by  king  Louis  Philippe  modified  this  and  some  of  the  other  pro- 
visions of  that  of  1814.  On  that  occasion,  the  king  explicitly  recognized  the  sovereignty 
of  the  people.  This  document,  which,  with  some  modifications,  remained  in  force  till 
the  revolution  of  1848,  is  of  so  much  importance,  not  only  from  its  bearing  on  the  past 
history,  and  possibly  on  the  future  destiny  of  France,  but  from  the  analogies  which  it 
presents  to  our  own  constitution,  that  we  shall  endeavor  to  present  a condensed  view  of 
its  leading  provisions. 


713 


Charron. 

Charter. 


It  consisted  of  67  articles,  divided  into  7 heads.  Of  these,  the  1st  head,  containing  11 
articles,  treated  of  the  public  rights  of  the  French  people.  It  provided  for  the  equality 
of  all  Frenchmen — a doctrine  which  it  inherited  from  the  revolution,  and  which  it  unfor- 
tunately left  to  be  understood  in  a sense  inconsistent  with  monarchy,  and  indeed  with 
any  other  form  of  government  than  pure  democracy  (see  Equality) — for  their  equal 
admissibility  to  all  employments,  civil  and  military,  and  for  their  freedom  from  arrest, 
otherwise  than  by  legal  process.  It  guaranteed  the  enjoyment  of  religious  liberty,  and 
the  payment  of  the  ministers  of  all  Christian  denominations — a privilege  which  in  1831 
was  extended  even  to  Jews.  The  liberty  of  printing  and  publishing  was  insured,  the 
censorship  of  the  press  and  conscription  were  abolished,  an  amnesty  for  all  political 
otfenses  was  proclaimed,  and  the  security  of  property  guaranteed,  except  when  its  sac- 
rifice should  be  requisite  for  the  public  good,  in  which  case  it  was  declared  that  the 
owner  must  be  indemnified.  The  2d  headset  forth  the  nature  and  limitations  of  the 
kingly  power  in  8 articles.  The  supreme  executive  power,  the  command  of  the  army 
and  navy,  and  the  right  of  making  war,  and  treaties  of  peace,  alliance,  and  commerce, 
were  reserved  to  the  monarch.  To  him,  also,  it  belonged  to  nominate  to  all  offices  of 
public  administration,  to  make  all  necessary  regulations  for  the  execution  of  the  laws, 
but  in  no  case  to  suspend  them  or  dispense  with  them.  The  high  duties  of  legislation 
were  shared  between  the  king,  the  chamber  of  peers,  and  the  chamber  of  deputies;  it 
being  provided  that  every  law  should  be  agreed  to  by  a majority  of  each  chamber,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  king.  Any  one  of  the  three  branches  of  the  legislature  might  origi- 
nate any  bill,  except  a money-bill,  which  was  reserved  for  the  chamber  of  deputies,  as 
for  the  house  of  commons  in  England.  The  3d  head  contained  ten  articles  regarding 
the  chamber  of  peers,  the  nomination  of  whom  was  vested  in  the  king  (the  princes  of 
the  blood  being  peers  by  right  of  birth).  No  limit  was  set  to  their  number;  but  by  the 
law  of  9th  Dec.,  1831,  incorporated  in  the  C.,  it  was  declared  that  their  dignity  should 
be  for  life  only.  The  chancellor  of  France  was  president.  The  chamber  of  peers 
assembled  simultaneously  with  that  of  the  deputies,  and  its  sittings  were  public.  The 
personal  privileges  of  the  peerage,  as  they  exist  in  England,  were  introduced.  The  4th 
head  concerning  the  chamber  of  deputies  contains  16  articles.  It  provides  for  the  elec- 
tion of  the  deputies  and  the  sittings  of  the  chamber.  The  electoral  qualification  is 
declared  to  be  the  payment  of  200  francs  of  direct  taxes,  whilst  that  of  a deputy  is  the 
payment  of  500.  The  voting  is  by  ballot,  both  at  elections  and  in  the  chambers.  The 
number  of  deputies,  which  at  first  was  430,  was  afterwards  raised  to  459.  Each  deputy 
was  elected  for  5 years,  and  one  half  of  those  for  each  department  were  required  to  have 
their  political  domicile  within  it.  The  C.  became  a nullity  by  the  revolution  of  Feb., 
,1848;  and  by  the  new  constitution  promulgated  on  the  4th  of  Nov.  of  that  year,  the  mon- 
archy of  France  "was  converted  into  a democracy.  By  chapter  4 of  that  document,  the 
legislative  power  was  vested  in  a single  assembly  of  950  members,  including  the  repre 
sentatives  of  Algeria  and  the  other  colonies.  The  property  electoral  qualification  was 
abolished,  and  the  age  reduced  for  electors  to  21,  and  for  delegates  to  25.  The  period 
of  three  years  was  fixed  for  the  continuance  of  the  national  assembly.  By  chapter  5, 
the  executive  power  was  intrusted  to  a citizen,  who  was  to  bear  the  title  of  president. 
He  was  not  to  be  less  than  30  years  of  age,  his  tenure  of  office  was  to  be  4 years,  and  he 
was  not  to  be  re-eligible  until  after  an  interval  of  4 years.  For  an  account  of  the  subse- 
quent changes  by  which  these  and  the  other  arrangements  adopted  at  the  revolution  of 
1848  have  since  been  superseded,  see  Fkance. 

CHARTER  (Lat.  charta;  Gr.  chartes,  paper,  or  anything  written  upon,  from  charasso, 
to  scratch  or  write).  In  its  most  general  signification,  C.  is  nearly  synonymous  with 
deed  and  instrument,  and  is  applied  to  almost  an}’^  formal  writing,  in  evidence  of  a grant, 
contract,  or  other  transaction  between  man  and  man.  In  private  law,  its  most  impor- 
tant use  is  in  the  alienation  of  real  estates,  the  writing  given  to  the  new  proprietor  by  the 
old,  in  proof  of  the  transference  title,  being  usually  called  a charter.  In  public  law,  the 
name  is  given  to  those  formal  deeds  by  which  sovereigns  guarantee  the  rights  and  priv- 
ileges of  their  subjects,  or  by  which  a sovereign  state  guarantees  those  of  a colony  or 
other  dependency.  See  Charte,  Magna  Charta.  There  is  another  sense  of  the  term, 
in  which  it  is  in  a measure  intermediate  between  the  two  we  have  mentioned — viz., 
where  we  speak  of  the  C.  of  a bank  or  other  company  or  association.  In  this  latter  sense 
it  signifies  an  instrument  by  which  powers  and  privileges  are  conferred  by  the  state  on 
a select  body  of  persons  for  a special  object.  See  Bank,  Corporation,  Joint-stock 
Company,  etc.  The  requisites  of  a C.,  when  used  in  the  first  of  these  significations, 
according  to  the  law  of  England,  will  be  pointed  out  under  Deed. 

Royal  Charters,  generally  written  in  Latin,  are  of  two  kinds:  I.  Grants  of  lands, 
houses,  honors,  or  liberties  to  persons  who  did  not  previously  possess  them ; II.  Char 
ters  confirming  grants  previously  made,  and  therefore  called  “charters  of  confirma- 
tion.” Confirmation  charters  are  of  three  kinds:  1.  Charters  confirming  previous  grants, 
without  reciting  them;  2.  Charters  of  simple  confirmation,  without  addition  of  any- 
thing new;  3.  Charters  reciting  previous  charters  and  confirming  them,  with  addition  of 
something  mew.  These  last  two  classes  of  charters  are  called  charters  of  “ inspeximus,” 
or  “vidimus,”  from  the  word  used  by  the  granter  in  saying  that  he  has  seen  the  C. 
which  he  confirms.  Royal  charters  generally  contain  seven  clauses:  1.  The  “ premises,  ’ 


Charter 

Chartism. 


714 


i.e.,  the  name  and  style  of  the  granter,  the  persons  to  whom  the  C.  is  addressed,  the 
name  and  style  of  the  grantee,  the  reason  why  the  grant  is  made,  and  the  description  of 
the  thing  granted,  2.  The  “ tenendum  and  habendum,”  i.e.,  the  way  in  which  the 
thing  granted -was  to  be  held  and  had;  3,  The  “reddendo,”  the  return  of  rent  or 
service  which  was  to  be  made  to  the  granter  by  the  grantee;  4.  The  “quare  voluinus,” 
or  order  that  the  grantee  should  have  the  thing  granted,  under  certain  penalties;  5. 
The  “sealing”  or  “signature”  clause,  setting  forth  the  seal,  signature,  or  subscription 
by  which  tiie  U.  was  authenticated;  6.  The  “ hiis  testibus,”or  testing-clause,  enumerat- 
ing the  persons  who  were  present  as  witnesses  when  the  C.  was  granted;  7.  The  “date,” 
setting  forth  the  time  when,  and  the  place  where,  the  C.  was  granted. 

Ch.vrteh,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  the  written  evidence  of  a grant  of  heritable 
property,  under  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  feudal  law — viz.,  that  the  grantee,  or 
person  obtaining,  shall  pay  at  stated  periods  a sum  of  money,  or  perfoini  certain 
services  to  the  granter,  or  person  conferring  the  property.  A C.  must  be  in  the  form  of 
a written  deed.  The  granter  of  a C.,  in  virtue  of  the  power  which  he  thus  retains  over 
the  property  and  its  proprietor,  is  called  the  superior;  and  the  grantee,  in  consequence 
of  the  services  which  he  undertakes  to  render,  the  vassal;  whilst  the  stipulated  sum  to 
be  paid  or  service  to  be  rendered,  is  called  the  duty. 

Charters  are  either  blench  or  feu,  from  the  nature  of  the  service  stipulated — a me  or 
de  me,  from  the  kind  of  holding  or  relation  between  the  granter  and  grantee;  and 
original  or  by  progress,  from  being  first,  or  renewed,  grants  of  the  subjects  in  question. 

Bleach  aad  Fea  Charters. — The  duty  which  the  superior  required  of  his  vassal  in 
former  times  was  almost  always  military  service,  and  the  vassal  was  then  technically 
said  “ to  hold  ward” — to  hojd  on  condition  of  warding  or  defending  his  superior.  But 
subsequent  to  the  rebellion  of  1745,  in  w hich  the  dangerous  tendencies  of  the  feudal 
relation  were  experienced,  this  holding  was  abolished  (20  Geo.  111.  c.  50),  and  the  only 
duties  which  it  has  since  been  lawful  to  insert  in  C.  are  blench  and  feu  duties.  The  former 
is  a merely  nominal  payment — a penny  Scots,  a red  rose,  or  the  like,  sipetatur  tantum 
(should  it  be  asked);  the  latter  is  a consideration  of  some  real  value.  Original  blench 
C.  having  lost  all  object,  and  having  no  other  effect  but  that  of  subjecting  superiors  to 
considerable  expense  in  keeping  up  their  titles,  have  become  rare  in  modern  practice.  The 
forms  of  charters  varying  according  to  the  circumstances  in  which  they  are  granted, 
and  the  relations  established  between  the  granter  and  grantee,  are  of  too  technical  a nature 
to  admit  of  explanation  in  this  work.  They  will  be  found  very  clearly  and  shortly 
stated  in  Bell’s  Laio  Dictionary,  voce  “Charter.” 

CHARTER-HOTISE  (a  corruption  of  Chartreuse,  i.e.,  Carthusian)  is  a hospital, 
chapel,  and  school-house,  in  London,  instituted  in  1611  by  sir  Thomas  of  Sutton,  Camps 
castle,  in  the  co.  of  Cambridge.  It  had  originally  been  a Carthusian  monastery  (founded 
in  1371  by  a sir  Walter  Mauny  and  the  bishop  of  Sudbury),  but  on  the  dissolution  of 
monastic  establishments  by  Henry  VIII.,  it  wms  made  a place  of  deposit  for  his  nets 
and  pavilions.  After  undergoing  many  alterations,  and  passing  into  the  possession  of 
various  distinguished  persons,  it  was  finally  purchased  from  lord  Suffolk,  for  £13,000, 
by  sir  Thomas  Sutton,  who  endowed  it  with  the  revenues  of  upwards  of  20  manors* 
lordships,  and  other  estates,  in  various  parts  of  England.  This  “masterpiece  of  Prot- 
estant English  charity,”  as  old  Fuller  calls  it,  serves  three  uses — it  is  an  asylum  for  poor 
brethren,  an  educational  and  a religious  institution;  hence  Bacon  terms  it  a “triple 
good.”  The  poor  brethren  are  80  in  number.  None  are  admitted  under  50 years  of  age, 
and  only  those  who  have  been  housekeepers  are  eligible.  Each  brother  has  a separate 
apartment,  a share  of  attendance  from  domestics,  an  ample,  though  plain  diet,  and  an 
allowance  of  about  £26  a year  for  clothes  and  other  matters,  and  four  weeks’  holiday 
every  autumn.  The  brethren  must  be  bachelors  and  members  of  the  church  of  England. 
Among  the  poor  brethren  in  by -gone  years  were  Elkanah  Settle,  the  antagonist  of  Dryden ; 
John  Bagford,  the  antiquary;  Isaac  de  Groot,  a descendant  of  Grotius;  and  Alexander 
Macbean,  who  assisted  Johnson  in  the  preparation  of  his  dictionary.  The  scholars  are  44 
in  number,  admissible  between  the  ages  of  10  and  14.  They  are  understood  to  be  “the 
sons  of  poor  gentlemen  to  whom  the  charge  of  education  is  too  onerous;”  as  in  the  case 
of  XhQpoor  brethren,  it  is  not  always  the  proper  parties  who  are  chosen.  There  are  exhi- 
bitions, scholarships,  and  medals  competed  for  at  certain  limes  by  the  scholars.  In  addition 
to  the  scholars  properly  so  called,  i.e.,  such  as  receive  a free  board  and  education,  a large 
number  of  youths  are  sent  to  the  charter-house  school  because  of  its  reputation.  These 
either  board  with  the  masters,  or  simply  attend  during  the  day.  The  number  of  extra 
boarders  is  nearly  double  that  of  the  scholars.  The  institution  is  under  the  direction  of 
the  queen,  15  governors,  selected  from  great  officers  of  the  state,  and  master  himself, 
whose  salary  from  the  foundation  is  £800  per  annum.  Among  the  eminent  individuals 
educated  in  this  establishment,  are  Dr.  Barrow,  Judge  Blackstone,  Addison,  Steele, 
John  Wesley,  bishop  Thirl  wall,  George  Grote,  W.  M.  Thackeray,  and  sir  Charles  East- 
lake. 

The  charter-house,  which  is  situated  at  the  upper  end  of  Aldersgate  street,  is  a 
quaint  old  building,  interesting,  though  not  very  beautiful.  The  chapel  contains  Sut- 
ton’s tomb,  which  was  opened  in  1842,  wdieu  the  body  of  the  founder  was  discovered 
m a coffin  of  lead  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  body,  like  an  Egyptian  mummy-case. 


715 


Charter. 

Chartism* 


CHARTER  OAK,  a famous  tree  that  stood  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  until  blown  down 
by  a storm,  in  Aug.,  1856.  Its  name  was  given  because  when  sir  Edmund  Andros,  gov- 
ernor of  New  England  and  New  York,  came  to  Hartford  in  1687,  by  the  order  of  James  II., 
to  demand  the  colonial  charter,  that  document  was  hidden  in  a hollow  of  the  tree  by 
capt.  James  Wadsworth,  and  thus  preserved.  Though  some  writers  have  cast  doubt  on 
this  interesting  tradition,  it  is  generally  accepted  by  historians. 

CHAKTER-PARTY  (Fr.  chartre-partie,  so  called  from  such  documents  being  at  one 
lime  divided — in  Yv.  parti — and  one  half  given  to  each  party  concerned),  the  title  given 
to  a contract  in  which  the  owner,  or  master  of  a ship,  with  consent  of  the  owner,  lets  the 
vessel,  or  a portion  of  her,  to  a second  party,  for  the  conveyance  of  goods  from  one  port 
to  another  port ; hence  the  vessel  is  said  to  be  chartered.  The  document  must  be  stamped. 
It  must  specify  the  voyage  to  be  performed,  and  the  terms  on  which  the  cargo  is  to  be 
carried.  On  the  part  of  the  ship,  it  is  covenanted  that  she  shall  be  seaworthy;  well- 
found  in  rigging,  furniture,  and  provisions;  and  that  the  crew  be  suitable  in  number 
and  competency;  that  she  shall  be  ready  to  receive  the  cargo  on  a given  day,  wait  its 
complete  delivery  for  a certain  period ; and  sail  for  the  stipulated  port  when  laden,  if 
the  weather  for  the  time  permits.  The  freighter’s  portion  of  the  contract  obliges  him 
to  load  and  unload  at  suitable  periods,  under  specified  penalties,  and  to  pay  the  freight 
as  agreed  on.  The  master  must  not  take  on  board  any  contraband  goods,  or  otherwise 
render  the  vessel  liable  to  seizure.  The  owner  is  not  responsible  for  losses  caused  by 
w^ar,  fire,  or  shipwreck,  unless  arising  from  negligence  of  the  master  or  crew. 

CII  ARTIER,  Alain,  the  most  distinguished  man  of  letters  in  France  in  the  15th  c., 
supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1380.  After  studying  at  the  university  of  Paris,  he  is 
supposed  to  have  entered  the  service  of  Charles  VI.,  and  after  that  to  have  followed  the 
fortunes  of  Charles  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Charles  VII.  The  lot  of  C.  was  cast  in 
troubled  times;  he  felt  the  agony  of  Agincourt,  and  saw  the  rise  of  the  maid  of  Orleans. 
The  story  of  the  famous  kiss  bestowed  by  Margaret  of  Scotland,  wife  of  that  Louis  the 
dauphin  who  was  afterwards  to  be  known  as  Louis  XL,  “on  that  precious  mouth  from 
which  has  issued  so  many  witticisms  and  virtuous  sentences,”  is  interesting  if  only  as  a 
proof  of  the  high  degree  of  estimation  in  which  the  ugliest  man  of  his  day  was  held. 
His  best  works  are  said  to  be  LeLivredes  Quartre  Dames,  which  was  called  forth  by  the 
battle  of  Agincourt,  and  Le  Quadriloque-Invectif,  a patriotic  dialogue. 

CHARTISM,  a movement  in  Great  Britain  for  the  extension  of  political  power  to  the 
great  body  of  the  people,  arising  in  a great  measure  out  of  wide-spread  national  distress 
and  popular  disappointment  at  the  results  of  the  reform  bill.  Prior  to  1831,  the  middle 
classes  had  sought  popular  aid  towards  obtaining  their  owm  enfranchisement.  The 
assistance  was  given,  the  people  expecting  to  receive  help  in  their  turn.  After  the  pass- 
ing of  the  reform  bill,  agitation  ceased  for  a time,  and  the  members  returned  to  parlia- 
ment w^ere  indifferent,  or  opposed,  to  any  further  change  in  the  political  arrangements 
of  the  country.  The  middle  classes  were  satisfied  witli  their  own  success,  and  generally 
looked  with  small  favor  on  projects  for  the  further  extension  of  political  influence  among 
the  masses.  A season  of  commercial  depression  set  in  about  1835,  and  failing  harvests 
for  several  years  terribly  increased  the  sufferings  of  the  people.  Food  became  dear, 
wages  fell,  manufactories  w’ere  closed,  work  became  scarce.  The  people  associated  their 
sufferings  with  their  want  of  direct  influence  upon  the  government,  and  agitation  for  an 
extended  franchise  began.  In  1838,  a committee  of  6 members  of  parliament  and  6 
working-men  prepared  a bill,  embodying  their  views  as  to  what  were  just  demands  on 
the  part  of  the  people.  This  was  the  “people’s  charter.”  It  claimed — 1.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  right  of  voting  to  every  (male)  native  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  every  nat- 
uralized foreigner  resident  in  the  kingdom  for  more  than  two  years,  who  should  be  21 
years  of  age,  of  sound  mind,  and  unconvicted  of  crime;  2.  Equal  electoral  districts;  3. 
Vote  by  ballot;  4.  Annual  parliaments;  5.  No  property  qualification  for  members;  and 
6.  Payment  of  members  of  parliament  for  their  services.  This  programme  was  received 
with  enthusiasm.  Immense  meetings  were  held  all  over  the  country,  many  of  them 
being  attended  by  two  or  three  hundred  thousand  people.  Fiery  orators  fanned  the 
popular  excitement,  and  under  the  guidance  of  the  extreme  party  among  their  leaders, 
physical  force  was  soon  spoken  of  as  the  only  means  of  obtaining  justice.  The  more 
moderate  and  thoughtful  of  the  chartists  were  overruled  by  the  fanatical  and  turbulent 
spirits,  and  the  people,  already  aroused  by  suffering,  were  easily  wrought  into  frenzy 
by  those  who  assumed  the  direction  of  their  movements.  In  the  autumn  of  1838,  torch- 
light meetings  began  to  be  held.  The  danger  of  these  meetings  was  obvious,  and  they 
were  at  once  proclaimed  illegal.  Some  of  the  more  prominent  leaders  were  arrested, 
amid  intense  popular  excitement,  and  subjected  to  various  terms  of  imprisonment.  A 
body  calling  itself  the  national  convention,  elected  by  the  chartists  throughout  the 
kingdom,  commenced  sitting  in  Birmingham  in  May,  1839.  It  proposed  to  the  people 
varous  means  of  coercing  the  legislature  into  submission,  recommending,  among  other 
things,  a run  on  the  savings-banks  for  gold,  abstinence  from  excisable  articles,  exclusive 
dealing,  and  in  the  last  resort,  universal  cessation  from  labor.  During  its  sittings,  a 
collision  took  place  with  the  military  in  Birmingham.  Public  meetings  were  forbidden, 
and  alarming  excesses  were  committed  by  the  irritated  mob.  In  June,  1839,  a petition 
in  favor  of  the  charter  was  presented  to  the  house  of  commons,  signed  by  1,280,000  per- 


Chartres. 

Chase. 


716 


sons.  The  house  refused  to  name  a day  for  its  consid^ation  and  the  national  conven- 
tion retaliated  by  advising  the  people  to  cease  from  work  throughout  the  country.  For- 
tunately, this  advice  was  not  followed,  but  the  disturbance  in  the  public  mind  increased, 
and  in  Nov,,  an  outbreak  at  Newport  took  place,  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  10 
persons  and  the  wounding  of  great  numbers.  For  taking  part  in  this  wild  insurrection, 
three  of  its  leaders  were  sentenced  to  death,  but  their  punishment  was  afterwards  com- 
muted to  transportation.  In  1842,  great  riots  took  place  in  the  northern  and  midland 
districts,  not  directly  caused  by  the  chartists,  but  encouraged  and  aided  by  them  after 
the  disturbances  began.  In  the  same  year,  an  attempt  was  made  by  Joseph  Sturge  to 
unite  all  friends  of  popular  enfranchisement  in  a complete  suffrage  union,  but  he  only 
succeeded  in  dividing  their  ranks.  In  1848,  the  turmoil  in  France  created  great  excite- 
ment in  England,  and  much  anxiety  was  felt  lest  an  armed  attempt  should  be  made  to 
subvert  the  institutions  of  the  country.  Two  hundred  thousand  special  constable  swere 
enrolled  in  London  alone.  There  were  several  local  outbreaks,  and  much  real  danger, 
but  the  attempts  at  disorder  were  efficiently  met,  and,  as  usual,  the  only  result  was  the 
punishment  of  the  more  prominent  men,  and  the  postponement  of  the  desired  reforms. 

Since  1848,  C.  has  gradually  died  out.  Its  principles  were  not  new.  The  duke  of 
Richmond,  in  1780,  introduced  a bill  into  the  house  of  lords  to  give  universal  suffrage 
and  annual  parliaments.  In  the  same  j'ear,  Charles  James  Fox  declared  himself  in  favor 
of  the  identical  six  points  which  were  afterwards  included  in  the  charter.  And  nearer 
our  own  time,  earl  Grey,  Mr.  Erskine,  sir  James  Mackintosh,  and  many  others,  formed 
a “society  of  friends  of  the  people,”  which  aimed  at  obtaining  a very  large  extension 
of  the  suffrage. 

The  great  body  of  chartists  were,  however,  not  so  much  actuated  by  the  w^eight  of 
precedent  or  argument,  as  impelled  by  the  pressure  of  actual  want,  and  an  indefinite- 
feeling  that  the  laws  were  somehow  to  blame  for  not  providing  them  with  the  means  of 
comfortable  subsistence.  But  there  were  many  among  them  who  had  studied  the  prin- 
ciples involved  in  their  demands,  and  maintained  them  from  an  intelligent  conviction  of 
their  truth.  These  men  declared  that  all  persons  had  an  equal  natural  right  to  share  in 
determining  the  laws  under  which  they  lived ; and  further,  that  as  they  were  required 
to  contribute  to  the  taxation  of  the  country,  they  were  justly  entitled  to  be  heard  as  to 
the  application  of  the  public  funds.  Taxation  and  obedience  being  universal,  represen- 
tation ought  to  be  so.  This  view  being  conceded,  all  the  other  points  of  the  charter 
naturally  followed,  they  being  merely  arrangements  for  securing  the  free  action  of  the 
right  contended  for.  Some  of  the  chartist  advocates  went  far  beyond  this.  There  were 
those  among  them  whose  aims  included  little  less  than  the  reorganization  of  society.  One 
of  the  ablest  advocates  of  the  cause  wrote  in  favor  of  nationalizing  the  land,  and  remod- 
eling the  currency;  he  also  proposed  a system  of  state  loans  for  the  assistance  of  laborers 
who  desired  to  become  capitalists,  and  national  marts  for  the  exchange  of  wealth  on 
terms  of  equity  and  justice.  Pressed  a little  further,  these  views  w^ould  have  developed 
into  communism;  but  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  most  chartists  held  so  strongly  the  doc- 
trine of  individual  rights,  that  they  were  not  likely  to  subordinate  man  to  society.  See- 
Communism,  Socialism.  The  object  aimed  at  by  the  majority  was  merely  the  extension 
of  the  franchise  to  the  masses,  in  the  belief  that  they  would  use  it  wisely  and  honestly, 
and  put  an  end  to  what  they  considered  the  selfish  and  interested  rule  of  classes  who 
had  long  monopolized  the  control  of  the  state.  The  opponents  of  C.  answered,  that  if 
the  question  was  argued  as  one  of  right,  it  would  go  far  beyond  the  conclusions  which 
the  chartists  had  reached.  The  right  appertained  to  women  as  well  as  to  men,  and 
there  was  no  just  reason  why  sane  persons  under  21  should  be  deprived  of  it.  It  would 
also,  they  maintained,  give  all  power  to  the  most  ignorant  classes  of  the  community, 
and  thus  subject  intelligence  to  brute  force.  Government  existed  for  the  benefit  of 
society,  and  ought,  as  far  as  possible,  to  depend  on  the  wisdom,  and  not  on  the  mere 
number  of  the  people.  Then  if  representation  depended  upon  taxation,  it  should  vary 
in  proportion  to  the  taxes  paid.  Finally,  they  denied  that  men  as  such  had  a right  to 
vote;  their  right  was  to  be  well  governed,  and  universal  suffrage  was  more  likely  to 
destroy  society  tnan  to  confer  happiness  or  insure  justice. 

The  cause  which  put  an  end  to  C.  as  an  organization  was  undoubtedly  the  improve- 
ment in  the  circumstances  of  the  people  which  followed  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws. 
Since  then,  the  chief  points  of  the  charter  have  actually  become  law.  A property  quali- 
fication is  no  longer  necessary  in  a representative;  the  reform  acts  of  1867-68  have  vir- 
tually established  manhood  suffrage;  and  the  act  of  1872  gave  vote  by  ballot.  The  efforts 
of  the  majority  of  those  who  live  by  manual  labor  are  now  directed  towards  securing, 
by  trades-unions  and  other  means,  a larger  share  than  formerly  in  the  profits  of  industry. 

CHAETBES,  a city  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Eure-et-Loir,  47  m.  s.w.  of  Paris, 
is  built  partly  at  the  base  and  partly  on  the  declivity  of  a hill  overlooking  the  river  Eure, 
which  is  here  divided  into  two  channels,  one  flowing  within,  and  the  other  without  the 
ramparts,  which  are  converted  into  agreeable  promenades.  C.  consists  of  an  upper  and 
lower  town,  connected  by  streets  almost  inaccessible  to  carriages.  The  upper  town  has 
some  good  streets,  but  the  lower  is  ill  built.  The  houses  are  old,  and  many  of  them 
composed  of  wood,  with  their  gables  to  the  street.  The  cathedral,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  imposing  ecclesiastical  structures  in  Europe,  with  its  lofty  spires,  one  of  them  tow- 


7-17 


Chartres. 

Chase. 


ering  to  a height  of  more  than  400  ft,,  crowns  the  top  of  the  hill.  It  has  no  less  than 
130  painted-glass  windows,  the  workmanship  of  which  is  unsurpassed,  if  indeed  equaled 
elsewhere  in  France.  The  church  of  St.  Pierre,  and  the  obelisk  to  the  memory  of  gen. 
Marceau,  are  also  objects  of  interest.  The  weekly  corn-market  of  C.  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  France,  and  is  remarkable  as  being  under  a corporation  of  women,  who  contrive  to 
get  through  all  the  business  most  satisfactorily  in  less  than  an  hour.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  woolen,  hosiery,  and  leather.  Pop,  ’76,  20,067. 

C,  is  a very  ancient  city.  Under  the  Roman  rule  it  was  called  Autricum,  and  remains 
of  Roman  antiquity  are  still  found, 

CHARTRES,  Robert  Philippe  Louis  Eugene  Ferdinand  d’Orleans,  Due  de,  b. 
1840;  the  youngest  son  of  the  late  duke  of  Orleans,  and  grandson  of  Louis  Philippe. 
His  father  died  when  he  was  but  two  years  old,  and  when  he  was  eight  the  revolution 
drove  him  into  exile.  He  was  cared  for  at  Eisenach,  in  Germany,  but  soon  afterwards 
joined  his  family,  who  were  in  England.  In  1860,  he  traveled  in  the  east,  and  in  1861 
came  to  the  United  States  with  his  elder  brother,  the  count  of  Paris.  Both  of  them 
served  for  a time  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion  on  gen.  McClellan’s  staff;  but  they  went  to 
England  in  the  summer  of  1862.  In  June,  1863,  Robert  married  his  cousin  Fran9ois 
Marie  Amelie  d’Orleans,  by  whom  he  has  five  children.  After  the  revolution  of  Sept., 
1870,  he  returned  incognito  to  France,  and  served  in  gen.  Chanzy’s  army;  and  in  1871, 
after  the  repeal  of  the  act  banishing  the  Orleans  family,  he  was  appointed  a maj.  in  the 
army  and  served  in  Algeria.  He  has  published  his  travels,  and  his  father’s  posthumous 
work  on  the  campaigns  of  the  French  army  in  Africa  in  1835  and  1839. 

CHARTREUSE,  La  Grande,  a celebrated  monastery  in  France,  in  the  department  of 
Is^re,  situated  13  m.  n.n.e.  of  Grenoble,  in  the  wild  and  romantic  valley  of  the  Guiers, 
nearly  4,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  surrounded  by  the  mountain-forests  of  the  Alps; 
and  the  route  to  it,  through  a mountain-gorge,  down  which  a rapid  river  dasher  far 
below  the  traveler,  while  above  him  rise  precipitous  and  foliage-lined  rocks,  some  hun- 
dreds of  feet  in  height,  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque.  The  convent  is  a huge  ungainly 
structure,  dating  mostly  from  the  17th  c.,  earlier  buildings  having  been  destroyed  sev- 
eral times  by  fire.  The  convent  owes  its  origin  to  St.  Bruno,  who  settled  a little  higher 
up  the  mountain  in  1084,  giving  the  name  of  the  place,  C.,  to  his  order.  The  monks 
had  at  one  time  considerable  property,  but  they  were  despoiled  at  the  revolution  of  1789. 

CHARTULARY  (Lat.  chartularia,  cJiartologia)  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a collection  of 
charters.  So  soon  as  any  body,  ecclesiastical  or  secular,  came  to  be  possessed  of  a con 
siderable  number  of  charters,  obvious  considerations  of  convenience  and  safety  would 
suggest  the  advantage  of  having  them  classified  and  copied  into  a book  or  roll.  Such 
book  or  roll  has  generally  received  the  name  of  a chartulary.  Mabillon  traces  char- 
tularies  in  France  as  far  back  as  the  10th  c,,  and  some  antiquaries  think  that  chartu- 
laries  were  compiled  even  still  earlier.  But  it  was  not  until  the  12th  and  13th  centuries 
that  chartularies  became  common.  They  -were  kept  not  only  by  all  kinds  of  religious 
and  civil  corporations,  but  even  by  private  families.  Many  of  them  have  been  printed, 
and  their  contents  generally  are  of  the  greatest  value  in  all  historical,  archaeological,  and 
genealogical  inquiries. 

CHARYBDIS.  See  Scylla  and^Charybdis. 

CHASCHISH.  See  Hemp,  Indian. 

CHASE.  When  one  vessel  is  pursuing  another  at  sea,  the  pursued  vessel  is  often 
called  the  chase^  and  the  pursuer  the  chaser.  The  maneuver  also  gives  name  to  certain 
guns  on  board  ship:  bow-chaser  being  a gun  pointing  ahead,  and  a stern-chaser  pointing 

astern. 

CHASE,  in  a gun,  is  the  name  given  to  the  greater  portion  of  the  length  between  the 
muzzle  and  the  trunnions. 

CHASE,  a CO.  in  e.  central  Kansas,  on  the  Neosho  river  and  its  affluents,  inter- 
‘^ected  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  railroad;  757  sq.m. ; pop.  '80,  6081.  It  is 
an  agricultural  region.  Co.  seat.  Cottonwood  Falls. 

CHASE,  Irah,  d.d.  ; 1793-1864;  educated  at  Middlebury  college  and  Andover  theo- 
logical seniinary,  and  ordained  in  1817.  He  labored  for  a^time  as  a Baptist  missionary 
in  West  Virginia,  and  in  1818  became  professor  in  a theological  school  in  Philadelphia. 
The  school  was  transferred  to  Washington,  and  he  remained  in  his  professorship  seven 
years.  In  1825,  he  aided  in  establishing  a theological  school  at  Newton  Center,  Mass., 
m which  he  was  a professor  for  nearly  20  years.  In  1830,  he  assisted  in  founding  the 
Baptist  mission  in  Prance.  Among  his  works  are  The  Life  of  John  Banyan;  The  Design 
of  Baptism;  The  Work  Claiming  to  be  the  Constitution  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  reused  from  the 
Greek;  Infant  Baptism  an  Invention  of  Man;  and  many  sermons  and  essays. 

CHASE,  Philander,  D.D.,  1775-1852;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1795,  and  ordained 
to  the  ministry  of  the  Episcopal  church  in  1798.  He  labored  as  a missionary  in  western 
New  York,  and  in  1811  became  rector  of  Christ  church  in  Hartford,  Conn.  In  1817,  he 
went  to  Ohio,  where,  two  years  afterward,  he  was  chosen  bishop.  A few  years  later  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  Kenyon  college  and  Gambler  theological  seminary.  In  1835,  he 
became  bishop  of  Illinois,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  founding  Jubilee  college,  at 


Chase. 

Chassepot. 


718 


Robin’s  Nest,  where  he  died.  Among  his  works  are  A Pleafoi'  the  West;  2 he  Star  in  the 
West,  or  Kenyon  College-,  Reminiscences,  etc. 

CHASE,  Salmon  Portland,  1808-73;  b.  N.  H.  He  was  the  son  of  a farmer, 
and  a nephew  of  bishop  Chase,  who  supervised  his  earlier  education.  Graduating 
from  Dartmouth  college  in  1826,  he  opened  a school  for  boys  at  the  national  capi- 
tal, and  in  1830  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  where  almost  his  earliest  work  was  the 
preparation  of  an  edition  of  the  statutes  of  Ohio  with  annotations,  and  a sketch  of  the 
history  of  the  state.  This  assisted  him  in  gaining  practice,  and  in  1834  he  was  appointed 
solicitor  in  Cincinnati  for  the  bank  of  the  United  states.  His  first  effort  in  a cause  touch- 
ing slavery  was  in  defense  of  a colored  woman  claimed  as  a fugitive.  He  maintained 
that  the  fugitive  slave  law  of  1793  was  void,  because  unwarranted  by  the  federal  consti- 
tution. In  the  same  year  he  defended  James  G.  Birney  (subsequently  the  candidate  of 
the  abolitionists  for  president),  who  had  been  prosecuted  under  the  state  law  for  harbor- 
ing a slave.  In  this  case  he  argued  that  slavery  was  a local  institution,  and  that  as  the 
slave  had  been  brought  into  a free  state  by  his  master,  he  was  in  fact  free.  In 
1846,  in  the  Van  Zandt  case  before  the  U.  S.  supreme  court,  he  took  the  ground  that 
under  the  ordinance  of  1787  no  fugitive  from  service  could  be  reclaimed  from  Ohio 
unless  he  had  escaped  from  one  of  the  original  states;  that  it  was  the  understanding  of 
the  makers  of  the  constitution  that  slavery  was  to  be  left  to  the  disposal  of  the  several 
states,,  without  sanction  or  support  from  the  federal  government;  and  that  the  clause  in 
the  constitution  relating  to  persons  held  to  service  was  a compact  between  the  states, 
conferring  no  power  of  legislation  on  congress,  and  was  never  intended  to  confer  such 
power.  In  1841,  he  was  prominent  in  the  organization  of  the  liberty  party  of  Ohio, 
which  nominated  him  for  governor.  In  the  national  liberty  convention  at  Buffalo  in 
1843,  and  in  subsequent  conventions  until  the  nomination  (in  1848)  of  Martin  Van 
Buren  for  president,  C.  was  a leading  member,  and  in  most  cases  directed  the  proceed- 
ings. In  Feb.,  1849,  he  was  chosen  U.  S.  senator  from  Ohio,  his  vote  coming  from  all 
the  democrats  and  a few  freesoil  members.  He  acted  generally  with  the  democrats 
until  the  nomination  (in  1852)  of  Pierce  on  a strongly  pro-slavery  platform,  when  he 
withdrew  and  undertook  the  formation  of  an  independent  democratic  party.  The  debate 
on  the  Nebraska  bill  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  oppose  the  famous  compromise,  to 
which  he  moved  an  amendment  looking  to  the  exclusion  of  slavery  from  all  the  territories; 
but  it  was  not  adopted.  Through  all  the  contest  for  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise 
and  the  Kansas  debate,  he  was  foremost  in  opposition  to  slavery  extension.  In  the  mean 
time,  he  was  heard  on  other  important  subjects.  He  favored  internal  improvements 
by  the  general  government,  and  supported  the  free  homestead  movement,  and  cheap 
postage.  In  1855,  he  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio  by  the  votes  of  the  opponents  of  the 
Nebraska  bill,  and  he  was  re-elected  in  1857.  His  name  was  before  the  first  national 
convention  of  the  republican  party  (1856)  for  president,  but  w^as  withdrawn  at  his  own 
request.  He  was  named,  also,  in  the  convention  that  nominated  Lincoln,  but  was  not 
pressed.  In  1861,  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and  held  the  office  until 
July  30,  1864,  when  he  resigned.  In  this  position  the  arduous  duties  of  sustaining  the 
national  credit  in  the  struggle  with  the  rebellion  devolved  in  a great  degree  upon  him; 
and  he  proved  equal  to  the  occasion.  The  death  of  Roger  B.  Taney  in  Oct.,  1864, 
made  a vacancy  in  the  chair  of  the  chief  justice  of  the  U.  S.  supreme  court, 
which  was  immediately  filled  by  the  appointment  of  C.,  in  which  capacity  he  presided 
at  the  trial  on  the  impeachment  of  Andrew  Johnson  in  Mar.,  1868.  About  this  time, 
liis  dissatisfaction  with  the  course  of  the  republican  party  became  so  decided  as  to  throw 
his  influence  on  the  side  of  the  democrats,  at  whose  national  convention,  July,  1868,  he 
was  prominently,  though  unsuccessfully,  urged  as  a presidential  candidate.  In  1870,  he 
was  stricken  with  paralysis,  the  effects  of  which  lasted  until  his  death. 

CHASE,  Samuel,  1741-1811;  one  of  the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  American  inde- 
pendence; son  of  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  and  a lawyer  in  Annapolis,  Md.  He  was  one  of 
the  earliest  and  strongest  friends  of  colonial  liberty;  was  a member  of  the  continental 
congress  for  four  years,  and  in  1776  went  with  Charles  Carroll  and  others  on  the  fruit- 
less errand  to  induce  the  Canadians  to  join  in  the  rebellion  against  English  rule.  He 
filled  several  judicial  offices  in  Maryland,  and  in  1796  was  appointed  associate  justice  of 
the  U.  S.  supreme  court.  In  1804,  John  Randolph  brought  about  his  impeachment  for 
misdemeanor  in  the  conduct  of  political  trials,  but  he  was  found  not  guilty  on  trial  by 
the  U.  S.  senate.  He  remained  on  the  supreme  court  bench  until  his  death. 

CHASIDIM  (“  Pietists”).  This  name  anciently  denoted  a whole  class  of  Jewish  sects. 
After  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews,  with  regard  to  their  observance  of  the  law  of 
Moses,  were  divided  into  two  classes — Chasidim  and  Zadikim.  When  the  so-called 
great  synagogue  was  commissioned  by  the  Persian  government  to  draw  up  a code  of 
civil  and  religious  laws  for  the  emigrant  Jews  returning  to  settle  in  their  native  land, 
several  innovations  were  made  on  the  Mosaic  law.  Those  who  accepted  these  innovations 
were  styled  the  C. ; while  those  who  rejected  them  were  styled,  or  styled  themselves,  the 
Zadikim,  or  “upright,”  because  they  adhered  strictly  to  the  law  given  by  Moses,  with- 
out observing  any  of  the  additions  made  to  it.  The  C.  branched  forth  into  several  sects, 
all  holding  traditions  in  connection  with  the  written  law,  which  they  believed  to  possess 
a divine  sanction  equally  with  that  law.  The  Pharisees,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New 


719 


Chase. 

Cliassepot. 


Testament,  formed  an  early  sect  among  the  C.,  while  from  the  Zadikim  sprang  forth  the 
Hellenistic  Samaritans,  Essenes,  Sadducees,  etc.  Afterwards,  the  C.,  or  l^harisees, 
split  into  Talmudists,  Rabbinists,  and  Cabalists,  some  of  whom  underwent  still 
further  subdivision. — The  modern  C.  are  not,  like  tho.se  in  the  times  of  the  Maccabees, 
marked  by  any  peculiar  spiritualistic  tendency  in  religion,  but  rather  by  a strict  observ- 
ance of  certain  traditional  forms,  and  a blind  subservience  to  their  teachers.  Their 
doctrine  was  promulgated  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  c.  by  Israel  of  Podolia,  called  Baal- 
Shem  (“lord  of  the  name,"  so  called  because  he  professed  to  perform  miracles  by  using 
the  great  cabalistic  name  of  the  supreme  being).  Though  condemned  by  the  orthodox 
rabbis,  this  new  teacher  had  great  success  in  Galicia,  and  when  he  died  (1760)  left 
40,000  converts.  They  are  now  broken  into  several  petty  sects;  their  religion  is  utterly 
formal,  and  its  ceremonies  are  coarse  and  noisy. 

CHASING,  the  art  of  working  raised  or  half-raised  figures  in  gold,  silver,  bronze,  or 
other  metal.  It  was  called  cedatura  by  the  Romans;  and  the  term  is  expressly  limited 
by  Quintilian  to  working  in  metal.  The  same  art  when  exercised  on  wood,  ivory, 
marble,  precious  stones,  or  glass,  was  called  sculptura.  See  Carving.  Iron  was  some- 
times, though  rarely  used,  silver  having  been  always  the  favorite  metal  for  this  purpose. 
Closely  connected  with,  but  still  distinguished  from  C.,  is  the  art  of  stamping  with  the 
punch,  which  the  Romans  designated  by  excudere.  The  Greek  ioreutike  is  u.sually  sup- 
posed to  correspond  to  C.,  but  the  point  is  by  no  means  free  from  dispute.  The  art  was 
known  at  a very  early  period,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  shield  of  Achilles,  the  ark  of 
(3ypselus,  and  other  productions  of  the  kind.  Such  portions  of  the  colossal  statues 
made  by  Phidias  and  Polycletus,  as  were  not  of  ivory,  were  produced  by  the  toreutic 
art.  The  statue  of  Minerva  was  richly  adorned  in  this  manner.  Besides  Phidias  and 
Polycletus,  Myron,  Mys,  and  Mentor  were  celebrated  toreutic  artists  in  antiquity,  and 
amongst  many  moderns  the  most  famous  is  Benvenuto  Cellini  (q.v.). 

CHASLES,  Michel,  b.  1793;  a French  mathematician,  educated  at  the  Paris  poly- 
technic school.  In  1841,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geometry  in  that  institution. 
Among  numerous  essays  and  books  of  his  productions  are ; Historical  Views  of  the  Origin 
and  Development  of  Methods  in  Geometry;  History  of  Arithmetic;  and  Treatise  on  Superior 
Geometry.  In  1851,  he  became  a member  of  the  academy,  and  in  1867,  he  reported  to 
that  body  that  he  was  in  possession  of  27,000  letters  and  documents  of  great  antiquity 
and  value,  among  them  letters  and  papers  believed  to  have  been  written  by  Dante, 
Petrarch,  Rabelais,  Julius  Caesar,  Shakespeare,  and  other  persons  of  renown.  Only 
about  100  of  these  were  genuine,  though  they  completely  imposed  upon  C.  and  other 
good  judges.  The  forger,  Irene  Lucas,  was  imprisoned  two  years  for  forgery  and 
fraud. 

CHASLES,  Victor  Euphemion  PniLARkTE,  1798-1873;  a French  writer  who 
traveled  in  the  United  States  about  1820-23.  In  1837,  he  was  director  of  the  Mazarin 
library,  and  in  1841,  professor  of  German  language  and  literature  in  the  college  of 
France.  He  published  in  20  vols.  Comparative  Studies  of  Literature;  wrote  tales  and 
books  of  travel;  and  prepared  editions  of  classic  authors. 

CHASSE,  music  composed  in  imitation  of  the  chase,  and  performed  chiefly  by  horns, 
occasionally  combined  with  other  wind  instruments.  Its  movement  is  in  | time.  The 
best  specimens  of  this  kind  of  music  are  an  overture  by  Mehul,  and  a C.  for  the  piano- 
forte by  Kreutzer. 

CHASSE,  David  Hendrik,  Baron,  was  b.  in  Tiei,  Mar.  18, 1765,  began  his  military 
career  when  but  ten  years  of  age,  became  a lieut.  in  1781,  and  capt.  in  1787.  After 
the  revolution  of  that  year,  C.,  as  siding  with  the  humbled  Dutch  patriots,  took 
French  service;  was  appointed  lieut.col.  in  1793;  and,  two  years  later,  found  himself 
marching  towards  the  Netherlands  under  the  command  of  Pichegru.  He  afterwards 
fought  with  the  French  in  Germany  and  Spain,  gaining  great  distinction  and  the  appel- 
lation of  General  Bayonnette.  As  lieut.gen.  of  the  Dutch  forces  in  1815,  C.  added  to 
his  laurels  on  the  field  of  Waterloo.  After  the  peace  he  was  made  governor  of  Antwerp 
in  1830,  and  bravely  defended  it  against  the  united  Belgians  and  French  from  Nov.  29 
till  Dec.  23,  1832,  when  he  was  forced  to  surrender.  He  died  in  May,  1849. 

CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT,  Francois  de,  Marquis,  1754-1833;  a French  military 
engineer  who  conducted  the  works  at  Maestricht  in  1794,  at  Mentz  in  1795,  and  in  the 
Italian  campaigns  up  to  1812 ; when  he  w,as  appointed  senator.  Louis  XVIII.  made  him 
a marquis. 

CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT.  Justin  Napoleon  Samuel  Prosper  de.  Marquis,  1805- 
73;  in  1837,  a member  of  the  French  chamber  of  deputies  and  afterwards  councilor  of 
state.  In  1849,  he  was  again  a member,  and  then  and  afterwards  a supporter  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  who  made  him  minister  of  marine.  He  was  for  some  years  the  president  of 
the  colonial  board  of  Algeria.  In  1869,  he  presided  over  the  council  of  state  until  the 
accession  of  Ollivier’s  administration 

CHASSEPOT,  a breech-loading  rifle  invented  by  Antoine  Alphonse  Chassepot,  b. 
Mar,  4,  1833;  he  was  attached,  in  1858,  to  the  government  workshops  of  St.  Thomas  at 
Paris,  of  which  he  was  made  director  in  1864;  and  was  afterwards  officially  attached  to 
the  national  manufactory  of  arms  at  Chatellerault,  near  Poitiers.  He  took  out  patents 


C/hasseurs. 

Chateaubriand. 


720 


for  his  invention,  and  the  royalty  has  brought  him  a large  income.  He  was  decorated 
with  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1866.  The  first  model  of  the  C.  was  exhibited 
in  1863;  but  it  was  not  introduced  in  the  French  army  till  after  the  Prussians  had  proved 
the  etficiency  of  the  needle-gun  in  the  war  of  1866  against  Austria;  it  was  used  success- 
fully in  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870.  The  C.  is  an  improved  needle-gun;  the  ful- 
minate is  in  a paper  wad  which  forms  the  rear  of  the  cartridge  envelope;  the  gas  check 
is  a cylindrical  ring  of  vulcanized  India  rubber,  which  is  pressed  against  the  surface  of 
the  chamber  when  the  explosion  takes  place;  the  cartridge  envelope  is  of  silk  or  linen, 
with  a caliber  of  .433  inch.  The  gun  has  4 grooves,  and  can  be  fired  12  times  a minute 
at  a range  of  1200  yards.  An  improved  form  of  the  C.  has  been  recently  introduced  in 
France,  in  which  the  metallic  cartridge  can  be  used. 

CHASSEURS  (Fr.,  hunters)  is  a name  used  for  two  important  forces  in  the  French 
army.  The  mounted  C.  (chasseui's-d-cheval)  are  a body  of  light  cavalry,  designed  for  service 
in  advance  or  on  the  flanks  of  the  army,  and  correspond  most  nearly  to  the  light  horse  of 
the  British  service.  The  name  is  first  used  in  this  sense  in  1741,  and  has  been  retained 
while  the  force  it  denotes  has  undergone  many  alterations  in  organization  and  equip- 
ment. In  1831,  a body  of  cavalry  was  raised  for  service  in  Africa,  mounted  on  Arab 
horses,  and  with  a distinct  uniform.  These  have  since  become  famous  as  the  C. 
ct’Afrique.  After  the  reorganization  of  the  French  army  in  1873,  the  effective  army  con- 
tained 14  regiments  (subsequently  increased  to  20)  of  chasseur-^-cheval,  besides  4 regi- 
nientsof  C.d’Afrique. — The  infantry  C.{chasseurs-d-pied)are  a light  infantry  force  in  many 
respects  corresponding  with  the  cavalry  C.,  and  like  them  intended  for  detached  service 
(like  the  rifle  corps  in  the  English  army).  The  French  are  believed  to  have  adopted  the 
idea  of  such  a force  of  sharpshooters  from  the  Jdger  (the  German  word  corresponding 
to  C.  or  hunters)  in  the  German  armies.  First  used  in  the  thirty  years’  war,  the  Jager 
derived  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  were  chiefly  drafted  from  amongst  moun- 
taineers and  inhabitants  of  forest  regions.  They  have  always  been  regarded  as  a 
valuable  contingent  in  the  Prussian  and  Austrian  armies,  or  even  constitute  the  entire 
force  of  light  infantry.  In  the  German  army,  there  are  26  battalions  (near  15,000 
men)  of  this  force;  in  the  Austrian  service;  upwards  of  20,000  officers  and  men.  In 
France,  the  equipment  of  the  C.  differed  little  from  that  of  the  other  infantry;  it  was 
not  until  the  formation,  in  1838,  of  the  G.  de  Vincennes,  that  the  experiment  of  a 
specially  armed  force  of  sharpshooters  was  fairly  tried.  The  fame  of  the  C.  de  Vin- 
cennes for  rapidity  and  precision  of  movement,  as  well  as  for  the  accuracy  of  their 
fire,  soon  vindicated  the  importance  of  this  branch  of  the  infantry;  and  at  present 
there  are  30  battalions  of  chasseurs-a-pied  in  the  French  army. 

CHASTELAIN,  Georges,  1403-75;  in  the  service  of  Philip  the  good  of  Burgundy, 
at  whose  request  he  compiled  the  Grande  Chronique,  or  history.  Of  their  work,  which 
was  to  have  filled  six  volume.'s,  only  two  fragments  of  importance  are  known  to  exist — 
the  first  extending  from  1419  to  1422;  the  second,  with  large  breaks  in  the  text,  from 
1461  to  1474. 

CHASTELARD,  Pierre  Boscobel  de,  1540-63;  a French  poet,  a scion  of  the  house 
of  Bayard.  The  name  of  Chastelard  is  romantically  connected  with  that  of  Mary  queen 
of  Scots.  He  was  a page  in  the  house  of  marshal  Danville,  whom  he  accompanied  in 
his  journey  to  Scotland  as  escort  of  Mary  in  1561.  C.  returned  to  Paris  in  the 
marshal’s  tram,  but  left  almost  immediately  for  Scotland  bearing  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion to  Mary  from  Montmorency,  and  also  the  “regrets”  addressed  to  the  queen  by 
Pierre  Ronsard.  C.’s  master  in  the  art  of  song.  The  enthusiastic  page  fell  in  love  with 
the  queen,  who  is  said  to  have  encouraged  his  passion.  Copies  of  verses  passed  between 
them,  and  she  lost  no  occasion  of  showing  herself  partial  to  his  person  and  conversa- 
tion. The  young  man  hid  under  her  bed,  where  he  was  found  by  the  maids  of  honor; 
but  Mary  pardoned  the  offense,  and  the  old  familiarity  between  them  was  resumed. 
Again  C.  was  so  rash  as  to  violate  her  privacy;  but  he  was  discovered,  seized,  sen- 
tenced, and  hanged  the  next  morning.  He  met  his  fate  consistently,  reading,  on  his 
way  to  the  scaffold,  Ronsard’s  “ Hymn  to  Death;”  and  turning  at  the  moment  of  doom 
towards  Holy  rood,  addressing  to  his  unseen  mistress  the  famous  farewell;  “Adieu! 
thou  so  fair  and  so  cruel;  thou  killest  me,  and  yet  I cannot  cease  to  love  thee!”‘ 
Another  story  is  that  he  simply  ejaculated  “ Cruel  queen!”  emphasizing  the  words  by  a 
threatening  gesture. 

CHASTELER,  Jeax  Gabriel  Joseph  Albert,  Marquis  de,  1763-1825.  He  was 
in  the  Austrian  service  as  a general  officer,  and  “served  in  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  suc- 
cession, and  in  the  war  against  the  Turks.  He  defended  Namur  against  the  French, 
participated  in  the  third  partition  of  Poland,  and  was  sent  to  Russia  to  engage  the 
emperor  Paul  in  a coalition  against  France.  In  1799,  he  was  in  the  Russo-Austrian 
army,  and  was  seriously  wounded  before  Tolona,  Italy.  He  fought  in  the  Tyrol  against 
Napoleon,  but  w'as  beaten  by  Lefebre,  May  13,  1809,  and  was  compelled  to  fly  to 
Hungary.  When  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom  was  established,  he  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Venice. 

CHASTELLUX,  Francois  Jean,  Marquis  de.  1734-88;  a French  soldier  and  author, 
distinguished  in  the  seven  years'  war  in  Germany,  and  in  the  army  of  Rochambeau  in 


721 


Chasseurs. 

Chateaubriand. 


the  American  revolution,  where  he  held  the  rank  of  maj.gen.  His  chief  works  are  Be 
la  FUicite  Publique;  Voyages  in  North  America;  and  a Discourse  on  the  Advantages  EesulU 
ing  to  Europe  from  the  Discovery  of  America. 

CHASTE-TREE.  See  Vitex. 

CHASUBLE  (Lat.  casula,  casuhula,  and  cassibula),  the  uppermost  garment  "worn  by 
priests  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  when  robed  for  the  celebration  of  the  mass.  It 
was  called  also  “ the  vestment,”  and  under  that  name  seems  occasionally  to  have  been 
used  in  the  English  church  after  the  reformation.  Originally  it  covered  the  priest  from 
head  to  foot,  like  a little  house,  whence  some  writers  think  it  had  its  name  of  casula. 
In  more  recent  times,  at  least,  it  was  made  of  velvet.  It  was  of  an  elliptical  shape,  like 
a vesica  piscis,  with  a hole  in  the  middle  for  the  head;  it  had  no  sleeves.  When  put  on, 
it  showed  two  peaks,  one  hanging  down  before;  another,  on  which  a cross  was 
embroidered,  hanging  down  behind.  According  to  Hildebert,  the  C.  signified  good 
works;  according  to  Alcuin,  charity;  according  to  another  writer,  the  unity  of  the  faith. 
Durand  makes  one  peak  the  symbol  of  love  to  God,  the  other  peak  the  symbol  of  love 
to  our  neighbor.  In  France,  the  press  or  wardrobe  in  which  chasubles  were  kept  was 
called  the  chasublier. 

CHAT,  Saxi'cola,  a genus  of  small  birds  of  the  very  numerous  family  sylviadcc  (q.  v.), 
distinguished  by  a bill  slightly  depressed,  and  widened  at  the  base.  They  have  rather 
longer  legs  than  most  of  the  family.  They  are  lively  birds,  flitting  about  with  incessant 
and  rapid  motion  in  pursuit  of  the  insects  on  which  they  chiefly  feed.  They  are  found 
in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  New  Holland.  Three  species  are  British — the  stonechat, 
whinchat,  and  wheatear. — The  yellow-breasted  C.  of  the  United  States  {icteria  polyglotta) 
is  a larger  bird,  and  belongs  to  the  family  turdidm  or  merulidee. 

CHATEAU,  Chatel,  or  Castel,  from  the  Lat.  castellum,  a fort,  enters  as  a component 
part  into  many  names  of  places  in  France. 

CHATEAUBRIAND,  Francois  Auguste,  Viscomte  de,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  French  authors,  was  b.  Sept.  4,  1769,  at  St.  Malo,  in  Bretagne,  and  received  his  early 
education  in  the  college  at  Rennes.  While  traveling  in  North  America  in  1790,  he 
accidentally  read  in  an  English  newspaper  the  account  of  the  flight  and  arrest  of  Louis 
XVI.  He  immediately  returned  to  France,  intending  to  fight  against  the  republic;  but 
being  seriously  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Thionville,  in  Sept.,  1792,  he  escaped  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  lived  in  such  poverty  that  he  was  compelled  to  make  translations  for  the 
book-sellers,  and  to  give  lessons  in  French.  In  1797,  he  published  his  first  political 
essay,  Sur  Ics  Revolutions  Anciennes  et  ModerneSy  considerees  dans  leurs  Rapports  avec  la 
Revolution  Fi'anqaise  (2  vols.,  London),  a republican  and  sceptical  work,  the  outcome  of 
hardship,  poverty,  and  sorrow.  His  skepticism  soon  vanished,  but  republican  impulses 
continued  to  flash  out  at  intervals  during  the  whole  of  his  strangely-checkered,  inexpli- 
cable, and  inconsistent  career.  In  1800,  C.  returned  to  Paris,  and  wrote  for  the 
Mercure  de  France.  In  this  journal,  he  first  printed  his  tale  of  Atala  (1801),  with  a 
preface  lauding  the  first  consul,  Bonaparte.  Its  success  was  remarkable,  but  nothing 
to  the  miraculous  enthusiasm  excited  by  his  Genie  du  Christianisme  (1802),  a work 
exactly  suited  to  the  jaded  skepticism  of  the  age,  and  also  in  accordance  with  the  policy 
of  the  first  consul,  who  was  then  concluding  the  concordat  with  the  pope,  and  wished  to 
make  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  subservient  to  his  measures.  Bonaparte,  there- 
fore, appointed  C.  secretary  to  the  embassy  in  Rome,  and,  in  1803,  sent  him  as  ambas- 
sador to  the  little  republic  of  Valais.  On  the  execution  of  the  duke  d’Enghien,  Mar.  21, 
1804,  C.  resigned  in  disgust.  In  1806,  he  commenced  his  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
visited  Greece,  Palestine,  Alexandria,  and  Carthage,  and  returned  through  Spain  to 
France  in  May,  1807.  From  this  period  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  lived  privately,  pub- 
lishing only  two  works  of  any  value — Les  Martyrs  and  the  Itineraire  de  Paris  d Jeru- 
salem. In  1814,  his  eloquent  brochure,  De  Bonaparte  et  des  Bourbons,  excited  suck 
attention,  that  Louis  XVIII.  declared  it  was  worth  an  army  of  100,000  men  in  favor  of 
legitimacy. 

After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  C.  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  made  peer  and 
minister  of  state.  Gradually  his  monarchical  zeal  subsided,  and,  in  his  address,  De  la 
Monarchie  selon  la  Charte,  delivered  in  the  chamber  of  peers,  he  gave  expression  to  such 
liberal  tendencies  as  offended  the  king,  who  erased  his  name  from  the  list  of  his  coun- 
selors. Soon,  however,  he  appeared  again  as  an  ultraroyalist;  and  at  the  baptism  of 
the  infant  duke  de  Bordeaux,  C.  presented  to  the  duchess  of  Berry  a flask  filled  with 
water  from  the  Jordan.  In  1822,  he  was  appointed  ambassador-extraordinary  to  the 
British  court,  but  was  rather  rudely  dismissed  from  office  in  1824. 

In  1826,  C.  prepared  the  first  edition  of  his  collected  works,  for  the  copyright  of 
which  the  publisher  gave  the  large  sum  of  600,000  francs,  of  which  C.  returned  100,000. 
During  the  days  of  July,  1830,  he  was  staying  with  his  friend  Mme.  Recamier  at 
Dieppe;  but  as  soon  as  he  heard  tidings  of  the  revolution,  he  hastened  to  Paris.  He 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  fealty  to  Louis  Philippe.  This  political  crotchetiness,  which 
always  rendered  it  impossible  to  know  beforehand  what  course  of  conduct  C.  would 
adopt,  is  perhaps  best  explained  by  the  following  passage  from  his  De  la  Restauration 
etdela  Monarchie  Elective  (Paris,  1831):  “ I am  a Bourbonist  in  honor,  a monarchist  on 
TJ.  K.  III.— 46 


Chateaadan. 

Chatham. 


722 

grounds  of  rational  conviction ; but  in  natural  character  and  disposHion,  I am  still  a 
republican.”  In  1832,  lie  revised  a new  edition  of  his  works,  and,  after  visiting  the 
court  of  the  expelled  Bourbons,  devoted  his  attention  to  the  preparation  of  his  memoirs, 
intended  to  be  published  posthumously  {Memoires  d' outre  Tombe),  though  considerable 
extracts  were  printed  during  his  lifetime.  He  also  found  leisure  to  write  several 
other  works.  He  died  July  4,  1848. 

C.  wrote  with  warmth,  energy,  and  a rich  supply  of  imagery.  Many  of  his  descrip- 
tive passages  are  excellent,  but  his  ideas  want  depth  and  coherency. — Marin,  Histoire  de 
la  Vie  et  des  Oavrages  de  M.  de  Chateaubriand  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1832). 

CHATEATJDTJN,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Eure-et-Loir,  is  situated  on  the 
Loir,  a tributary  of  the  Loire,  about  26  m.  s.s.w.  of  Chartres.  The  streets  are  straight 
and  well  built,  and  an  old  castle,  with  an  enormous  tower,  overlooks  the  town.  C.  has. 
manufactures  of  blankets  and  leather.  Pop.  ’76,  6,061. 

CH  ATE  AUG  AY,  a s.w.  co.  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence, drained  by  the  Chateaugay,  the  Noire,  and  other  rivers;  250  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71, 
16,166.  It  is  generally  level,  and  the  soil  is  fertile.  Chief  town,  St.  Marline. 

CHATEAXT-GONTIER,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Mayenne,  situated  on 
the  river  of  that  name,  here  crossed  by  a stone  bridge,  18  m.  s.s.e.  of  Laval.  C. 
has  some  good  houses,  but  the  streets  are  not  well  laid  out.  It  has  linen  and 
woolen  manufactures.  Pop.  ’76,  7,218. 

CHATEAUGUAY,  Sieur  de.  See  Le  Moyne. 

CHATEAUNEUF  DE  RANDON,  a village  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Loz^re, 
12  m.  n.e.  of  Mende.  A pretty  historical  incident  connected  with  the  place,  which  was. 
formerly  fortified,  makes  it  interesting.  In  1380,  the  fortress,  then  held  by  the  English, 
was  besieged  by  the  troops  of  Charles  V.,  under  the  command  of  the  gallant  Du 
Guesclin.  The  English  governor,  sore  pressed,  promised  to  yield  in  fifteen  days  if 
no  succor  arrived.  In  the  meantime,  Du  Guesclin  died,  and  nis  successor  was  appointed, 
who,  at  the  expiry  of  the  fifteen  days,  summoned  the  governor  to  surrender.  He  refused 
to  yield  up  the  keys  to  any  but  Du  Guesclin;  and  when  informed  of  his  death,  marched 
out,  and  on  bended  knee  laid  the  keys  and  his  sword  on  the  dead  hero’s  bier.  Pop.  ’72, 
393. 

CHATEAUROIJX,  a t.  of  France  in  the  department  of  Indre,  situated  on  a rising 
ground  in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  plain,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Indre,  166  m.  s. 
of  Paris  by  railway.  The  town,  which  was  formerly  dirty  and  ill  built,  has  been  greatly 
improved  within  the  last  quarter  of  a century.  C.  does  not  possess  much  interest  for 
the  traveler.  It  is  a busy  place,  with  extensive  woolen  factories,  besides  manufactures 
of  cotton,  hosiery,  yarn,  hats,  paper,  parchment,  hardware,  leather,  etc.  Some  of  the 
best  iron  in  France  is  found  in  the  vicinity.  The  town  owes  its  origin  to  a castle  built 
here  in  the  10th  century.  Pop.  ’76,  16,980. 

CHATEAU-THIERRY,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  France,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Marne;  pop.  ’72,  5,347.  It  has  a commercial  college,  a public  library,  and  manu- 
factories of  linen,  cotton,  leather,  and  earthenware.  There  is  a marble  statue  of  La 
Fontaine,  the  fabulist.  The  town  takes  its  name  from  a castle  .said  to  have  been  built 
by  Charles  Martel  for  Thierry  IV.,  the  ruins  of  which  are  on  an  adjacent  hill.  The 
position  of  Chateaa-Thierry  has  subjected  it  to  many  disasters.  It  was  captured  by  the 
English  in  1421,  by  Charles  V.  in  1545,  by  the  Spanish  in  1591;  pillaged  in  the  Fronde 
tvars  in  1652,  and  suffered  severely  in  the  Napoleonic  campaign  of  1814. 

CHATEL,  Ferdinand  Toussaint  Francois,  Abbe,  1795-1857;  ordained  as  a priest 
in  1818,  serving  as  vicar  to  several  French  towns,  and  as  chaplain  in  the  army.  In 
1831,  he  founded  a new  sect  in  whose  doctrines  Christ  was  to  be  venerated  only  as  a 
perfectly  good  man,  and  the  confessional,  fasting,  and  vows  of  chastity  and  celibacy 
were  to  be  ('mitted.  The  authorities  interfered  in  1842  and  closed  his  place  of  worship, 
but  in  1848  he  appeared  again  as  an  especial  champion  of  women’s  rights.  His  public 
meetings  were  suppressed  in  1850,  and  he  passed  his  later  years  in  the  duties  of  a metro- 
politan postmaster. 

CHATELET.  the  name  of  two  old  fortresses  of  Paris,  believed  by  some  to  have 
been  built  in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar.  The  grand  C.  was  restored  by  Louis  IX. 
and  remodeled  by  other  kings.  It  was  demolished  in  1802.  It  was  the  residence  of 
counts  of  Paris,  and  became  an  important  seat  of  the  judiciar5^  as  well  as  a prison.  This 
fortress  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine  where  is  now  the  w.  part  of  the  place  de 
Chatelet.  The  petit  C.  was  on  the  other  bank  near  the  present  place  du  Petit  Pont.  It 
was  demolislied  in  1782.  In  earlier  times  it  was  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city. 

CHATELET-LOMONT,  Gabrielle  Emilie,  Marquise  du,  a very  learned  French 
woman,  notorious  for  her  intimacy  with  Voltaire,  was  born  at  Paris,  17th  Dec.,  1706 
At  an  early  period  .she  displayed  a great  aptitude  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  She 
studied  Latin  and  Italian  with  her  father,  the  baron  de  Breteuil.  and  subsequently  betook 
herself  with  zeal  to  mathematics  and  the  physical  sciences.  Distinguished  alike  for  her 
beauty  and  talent,  she  .soon  found  a host  of  suitors  for  her  hand.  Her  choice  fell  on  the 
marquis  du  Chalclet-Lomont,  but  her  maiTiage  did  not  hinder  her  from  forming  a 


723 


Chateaudan* 

Chatham* 


for  Voltaire,  who  came  to  reside  with  her  at  Cirey,  a chjxteau  on  the  borders  of  Cham- 
pagne and  Lorraine,  belonging  to  her  husband.  Here  they  studied,  loved,  quarreled, 
and  loved  again,  for  several  years.  In  1747,  however,  poor  Madame  C.  became  “not 
insensible  to  the  brilliant  qualities”  of  a certain  M.  Saint-Lambert,  a capt.  of  the 
Lorraine  guards;  and  the  result  was,  that  the  philosopher  had  to  make  room  for  the  sol- 
dier, and  content  himself  for  the  future  with  being  the  “devoted  and  indulgent  friend” 
of  his  former  mistress.  This  new  intimacy  became  fatal  to  Madame  Chdtelet.  She  died 
at  Luneville,  lOtli  Sept.,  1749,  a few  days  after  having  given  birth  to  a child.  Her  first 
writing  was  a treatise  on  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz.  She  also  translated  the  Pmidj)ia 
of  Newton  into  French,  accompanying  it  with  algebraic  elucidations.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, appear  till  1756,  some  years  after  her  death.  Her  correspondence  with  Voltaire  is 
interesting;  but  the  fact  that  a woman  so  highly  gifted  as  Madame  C.,  and  possessing  so 
many  amiable  qualities,  should  never  have  dreamed  that  there  was  anything  wrong  in 
her  liaisons,  proves  with  terrible  conclusiveness  how  corrupt  was  that  philosophic 
society  which,  in  the  18th  c.,  professed  to  explode  superstition  and  enlighten  France  and 
the  world. 

CHATELLERATJLT,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Vienne,  situated  on  the  river 
•of  that  name,  18  m.  n.n.e.  of  Poitiers.  A handsome  stone  bridge,  with  a massive 
castellated  gatew’a3^  built  by  Sully,  at  one  end,  connects  it  with  a suburo  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river.  C.,  which  is  an  ill-built,  mean -looking  town,  is  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  the  manufacture  of  cutlery  in  France,  and  since  1820  has  had  a national  manufactory 
of  swords  and  bayonets.  Its  river-port  makes  it  the  entrepot  fcr  the  produce  of  an 
extensive  district.  The  duke  of  Hamilton  derives  his  title  of  duke  of  Chatelherault  from 
this  place.  Pop.  ’76,  15,244. 

In  a military  point  of  view,  the  lines  of  detached  forts  connected  with  C.  constitute 
a fortification  of  greath  strength;  and  the  whole  is  regarded  as  a flank  defense  for 
London  in  the  event  of  an  invader  seeking  to  march  on  the  capital  from  the  s.  coast. 
The  place  is  also  defended  by  some  strong  forts  on  the  Medway.  In  and  near  C.  are 
fort  Pitt,  a military  hospital  and  strong  fort;  barracks  for  infantry,  marines,  artillery, 
and  engineers;  a park  of  artillery;  and  magazines,  store-houses,  and  depots  on  a large 
scale. 

In  a naval  sense,  C.  is  one  of  the  principal  royal  ship-building  establishments  in  the 
kingdom,  and  a visit  to  it  never  fails  to  impress  the  stranger  with  a sense  of  the  naval 
power  of  England.  The  dock-yard  is  nearly  2 m.  in  length,  containing  several  building- 
slips,  and  wet  docks  sufficiently  capacious  for  the  largest  ships;  and  the  whole  is  tra- 
versed in  every  direction  by  a tramway  for  locomotives,  with  a gauge  of  18  inches. 
One  peculiar  establishment  in  this  dock-yard  is  a metal  mill,  which  supplies  all  the 
royal  dock-yards  with  copper  sheets,  copper  bolts,  and  other  articles  in  copper  and 
mixed  metal.  The  saw-mills  at  C.  are  so  extensive  that  it  is  said  that,  if  fully  employed, 
they  could  cup  up  timber  enough  for  all  the  dock-yards.  A duplicate  of  Brunei’s 
block-making  machinery  is  kept  at  C.,  ready  to  supplement  the  operations  of  that  at 
Portsmouth.  The  dock-yard  is  under  the  control  of  a captain-superintendent  and  other 
officers,  whose  annual  salaries  vary  from  £700  to  £200  each.  Under  them  are  clerks 
receiving  from  £450  to  £80  each.  The  actual  workmen,  artisans,  and  laborers,  vary  in 
number  according  to  the  amount  of  ship-building  and  repairing  going  on.  In  the  navy 
estimates  provision  is  made  for  about  3,500  shipwrights,  calkers,  joiners,  sawyers, 
millwrights,  smiths,  blockmakers,  Sailmakers,  ropemakers,  riggers,  laborers,  etc.  The 
total  outlay  on  the  C.  establishment  in  1879-80  was  £685,253. 

CHATHAM,  a co.  in  s.e.  Georgia,  on  the  ocean  and  the  South  Carolina  border; 
358  sq.m.  ; pop.  ’80,44,995 — 27,535  colored.  It  is  level  and  swampy,  with  fertile  soil 
near  the  rivers.  Rice,  sweet  potatoes,  corn,  and  cotton  are  the  chief  productions.  The 
Savannah,  Alabama,  and  Gulf  railroad  intersects  it.  Co.  seat.  Savannah. 

CHATHAM,  a co.  in  central  North  Carolina,  reached  by  the  Chatham  railroad,  and 
drained  by  the  Rocky,  New  Hope,  Deep,  and  Haw  rivers;  700  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  23,456 — 
7955  colored.  Chief  productions,  wheat,  corn,  oats,  tobacco,  butter,  and  coal.  Co. 
seat,  Pittsboro. 

CHATHAM,  a t.  in  Barnstable  co.,  Mass.,  on  the  s.e.  extremity  of  cape  Cod,  near 
the  Cape  Cod  railroad;  pop.  ’80,  2252.  Fishing  is  the  business 'of  the  greater  portion 
of  the  inhabitants.  There  are  three  important  lighthouses  in  the  township. 

CHATHAM  (Saxon,  Ceteham  or  Gcettham,  understood  to  signify  the  “village  of  cot- 
tages”), a parliamentary  borough,  river-port,  fortified  town,  and  naval  arsenal,  in  the 
CO.  of  Kent,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway,  at  the  upper  part  of  its  estuaiy. 
30  m.  e.s.e.  of  London.  Much  of  C.  is  ill  built  and  irregular.  The  High  street  is  It 
m.  long,  parallel  to  the  river,  and  swarms  with  soldiers  and  Jews.  The  refuse  timber 
of  the  dock-yard  is  much  used  in  building  the  house-walls.  C.  owes  its  importance  to 
its  naval  and  military  establishments  situated  at  Brompton  village  (on  a height  half  a 
mile  n.  of  C.),  and  on  the  Medway  estuary.  The  C.  fortified  lines  are  the  frequent 
scenes  of  field-operations,  imitation  battles,  and  grand  reviews.  Pop.  ’71,  45,792.  The 
borough,  which  sends  one  member  to  parliament,  is  governed  by  a head-constable  under 
the  magistrates  of  Rochester.  The  Romans  seem  to  have  once  had  a cemetery  here 


Chatbam. 

Cbatre. 


V24 


Traces  of  Roman  villas  have  been  found,  with  Roman  bricks,  tiles,  coins,  and  weapons. 
The  dock-}^ard  was  founded  by  Elizabeth  before  the  threatened  invasion  of  the  Spanish 
Armada.  In  1662,  it  was  removed  to  its  present  site.  In  1667,  the  Dutch,  under 
De  Ruy  ter,  sailed  up  the  estuary  of  the  Medway,  and,  in  spite  of  the  fire  from  the  castle, 
destroyed  much  shipping  and  stores. 

CHATHAM,  a t.  in  Northumberland  co.,  N.  B.,  on  the  Miramichi  river,  near  its 
entrance  into  Miramichi  bay;  pop.  ’71,  4,303.  It  has  a Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a 
college,  and  a temperance  hall.  It  is  a port  of  entry,  and  has  a large  export  trade  in 
fish,  lumber,  etc. 

CHATHAM,  a t.  in  Kent  co.,  Ontario  province,  Canada,  on  the  Thomas  river,  47 
m.  e.  of  Detroit,  Mich.;  reached  by  the  Great  Western  railroad,  and  by  steamboats  from 
the  lakes.  It  is  in  a rich  agricultural  district,  and  has  a large  trade  in  grain  and  lumber. 
Pop.  ’71,  5,873. 

CHATHAM,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of,  sometimes  styled  Pitt  the  Elder,  one  of  the 
greatest  English  orators  and  statesmen  of  the  18th  c.,  was  the  son  of  a country  gentle- 
man, Robert  Pitt  of  Boconnoc,  in  Cornwall;  and  wash.  Nov.  15,  1708.  After  an  educa- 
tion at  Eton  and  Oxford,  he  traveled  on  the  continent,  and  on  his  return  obtained  a 
cornetcy  in  the  blues.  In  1735,  he  entered  parliament  for  Old  Sarum — that  synonym 
for  electoral  corruption — a borough  then  belonging  to  his  family.  He  espoused  the  side 
of  Frederick  prince  of  Wales,  then  at  deadly  feud  with  the  king,  and  offered  a deter- 
mined opposition  to  Walpole,  who  was  at  the  head  of  affairs.  He  was  deprived  of  his 
commission  in  consequence — an  insult  and  injury  which  only  increased  the  vehemence 
of  his  denunciations  of  the  court  and  the  government.  His  influence,  both  in  and  out 
of  the  house  of  commons,  increased  rapidly;  and  Walpole,  being  driven  from  power, 
the  king,  notwithstanding  his  hatred  of  Pitt,  found  it  necessary  to  allow  of  his  admis- 
sion to  a subordinate  place  in  the  broad  bottom  administration;  subsequently  he  waa 
appointed  to  the  lucrative  office  of  paymaster-general.  The  duchess  of  Marlborough,, 
pleased  with  his  patriotism  and  powers  of  oratory,  left  him  £10,000;  and  later,  sir  Wil- 
liam Pynsent,  struck  with  similar  admiration,  left  him  his  whole  property.  In  1755, 
when  Henry  Fox  (afterwards  lord  Holland)  was  made  secretary  of  state,  finding  himself 
opposed  to  the  foreign  policy  of  the  new  minister,  Pitt  resigned  office  as  paymaster. 
In  the  following  year,  when  the  king,  unwillingly  acceding  to  popular  demands,  had  to 
dismiss  Fox,  Pitt  became  nominally  secretary  of  state,  but  was  virtually  premier.  He 
immediately  began  to  put  into  execution  his  own  plan  of  carrying  on  the  war  with 
France.  He  raised  the  militia,  and  strengthened  the  naval  power;  but  the  king’s  old 
enmity,  and  German  predilections,  led  him  to  oppose  Pitt’s  policy,  who  thereupon 
resigned  office  in  April,  1757,  but  was  recalled  in  June,  in  obedience  to  the  loud  demands, 
of  the  people. 

Now  firmly  established  in  power,  Pitt’s  war  policy  was  characterized  by  unusual 
vigor  and  sagacity.  Success  returned  to  the  British  arms.  French  armies  were  beaten 
everywhere  by  Britain  and  her  allies — in  India,  in  Africa,  in  Canada,  on  the  Rhine — 
and  British  fleets  drove  the  few  French  ships  they  did  not  capture  or  destroy  from 
almost  every  sea.  But  the  prime  mover  of  all  these  brilliant  victories  found  himself  com- 
pelled to  resign  (1761),  when,  on  the  accession  of  George  III.,  and  owing  to  the  influence 
of  lord  Bute,  it  was  attempted  to  introduce  a vacillating  policy  into  the  government ; hiA 
immediate  cause  of  resignation  being  the  refusal  of  the  majority  of  the  cabinet  to  declare 
war  with  Spain,  which  Pitt,  foreseeing  as  imminent,  wished  to  commence  before  the^ 
Spaniards  were  thoroughly  prepared.  As  some  recompense  for  his  important  services, 
Pitt  received  a pension  of  £3,000  a year;  and  his  wife,  sister  of  George  Grenville,  was 
created  baroness  Chatham.  IJntil  1766,  Pitt  remained  out  of  office,  not  offering  a fac- 
tious opposition  to  government,  but  employing  all  his  eloquence  to  defeat  some  of  its 
most  obnoxious  measures.  In  that  year  he  received  the  royal  commands  to  form  a 
ministry.  He  undertook  the  task,  choosing  for  himself — to*  the  astonishment  of  the 
public,  and  the  sacrifice,  to  a considerable  extent,  of  his  popularity — the  almost  sinecure 
office  of  privy  seal,  with  a seat  in  the  house  of  lords  as  viscount  Pitt  and  earl  of  Chatham. 
Ill-health  prevented  C.  from  taking  any  active  part  in  this  ministry,  of  which  he  wao 
nominally  the  head,  and  which  was  weak  and  embarrassed  throughout,  and  he  resigned 
in  1768,  to  hold  office  no  more.  He  did  not,  however,  cease  to  take  an  interest  in  public 
affairs.  He  spoke  strongly  against  the  arbitrary  and  harsh  policy  of  government  towards 
the  American  colonies,  and  warmly  urged  an  amicable  settlement  of  the  differences. 
But  when,  America  having  entered  into  treaty  with  France,  it  was  proposed  by  the 
duke  of  Richmond  to  remove  the  ministers,  and  make  peace  on  any  terms,  C.,  though 
much  debilitated„came  down  to  the  house  of  lords,  and  in  a powerful  address  protested 
against  the  implied  prostration  of  Britain  before  the  throne  of  the  Bourbons,  and 
declared  war,  with  whatever  issue,  preferable  to  the  proposed  terms  of  peace.  This 
address  secured  a majority  against  the  motion,  and  the  war  was  continued.  But  it  was^ 
the  orator’s  last  effort;  for,  exhausted  by  speaking,  on  rising  again  to  reply  to  a query 
addressed  to  him  by  the  duke  of  Richmond,  his  physical  powers  suddenly  failed,  he  fell 
back  into  the  arms  of  his  friends,  and  was  carried  from  the  house.  He  died  May  11. 
1778.  He  was  honored  with  a public  funeral  in  Westminster  abbey,  where  a statue  was- 
also  erected  to  his  memory  at  the  public  expense ; and,  in  addition,  government  voted. 


725 


Chatham. 

Chatre. 


£20,000  to  pay  his  debts,  and  conferred  a pension  of  £4,000  a year  on  his  descendants. 
C.’s  personal  appearance  was  dignified  and  imposing,  and  added  greatly  to  the  attrac- 
tions of  his  oratory,  which  was  of  the  most  powerful  kind.  His  upright  and  irreproach 
able  character  demanded  the  admiration  of  his  enemies;  but  his  aftectedness  and  haugh- 
tiness not  unfrequently  disgusted  his  friends,  and  pride  rather  than  principle  seems  to 
have  actuated  his  course  at  some  important  conjunctures  of  his  life.  He  had,  however, 
an  intense  love  of  country;  the  grand  object  of  his  ambition  being  to  make  his  native 
land  safe  against  all  contingencies,  and  powerful  among  nations. 

CHATHAM  ISLANDS,  a small  group  in  the  Pacific,  lying  about  400  m.  due  e.  of  the 
Canterbury  settlement,  on  the  Middle  island  of  New  Zealand,  in  lat.  43°  38'  to  44°  40' s., 
long.  177°  to  179'  w.,  being  thus  almost  precisely  the  antipodes  of  Toulouse,  in  France. 
They  were  discovered  in  1791  by  lieut.  Broughton,  both  the  cluster  and  its  chief  member 
taking  the  name  of  his  ship.  Chatham  island  is  computed  to  contain  600,000  acres;  a 
salt  or  brackish  lake,  however,  of  20  m.  in  length,  occupying  the  interior.  'The  soil  and 
climate  of  the  archipelago,  in  general,  are  said  to  be  good.  Wheat  yields  abundantly; 
and  the  horses,  cattie,  and  pigs  which  have  been  introduced  thrive  well.  Timber  of 
any  size  is  unknown,  so  that  the  native  canoe,  instead  of  being  cut  out  of  a single  tree, 
is  merely  wicker-work  bound  together  by  cordage  of  indigenous  flax.  The  aborigines 
have  two  missions  among  them — one  from  Germany,  and  the  other  from  New  Zealand. 

CHATI,  a cdX,  felis  mitis,  smaller  than  the  ocelot,  and  something  like  the  leopard,  a 
native  of  South  America.  It  greatly  annoys  farmers  by  destroying  fowls,  birds,  and 
smaller  animals.  Like  all  of  the  cat  kind,  it  hunts  mostly  in  the  dark. 

CHATILLON,  a t.  of  France  in  the  department  of  Cote  d’Or,  on  the  Seine,  about  45 
m.  n.n.w.  of  Dijon.  Pop.  ’76,  4,894.  C.  is  chiefly  famous  on  account  of  the  congress 
of  allied  sovereigns  held  here  in  1814,  from  Feb.  5 to  Mar.  19,  for  the  purpose  of  negoti- 
ation with  Napoleon  respecting  conditions  of  peace.  Several  of  the  conditions  proposed 
by  the  allies  Napoleon  could  not  bring  himself  to  submit  to,  and  the  negotiations  broke 
up,  Mar.  19.  On  the  25th,  when  their  armies  were,  in  fact,  marching  on  Paris,  the 
allies  from  Vitry  issued  their  declaration  justifying  a continuation  of  the  war. 

CHAT  MOSS,  a bog  in  Lancashire,  the  largest  in  England,  about  7,000  acres  in  extent, 
and  celebrated  as  having  been  the  scene  of  the  first  great  and  successful  efforts  for  the 
reclaiming  of  bogs,  by  Mr.  Kpscoe  of  Liverpool,  in  the  end  of  the  18th  and  beginning 
of  the  19tii  c.,  and  of  one  of  the  great  engineering  triumphs  of  George  Stephenson  in 
the  construction  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway.  It  is  situated  between 
Liverpool  and  Manchester,  at  no  great  elevation  above  the  sea.  It  is  from  20  to  30  ft. 
in  depth,  and  of  such  consistence  that  when  an  attempt  was  first  made  to  survey  it  for 
the  Liverpool  and  Manch^ter  railway,  the  attempt  was  relinquished  because  of  the 
impossibility  of  obtaining  a,  sufficiently  solid  stand  for  the  theodolite.  Drains  are  filled 
up  almost  as  fast  as  they  are  cut,  by  a pulpy  stuff  flowing  into  them,  and  affect  only  a 
few  feet  on  either  side.  Great  danger  is  experienced  by  any  person  stepping  unwarily 
on  the  surface  of  the  bog;  and  when  he  begins  to  sink,  his  struggles  to  extricate  himself 
only  cause  him  to  sink  faster  and  deeper.  Mr.  Poscoe’s  agricultural  improvements 
were  effected  by  numerous  parallel  drains  in  the  parts  on  which  he  operated.  The  use 
of  pattens  by  his  workmen,  and  the  adaptation  of  them  to  the  feet  of  the  horses  employed, 
have  been  mentioned  in  the  article  Bog.  The  enlargement  of  the  circle  upon  which  a 
horse’s  foot  rests  from  5 in.  diameter  to  7,  nearly  doubles  it,  and  consequently  dimin- 
ishes nearly  by  one  half  the  pressure  on  each  unit  of  surface.  Mr.  Stephenson,  when 
he  could  find  no  one  to  countenance  him  in  his  views,  calculated  with  confidence  on  the 
application  of  this  principle  to  the  railway,  so  that  even  the  ponderous  locomotive  and 
train  might  be  supported  by  a sufficient  extension  of  the  bearing  surface;  and  this  he 
accomplished  by  spreading  branches  of  trees  and  hedge-cuttings,  and  in  the  softest 
places  rude  hurdles  interwoven  with  heather,  on  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground,  con- 
taining interwined  roots  of  heather  and  long  grass;  a thin  layer  of  gravel  being  spread 
above  all,  on  which  the  sleepers,  chairs,  and  rails  were  laid  in  the  usual  manner.  Drains- 
were  at  the  same  time  cut  on  both  sides  of  the  line,  and  in  the  central  part  of  the  moss  a 
conduit  was  formed  beneath  the  line  of  railway,  of  old  tar-barrels  placed  end  to  end. 
Notwithstanding  difficulties  which  every  one  but  himself  deemed  insuperable,  Mr, 
Stephenson  constructed  the  portion  of  the  line  through  C.  M.  at  a smaller  expense  than 
any  other  part  of  the  railway.  There  still  is  “ a sort  of  springiness  in  the  road  over  the 
moss,  such  as  is  felt  when  passing  along  a suspension-bridge;”  and  “those  who  looked 
along  the  moss  as  a train  passed  over  it,  said  they  could  observe  a waviness,  such  as 
precedes  and  follows  a skater  upon  ice.” 

The  complete  reclaiming  of  C.  M.  for  agricultural  purposes  can-  be  only  a question 
of  time  and  expense.  It  seems  capable  of  becoming  one  of  the  most  productive  tracts 
of  land  in  England. 

CHATOYANT,  a term  to  denote  the  changeable  internal  light  seen  in  some  minerals, 
such  as  “ cat’s  eye.”  (See  Cat’s  Eye,  ante.) 

CHATBE,  La.,  a t.  in  the  department  of  Indre,  France,  on  the  river  Indre,  20  m, 
s.e.  of  Chateauroux;  pop.  ’66,  5,167.  There  is  a ruined  castle,  one  of  the  towers  of 
which  is  still  used  as  a prison. 


47hatsk. 

Chatterton. 


726 


CHATSK,  or  Schazk,  a t.  of  European  Russia,  government  of  Tambov,  175  m.  s.e. 
of  Moscow,  on  a small  river  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a vast 
fertile  plain,  contains  a number  of  churches,  and  has  a trade  in  hardware,  grain,  and 
cattle.  Pop.  ’67,  6,783. 

CHATSWORTH,  the  magnificent  mansion  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  and  one  of  the 
most  splendid  private  seats  in  England,  is  situated  in  Derbyshire  on  the  Derwent,  12  m. 
n.  by  w.  of  Matlock.  William  the  conqueror  gave  the  domain  to  his  natural  son 
William  Peveril.  It  was  purchased  by  sir  W.  Cavendish  in  queen  Elizabeth’s  time. 
Sir  W.,  in  1570,  began  the  old  mansion,  which  was  finished  by  his  widow,  afterwards 
countess  of  Shrewsbury.  In  this  building  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  was  imprisoned  for  13 
years.  The  present  edifice,  called  a palace  from  its  grandeur,  includes  the  old  Ionic 
pile,  183  by  172  ft.  built  1687-1706,  by  the  first  duke  of  Devonshire,  after  designs  by 
Talman  and  Wren.  The  great  stables  were  built  about  1706,  and  the  n.  wing  since 
1720.  The  faQade  is  720  ft.  long,  or  with  the  terraces,  1200  feet.  The  building  is  nearly 
a square,  with  an  interior  court.  C.  is  famed  for  its  pictures,  sculptures,  hangings, 
carvings,  and  bass-reliefs.  There  are  some  exquisite  sculptures  by  Canova,  Thorwaldsen, 
Chantrey.  etc.  The  grounds  around  are  9 m.  in  circuit,  including  hill  and  dale,  and 
fine  prospects.  They  were  laid  out  by  Loudon  and  Paxton,  and  are  celebrated  for  their 
trees,  shrubs,  rock- work,  deer,  and  water-works — only  surpassed  by  those  at  Versailles. 
The  conservatory,  unrivaled  in  Europe,  covers  nearly  an  acre,  measures  300  by  145  ft., 
and  65  ft.  high,  has  70,000  sq.ft,  of  glass,  and  a carriage-road  through  it,  Kobbes,  the 
philosopher,  lived  long  at  Chatsworth. 

GHAT TAHOO  GHEE,  a river  of  the  United  States,  rises  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  of  the  Alleglianies,  in  the  n.  of  Georgia;  traverses  that  state  in  a s.w.  direc- 
tion; becomes  the  boundary  between  it  and  Alabama;  and  finally,  after  receiving  the 
Flint  from  the  left,  crosses  Florida,  under  the  name  of  Appalachicola,  into  the  gidf  of 
Mexico.  With  an  entire  course  of  550  m.,  it  is  navigable  upwards  as  far  as  Columbus, 
at  a distance  of  350  m.  from  the  sea.  It  forms  the  principal  outlet  for  the  cotton  crops 
of  its  basin. 

CH A.TTAHOO'CHEE,  a co.  in  s.w.  Georgia,  on  the  Alabama  border;  250  sq.m.; 
pop.  ’80,  5670 — 3546  colored.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat,  Cusseta. 

CHATTANOOGA,  a city  in  Hamilton  co.,  Tenn.,  on  the  Tennessee  river,  near  the 
Alabama  boundary;  pop.  ’70,  6,093—2,221  colored.  The  river  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats about  eight  months  in  the  year,  and  by  light-draught  boats  at  all  times.  Four 
railroads  center  at  Chattanooga,  and  afford  easy  communication  in  all  directions.  The 
city  is  one  of  the  most  important  shipping  points  in  that  section  of  the  country.  The 
region  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron,  and  there  is  abundance  of  water-power.  At  this  point, 
in  Oct.,  1863,  occurred  one  of  the  most  important  conflicts  of  the  war  of  the  rebellion. 
After  the  retreat  of  Rosecrans  from  the  field  of  Chickamauga,  in  Sept.,  the  confed- 
erates under  Bragg  sent  a cavalry  force  across  the  Tennessee  above  Chattanooga,  and 
seized  several  points  on  the  railroad  in  order  to  cut  off  his  supplies.  Shortly  after- 
wards, Grant  relieved  Rosecrans  and  assumed  command  of  the  department  of  the 
Tennessee,  Cumberland,  and  Ohio.  Thomas  was  appointed  commander  of  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Cumberland,  Sherman  was  assigned  to  the  department  of  the  Tennessee, 
and  Hooker,  with  the  11th  and  12th  corps,  which  had  been  transferred  from  the  army 
of  the  Potomac,  was  sent  across  the  river  to  make  a flank  movement  against  Bragg, 
while  a force  under  William  F.  Smith  was  thrown  across  the  river  at  Brown’s  ferry, 
i)elow  Chattanooga,  to  seize  the  points  of  Lookout  mountain  that  commanded  the 
passage  of  the  river.  These  measures,  which  were  executed  Oct.  27,  28,  and  29,  were 
successful  in  restoring  the  connection  between  the  union  army  at  Chattanooga  and  its 
depot  of  supplies.  Sherman’s  army  having  arrived,  the  movement  against  the  confed- 
erates was  begun  Nov.  23.  Thomas’s  troops  attacked  and  carried  the  enemy’s  first  line 
of  rifle-pits  at  2 p.m.,  and  held  it  during  the  night.  The  next  day  the  attack  was  renewed 
along  the  whole  line.  Thomas  strengthened  himself  in  his  advanced  position,  repelling 
every  effort  of  the  enemy  to  recover  the  lost  ground.  Sherman  succeeded  in  carrying 
Missionary  ridge,  and  Hooker,  after  partially  carrying  Lookout  mountain,  intrenched 
himself  in  a strong  position,  compelling  the  abandonment  of  the  mountain  by  the  enemy 
during  the  night.  On  the  25th  the  battle  raged  from  dawn  till  dark.  Missionary  ridge. 
Lookout  mountain-top,  and  all  the  rifle-pits  in  the  valley,  were  carried  by  desperate 
fighting.  The  confederate  army  was  routed,  and  pursued  by  Sherman  and  Hooker 
back  to  Georgia.  The  union  loss  was  between  6,000  and  7,000  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing.  The  confederate  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  is  estimated  at  2,500;  in  prisoners, 
6,000.  The  effect  of  this  battle  was  to  cut  off  Bragg  from  communication  with  Long- 
street,  and  to  force  the  latter  to  abandon  the  siege  of  Knoxville  and  retreat  into 
Virginia. 

GHATTEL  (Fr.  chatel,  old  Fr.  chapiel,  from  Lat.  capitale,  corrupted  into  captale  and 
cataUum,  meaning  the  capital  or  principal  sum  in  a loan ; hence  goods  in  general,  espe- 
cially cattle,  as  distinguished  from  land),  in  the  law  of  England,  is  a term  used  to  desig- 
nate any  kind  of  property  which,  with  reference  either  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  or 
'he.  character  of  the  interest  possessed  in  it,  is  not  freehold.  Regarded  from  a positive 


727 


Chatsk. 

Chatterton. 


point  of  view,  C.  included  not  only  all  movable  property,  but  all  property  which,  though 
immovable,  was  not  held  on  a feudal  tenure.  Aoy  estate,  then,  or  interest  in  lauds  and 
tenements  not  amounting  to  freehold,  is  a chattel.  But  as  between  property  thus 
“savoring  of  reality  ” and  mere  personal  movables — money,  plate,  cattle,  and  the  like 
— there  was  a manifest  distinction,  chattels  were,  consequently,  distinguished  into  chat- 
tels-real  and  chattels-personal.  Both  descriptions  of  C.,  in  the  eye  of  the  ancient  law  of 
England,  were  regarded  as  inferior  to  freehold,  and  formed  a subordinate  class  of  prop- 
erty. As  distinguished  from  estates  of  inheritance,  or  for  life  in  things  immovable, 
such  estate  is  called  personal,  the  others  being  real  estate.  Till  the  passing  of  8 and  9 
Viet.  c.  106,  livery  of  seizin  was  required  to  pass  an  estate  of  inheritance,  or  for  life  in 
corporal  hereditaments  of  feu  tenure,  but  such  was  no  more  required  for  the  transfer  of 
a C.  real  than  of  a C.  personal.  A C.  real  is  also  transmitted  on  the  owner’s  death  to 
his  executor  or  administrator,  like  a C.  personal,  and  does  not  descend  to  his  heir  like  a 
freehold  of  inheritance.  There  is  an  exception  to  this  rule,  however,  in  the  case  of 
chattels  which,  owing  to  their  intimate  connection  with  property  of  a freehold  nature, 
cannot  be  separated  from  it  without  injury.  Such,  for  instance,  are  the  muniments  of 
title  to  an  esiate,  growing  grass,  deer  in  a park,  and  actual  fixtures,  all  of  which  go  to 
the  heir,  and  not  the  executor.  The  tenant  of  a C.  real,  like  the  tenant  of  a C.  personal, 
is,  moreover,  said  not  to  be  seized,  like  the  tenant  of  a freehold,  but  to  be  possessed. 
Lastly,  there  can  be  no  estate  tail  in  a C.  real  more  than  in  a C.  personal,  except  in  the 
case  in  which  either  of  them  can  be  regarded  as  an  heir-loom.  Formerly,  C.  might  be 
disposed  of  by  will  at  an  earlier  age  than  real  estates,  but  this  was  altered  by  1 Viet, 
c.  26. 

CHATTEBEB,  a significant  popular  name,  often  applied  to  the  birds  of  the  family 
ampelidoB,  a family  of  the  order  insessores  and  tribe  dentirostres,  having  a depressed  bill 
like  that  of  the  fly-catchers  {muscicapidee),  but  somewhat  shorter  and  broader  in  propor- 
tion, and  slightly  arched.  To  this  family  belong  the  cotingas,  wax-wungs,  piauhaus, 
caterpillar-hunters,  etc.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  old  world, 
although  America  also  produces  some.  They  inhabit  low  grounds  or  forests,  feeding 
chiefly  on  insects  and  their  larvae.  Some  of  them  possess  powers  of  song  almost  equal 
to  those  of  the  nightingale.  Many  of  them  are  birds  of  gorgeous  plumage. — Only  one 
species  is  British,  sometimes  called  simply  the  C.,  sometimes  the  Bohemian  C.,  or  wax- 
wing (q.v.). 

CHATTERTON,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  whose  youth,  genius,  and  tragical  death 
have  made  him  one  of  the  wonders  of  English  literature,  was  b.  at  Bristol,  Nov.  20, 
1752.  His  father,  who  had  once  been  a chanter  in  the  Bristol  cathedral,  and  also  mas- 
ter of  a kind  of  free-school,  died  two  or  three  months  before  the  poet’s  birth.  C.  was 
educated  at  a parish-school,  was  considered  a dull  child,  but,  making  acquaintance  with 
a black-letter  Bible  which  his  mother  often  used,  the  dormant  spirit  flashed  up.  From 
early  years  he  was  fond  of  all  kinds  of  antiquities;  he  clung  around  old  walls  like  the 
ivy,  and  haunted  twilight  ruins  like  the  bat.  At  the  age  of  14  he  was  apprenticed  to 
Mr.  Lambert,  an  attorney.  His  situation  here  was  uncomfortable ; he  took  his  meals  in 
the  kitchen  with  the  footboy,  and,  when  refractory,  was  chastised  with  a ruler.  In 
Oct.,  1768,  the  new  bridge  at  Bristol  was  opened,  and  C.  sent  to  a newspaper  an  account, 
in  antique  phraseology  and  spelling,  of  the  ceremonies  attending  the  opening  of  the  old 
one  several  centuries  before — the  whole  purporting  to  be  taken  from  an  ancient  MS. 
To  a certain  Bristol  pewterer,  Burgum  by  name,  he  presented  himself,  and  astonished 
the  craftsman  by  the  sight  of  a parchment,  in  which  his  pedigree  was  traced  back  to  the 
Norman  conquest,  adorned  by  many  a splendid  marriage,  and  many  a knightly  name. 
He  also  exhibited  to  his  friends  copies  of  old  poems,  which,  he  said,  w^ere  composed  by 
one  Thomas  Bowley,  a monk  of  the  15th  century.  These  matters  made  some  stir  in  his 
native  city,  but  not  enough  to  satisfy  C.,  who  resolved  to  fly  at  higher  game.  Accord- 
ingly, Horace  Walpole,  at  that  time  collecting  additional  materials  for  his  Anecdotes  of 
Painting  in  England,  received  from  C.  several  pages  of  antique  writing,  accompanied 
by  a short  note.  The  pretended  MS.  gave  biographical  sketches  of  celebrated  painters 
who  had  flourished  in  England  several  centuries  ago,  and  of  whose  existence  Walpole 
had  never  dreamed.  Walpole,  put  off  his  guard,  answered  his  unknown  correspondent 
at  once;  expressed  his  delight  at  receiving  the  MS.;  and  desired,  as  a personal  favor, 
that  all  the  other  antique  writings,  poems  included,  mentioned  in  the  note,  should  be 
forwarded.  C.,  highly  elnted,  immediately  sent  accounts  of  a great  many  more  pain- 
ters and  poets,  and  also  gave  some  slight  sketch  of  his  personal  history.  On  receipt  of 
this  second  communication,  Walpole  suspected  a trick.  The  poems  he  showed  to 
Mason  and  Gray,  who  at  once  pronounced  them  forgeries;  he  then  wrote  C.,  expressing 
his  suspicions  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  MS.,  and  administering  at  the  same  time  a 
great  deal  of  excellent  advice.  C.  replied,  desiring  that  the  MS.  should  be  returned  at 
once;  but.  by  the  time  the  letter  reached  London,  Walpole  was  about  to  start  for  Paris, 
and  it  was  allowed  to  remain  unanswered.  On  Walpole’s  return  some  six  weeks  there- 
after, a fieice  note  from  C.  awaited  him,  the  contents  of  which  must  have  brought  the 
blood  to  his  polished  and  urbane  brow;  indignant,  he  bundled  up  the  MS.,  and  returned 
it  without  a word  of  explanation. 

From  his  earliest  youth,  C.  had  a ghastly  familiarity  with  the  idea  of  suicide.  Among 


Chattooga. 

Chauliac. 


728 


his  papers  preserved  in  the  British  museum,  is  a last  will  and  testament,  “executed  in 
the  presence  of  Omniscience,  the  14th  of  April,  1770,”  full  of  the  wildest  wit  and  pro- 
fanity. Another  document  of  similar  purport,  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  friends,  led 
to  his  dismissal  from  Mr.  Lambert’s  office.  Released  from  what  he  considered  the 
slavery  of  law,  C.’s  eyes  turned  to  London,  and  in  that  city  he  arrived,  carrying  with 
him  all  his  Rowley  MS.  and  several  modern  poems,  on  Tuesday,  the  24th  April,  1770, 
and  took  up  his  abode  with  one  Walmsley,  a plasterer,  in  Shoreditch.  No  sooner  had 
he  settled  there,  than  he  began  to  work  as  with  a hundred  hands.  During  the  last  few 
months  of  his  life,  he  poured  forth  squibs,  satiric  poems,  political  essays,  burlettas,  letters 
in  the  style  of  Junius,  and  meditated  writing  a history  of  England,  to  appear  in  parts. 
For  a time,  his  prospects  seemed  golden  enough.  He  obtained  an  introduction  to  lord 
mayor  Beckford;  he  sent  glowing  letters  home,  accompanied  by  presents  to  his  mother 
and  sisters.  Ultimately,  he  left  the  plasterer’s  in  Shoreditch,  and  took  lodgings  in 
Brooke  street,  adjoining  Holborn.  Unhappily  for  C.,  editors  of  opposition  papers  were 
willing  enough  to  insert  and  praise  his  articles,  but  were  disinclined  or  unable  to  render 
an  equivalent  in  cash.  Possibly  they  conceived  that  a patriotism  so  ardent  must  be  its 
own  reward.  The  means  of  life  were  now  fast  failing.  In  desperation,  he  attempted 
to  procure  an  appointment  of  surgeon’s  mate  in  a vessel  going  to  Africa,  but  failed.  This 
was  the  last  drop  that  made  the  cup  overflow.  On  Saturday,  the  25th  Aug. , his  land- 
lady, alarmed  that  her  lodger  did  not  make  his  appearance,  had  the  door  of  his  room 
broken  open;  saw  the  floor  littered  with  small  pieces  of  paper,  and  C.  “lying  on  the 
bed  with  his  legs  hanging  over,  quite  dead.”  Just  at  this  time,  Dr.  Fry  of  Oxford,  who 
had  seen  or  heard  something  of  the  Rowley  poems,  was  on  the  eve  of  starting  for  Bristol 
to  make  inquiry  into  the  matter.  Sad  enough  to  think  on  now : a little  promptitude  on 
the  one  hand,  a little  patience  on  the  other,  and  the  catastrophe  might  have  been 
averted. 

C.  died  before  he  reached  his  18th  year,  and  takes  his  place  as  the  greatest  prodigy 
in  literature.  Indeed,  in  our  judgment  of  him,  age  cannot  be  taken  into  account.  He 
never  seems  to  have  been  young.  His  intellect  was  born  fully  matured.  He  was  equally 
precocious  in  other  respects.  In  his  letters,  he  speaks  of  the  relation  of  the  sexes  in  the 
tone  of  a sated  roue.  He  never  seems  to  have  felt  the  delicious  shame  and  ingenuous- 
ness of  youth;  over  his  heart  never  was  outspread  “the  bloom  of  young  de"sire  and 
purple  light  of  love.”  The  Kew  Gardens  is  written  in  the  style  of  Churchill,  and  it 
possesses  all  that  master’s  vigor,  and  every  now  and  then  we  come  on  a couplet  turned 
with  the  felicity  of  Pope.  His  genius,  however,  is  in  its  greatest  perfection  in  the 
ancient  poems.  No  poet,  before  or  since,  has  written  a tenderer  strain  than  the  lament 
in  or  conceived  a bolder  image  than  the  personification  of  freedom  in  the  ode  to 

liberty  in  his  Tragedy  of  Godwin.  C.’s  life  has  been  written  by  many  hands,  but  the 
best  and  most  sympathetic  sketch  of  it  is  that  given  by  prof.  D.  Masson  of  Edinburgh 
university  in  his  collected  essays. — See  The  Poetical  Works  of  Thomas  Ghatterton,  by  the 
Rev.  Walter  Skeat,  m.a.  (1875). 

CHATTOO'GA,  a co.  in  n.w.  Georgia,  on  the  Alabama  border,  intersected  by  the  C. 
river;  360  sq.m. ; pop. ’80,  10,021 — 2040  colored.  The  surface  is  somewhat  mountainous. 
Limestone,  marble,  lead,  and  iron  are  found;  and  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  cotton  are 
raised.  Co.  seat,  Summerville. 

CHAXJCEB,  Geoffrey,  the  father  of  English  poetry,  was  b.  most  probably  about 
1340,  though  the  traditional  date  is  1328.  Recent  researches  have  made  it  clear  that  C. 
was  the  son  of  John  Chaucer,  a London  vintner.  It  has  been  said  that  he  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  afterwards  removed  to  Oxford.  While  at  the  university,  he  wrote  The 
Court  of  Love,  and  The  Book  of  Troilus  and  Gresseide.  At  one  period  he  seems  to  have 
turned  his  attention  to  law,  and  to  have  become  a member  of  the  Inner  Temple.  About 
these  matters  his  biographers,  knowing  little,  have  conjectured  much.  The  only  partic- 
ular of  C.’s  youth  of  which  an  anxious  posterity  can  be  certified  is,  that  he  one  day 
thrashed  a Franciscan  friar  in  Fleet  street,  and  was  fined  two  shillings  for  the  exploit  on 
the  next.  History  has  preserved  this  for  us,  but  has  forgotten  all  the  rest  of  his  early 
life,  and  the  chronology  of  all  his  poems. 

In  1359,  C.  assures  us,  on  his  own  authority,  that  he  served  under  Edward  III.  in 
his  French  campaign,  and  was  therein  made  prisoner.  The  date  of  his  return  from 
captivity,  and  of  his  subsequent  marriage,  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  He  espoused 
Philippa,  youngest  daughter  of  sir  Payne  Roet,  whose  estates  lay  in  Hainuult.  His 
wife’s  sister,  Katherine,  ultimately  became  the  wife  of  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancas- 
ter; and  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  high  connection  thus  established  aided,  in  no  incon- 
siderable degree,  the  poet’s  advancement  in  life.  After  his  marriage,  he  began  to  mix 
in  public  affairs.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Genoa  in  1372,  and,  on  that  occasion, 
has  been  supposed  by  some  to  have  had  an  interview  with  Petrarch,  then  residing  at 
Padua,  and  to  have  heard  from  his  lips  the  story  of  Griselda.  On  his  return,  he  was 
appointed  controller  of  the  customs  for  wools,  and  in  the  same  year  the  king  panted 
him  a pitcher  of  wine  daily  for  life.  In  1377,  C.  proceeded  to  Flanders  in  the  retinue  of 
sir  Thomas  Percy,  afterwards  earl  of  Worcester;  and  for  several  years  thereafter  he  was 
employed  assiduously  in  embassies  and  other  business  connected  with  the  public  service. 
In  1386,  a commission  was  issued  to  inquire  into  alleged  abuses  in  the  department  of 


729 


Cliattoog^a. 

Chauliac. 


the  customs,  and  C.  was  dismissed  from  his  controllership  in  the  Dec.  of  that  year. 
On  meeting  this  fact,  one  cannot  help  remembering  that  Edward  made  the  writing  out 
of  the  accounts  in  C.’s  own  hand  the  condition  of  his  holding  office.  Had  the  great 
poet  neglected  his  duties?  It  has  been  conjectured  by  some,  that  after  his  disgrace  C. 
became  embarrassed  in  circumstances,  and  apparently  with  reason,  for  about  this  time 
he  canceled  both  his  pensions,  and  consigned  them  to  one  John  Seal  by,  “to  whom  they 
were  probably  sold  under  pressure  of  distress,”  says  his  latest  biographer.  In  1387,  C. 
lost  his  wife.  Where  he  spent  his  closing  years,  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  Godwin 
surmises  that  in  his  distress  he  retired  to  Woodstock,  and  composed  there  The  Canter- 
hui'y  Tales.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  tolerably  certain  that  during  the  last  years  of  his 
life  he  was  resident  in  London.  There  he  died  on  the  25th  Oct.,  1400,  aged  74,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey,  the  first  of  the  long  line  of  poets  whose  ashes  make  that 
pile  so  venerable. 

C.  was  a worthy  representative  of  the  splendid  14th  century.  He  was  a master  of 
the  science,  the  theology,  and  the  literature  of  his  time.  He  had  seen  many  men  and 
cities,  and  had  formed  no  inconsiderable  unit  in  imposing  ceremonies  of  state.  His 
poems  are  numerous,  and  exhibit  every  variety  of  poetical  excellence.  His  earlier  per- 
formances, such  as  The  Flower  and  the  Leaf,  Ihe  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  are,  after  the 
French  fashion  then  prevalent,  gorgeous  allegories  full  of  queens  and  kings,  bowers, 
bevies  of  beautiful  ladies,  brave  knights,  and  pious  nightingales  that  sing  the  praises  of 
God.  They  appeal  potentl}^  enough  to  the  eye,  but  they  do  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
touch  the  heart,  or  relate  themselves  to  human  concerns.  Quite  different  The  Canterbury 
Tales,  so  full  of  humor,  pathos,  and  shrew’d  observation.  In  these  tales,  English  life, 
as  it  then  existed,  is  wonderfully  reflected — when  the  king  tilted  in  tournament,  when 
the  knight  and  the  lady  rode  over  the  down  with  falcon  on  wrist,  w’hen  pilgrimages 
bound  for  the  tomb  of  St.  Thomas  passed  on  from  village  to  village,  when  friars  sitting 
in  tavern  over  wine  sang  songs  that  formed  a remarkable  contrast  with  the  services  they 
so  piously  and  sw^eetly  intoned.  All  that  stirring  and  gayly  appareled  time — so  different 
from  our  own — is  seen  in  C.’s  work,  as  in  some  magic  mirror;  and  in  his  case,  as  in 
every  other,  when  the  superficial  tumults  and  noises  that  so  stun  the  contemporary  ear 
have  faded  away,  leaving  behind  that  which  is  elemental  and  eternal,  the  poet  is  found 
to  be  the  truest  historian.  Among  C.’s  other  writings  maybe  mentioned.  The  Book  of 
the  Duchess;  The  House  of  Fame;  and  The  Legend  of  Good  Women.  The  genuineness  of 
The  Court  of  Love  and  of  The  Flower  and  the  Leaf  is  denied  by  Mr.  Furnivall,  and  by 
Mr.  Skeat  in  his  new  edition  of  C.  (4  vols.,  1878). 

CHAUCI,  an  important  tribe  of  ancient  Germany,  who  dwelt  between  the  Elbe  and 
the  Ems.  Tacitus  records  that  they  were  conspicuous  for  their  love  of  peace  and  jus- 
tice, being  powerful  but  not  ambitious,  ready  to  resist  aggression,  but  never  provoking 
war.  They  finally  merged  into  the  wider  designation  of  Saxons. 

CHAUDES-AIGTIES,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Cantal,  about  12  m.  s.s.w. 
of  St.  Flour.  It  is  celebrated  on  account  of  its  hot  mineral  springs,  which  have  the 
property  of  discharging  grease  from  sheep’s  wool,  and  vast  numbers  of  fleeces  are  sent 
hither  annually  to  be  washed.  The  waters  are  also  taken  for  rheumatism  and  cutaneous 
diseases.  Pop.  ’72,  1100. 

CHAUDET.  Antoine  Denis,  1763-1810;  a French  artist,  whose  statue  of  (Edipus, 
finished  in  1801,  established  for  him  a high  reputation.  He  also  excelled  in  designing 
and  penciling;  and  illustrated  the  works  of  Racine  for  Didot.  Among  his  statuary  are 
“Paul  and  Virginia,”  “Sensibility.”  “ Surprise,”  a silver  statue  of  “Peace,”  and  the 
“Napoleon”  that  crowned  the  Vendome  column.  His  wife,  Jeanne  Elizabeth  Gabion, 
was  his  pupil  in  painting,  and  produced  many  fine  pictures. 

^ CHAUDFONTAINE,  a village  charmingly  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Vesdre,  a few 
miles  from  Liege,  in  Belgium,  and  celebrated  for  a hot  spring  which  supplies  water  for 
hot-baths.  There  are  hotels  and  lodging-houses  for  the  accommodation  of  visitors. 
The  place  is  a favorite  resort  of  the  Liegois.  There  is  here  a station  on  the  railway  from 
Liege  to  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Pop.  ’73,  1393. 

CHATJDIERE,  the  name  of  a river  and  of  a lake  of  Canada.  The  river  joins  the  St. 
Lawrence  from  the  s.,  about  7 m.  above  Quebec,  forming  the  celebrated  falls  of  its  own 
name,  about  2^  m.  from  its  mouth.  The  lake — merely  one  of  the  many  expansions  of 
the  Ottawa — has  on  its  right  the  city  of  that  name,  the  metropolis  of  the  united 
colony. 

CHAUFFEURS,  or  Garkotteurs,  outlaws  during  the  French  reign  of  terror  w'ho 
roamed  over  the  country  in  organized  bands,  under  the  lead  of  Johann  Buckler,  or 
Schinderhannes.  They  garroted  men  and  women,  and  roasted  their  feet  to  compel 
them  to  disclose  treasure.  In  1803,  vigorous  measures  w’ere  taken  which  resulted  in 
their  suppression. 

CHAULIAC,  or  CHAULIEU,  Gui  de,  a surgeon  of  France,  of  the  14th  c.,  who  was 
physician  to  three  of  the  popes  of  Avignon.  In  his  profession  he  was  far  in  advance  of 
the  time,  and  his  works  are  still  regarded  as  important.  He  is  credited  with  laying  the 
foundation  of  the  modern  principles  and  practice  of  surgery.  One  of  his  "works  describes 
the  plague  or  black  death  of  1348. 


diaumette. 

Cbeadle. 


V30 


CHAUMETTE,  Pierre  Gaspard,  one  of  the  most  extravagant  characters  of  the 
French  revolution,  was  b.,  1763,  at  Nevers,  and  made  his  first  public  appearance  at  the 
Cordeliers’  club,  where  he  was  introduced  by  Camille  Desmoulins.  His  “ saMs-cuIottism” 

fained  for  him  such  popularity,  that  he  was  appointed  procurator  of  the  conmiunity  of 
*aris,  in  the  place  of  Manuel.  C.  was  very  enlhusiaslic  in  favor  of  the  “ worship  of 
reason.”  In  his  zeal,  he  rejected  his  own  Christian  name,  Pierre,  as  having  been  sullied 
by  saintly  associations,  and  styled  himself  “ Anaxagoras.”  The  institution  of  tlie  tribu- 
nal of  the  revolution,  the  decree  for  a revolutionary  army,  and  the  law  against  suspected 
aristocrats,  were  carried  into  effect  by  C.  along  with  others.  He  also  proposed  that  the 
whole  French  nation  should  be  made  to  wear  wooden  shoes,  and  to  subsist  on  potatoes; 
but  this  was  too  much  even  for  the  chimerical  enthusiasm  of  his  compatriots.  His  antics, 
however,  in  connection  with  the  “worship  of  reason”  excited  the  disgust  of  Robespierre, 
who  devised  measures  for  bringing  the  whole  company  of  actors  under  Hebert  to  the 
scaffold  C.  w'as  arrested  and  imprisoned  on  a charge  of  having  been  implicated  in  a 
plot  against  the  convention,  and  was  executed,  April  13,  1794. 

CHAUMONOT,  Pierre  Marie  Joseph,  1611-93;  a French  Jesuit  missionary  among 
the  North  American  Indians.  His  work  w^as  chiefly  among  the  Hurons  of  Canada, 
among  whom  he  established  missions  and  schools.  He  left  a grammar  of  the  Huron 
tongue.  In  165o,  he  visited  the  Onondagas. 

CHATJMONT,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Ilaute-Marne,  on  an  elevation 
between  the  rivers  Marne  and  Suize,  about  140  m.  s.e.  of  Paris.  It  is  generally  well 
built,  with  clean,  spacious  streets,  and  fine  promenades  round  the  upper  part  of  the 
town.  There  are  considerable  manufactures,  including  hosiery,  cotton,  5'arn,  gloves, 
etc.  On  the  1st  of  Mar.,  1814,  the  allied  powers  here  bound  themselves  by  treaty 
against  Napoleon,  in  the  event  of  the  negotiations  at  Chatillon  ending  unsatisfuctorih . 
Pop.  ’76,  8,791. 

CHAUNCEY,  Charles,  ll.d.,  1777-1849;  son  of  the  Connecticut  attorney-general; 
became  a member  of  the  Philadelphia  bar,  w^here  he  won  high  rank. 

CHAUNCEY,  or  CHAUNCY,  Charles,  ll.d.,  1747-1823;  a native  of  Massachusetts, 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1768,  and  settled  in  New  Haven.  He  was  attorney -general  of  the 
state,  and  in  1789,  judge  of  the  superior  court. 

CHAUNCEY,  or  CHAUNCY,  Isaac,  1772-1840;  a capt.  in  the  U.  S.  navy.  He 
began  sea-faring  life  in  the  mercantile  service,  in  which  he  was  conspicuous  for  enter- 
prise and  energy.  In  1799,  he  entered  the  navy  as  a lieut.,  and  in  1802  was  made 
acting  capt.  commanding  the  Ghesapeake,  of  38  guns,  the  flag-ship  of  the  squadron  sent 
against  Tripoli,  serving  with  distinction  in  that  brief  war.  In  1806,  be  was  made  capt., 
and  in  the  war  of  1812  had  command  on  the  great  lakes.  In  1813,  he  participated  in 
the  capture  of  York,  now  Toronto,  and  of  fort  George,  driving  the  enemy  from  the 
Ahole  of  Niagara  region.  On  one  occasion  he  captured  five  British  vessels,  and  a 
regiment  of  troops.  In  Aug.,  1814,  he  blockaded  a British  fleet  in  Kingston  harbor 
until  the  close  of  navigation.  Before  the  lake  opened  again,  peace  was  concluded.  In 
later  years  he  was  in  command  of  the  navy-yard  at  Brooklyn,  and  of  the  squadron  that 
conveyed  an  officer  to  make  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Algiers.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  was  president  of  the  board  of  navy  commissioners. 

CHAUNCY,  Charles,  1705-87;  great-grandson  of  the  president  of  Harvard,  a 

Eaduate  of  that  institution,  and  pastor  of  the  First  church  in  Boston  in  1727.  He  pub- 
hed  many  works,  among  which  were  Complete  View  of  the  Episcopacy ; Seasonable 
Thoughts  on  the  State  of  Religion  in  New  England;  Mystery  Hid  from  Ages,  or  the  Salva- 
tion of  all  Men;  and  The  Benevolence  of  the  Deity.  He  officiated  60  years  in  one  parish. 

CHAUNCY,  or  CHAUNCEY,  Charles,  1592-1672;  a native  of  England,  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  became  professor  first  of  Greek  and  afterwards  of  Hebrew. 
His  Puritanism  involved  him  in  difficulties  w'ith  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  he 
was  fined  and  imprisoned.  In  1638,  he  emigrated  to  New  England,  and  was  for  three 
years  pastor  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  and  afterwards  at  Scituate.  There  having  been  t. 
change  in  ecclesiastical  policy  in  England,  he  was  about  to  return  to  his  vicarage  in 
Ware,  when  Henry  Dunster,  the  first  president  of  Harvard  colle?e,  resigned,  and  the 
place  was  offered  to  Chauncy.  He  at  once  accepted  (1654),  and  remained  in  office  all  his 
life.  He  left  six  sons,  all  of  whom  graduated  at  Harvard,  and  all  became  preachers. 

CHATJNY,  a t.  of  France  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  about  18  m.  w.n.w.  of  Laon. 
It  is  built  partly  on  the  right  bank  of,  and  partly  on  an  island  in,  the  river  Oise,  which 
is  here  navigable.  It  is  an  old,  rather  uninteresting  place,  with  manufactures  of  sack- 
ing, hosiery,  chemicals,  and  leather,  and  an  active  trade.  Pop.  ’76,  8,982. 

CHAUSSES,  in  the  armor  of  the  middle  ages,  were  defense-pieces  for  the  legs.  Some 
were  made  of  padded  and  quilted  cloth,  with  metal  studs;  some  of  chain-mail;  some  of 
riveted  plates;  and  some  of  banded  mail.  It  was  not  unusual  to  fasten  them  by  lacing 
behind  the  leg. 

CHAUTAU'QUA,  a co.  in  w.  N,  Y.,  having  lake  Erie  on  the  n.  and  Pennsylvania 
on  the  s.  and  w. ; drained  by  Conewango  creek,  and  traversed  by  the  Erie,  the  Lake 
Shore,  the  Atlantic  and  Great  Western,  and  other  railroads;  1000  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 


731 


Chaumette. 

Clieadle. 


65,340.  Among  mineral  productions  are  iron  and  marble;  also  there  are  sulphur  springs, 
and  natural  gas,  which  has  been  successfully  used  in  lighting  houses.  The  surface  is 
mostly  level,  and  the  soil  fertile,  producing  wheat,  oats,  corn,  barley,  potatoes,  hay, 
cheese,  butter,  wool,  and  maple  sugar.  Co.  seat,  Mayville.  See  Jamestown. 

CHAUTAU'QUA  LAKE,  in  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y.,  730  ft.  above  the  level  of  lake 
Erie  and  1290  ft.  above  the  ocean.  It  is  18  m.  long  and  1 to  3 wide,  with  a navigable 
outlet  to  Alleghany  river. 

CHAUVEAU,  Pierre  J.  O.,  b.  Quebec,  1820.  In  1844,  he  w^as  chosen  to  the  pro- 
vincial legislature,  became  solicitor-general  in  1851,  and  provincial  secretary  in  1853.  In 
1855,  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  education  for  Lower  Canada.  On  the  organi- 
zation of  the  confederation,  he  became  first  minister  of  the  government  of  Quebec,  and 
in  1873  was  chosen  speaker  of  the  Canadian  senate.  He  is  the  author  of  Charles  Guerin, 
the  first  Canadian-French  novel  ever  published.  , 

CHAUVEKET,  William,  ll.d.,  1819-70;  b.  Penn.;  a graduate  of  Yale,  and  long 
connected  with  Alexander  D.  Bache  in  magnetic  and  meteorological  observations  at 
Girard  college.  In  1841,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  navy,  and 
assisted  in  the  establishment  of  the  naval  academy  at  Annapolis  and  of  its  observatory, 
of  which  he  was  made  director.  He  was  for  a time  professor  of  mathematics  and  astron- 
omy in  Washington  university  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Among  his  works  are  Manual  of 
Spherical  and  Practical  Astronomy;  The  Binomial  Theorem  of  Exponents  and  of  Loga- 
rithms; and  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry. 

CHAUVIN,  Etienne,  1640-1725;  a minister  of  the  reformed  religion,  b.  at  Nimes. 
At  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  he  went  to  Rotterdam,  and  in  1695,  he  was  made 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Berlin.  His  principal  work  is  a Lexicon  Rationale,  sire  The- 
saurus Philosophicus.  He  also  wrote  Theses  de  Cognitione  Dei,  and  started  the  Eoureau 
Journal  des  Savants. 

CHATTVINISME.  “Chauvin”  was  the  name  of  the  principal  character  in  a French 
comedy,  which  was  played  with  immense  success  at  the  time  of  the  restoration.  He 
represented  a bragging  veteran  of  the  empire,  who  was  continually  talking  of  nis 
achievements  at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  and  his  determination  to  take  a brilliart  revenge 
for  Waterloo.  Since  then,  a chauviniste  has  come  to  mean  a man  who  has  extravagant 
and  narrow-minded  notions  of  patriotism,  and  corresponding  enmity  towards  foreign 
peoples. 

, CHATTX  DE  FONDS,  a t.  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Neuchatel.  9 m.  n.w.  of  the 
city  of  that  name.  It  is  situated  in  a bleak  valley,  at  an  elevation  of  3,070  ft.  above  the 
sea,  and  is  scattered  over  a large  area,  almost  every  cottage  being  surrounded  by  a gar- 
den or  croft.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  manufacture  of  clocks  and  watches  in 
the  canton.  The  mechanists  work  chiefly  at  home,  each  devoting  himself  to  a par- 
ticular portion  of  machinery.  This  industry  employs  12,000  hands.  Pop.  ’71,  19,930- 

CHA'VES,  a t.  in  Portugal,  near  the  frontier,  on  a plain  near  the  right  branch  of 
the  Tamega,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  old  Roman  bridge  of  18  arches;  pop.  4,870, 
but  formerly  as  many  as  20,000.  Its  hot  saline  springs  were  known  to  the  ancients.  In 
one  of  its  churches  is  the  tomb  of  Alpbonso  I. 

CHAYENPTJR',  a fortified  t.  of  Nepaul,  in  the  n.  of  India,  about  120  m.  to  the  e.  of 
Khatmandu,  the  capital  of  the  state,  being  in  lat.  27°  20'  n.,  and  long.  87°  3'  east.  It  is 
the  chief  town  of  a district  which  yields  rice,  wheat,  cotton,  ghee  or  butter,  timber, 
spices,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  pearls. 

CHAY  ROOT,  Choya,  or  Sayan  {oldenlandia  umhellata),  a perennial  herbaceous  plant 
of  the  natural  order  cinchonacem,  said  to  be  a native  both  of  India  and  of  Mexico.  It  is 
cultivated  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel  for  the  sake  of  its  long,  orange-colored  roots,  the 
bark  of  which  affords  a beautiful  red  dye.  The  quality  of  the  bark  is  said  to  be  improved 
by  keeping  it  for  some  years.  It  is  the  coloring  matter  obtained  from  C.  R.  which  is 
used  to  paint  the  red  figures  on  chintz.  C.  R.  is  the  Indian  madder,  and  in  it  some 
tribes  in  Ceylon  formerly  paid  their  tribute. 

CHAZELLES,  Jean  Mathieu  de,  1657-1710;  a mathematician  and  engineer;  b.  at 
Lyons.  He  was  for  some  time  employed  by  Cassini  in  measuring  an  arc  of  the  meri- 
dian, and  finally  became  hydrographic  professor  for  the  galleys  at  Marseilles.  In  1689, 
he  set  sail  from  Rochefort  with  15  galleys,  cruised  as  far  as  Torbay,  in  England,  and 
took  part  in  the  descent  upon  Teignmouth.  C.  published  many  maps  and  charts 
in  the  Neptune  Frangais,  and  traveled  to  Egypt,  where  he  measured  the  pyramids.  He 
was  made  a member  of  the  academy  in  1695. 

CHAZY,  a village  and  township  in  Clinton  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  w.  shore  of  lake  Cham- 
plain; the  village  on  the  Plattsburg  and  Montreal  railroad;  pop.  of  town,  ’75^  3,068. 
One  of  the  mineral  products  of  the  township  is  the  C.  limestone,  of  the  lower  Silurian 
formation. 

CHEA'DLE,  a small  but  neat  market-t.  of  England,  in  the  moorland  district  of  the 
n.  part  of  the  co.  of  Stafford,  14  m.  n.n.e.  of  the  town  of  Stafford,  3 m.  from  the  Frog- 
hall  station  on  the  Churnet  valley  branch  of  the  North  Staffordshire  railway,  and  4 rn. 
from  the  Blyth  bridge  station  on  the  main  line  from  Derby  to  Crewe.  The  town  is; 


Cheatham. 

Cheese. 


732 


seated  in  a pleasant  vale,  surrounded  by  hills  mostly  planted  with  fir  and  other  trees. 
The  parish  church  (St.  Giles)  was  a very  ancient  structure,  but  was  rebuilt  in  1837-38. 
A magnificent  Roman  Catholic  church,  erected  at  the  sole  expense  of  John,  earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  was  opened  in  1846.  There  are  several  dissenting  chapels,  various  schools, 
a rnechanics’  institute,  a large  tape  manufactory,  and  also  one  for  silk.  There  are 
copper  and  brass  works  a short  distance  from  the  town,  and  coal  and  limestone 
abound  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  ’71,  2,929. 

CHEATHAM,  a co.  in  n.w.  Tennessee,  on  Cumberland  river;  350  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
\79o5 — 1661  colored.  Chief  productions,  corn,  oats,  and  tobacco.  Co.  seat,  Ashland 
City. 

CHEATING.  In  the  technical  language  of  the  English  law,  C.  means  the  offense  of 
fraudulently  obtaining  the  property  of  another  by  any  deceitful  or  illegal  practice  short 
of  felony,  but  in  such  a way  as  that  the  public  interest  may  possibly  be  affected.  In 
order  to  constitute  C.,  the  fraud  must  be  of  such  a kind  as  that  it  could  not  be 
guarded  against  by  common  prudence.  C.,  in  this  sense,  is  an  offense  at  common  law, 
and  indictable,  which  is  not  the  case  with  imposition  in  a private  transaction.  The 
law  of  Scotland  has  no  such  distinction.  See  Weights  and  Measures,  False  Pre- 
tences, Character  to  Servant. 

CHEATING  {ante),  defined  in  American  law  as  “deceitful  practices  in  defrauding 
or  endeavoring  to  defraud  another  of  his  known  right,  by  some  willful  device  contrary 
to  the  plain  rules  of  common  honesty.”  Bouvier  says:  “In  order  to  constitute  a 
cheat  or  indictable  fraud,  there  must  be  a prejudice  received,  or  such  injury  must 
affect  the  public  welfare,  or  have  a tendency  to  do  so.”  Courts  have  held  that  it  is 
not  indictable  for  a person  to  obtain  goods  by  false  verbal  representations  of  his  credit 
in  society,  and  of  his  ability  to  pay  for  them;  or  to  violate  his  contract,  however 
fraudulently  it  may  be  broken;  or  fraudulently  to  deliver  a less  quantity  than  was 
contracted  for  and  represented.  To  cheat  one  of  his  money  or  goods  by  false  weights 
or  measures  has  always  been  an  indictable  offense.  The  word  “cheat”  is  not  actionable 
unless  spoken  of  a plaintiff  in  relation  to  his  profession  or  business. 

CHEAT  RIVER,  a stream  in  West  Virginia,  formed  by  brooks  rising  in  the  Alle- 
ghany mountains,  flowing  through  a region  rich  in  iron  and  coal,  and  joining  the 
Monongaliela  in  Fayette  co.  It  furnishes  abundant  water-power,  and  is  in  some  parts 
navigable  for  steam-boats. 

CHEBOY'GAN,  a co.  in  n.  Michigan,  forming,  with  Emmett  co.,  the  extreme  north- 
ern portion  of  the  peninsula;  500  sq.m.  ; pop.  ’80,  6524.  It  contains  a number  of  small 
lakes.  Agriculture  is  the  main  business.  Co.  seat,  Duncan. 

CHECK,  a variegated  cloth,  the  pattern  of  which  consists  of  rectangular  spaces  like 
a chess-board  (Fr.  echec,  chess),  in  black  and  white,  or  of  various  colors. 

CHECK  is  a money  order  on  a banker  or  other  party  having  funds  of  the  drawer.  It 
must  bear  a penny  stamp,  and  is  payable  to  bearer  on  demand.  If  not  presented 
within  a reasonable  time  the  holder  shall  not  claim  against  the  drawer  should  the  banker 
fail.  The  banker  bears  the  risk  of  forgery,  unless  facilitated  by  carelessness  in  draw- 
ing. A.  C.  is  held  as  payment  of  a debt  until  dishonored  on  presentation;  it  is  not 
payable  after  the  drawer’s  death. 

Crossed  Check  is  an  ordinary  C.  with  two  transverse  lines  drawn  across  it,  which 
has  the  effect  of  making  it  payable  only  through  a banker.  When  a particular 
banker’s  name  is  written  between  the  lines  the  C.  is  said  to  be  specially  crossed,  and 
is  only  payable  by  the  banker  whose  name  it  bears.  Wanting  a particular  name,  it  is 
said  to  be  generally  crossed,  and  is  payable  through  any  banker.  An  ordinary  C.  may 
be  crossed  either  generally  or  specially  by  the  holder.  Obliteration  of  the  crossing  or 
any  alteration  of  a C. , except  as  provided  for  by  the  crossed  checks  act  (1876),  is  felony. 

CHECKERBERRY.  See  Gaultheria,  ante. 

CHECKERS.  See  Draughts,  ante. 

CHECKY  (Fr.  echiquete).  In  heraldry,  when  the  field  or  any  charge  is  composed  of 
small  squares  of  different  tinctures,  generally  metal  and  color,  it  is  said  to  be  cheeky. 

CHEDDAR,  a village  in  Somersetshire,  on  the  s.  side  of  the  Mendip  hills,  2 m.  s.e.  of 
Axbridge,  with  a level  country  to  the  south.  It  lies  at  the  entrance  of  a deep  rocky 
gorge,  nearly  1 m.  long,  overhung  by  stupendous  mural  limestone  precipices,  contain- 
ing caverns — one  being  300  ft.  long — filled  with  fantastic  stalactites  and  stalagmites. 
The  celebrated  C.  cheeses  are  produced  on  the  rich  grass-farms  around.  The  church  is 
supposed  to  have  been  built  about  1400,  and  has  a sculptured  stone  pulpit.  Pop.  of 
parish  ’71,  2,200. 

CH^lDOTEL.  the  pilot  of  the  expedition  sent  from  France  in  1598  to  the  coasts  of 
Nova  Scotia,  under  command  of  the  marquis  de  la  Roche.  Arriving  at  Au  Sable  island 
(90  m.  s.e.  of  Nova  Scotia,  au  uninhabited  island  25  m.  long  by  1 to  li  wide),  50  men 
were  landed,  and  the  ships  departed  for  the  mainland  But  weather  prevented  a land- 
ing at  the  island  on  returning,  and  the  men  were  left  there  seven  years.  In  1605,  they 
were  sent  for,  and  12  only  were  found  alive. 


733 


Cheatham. 

Cheese. 


CHEDTI'BA,  an  island  off  Aracan,  in  the  bay  of  Bengal,  stretching  from  lat.  18°  40'  to 
J8°  56'  n,,  and  from  long,  93°  31'  to  93°  50'  e.  Its  area  is  about  250  sq.m.,  and  its  pop. 
6,000.  Along  with  the  adjacent  mainland,  it  was  ceded  to  the  British  at  the  close  of  the 
first  Burmese  war.  The  soil  is  fertile,  yielding  rice,  tobacco,  sugar,  indigo,  cotton, 
hemp,  and  large  quantities  of  a vegetable  oil,  equally  fitted  for  burning  and  for  varnish- 
ing. The  principal  mineral  is  petroleum.  The  coast  presents  earthy  cones,  which  emit 
mud  and  gas,  and  about  100  years  ago  a severe  earthquake  is  believed  to  have  extended 
the  limits  of  the  island. 

CHEESE  is  the  common  form  in  which  the  caseine  (q.v.)  of  milk  is  used  in  a separate 
state  as  an  article  of  food.  In  new  milk,  the  C.  is  present  in  a condition  soluble  in 
water,  and  is  generally  separated  therefrom  in  a coagulated  or  clotted  form,  on  the 
addition  of  a little  rennet  (q.v.).  In  the  preparation  of  C.,  the  milk  is  gently  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  110°  to  112°  F.,  and  placed  in  a large  wooden  tub,  where  the  rennet  is 
added,  and  the  operation  of  earning  goes  ou.  In  about  half  an  hour,  the  curd  is  suffi- 
ciently formed.  The  liquid  whey  being  pressed  out,  the  curd  is  chopped  into  small 
pieces  of  the  size  of  a walnut  with  a knife,  called  a curd-cutter,  salt  is  added,  and  the 
fragments  of  curd  introduced  into  a cloth  placed  in  a cheese- vat  or  chessart,  which  is  a 
wooden  tub  of  varying  size  and  shape,  perforated  at  the  sides  and  bottom.  The  whole 
is  then  put  under  a cheese-press  (q.v.),  and  subjected  to  great  pressure,  which  consoli- 
dates the  curd  or  caseine,  and  at  the  same  time  squeezes  out  the  remaining  portions  of 
the  whey.  After  two  or  three  hours,  the  half-formed  C.  is  turned  and  re-turned,  each 
time  being  subjected  to  renewed  pressure,  till  in  about  two  days  it  is  sufficiently  com- 
pacted. It  is  then  removed  from  the  cheese-vat,  and  placed  on  a shelf  in  a dry,  airy 
room,  where,  being  repeatedly  turned,  it  gradually  dries,  and  gets  aged  or  seasoned 
sufficiently  for  market  in  about  six  months. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  C.,  which  partly  owe  their  difference  to  the  food  of  the 
•cows,  but  in  greater  part  to  differences  in  the  mode  of  treating  the  milk.  8kimmed-milk 
C.  is  prepared  from  milk  from  which  the  cream  has  been  removed,  and  a rich  color  is 
communicated  by  adding  a little  arnotto  (q.v.)  to  the  milk  before  coagulation.  Sweet-milk 
C.  is  procured  in  a similar  manner  from  the  whole  milk,  and  contains  much  of  the  but- 
ter along  with  the  caseine.  Stilton  G.  is  made  in  Leicestershire,  by  adding  the  cream 
of  the  evening’s  milk  to  the  new  milk  of  next  morning;  and  as  there  is  always  more 
trouble  in  expelling  the  whey  from  curd  containing  butter,  there  is  a difficulty  in  prepar- 
ing this  variety  of  C.,  from  its  liability  to  fermentation  and  bursting,  Cheddar  C.  is 
made  in  Somersetshire,  from  the  whole  milk,  and  the  whey  is  several  times  skimmed 
cff,  heated,  and  added  to  the  curd  to  scald  it.  {yheshire  and  Double  Gloucester  are  made 
from  the  whole  milk;  Single  Gloucester,  from  half  new  milk  and  half  skimmed  milk. 
Gouda  G.  is  prepared  in  Holland  from  skimmed  milk  curdled  by  muriatic  acid  instead 
of  rennet,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  not  infested  with  mites.  Holland  exports  annually 
about  thirty  millions  of  pounds  of  C.,  the  greater  portion  coming  to  England.  Sufolk 
C.  is  made  from  skimmed  milk.  Parmesan  (7. , obtained  from  Parma,  in  Italy,  is  also 
made  from  skimmed  milk,  and  owes  its  fine  rich  flavor  to  the  superior  herbage  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Po.  The  cows  are  kept  in  the  house  nearly  all  the  year  round,  and 
fed  in  summer  with  cut  grass.  Some  of  the  cheeses  are  so  large  as  to  contain  180  lbs. ; 
and  the  milk  of  100  cows  is  required  to  produce  one  of  this  size.  Siciss  G.  is  flavored 
with  herbs,  and  especially  that  of  GruySre,  which  is  very  pleasant  to  the  taste.  Gruy^re 
cheeses  weigh  from  40  to  60  lbs.  each,  and  are  exported  in  large  quantities. 

Cream  G.  is  prepared  from  cream  curd  which  has  been  placed  in  a cloth,  and  allowed 
to  drain  without  the  assistance  of  pressure.  Bath  and  York  supply  0.  of  this  descrip- 
tion. In  the  fabrication  of  C.,  minium  or  red-lead  has  occasionally  been  employed  as  a 
cheap  coloring  substance,  and  cases  of  poisoning  have  resulted  therefrom.  "Carrots, 
saffron,  and  marigold  flowers  have  also  been  used  for  imparting  color  as  well  as 
flavor. 

Dunlop  G.,  though  nowhere  so  well  made  as  in  the  parish  at  Ayrshire,  from  which 
it  derives  its  name,  is  now  manufactured  in  the  dairy  districts  of  Scotland  generally. 
The  cheeses  are  made  of  various  sizes — from  a quarter  to  half  a hundredweight.  Some- 
times the  entire  milk  is  used,  but  generally  the  cream  is  removed  from  the  evening’s 
milking.  Of  late  years,  great  improvement  has  taken  place  in  the  manufacture  of  C. 
in  the  Scottish  dairy  districts,  Ayrshire,  Lanarkshire,  Wigton,  and  Kirkcudbright. 
Much  of  what  is  sold  as  Cheddar  (q.v.)  C.  is  really  made  in  Scotland.  The  annual  Kil- 
marnock “cheese  show  ” is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  the  value  of  the  C.  exhibited 
being  often  more  than  £20,000. 

When  sufficiently  dry  for  use,  C.  still  retains  from  35  to  44  per  cent  water,  and, 
besides  the  caseine,  contains  a greater  or  less  proportion  of  oil  or  fat  and  saline  matter 
— the  latter  mainly  consisting  of  common  salt,  originally  present  in  the  milk,  and  added 
during  the  manufacture  of  the  cheese.  As  an  article  of  diet,  C.  is  highly  nutritious; 
but  from  its  costive  properties,  it  is  mainly  used  as  a condiment  in  small  quantity  after 
an  ordinary  meal,  and  is  then  serviceable  in  giving  an  impetus  to  the  process  of  diges- 
tion. To  serve  the  purpose  of  a digester,  C.  must  be  old  and  partially  decayed,  or  moldy. 
It  then  acts  as  leaven,  and  causes  chemical  changes  gradually  to  commence  among  the 
particles  of  food  which  has  previously  been  eaten,  and  thus  facilitates  the  dissolution 
^hich  necessarily  precedes  digestion. 


Cheese. 

Cheiromancy* 


734 


Cheese  Press. — The  old  method  of  compressing  curd  and  expelling  the  whey  from 
it  is  still  employed  in  many  places,  the  mere  piling  of  weights  on  the  cheese-vat.  Some- 
times the  action  of  a screw  is  employed.  Among  improved  dairy  implements  are  now 
reckoned,  however,  many  ingenious  and  elegant  forms  of  C.  press,  generally  depending 
on  the  action  of  a lever.  They  are  much  more  convenient  than  the  clumsy  contrivance 
which  they  have  superseded.  Factories  for  the  manufacture  of  C.  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  by  which  C.  is  produced  in  immense  quantities, 
and  a factory  on  a similar  principle  has  been  lately  established  in  Derbyshire.  The  C. 
made  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is  now  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  immense 
quantities,  and  is  steadily  increasing  in  favor. 

CHEESE  {ante),  manufactured  in  immense  quantity  in  the  eastern  and  northern 
United  States,  particularly  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Penn- 
sylvania, Wisconsin,  and  Michigan.  Of  163,000,000  lbs.  returned  as  made  in  the  census 
year  of  1870,  101,000,000  lbs.  were  made  in  N.  Y.  State.  Within  recent  years  nearly  all 
descriptions  of  foreign  cheese  are  imitated  in  this  country,  and  the  most  of  the  imitations 
are  equal  to  the  imported  article.  Many  farmers  have  ceased  to  manufacture  C.  in  their 
own  dairies.  The  milk  is  taken  to  large  factories,  where  it  is  weighed  and  emptied  into 
a common  receptacle.  The  processes  following  are  directed  by  trained  superintendents, 
and  the  average  product  is  greatly  improved.  The  farmers  receive  either  payment  for 
the  milk  as  brought,  or  a share  in  the  proceeds  of  the  manufacture. 

CHEESE-HOFFEB,  the  larva  of  piophila  casei  or  tyrophaga  casei,  a small  dipterous  (two- 
winged) fly,  of  the  large  family  muscides,  the  same  to  which  the  house-fly,  blow-fly,  etc., 
belong.  The  perfect  insect  is  about  a line  and  a half  in  length,  mostly  of  a shining  black 
color;  antennae,  forehead,  and  some  parts  of  the  legs  rufous.  It  is  a pest  of  dairies  and 
store  closets,  laying  its  eggs  in  cracks  or  crevices  of  cheese,  the  destined  food  of  its  larvae. 
To  preserve  cheeses  from  this  pest,  it  is  of  advantage  to  brush  or  rub  them  frequently, 
and  to  remove  all  cracked  or  injured  cheeses  from  large  stores,  besides  keeping  them  dry 
and  in  a well-aired  place.  The  same  rules  are  applicable  to  their  preservation  from  the 
other  insect  larvae  by  which  they  are  sometimes  infested,  of  which  the  most  notable  are 
those  of  the  bacon  beetle  (see  Dermestes),  and  of  another  species  of  dipterous  fly,  musca 
corvina. 


CHEESHAHTEAUMUCK,  Caleb,  an  Indian,  b.  1646;  the  only  aboriginal  graduate 
of  Harvard  college. 

CHEE  TAH,  Chit'tah,  or  Hunting  Leopard,  Felisjulata  or  Cynailurus  juhatus,  an 
animal  of  the  feline  family,  but  differing  from  all  the  rest  of  that  family  in  its  longer 
and  narrower  feet  and  less  retractile  claws,  which  are  also  more  blunt  and  less  curved. 
With  these  peculiarities  are  associated  a greater  length  of  limbs  than  is  usual  in  feline 
animals,  adapting  it  to  take  its  prey  by  running  rather  than  by  leaping,  and  an  intelli- 
gent and  tractable  disposition,  constituting  an  additional  point  of  resemblance  to  dogs; 
with  which,  however,  the  form  oi  the  head  and  the  internal  anatomy  have  nothing  in 
common,  but  are  entirely  feline.  The  C.  is  in  size  about  equal  to  a leopard,  but  the 
body  and  limbs  are  longer.  It  is  very  widely  distributed,  being  found  in  Senegal, 
s.  Africa,  Persia,  India,  Sumatra,  etc.  Its  geographic  range  extends  as  far  n.  as  the 
Caspian  sea,  and  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz  Tartars.  The  Asiatic  species  described  as 
fells  renatica  appears  to  have  been  fully  identified  with  F.  jubata;  and  differences  in 
the  quantity  of  mane,  and  other  unimportant  particulars,  may  probably  sometimes  have 
resulted  from  domestication;  for  this  animal  has  been  long  domesticated  and  employed 
in  the  chase,  both  in  Persia,  where  it  is  called  youze,  and  in  India.  Deer  and  antelopes 
are  the  game  principally  hunted  with  the  C.,  and  packs  are  kept  by  Indian  princes. 
The  head  of  the  C.  is  kept  covered  with  a leather  hood  till  the  game  is  di.scovered,  when 
the  hunting  party,  advancing  cautiou.sly  to  within  200  yards  of  it,  the  hood  is  taken  off, 
and  the  C.  steathily  creeps  towards  the  herd,  taking  advantage  of  every  bush  and 
inequality  for  concealment,  till,  on  their  showing  alarm,  he  is  amongst  them  at  a few 
bounds,  and  striking  down  his  victim  with  a blow  of  his  paw,  instantly  tears  open  its 
throat,  and  begins  to  suck  the  blood.  It  is  then  somewhat  difficult  to  withdraw  him 
from  his  prey,  which  is  generally  done  by  offering  him  meat.  If  unsuccessful,  the  C. 
does  not  attempt  to  follow  the  herd  by  running — nor  does  this  animal  seem  to  possess  the 
power  of  maintaining  speed  through  a lengthened  chase— but  slowly,  and  as  if  ashamed, 
creeps  back  to  the  hunters.  The  C,  is  not  unfrequently  to  be  seen  in  menageries  in 
Britain.  In  a domesticated  state,  it  is  extremely  fond  of  attention,  and  seems  to  repay 
kindness  with  affection.  The  skin  is  frequently  imported  from  Africa. 

CHEEVER,  Ezekiel,  1615-1708;  b.  in  England;  came  to  New  England  in  1637,  and 
assisted  in  founding  New  Haven  colony,  in  which  he  became  prominent  as  a deacon,  a 
minister,  and  especially  as  a teacher.  He  also  taught  in  Ipswich,  Charlestown,  and 
Boston,  being  at  the  head  of  the  famous  Latin  school  in  Boston  for  38  years.  He  pre- 
pared tlie  Accidence,  a short  Introduction  to  the  Latin  Tongue,  and  wrote  Scripture  Freyphe- 
cies  Explained,  in  three  short  Essays. 

CHEEVER,  George  Barrell,  d.d.,  b.  Me.,  1807;  a graduate  of  Bowdoin  college 
and  Andover  tlieological  seminary,  and  in  1832  ordained  pastor  of  a Congregational 
church  in  Salem,  Mass,  He  began  at  an  early  age  to  write  for  the  press,  contributing 


735 


Cheese. 

Cheiromancj* 


prose  and  verse  to  tlie  current  magazines  and  quarterlies.  The  Unitarian  controversy 
attracted  his  attention,  and  he  wrote  a defense  of  the  orthodox  system  of  Cudworth. 
Temperance  also  became  a leading  idea,  and  in  1835  he  published  in  a Salem  newspaper 
Deacon  Giles's  Distillery,  a bitterly  satirical  allegory  which  had  a wonderful  popularity. 
The  author  was  prosecuted,  and  sent  to  prison  for  a month.  After  some  time  passed  in 
European  travel  he  took  charge  of  the  Allen  street  Presbyterian  church  in  New  York 
city,  and  soon  afterwards  gave  a series  of  lectures  on  the  “Pilgrim’s  Progress”  and  on 
“Hierarchal  Despotism.”  After  another  trip  across  the  sea  he  became  the  leading 
editor  of  the  Evangelist,  a weekly  religious  journal  in  New  York,  for  which  he  had  been 
a correspondent.  In  1846,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Puritans  (Congrega- 
tional) in  New  York  city,  retaining  that  office  until  1868,  when  the  church,  whose  ground- 
lease  had  expired  and  which  was  weakened  by  dissensions,  disbanded.  His  ministry 
there  was  amid  the  fierce  debate  which  preceded  the  war  of  the  rebellion.  Since  that 
time  he  has  not  been  in  the  active  ministry,  and  has  resided  at  Englewood,  N.  J.  He 
has  written  many  essays  and  books,  among  which  are,  Studies  in  Poetry;  Lectures  on  the 
Pilgrim's  Progress;  Wanderings  of  a Pilgrim;  Windings  of  the  River  of  the  Water  of  Life; 
Voices  of  Nature;  Powers  of  the  World  to  Come;  God  against  Slavery;  and  The  Guilt  of 
Slavery  and  Grime  of  Slave-holding. 

CHEEVER,  Henry  TriEODORB,  b.  Me.,  1814;  brother  of  George  B. ; a graduate  of 
Bowdoin,  and  correspondent  abroad  of  the  Evangelist  of  New  York.  He  was  a Congre- 
gational  minister  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Connecticut,  and  secretary  and  agent 
of  the  church  anti-slavery  society  from  its  beginning.  He  published  several  books  of 
travel,  memoirs,  etc. 

CHE-FOO,  or  Yen-tai,  a seaport  t.  of  n.  China,  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Pih' 
chih-ti,  in  the  province  of  Shantung,  30  m.  e.  of  Tang-chow-foo.  It  was  a place  of 
small  consequence  until,  under  the  treaty  of  1858,  it  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  as  the 
port  of  Tang-chow.  There  is  now  a custom-house,  a British  consulate,  and  a considerable 
foreign  settlement.  The  imports  are  chiefly  woolen  and  cotton  goods,  iron,  and  opium; 
the  exports  bean-cake,  bean-oil,  peas,  raw  silk,  straw  braid,  dried  fruit,  etc.  There  is 
some  trade  with  the  Russians  in  Mantchuria. 

CHEHA'LIS,  a co.  in  Washington  territory,  on  the  Pacific;  1600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
921.  Gray’s  harbor,  one  of  the  few  places  of  refuge  from  the  ocean,  is  in  this  county. 
Co.  seat,  Montesano. 

CHEILOANGIOS'COPY,  a method  of  observing  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
Heretofore,  with  the  exception  of  a single  experiment  the  evidence  of  circulation  in  the 
human  subject  has  been  entirely  circumstantial,  derived  from  the  facts  of  structure  of 
the  circulatory  organs,  and  from  the  manner  in  which  the  blood  flows  from  several 
arteries  and  veins.  But  by  means  of  a simple  arrangement,  invented  by  Dr.  C.  Hliter, 
a German,  it  is  now  possible  for  one  to  witness  the  actual  flow  of  blood  in  the  blood- 
vessels of  another  person,  and  that  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  detect  any  abnormality  in 
the  circulation,  and  so  to  obtain  invaluable  assistance  in  the  diagnosis  of  disease.  In 
Dr.  Hiiter’s  arrangement  the  patient’s  head  is  fixed  in  a frame,  something  like  that  used 
by  photographers,  on  which  is  a contrivance  for  supporting  a microscope  and  lamp. 
The  lower  lip  is  drawn  out,  and  fixed,  by  means  of  clips,  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope, 
with  its  inner  surface  upward;  a strong  light  is  thrown  on  this  surface  by  a condenser, 
and  the  microscope,  provided  with  a low-power  objective,  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
delicate  net-work  of  vessels,  which  can  be  seen  in  the  position  indicated,  even  with  the 
naked  eye.  The  appearance  presented  is,  at  first,  as  if  the  vessels  were  filled  with  red 
injection.  But  by  focussing  a small  superficial  vessel,  the  observer  is  soon  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  movement  of  the  blood-stream,  rendered  evident  by  the  speck-like  red 
corpuscles,  the  flow  of  which,  in  the  corkscrew-like  capillaries,  is  said  by  Hliter  to  be 
especially  beautiful.  The  colorless  corpuscles  are  distinguishable  as  minute  white 
specks,  occurring  now  and  again  in  the  course  of  the  red  stream.  Beside  the  phenomena 
of  the  circulation,  the  cells  of  pavement-epithelium  lining  the  lip,  and  their  nuclei,  can 
readily  be  distinguished,  as  well  as  the  apertures  of  the  mucous  glands.  Beside  the 
normal  circulation,  various  pathological  conditions  can  be  observed.  By  a pressure 
quite  insufficient  to  cause  pain,  the  phenomena  of  blood  stagnation — the  stoppaiie  of  the 
flow,  and  the  gradual  change  in  the  color  of  the  blood  from  bright  red  to  purple — are 
seen.  A momentary  stoppage  is  also  produced  by  touching  the  lip  with  ice,  a more 
enduring  stasis  by  certain  reagents,  such  as  glycerine  or  ammonia. 

CHEIRAN'THUS.  See  Wallflower. 

CHEIROL'EFIS,  a genus  of  fossil  ganoid  fish,  peculiar  to  the  Devonian  measures,  in 
which  eight  species  have  been  found.  They  had  large  heads,  the  spine  continued  in  a 
rudimentary  condition,  and  the  body  was  completely  covered  with  small  lozenge-shaped 
ganoid  scales.  The  first  ray  of  each  fin  was  converted  into  a strong  spine,  whose  base 
was  loosely  imbedded  in  the  flesh.  The  pectorals  and  ventrals  were  largely  developed, 
while  the  dorsal  was  small,  and  situated  behind  the  anal  fin.  The  generic  name,  mean- 
ing “scaly-hand,”  was  given  in  allusion  to  the  large  scaly  pectorals. 

CHEIB'OMANCT  (Gr.  cheir,  the  hand;  manteia,  prophecy),  or  Palmistry,  a form  of 
divination  that  professes  to  read  the  destiny  of  an  individual  by  the  lineaments  of  the 


Cheiromys. 

Chelsea. 


736 


hand.  In  the  middle  ages,  C.  occupied  the  attention  of  Cardan,  Paracelsus,  and  other 
eminent  men,  who  elaborated  it  into  a system.  It  is  now,  however,  the  exclusive  prop- 
erty of  the  gypsies,  who  still  find  among  maid-servants  suflBcient  credulity  to  make  its 
practice  profitable. 

CHEIR  OMYS.  See  Aye-aye. 

CHEIRONEC'TES,  a genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds,  differing  from  the  opossums 
chiefly  in  having  webbed-feet  and  aquatic  habits.  G.  palmatus  or  G.  Yapock,  sometimes 
called  the  Yapock  opossum,  or  simply  the  Yapock,  from  the  South  American  river  of 
that  name,  is  common  in  many  rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana.  It  has  a soft  woolly  fur., 
the  color  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  body  is  gray,  with  large  transverse  patches  of  black, 
connected  with  a dorsal  black  line,  the  breast  and  belly  white;  the  tail  is  long,  very 
thick  at  the  base,  tapering  to  the  tip,  and,  except  at  the  base,  covered  with  scales.  The 
cheek-pouches  are  very  large.  Crustaceans  are  said  to  form  the  chief  food  of  this 
animal,  which  is  interesting  as  a sort  of  marsupial  representative  of  the  otter. 

CHEIROP  TERA.  See  Bat. 

CHEIROTHE'RITJM,  the  name  given  by  Dr.  Kaup  to  the  animal  which  produced  the 
peculiar  hand-like  impressions  (hence  the  name,  “ hand-beast  ”)  on  the  triassic  rocks  of 
this  country  and  Germany.  The  remains  of  the  animal  having  been  found,  and  its 
structure  made  out,  this  name  has  given  place  to  the  more  characteristic  one  of 
labyrinthodon  (q.v,). 

CHEKE,  Sir  John,  who  deserves  to  be  remembered  as  one  of  the  revivers  of  classical 
literature  in  England  during  the  16th  c.,  was  born  at  Cambridge,  June  16,  1514.  Enter- 
ing the  university  of  Cambridge,  he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  the  study  of  Latin 
and  Greek,  particularly  the  latter  language,  then  much  neglected  in  England.  He 
labored  earnestly  to  advance  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and  literature;  and  when 
the  first  professorship  of  Greek  was  founded  in  Cambridge  by  king  Henry  VIII. , about 
1540,  C.  was  appointed  professor.  A new  mode  of  pronouncing  Greek  which  he  intro- 
duced was  assailed  by  bishop  Gardiner,  the  chancellor  of  the  university ; but  notwith- 
standing, C.’s  system  prevailed.  C.  was  for  a time  preceptor  of  the  prince,  afterwards 
Edward  VI.,  whose  elevation  to  the  throne  secured  him  rank,  wealth,  and  honor.  But 
being  a Protestant,  he  was  stripped  of  everything  when  Mary  came  to  the  throne, 
although  other  lands  were  given  to  him  on  his  returning  to  the  Iloman  Catholic  church, 
which  he  did  to  escape  burning,  the  only  alternative  offered  him  by  cardinal  Pole.  His 
recantation  preyed  on  his  mind  so  much,  that  he  died  in  the  course  of  the  following 
year,  Sept.,  1557.  He  left  several  works  in  Latin,  and  a pamphlet  in  English;  and  among 
his  MSS.  was  a translation  of  the  gospel  by  Matthew,  exemplifying  a plan  for  reform- 
ing the  English  language  by  eradicating  all  words  save  those  derived  from  Saxon  roots. 

CHE-KEANCr,  one  of  the  eastern  and  maritime  provinces  of  China,  the  smallest  of  the 
eighteen.  Situated  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  great  plain,  it  is  possessed  of  great 
fertility,  and  produces  silk,  tea,  and  rice  in  abundance.  Its  capital,  Hangchow  (q.v.), 
an  important  and  populous  city,  is  the  metropolis  of  the  silk  districts.  “ Above  is  Par- 
adise,” say  the  Chinese;  “below  are  Soo-chow  and  Hangchow.”  Both  these  places 
were  taken  by  the  Taeping  rebels  in  1860.  Ning-po  (q.v.)  is  the  principal  port  of  the 
province.  Pop.,  according  to  the  Chinese  census  of  1812,  26,256,784.  Area,  39,150  sq. 
miles. 

CHELIG'ER.S:,  or  antennal  claws,  modified  antennae,  which,  in  some  of  the  crusta- 
ceans, and  in  most  of  the  arachnida,  serve  a purpose  corresponding  with  that  of  the 
mandibles  of  insects  in  the  cutting,  tearing,  or  bruising  of  food.  They  move,  however, 
up  and  down,  in  a direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  mandibles  of  insects. 

CHELTFER,  a genus  of  arachnida  (q.v.)  of  the  order  trachearia,  and  of  the  family 
to  which,  from  their  resemblance  to  scorpions  without  tails,  the  name  pseudo-scorpions, 
or  false  scoripons,  has  been  given,  the  true  scorpions  belonging  to  the  order  pulmonai'ia. 
The  genus  C.  consists  of  minute  species  in  which  this  resemblance  is  very  strong.  The 
palpi  are  elongated  and  armed  with  pincers.  The  species  live  under  the  loose  bark  of 
trees,  in  chinks  of  old  furniture,  etc.  One  species,  G.  cancroides,  about  a line  and  a half 
in  length,  is  frequently  to  be  seen  in  old  books,  herbaria,  etc.,  and  is  called  the  hook 
scorpion  ; it  is  said  to  be  useful  as  feeding  on  the  insects  which  are  most  destructive  to 
books  and  collections  in  natural  history. 

CHELM,  or  Cholm,  a t.  of  Russian  Poland,  in  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
126  m.  s.e.  of  Warsaw.  It  is  the  seat  of  a united  Greek  bishop,  and  has  a theological 
seminary.  The  Poles  were  defeated  here  by  the  Russians,  June  4,  1794.  Pop.,  ’67, 
4,483. 

CHELMSFORD,  the  co.  t.  of  Essex,  near  the  center  of  the  co.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Chelmer  and  the  Gann,  29  m.  n.e.  of  London.  The  industry  of  C.  is  chiefly  agricultu- 
ral. The  town  is  the  seat  of  assizes  and  local  courts,  and  has  a grammar-school  founded  by 
Edward  VI.  Pop.  ’71,  9,318.  On  a small  island  called  Mesopotamia,  in  the  Chelmer, 
there  has  long  been  a ludicrous  mock-election  of  a member  of  parliament  during  the 
county  elections. 


737 


Cheiromys*. 

Chelsea. 


CHELMSFORD,  Frederick  Thesiger,  Baron,  b.  London,  1794;  a lawyer  and 
judge;  solicitor-general  in  1844;  and  next  year  attorney-general,  and  again  in  the  same 
office  in  1852.  In  1858,  he  was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  received  the  title  of  lord  C. 
He  filled  the  same  office  in  1866. 

CHELO'NIA  (Or.  cJieldne,  a tortoise),  an  order  of  reptiles,  corresponding  in  extent 
with  the  genus  testudo  of  Linnaeus,  and  of  which  the  most  obvious  distinguishing  char- 
acter is  the  inclosure  of  the  whole  body  in  a protective  covering  connected  with  the 
skeleton,  so  that  only  the  head,  the  tail,  and  the  limbs  are  protruded;  the  limbs,  four  in 
number,  and  all  formed  on  the  same  plan,  are  used  by  some  as  feet  for  walking  on  dry 
ground,  by  others  as  paddles  for  swimming.  The  bony  covering  consists  of  two  princi 
pal  parts,  called  the  carapace  and  the  plastron;  the  carapace  serving  as  a buckler  for  the 
upper  parts,  and  the  plastron  for  the  under  parts  of  the  body.  The  carapace  is  formed 
from  the  ribs,  of  which  there  are  eight  pair,  and  from  the  annular  parts  of  the  dorsal 
vertebrae,  expanded  into  plates,  which  are  joined  to  each  other  by  dentilated  sutures,  so 
that  the  whole  acquires  great  firmness,  and  the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  rendered  immovable. 
The  pl0,stron  is  formed  of  pieces  which  represent  the  sternum  or  breast-bone,  and  which 
are  ordinarily  nine  in  number.  So  compact  and  strong  is  the  case  of  some  of  the  tor- 
toises, that  it  will  bear  immense  pressure  without  injury,  the  arched  form  of  the  cara- 
pace adding  to  its  strength ; whilst  the  creature,  destitute  of  other  means  of  defense,  and 
incapable  of  flight,  finds  safety,  at  least  in  its  mature  state,  from  all  enemies  but  man, 
by  drawing  its  head,  tail,  and  limbs  within  the  protecting  case,  which  in  some,  called 
box-tortoises,  has  certain  plates  movable,  so  as  more  completely  to  inclose  them.  The 
turtles  and  other  aquatic  chelonians  cannot  thus  withdraw  their  head,  tail,  and  limbs 
from  danger,  but  the  greater  activity  of  their  movements  compensates  for  this. 

The  firmly  fixed  ribs  not  admitting  of  the  movements  by  which  respiration  ordinarily 
takes  place  in  other  vertebrate  animals,  the  C.  gulp  down  air,  which  they  inhale  entirely 
through  the  nostrils;  first  filling  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  by  elevating  the  hyoid  bone, 
and  then,  by  depressing  it,  forcing  the  air  into  the  lungs,  whilst  the  inner  aperture  of 
the  nostrils  is  closed  by  the  tongue.  In  other  respects,  as  to  aeration  and  circulation  of 
blood,  they  resemble  other  reptiles. 

The  jaws  are  not  furnished  with  teeth,  but  act  in  a manner  more  resembling  that  of 
the  mandibles  of  birds,  being  like  them  hard,  sharp,  and  horny.  The  food  of  the  C.  is 
various.  Some  of  them,  among  which  are  all  the  land -tortoises,  subsist  exclusively  on, 
vegetable  food ; some  of  the  aquatic  C.  pursue  and  eat  other  aquatic  animals. 

All  the  C.  are  strictly  oviparous.  -Their  eggs  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun 
alone;  they  lay  a great  number  at  a time,  which  are  covered  with  a calcareous  shell,  like 
those  of  birds.  The  eggs  of  fresh-water  tortoises  are  in  some  places  a lucrative  article 
of  commerce,  from  the  quantity  of  oil  which  is  obtained  from  them. 

The  C.  are  found  only  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,,  but  their  numbers  in  some 
places  are  astonishingly  great.  None  of  them  can  properly  be  reckoned  British,  although 
stray  turtles  have,  in  a few  instances,  been  found  on  the  British  shores.  A few  species 
occur  in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  some  are  found  in  the  temperate  parts  of 
North  America. 

All  the  species  are  extremely  tenacious  of  life;  they  are  capable  of  extraordinary 
abstinence,  and  of  living  long  after  having  sustained  injuries  which  would  have  been 
immediately  destructive  to  almost  any  other  animal.  They  are  also  remarkable  for  their 
longevity. 

The  flesh  of  some  kinds  of  turtle  is  well  known  as  an  excellent  article  of  food.  The 
eggs  of  some  are  equally  an  esteemed  delicacy.  Tortoise-shell  (q.v.),  and  the  oil  already- 
mentioned,  are  the  only  other  valuable  products  of  the  order. 

Further  information  concerning  the  0.  will  be  found  in  particular  articles  devoted  to> 
some  of  the  different  genera  and  species.  See  also  Reptiles. 

Fossil  Ghelonia. — Foot-tracks  on  the  triassic  sandstone  of  Dumfriesshire  were  referred 
by  their  discoverer.  Dr.  Duncan,  to  tortoises.  Similar  tracks  have  been  noticed  in  De- 
vonian and  oolite  strata.  Their  vagueness,  however,  does  not  indicate  with  any  cer- 
tainty the  animals  which  produced  them.  The  first  indisputable  evidence  of  chelo>- 
nian  life  occurs  in  the  upper  oolite,  where  the  remains  of  several  pond-tortoises  and  two 
or  three  turtles  have  been  observed.  In  the  newer  deposits,  they  increase  in  number,.  sc» 
that  between  70  and  80  species  have  been  described  from  the  tertiary  strata.  In  the 
eocene  deposits  of  the  London  clay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  there  occur  the 
remains  of  more  species  of  true  turtles  than  are  now  known  to  exist  in  the  whole  world 
Some  of  these  fossil  C.  were  of  a size  proportioned  to  their  colossal  companions;  as,  for 
instance,  the  gigantic  land  tortoise  (colossochelys)  of  the  Sewalik  hills,  whose  carapace 
was  as  much  as  20  ft.  in  length. 

CHELSEA,  a city  in  Suffolk  co.,  Mass, ; pop.  ’80,  21,785,  a suburb  of  Boston,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  ferry,  and  horse  and  steam  railroads.  C.  is  separated  from 
East  Boston  by  C.  creek,  and  from  Charlestown  by  Mystic  river,  which  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge  3,300  ft.  long.  The  principal  public  buildings,  besides  churches,  are  the  city 
hall,  the  U.  S.  naval  hospital,  the  marine  hospital,  odd  fellows’  and  masonic  halls,  and 
Winnisimmet  hall.  C.  is  in  the  Boston  customs  district,  and  there  are  some  manufac- 
tories in  the  city  ; but  the  business  of  many  of  the  inhabitants  is  in  Boston,  It  has  the 
U.  K.  Ili.-47 


Chelsea. 

Chemical. 


738 


usual  civic  government  of  mayor,  aldermen,  and  common  council;  with  police,  fire,  and 
w^ater  departments,  board  of  education,  etc.  C.  was  settled  in  1630  under  the  name  of 
Winnisimmet,  and  was  a part  of  Boston  until  1738,  when,  with  adjacent  settlements,  it 
was  organized  as  the  town  of  C.  It  was  incorporated  as  a city  in  1857. 

CHELSEA,  a suburb  of  London,  in  Middlesex,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames, 
41^  m.  w.s.w.  of  St.  Paul’s.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a fine  iron  bridge.  Pop.  ’71, 
258,050.  Many  of  the  nobility  and  gentry  formerly  resided  at  C.,  and  some  of  its  coffee- 
houses were  much  resorted  to  by  pleasure-parties  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  C. 
has  water-works  to  supply  London,  a chain-pier,  and  floor-cloth  factories,  besides  a 
training-college  for  male  and  another  for  female  teachers,  and  the  Cremorne  house 
gardens,  now  a place  of  public  amusement. 

CHELSEA  HOSPITAL  is  an  asylum  for  disabled  or  superannuated  soldiers.  The 
building  was  commenced  in  1609,  as  a Protestant  theological  seminary,  by  Dr.  Matthew 
Sutcliffe,  dean  of  Exeter;  and  James  I.  gave  it  a charter  in  1610,  as  King  James's  college. 
When  Sutcliffe  died  in  1639,  the  building  was  less  than  half  finished,  and  the  students 
were  only  15  in  number.  Shortly  after  this,  the  scheme  was  abandoned,  and  the  build- 
ing used  for  various  purposes.  It  was  then  rebuilt,  and  made  into  an  hospital  for  dis- 
a,bled  soldiers  by  Charles  II.  By  a warrant  issued  in  1684,  one  day’s  pay  per  year,  and 
two  in  leap-years,  were  deductea  from  soldiers’  pay,  for  supporting  C.  H.  This  deduc- 
tion has  long  ceased;  the  hospital  being  maintained  by  parliamentary  grant.  The 
hospital  has  accommodation  for  about  600  persons  besides  oflBcers.  Attached  to  it  are 
about  40  acres  of  land,  used  as  public  gardens  and  exercise  ground.  It  is  governed  by 
a board  of  commissioners,  comprising  ex  officio  the  lord  president  of  the  council,  the 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  and  the  secretaries  of  slate;  but  the  more  immediate  manage- 
ment is  in  the  hands  of  about  130  persons,  of  whom  20  are  military  officers,  30  civil 
officers,  and  the  rest  subordinates. 

The  establishment  is  maintained  for  the  in-pensioners  of  the  British  army,  who,  in 
the  army  estimates  for  1876-77,  arc  set  down  at  538.  These  in-pensioners,  besides 
board,  lodging,  clothing,  washing,  medical  aid,  etc.,  receive  a small  sum  in  money, 
varying  from  5«.  M.  per  week  for  a color-sergeant,  down  to  Id.  per  week  for  a private 
soldier.  They  are  all  dressed  in  uniform — red,  with  blue  facings — and  are  treated  as  a 
garrison,  in  respect  to  guards,  sentinels,  etc.  There  is  a certain  degree  of  choice  open 
to  the  men,  as  to  whether  they  will  be  in  or  out  pensioners.  The  out-pensioners,  who 
:are  more  than  a hundredfold  as  numerous  as  the  .others,  receive  sums  of  money  varying 
from  l^d  to  3«.  \M.  per  day  for  life,  as  a reward  for  past  services.  Vacancies  in  the 
hospital  are  filled  up  once  a quarter;  and  every  person  admitted  must  give  up  his  out- 
pension  before  he  can  become  an  in-pensioner.  The  cost  of  the  hospital  for  1876-77 
was  estimated  at  £38,916.  This  is  exclusive  of  ow^-pension  charges.  Doubts  have  fre- 
quently been  expressed  as  to  the  usefulness  of  this  expenditure;  it  is  exceptional  in  its 
character,  and  the  arrangement  to  which  it  refers  is  not  in  much  favor  among  the 
soldiery. 

CHELTENHAM,  a t.,  parliamentary  borough,  and  fashionable  watering-place,  in  the 
CO.  of  Gloucester,  8 m.  n.e.  of  Gloucester.  It  lies  in  a picturesque  and  healthy  val- 
ley on  the  Chelt,  a small  stream  which  rises  in  the  adjacent  hills,  and  fiows  into  the 
Severn.  It  is  sheltered  on  the  e.  and  s.e.  by  a semicircle  of  the  Cotswolds.  It  owes 
its  celebrity  and  rapid  increase  to  its  mineral  springs,  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties.  The  chief  street  is  upwards  of  a mile  long,  right  and  left  of  which  are  spa- 
cious and  elegant  squares  and  crescents,  and  innumerable  villas  lately  erected  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  numerous  visitors.  Attached  to  the  spas  are  handsome  pump- 
rooms — with  tasteful  grounds,  avenues,  saloons — lodging-houses,  and  public  prome- 
nades among  the  finest  in  England,  besides  many  fine  mansions  in  and  around  the  town. 
It  has  10  churches  and  a number  of  dissenting  chapels.  Of  late  years,  C.  has  become 
famous  for  its  public  schools,  the  oldest  of  which  is  its  endowed  grammar-school,  capa- 
ble of  educating  300  scholars;  but  the  largest,  and  now  the  most  celebrated,  is  its  pro- 
prietary college,  for  the  sons  of  gentlemen,  a noble  institution,  educating,  upon  an  aver- 
age, 600  pupils.  There  are  also  a ladies’  college,  a junior  proprietary  school,  and  a 
number  of  private  scholastic  establishments.  There  are  public  assembly-rooms  in  the 
town;  which  is  also  much  resorted  to  in  winter  for  its  hunting.  I thas  two  clubs,  and 
five  or  six  weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  ’71,44,519.  C.  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
Its  affairs  are  managed  by  a board  of  elected  commissioners.  It  has  no  manufactures  of 
any  importance.  C.  was  only  a village  in  1716,  when  the  first  spring  was  discovered. 
It  gradually  increased  till  1788,  when  the  benefit  received  by  George  III.  from  its 
waters  suddenly  made  it  a resort  of  fashion. 

CHEM'IC,  is  the  name  given  to  Bleaching  Powder  by  those  engaged  in  chemical 
works. 

CHEMICAL  NOMENCLA'TURE  and  NOTA’TION.  (During  the  progress  of  the  Ency- 
clopmdia,  the  nomenclature  and  notation  of  chemistry  were  greatly  changed.  What  fol- 
lows here  is  allowed  to  stand,  as  the  old  names  and  notation  are  still  found  in  books  in 
use,  and  are  often  used  concurrently  with  the  new.)  In  early  times,  chemical  substances 
W'ere  named  according  to  the  fanciful  theories  of  alchemy  (q.v.)  ^hus  the  nsime  flowers 


739 


Chelsea. 

Chemical* 


of  sulphur  was  applied  to  the  sublimed  sulphur,  which  grew  or  sprang  like  a flower 
from  sulphur  when  heated ; spirit  of  salt,  to  hydrochloric  acid,  the  corrosive  acid  or 
spirit  obtained  from  common  salt;  and  a multitude  of  other  names  had  a like  fanciful 
origin.  In  1787,  Lavoisier  founded  the  system  of  nomenclature  which  is  followed  still 
by  chemists.  At  first,  it  was  intended  that  the  names  of  simple  as  well  as  compound 
substances  should  be  regulated  by  system.  Hence,  such  terms  as  oxygen  (from  oxus, 
ax3id,  and  gennao,  to  produce),  the  acid-producer,  given  from  the  notion  then  held  that  no 
acid  was  without  oxygen ; and  hydrogen  (from  hydor,  water,  and  gennao),  the  water-pro- 
ducer, from  the  supposition  that  hydrogen  had  more  to  do  with  the  formation  of  water 
than  any  other  element.  The  advance  of  chemistry,  however,  has  so  completely  changed 
the  opinion  of  chemists  regarding  the  simpler  bodies,  that  such  names  are  now  found  ta 
mislead;  and  thereafter,  though  such  as  had  been  given  on  this  system  were  retained, 
their  meaning  has  been  discarded,  and  the  systematized  nomenclature  restricted  to  com 
pound  substances.  A remnant  of  the  system,  however,  still  subsists  at  the  present  time, 
in  making  the  scientific  names  of  all  the  metals  end  in  um.  In  the  non-metallic  ele- 
ments, a close  analogy  exists  between  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and  fluorine;  and  to 
indicate  this,  the  common  termination  ine  has  been  given;  and  for  a similar  reason,  car- 
bon, silicon,  and  boron,  end  in  on.  As  a general  rule,  however,  the  chemical  name  of 
an  elementary  substance  does  not  convey  any  scientific  meaning,  and  must  be  regarded 
as  a simple  mark  or  designation,  analogous  to  the  names  of  persons,  which  give  no 
notion  regarding  their  moral  character  or  physical  development.  The  ancient  and  more 
common  metals  retain  their  popular  titles,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper ; but  the  more, 
recently  discovered  metals  have  names  given  which  end  in  um.  The  symbol  of  an  ele- 
ment is  obtained  from  the  first  letter  of  its  Latin  name,  as  O for  oxygen ; PI  for  lead 
(Lat.  plumbum).  When  the  names  of  two  or  more  elements  commence  with  the  same 
letter,  a smaller  letter  or  satellite  is  attached  to  one  or  more  of  these;  such  as  S for  sul- 
phur, Se  for  selenium,  and  Si  for  silicon.  For  a complete  table  of  the  symbols  of  the 
elementary  substances,  see  Atomic  Weights. 

The  name  of  a compound  substance  generally  indicates  the  elements  of  which  it 
composed.  Thus  the  name  oxide  of  iron  indicates  that  the  red  powder  (rust)  is  made 
up  of  oxygen  and  iron;  the  sulphuret  of  lead  (galena),  that  it  is  composed  of  sulphur  and 
lead.  In  all  similar  combinations — 


Oxygen  forms  oxides. 

Chlorine  ‘ ‘ chlorides. 

Bromine  “ bromides. 

Iodine  “ iodides. 

Fluorine  “ fluorides. 

Nitrogen  “ nitrides. 

Carbon  ‘ ‘ carbides  or  carburets. 

Sulphur  “ sulphides  or  sulphurets. 

Selenium  “ selenides  or  seleniurets. 

Phosphorus  forms  phosphides  or  phosphurets. 


When  two  elements  combine  with  each  other  in  more  than  one  proportion  or  equiva- 
lent (see  Atomic  Theory  and  Atomic  Weights),  the  names  of  the  compound  bodies 
are  contrived  so  as  to  express  this.  The  term  protoxide,  is  applied  to  a compound  of  one 
equivalent  of  oxygen  with  one  equivalent  of  another  element;  deutoxide  to  a compound 
containing  a larger  proportion  of  oxygen  than  the  protoxide;  and  ^Wtoxide  when  the 
oxygen  is  still  further  increased.  The  term  imoxide  is  used  when  oxygen  is  present  in 
the  proportion  of  two  equivalents  to  one  equivalent  of  the  other  element;  and  Peroxide 
when  the  proportion  is  as  three  to  one.  A swdoxide  contains  less  than  one  equivalent 
of  oxygen;  and  a,  peroxide  is  the  highest  oxide  not  possessing  acid  properties.  The  same 
prefixes  are  applied  to  the  compounds  of  chlorine,  sulphur,  etc. 

When  one  element  combines  with  another  to  produce  several  compounds  possessing^ 
acid  properties,  various  terminations  are  employed  to  distinguish  the  compounds.  Thns^ 
oxygen  combines  with  a number  of  the  elements  to  produce  with  each  a series  of  acM 
compounds,  the  more  highly  oxidized  of  which  receive  the  termination  ic,  whilst 
containing  less  oxygen  end  in  ous.  Thus,  sulphuri^  acid  contains  three  equivalents  ©f 
oxygen  to  one  equivalent  of  sulphur;  and  sulphur<w«  acid,  two  equivalents  of  oxygeni 
with  one  equivalent  of  sulphur.  These  terminations  are  qualified  by  the  use  of  the 
prefixes  hypo  (under)  and  hyper  (over).  Thus,  %j?<9sulphurfc  acid  is  applied  to  a com- 
pound containing  less  oxygen  than  the  sulphunc  acid,  and  %j}osulphuiws  to  one.withi 
less  oxygen  than  sulphurous  acid. 

When  acids  combine  with  bases  or  metallic  oxides  to  form  salts,  they  produce  com- 
pounds, the  names  of  which  are  influenced  by  the  terminations  of  the  acids.  Thusy 
sulphurzic  acid  and  soda  form  the  sulphate  of  soda;  sulphmws  acid  and  soda,  the  sul- 
phate of  soda;  and  %;?osulphuroas  acid  and  soda,  the  hypoa,\i\ph.ite  of  soda.  In  the  same 
manner,  nitrte  acid  with  potash  forms  the  nitrate  of  potash,  whilst  nitroas  acid  and  pot- 
ash produce  the  nitr^■te  of  potash. 

If  a symbol  be  employed  alone,  it  represents  one  equivalent  of  the  element.  Thus,  O 
signifies  one  equivalent,  or  eight  parts  by  weight,  of  oxygen;  C,  one  equivalent,  or  six 
parts  by  weight,  of  carbon ; H,  one  equivalent,  or  one  part  by  weight,  of  hydrogen.  The 


Chemical. 

Chemistry. 


740 


combination  of  two  elements  is  represented  by  placing  the  symbols  for  those  elements 
side  by  side;  thus,  HO  signifies  one  equivalent  of  hydrogen  and  one  equivalent  of  oxy 
gen  in  a state  of  chemical  combination  (viz.,  water);  and  NaCl  is  one  equivalent  of 
sodium  (Lat.  natron)  united  with  one  equivalent  of  chlorine  (viz. , common  salt). 

When  two  or  more  equivalents  of  one  element  unite  with  one  or  more  equivalents  ol 
another  element,  the  number  of  such  equivalents  is  signified  by  a small  figure  being 
placed  immediately  after  the  symbol  of  the  element  so  multiplied.  Thus,  HO2  repre- 
sents one  equivalent  of  hydrogen  in  combination  with  two  equivalents  of  oxygen  (per 
oxide  of  hydrogen);  MnOa  is  one  equivalent  of  manganese  with  two  of  oxygen  (black 
oxide  of  manganese);  FeaOs  is  two  equivalents  of  iron  with  three  equivalents  of  oxygen 
(rust);  andPb304  is  three  equivalents  of  lead  with  four  equivalents  of  oxygen  (red  lead). 

In  expressing  the  formula  of  a compound  substance,  the  symbol  of  the  metal  or  its 
analogue  is  placed  first  in  order,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  oxygen,  chlorine,  or  similar 
element.  Thus,  the  symbol  for  the  chloriae  of  mercury  is  always  written  HgCl,  never 
ClHg.  The  same  order  is  carried  out  in  the  construction  of  the  formula  of  more  com- 
fjlex  substances;  the  metallic  half  is  placed  first.  Thus,  sulphate  of  iron — containing 
sulphuric  acid  and  the  oxide  of  iron — is  always  expressed  as  FeO,SOs,  never  SOsFeO. 
In  other  words,  the  symbols  are  written  in  the  order  in  which  the  substances  would  be 
named  in  Latin. 

In  the  construction  of  the  formulas  of  complex  substances,  the  comma  (,)  and  plus 
sign  (4-)  are  often  introduced;  the  former  to  separate  the  symbols  of  substances  which 
are  closely  united  together,  and  the  latter  to  form  a line  of  demarcation  where  the  com- 
ponents are  less  intimately  combined.  Thus,  Fe0,S03 -f- KO,SOs  represents  the  com- 
pound of  the  sulphate  of  iron  with  the  sulphate  of  potash;  KCl  -j-PtCla  is  the  double 
chloride  of  potassium  and  platinum. 

Large  figures  placed  at  the  left  hand  of  a formula  multiply  all  the  symbols  till  a 
comma  or  plus  sign  appears.  Thus,  SSOs  represents  three  equivalents  of  sulphuric  acid ; 
3PbO,A  is  three  equivalents  of  oxide  of  lead,  and  one  equivalent  of  acetic  acid;  and 
K0,S03  -|-  Al203,3S03  -\-  24HO  (alum)  is  one  equivalent  of  the  sulphate  of  potash,  with 
one  equivalent  of  the  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  24  equivalents  of  water.  When  a com- 
pound substance  requires  to  be  multiplied,  it  is  inclosed  within  parentheses,  and  a large 
figure  placed  immediately  before  it;  thus  3(K0,C203)  + Fe203,3C203  +6HO  represents 
three  equivalents  of  oxalate  of  potash,  one  equivalent  of  oxalate  of  iron,  and  six  equiva 
lents  of  water. 

In  expressing  the  formulas  of  organic  compounds,  the  symbols  are  written  in  the 
following  order ; CHNO.  Thus,  turpentine  is  C6H4,  alcohol  is  C4H6O2,  and  morphia  is 
C34H19NO6. 

Arbitrary  symbols  are  occasionally  used  to  represent  important  complex  substances. 
Cyanogen  is  known  as  Cy;  the  organic  acids  are  recognized  by  their  initial  letter  with 
the  sign  (— ) drawn  above,  as  T for  tartaric  acid,  C8H4O1,,;  A for  acetic  acid,  C4H3O3, 
and  O for  oxalic  acid,  CaOa;  while  the  alkaloids  are  represented  by  their  initial  letter  or 

letters  with  the  sign  (-|-)  above;  thus,  Sr  for  strychnine,  C42HaaNa04;  Mo  for  morphia, 

+ 

C34H19NO6;  and  Q for  quinine,  C4oH24NaOa. 

Occasionally,  in  treatises  on  mineralogical  chemistry,  arbitrary  modes  of  expressing 
the  composition  of  minerals  are  resorted  to,  which  it  is  not  necesWy  here  to  explain. 

CHEMICAL  TOYS,  which  in  the  course  of  recent  years  have  been  brought  promi- 
nently before  the  public,  deserve  a brief  notice.  “Pharaoh’s  serpents,"  which  are 
described  in  the  article  Sulphocyanogen,  are  highly  poisonous,  and  during  combustion 
evolve  dangerous  vapors.  Larmes  du  Liable,  or  “crocodiles’  tears,”  are  formed  of 
metallic  sodium,  burn  with  extreme  violence  if  thrown  into  water,  or  even  if  moist- 
ened with  water  or  heated,  and  scatter  particles  of  caustic  alkali,  which  may  infiict 
serious  burns.  “Sunshine  in  winter  evenings,”  “fiery  swords,”  etc.,  are  formed  of 
magnesium,  and,  like  the  preceding,  may  cause  serious  burns.  Pyroxylin,  w'hich  is 
identical  with  gun-cotton,  is  the  active  agent  in  the  various  toys  known  as  “ will  o'-the 
wisp  paper,”  “parlor  lightning,”  “ fireflies,”  etc.  The  use  of  these  toys  in  teaching 
rudimentary  chemistry  to  children  and  young  persons  is  quite  incommensurate  with 
their  danger. 

CHEMISTRY  is  that  branch  of  natural  science  which  takes  cognizance  of  the  changes 
that  bodies  undergo  when  they  are  influenced  by  affinity  (q  v,).  Changes  that  do  not 
alter  the  nature  and  properties  of  substances — such  as  the  falling  of  a body  by  gravity, 
or  its  expansion  by  heat — belongs  to  physics  or  natural  philosophy.  In  chemical  changes, 
again,  the  properties  of  the  substances  are  permanently  altered.  Thus,  when  a piece  of 
iron  is  left  exposed  to  damp  air,  it  is  after  a while  converted  into  a reddish  brittle  sub- 
stance (rust),  owing  to  the  union  with  it  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Chemistry",  then, 
may  be  most  simply  defined  as  that  branch  of  natural  science  which  considers  (1.)  The 
combination  of  two  or  more  substances  to  form  a third  body,  with  properties  unlike  either 
of  its  components;  and  (2.)  The  separation  from  a compound  substance  of  the  more 
simple  bodies  present  in  it:  and  considering  that  the  steps  of  the  combination  and 
d.ecomposition  of  substances  can  never  be  correctly  understood  without  an  intimate 


741 


Chemical. 

Chemistry. 


ikaowiedge  of  the  properties  of  substances,  it  follows  that  the  science  of  C.  must 
likewise  take  into  notice  the  description  of  all  the  simplest  as  well  as  the  most  complex 
bodies. 

When  the  science  of  C.  is  considered  as  a whole,  including  the  properties  of  all  the 
elements  or  substances,  and  the  combinations  and  changes  which  they  can  under  all  cir- 
• cumstances  undergo,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  title  of  pure,  theoretical,  or  philosophical  G. 
Particular  departments  of  C.,  where  the  science  is  confined  to  the  examination  of  special 
objects,  receive  distinctive  names;  as  physical  G.,  or  chemical  physics,  which  considers 
phenomena  bordering  on  natural  philosophy  and  C. ; mineralogical  G.,  which  takes  cog- 
nizance of  the  composition  of  minerals;  physiological  G.,  which  includes  the  changes 
which  food  undergoes  in  its  transit  through  the  animal  economy,  and  the  transforma- 
tions that  take  place  in  organic  substances  generally ; medical  G. , which  considers  the 
composition  and  compounding  of  medicines;  agricultural  G.,  which  relates  to  the  com- 
position of  soils  and  manures,  the  ingredients  in  plants,  and  the  best  modes  of  supplying 
the  food  they  require,  etc.  Inoi'ganic  G.  takes  cognizance  of  dead  matter,  and  the 
■ changes  it  undergoes,  whilst  oi'ganic  G.  considers  the  substances  obtained  from  plants 
and  animals. 

C.  ranks  as  one  of  the  arts  as  well  as  one  of  the  sciences,  and  the  division  of  practi- 
cal G.  comprehends  the  rules  and  processes  which  must  be  followed,  and  the  mechani- 
cal means  which  must  be  resorted  to,  for  the  successful  prosecution  of  the  art.  Practi- 
cal C.  is  subdivided  into  analytical  G.  (q.v.),  which  is  occupied  with  the  separation  of 
simple  substances  from  more  complex — as  chlorine  (Cl)  and  sodium  (Na)  from  the  chlo- 
ride of  sodium  or  common  salt  (NaCl) — and  to  the  estimation  of  the  quantities  of  the 
several  ingredients ; dMdi  syntlietical  G.,  which  has  for  its  object  the  union  of  simpler 
bodies  to  form  more  complex — as  hydrogen  (H)  and  oxygen  (O)  to  form  water  (HO). 
The  art  of  assaying  (q.v.)  is  a department  of  analytical  chemistry.  Applied  G.  includes 
>the  art  of  manufacturing  the  various  substances  employed  in  commerce  and  in  domestic 
.life,  so  far  as  chemical  processes  and  application  are  required.  It  is  subdivided  into 
technical  G.,  which  relates  to  everything  connected  with  the  arts  and  manufactures; 
and  pharmaceutical  G. , which  takes  cognizance  of  the  substances  used  in  medicine. 

History. — The  Egyptians  appear  to  have  possessed  the  greatest  amount  of  chemical 
knowledge  of  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  They  preserved  dead  bodies  from  decay 
<see  Mummy),  fixed  colors  in  silk  by  means  of  mordants,  prepared  many  medicines  and 
pigments,  as  also  soap,  beer,  vinegar,  metals  and  metallic  alloys,  common  salt,  vitriol, 
soda,  sal-ammoniac,  glass,  enamel,  tiles,  and  painted  earthenware.  The  Chinese  were 
very  early  acquainted  with  the  processes  for  dyeing,  and  the  preparation  of  metallic 
alloys,  the  fabrication  of  niter,  sulphur,  gunpowder,  borax,  alum,  porcelain,  verdigris, 
paper,  etc.  Prom  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  derived  what  chemical  knowl- 
edge they  possessed ; but  they  added  little  or  nothing;  and  when  the  migration  of  the 
northern  tribes,  and  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire,  took  place,  a stop  was  put  for  a 
time  to  the  advancement  of  all  science  in  Europe.  The  prosecution  of  chemical  knowl- 
edge was  taken  up  by  the  Arabs  before  the  8th  c.,  and  was  carried  on  by  them  and  by 
their  European  scholars,  the  alchemists,  with  the  results  described  under  Alchemy.  The 
first  germs  of  a real  science  of  C.  seem  to  appear  about  the  end  of  the  17th  and  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  c.,  in  the  speculations  of  Becher  (q.v.)  and  the  phlogistic  theory  of  Stahl 
(q.v.).  After  this,  C.  rapidly  advanced.  In  1718,  Geoffrey  brought  out  the  first  table  of 
‘affinities;  in  1733,  Boerhaave  published  many  original  experiments  on  the  chemical  rela- 
tions of  heat  and  light;  in  1734  Hales,  and  in  1756  Black,  published  researches  on  the 
air  and  aeriform  bodies,  showing  that  the  carbonic  acid  evolved  during  fermentation, 
respiration,  and  by  the  action  of  acids  on  chalk,  was  different  from  atmospheric  air. 
In  175^59,  Margraff  added  to  the  then  known  earths— lime  and  silica — two  others, 
alumnina  and  magnesia;  he  also  extracted  sugar  from  plants.  In  1770,  Priestley  began  to 
announce  his  discoveries  of  oxygen,  ammoniacal,  hydrochloric,  and  sulphurous  acid  gases, 
etc.  In  1773-86,  Scheele  contributed  chlorine,  hydrofluoric,  prussic,  tartaric,  and  gallic 
acids;  also  baryta,  phosphoric  acid  from  bones,  etc.,  and  gave  the  first  hints  regarding 
. a new  doctrine  of  combustion.  About  the  same  time  Bergman  and  Cavendish  enlarged 
our  knowledge  of  the  gases.  Lavoisier,  between  1770  and  1794,  reorganized  much  of 
the  then  known  C.,  and  founded  a system  of  C.  which  still  remains  as  the  skeleton  of 
the  science.  Berthollet,  in  1787,  contributed  much  to  the  doctrine  of  aflinity,  and  made 
researches  in  chlorine,  etc.  Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin  advanced  organic  C. ; Klaproth 
gave  many  contributions  to  mineral  C.  Richter  devoted  himself  to  the  doctrine  of  com- 
bining proportion,  which  was  afterwards  perfected  by  Dalton,  as  noticed  under  atomic 
theory  (q.v.).  The  discovery  of  galvanic  electricity  by  Galvani,  and  its  advancement 
by  Volta,  led  sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  others,  to  important  researches  in  the  metals 
and  gases.  Gay  Lussac  and  Thenard  advanced  our  knowledge  regarding  organic  sub- 
stances and  the  chemical  relations  of  heat.  Berzelius  mad^e  laborious  researches  in 
mineral  C.,  and  gave  an  exactness  to  this  department  which  is  matter  of  astonishment 
to  the  chemists  of  the  present  day.  He  was  also  the  author  of  the  electro-chemical 
’theory,  which  has  been  almost  perfected  by  the  labors  of  Faraday,  De  la  Rive,  Bec- 
»querel,  etc.  Organic  C.  has  latterly  advanced  most  rapidly  under  the  researches  of 
Liebig,  Wohler,  Mitscherlich,  Mulder,  Laurent,  and  other®  See  Atom,  Atomic  Theoky, 
Atomic  Volume,  Atomic  Weights,  Affinity. 


Chemistry. 


742 


CHEMISTEY.  It  is  impossible  iu  this  article  to  do  more  than  briefly  describe  bume' 
of  the  most  important  of  the  numerous  changes  which  have  been  introduced  into  the 
science  of  chemistry  within  the  last  few  years. 

1.  The  system  of  measuring  temperature,  lengths,  weights,  and  volumes  has  been 
altered.  The  centigrade  has  completely  superseded  the  Fahrenheit  thermometric  scale- 
in  all  recent  chemical  works,  and  the  French  metric  (which  is  a decimal)  system  has- 
been  adopted  for  all  measurements  and  weights,  inches  and  their  fractions  being  replaced 
by  lOths  or  lOOths  of  a meter,  and  grains  by  grams.  It  has  this  advantage  over  all 
the  other  systems,  of  possessing  one  fundamental  linear  unit,  from  which  all  the  ramifi- 
cations of  linear,  superficial,  or  solid  dimensions,  and  of  weight  are  derived.  See 
Meter,  Liter,  Gram,  Franc.  This  unit  is  the  10-millionth  part  of  a quadrant  of 
the  meridian,  or  of  the  distance  from  the  pole  to  the  equator.  It  is  only  to  measures 
of  weight  and  capacity  or  volume  that  we  need  here  refer.  ** Multiply,"'  says  Dr.  Hof-^ 


man  in  his  energetic  appeal  in  favor  of  the  metric  system,  ‘ ‘ the  cubic  meter  by  one 
million,  and  you  have  a fit  measure  in  terms  of  which  to  express  the  mpacity  of  the 
Atlantic,  or  cubical  contents  of  brine;  divide  the  cubic  meter  by  one  million,  and  you 
arrive  at  the  petty  volume  of  the  gambler’s  ordinary  die.” — Modern  Chemistry,  p.  124. 
This  last-named  volume,  the  millionth  of  a cubic  meter,  taken  as  so  much  distilled- 
water  at  a temperature  of  4°  C.  (its  point  of  greatest  density),  furnishes  the  metrical 
unit  of  weight  i\\e  gram,  yf\\\ch  thus  forms  a link  connecting  weight  with  meas- 

ure. Again,  dividing  the  edge  of  meter  cube,  which  is  a linear  meter,  into  10  parts, 
called  decimeters,  and  cubing  one  of  these  parts,  we  obtain  a unit  of  volume  or  capacity 
, to  which  the  term  liter  is  applied.  The  various  weights  in  use  are  all  multiples  or  divi*- 
sions  by  tens.  Thus,  10  meters  form  a decameter,  100  a hectometer,  and  1000  a kilo- 


743 


Cbemistry. 


•meter;  while  ^th  of  a meter  is  called  a decimeter,  x^^jth  a centimeter,  and  » 

millimeter,  the  Greek  prefixes  in  all  cases  denoting  multiplication,  and  the  Latin  divi- 
sion. The  reader  will  do  well  to  recollect  the  following  rough  comparisons  between  the 
chief  French  and  English  measures  chiefly  used  in  chemistry,  as  otherwise  he  can  form 
no  conception  of  the  length,  size,  or  weight  of  the  substances  treated  of ; A meter  = 
nearly  1.1  linear  yard  = 39.37  in. ; a millimeter  = 0.039,  or  nearly  ^^^th  of  an  in. ; a centi- 
meter = 0.39,  or  nearly  fth  of  an  in.;  and  a decimeter  = 3.94,  or  “nearly  4 in. ; a gram 
= 15.43  gr. ; and  a liter  = rather  more  than  61  cubic  in.,  or  a pint  and  three-quarters. 
The  accompanying  figure  represents  a cubic  decimeter.  Two  of  the  edges  of  the  front 
side  are  divided,  as  may  be  seen,  into  10  linear  centimeters;  and  the  space  occupied  by 
a cubic  centimeter  is  shown  on  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  tube.  Now,  a 
cubic  decimeter  is  employed  as  a unit  for  measures  both  of  weight  and  of  volume, 
for  in  the  former  capacity  it  contains,  at  4°  C.,  1 kilogram,  or  1000  grams  of  dis- 
tilled water,  and  in  the  latter  it  loses  its  name  of  kilogram  and  receives  the  appel- 
lation of  liter,  which  corresponds  to  1000  cubic  centimeters,  or  j^V^th  of  a cubic  meter. 
Chemists  have  long  felt  the  want  of  an  appropriate  rolume,  with  its  corresponding 
weight,  to  serve  as  standard  units  of  measurement,  and  prof.  Hofman  has  selected  1 
cubic  decimeter  = 1 liter,  as  the  most  appropriate  unit  of  volume,  and  the  weight  of 
this  measure  of  pure  hydrogen  as  the  unit  of  weight,  hydrogen  being  taken  at  0°  C. 
temperature,  and0™76*  pressure.  To  this  standard  iceight-unit,  which  = 0.0896  of  a 
gram,  he  assigns  the  name  of  critli,  from  the  Greek  kritlie,  a barley-corn,  signifying 
figuratively  a small  weight ; and  the  weight  is  now  in  universal  acceptation  amongst 
modern  British  chemists.  There  is  probaWy  no  figure  in  chemical  science  more  impor- 
tant than  this  one  (0.0896  of  a gram)  to  be  remembered  and  kept  readj  for  calcula- 
tion; for  it  is  the  standard  multiple  or  co-efiicient  by  means  of  which  the  weight  of  1 
liter  of  any  other  gas,  simple  or  compound,  is  computed.  “For  example,  the  relative 
volume-weight  of  chlorine  being  35.5,  that  of  oxygen  16,  and  that  of  nitrogen  14,  the 
actual  weights  of  1 liter  of  each  of  these  elementary  gases  at  0°  C.  and  0^76  pres- 
sure, may  be  called  respectively  35.5  criths,  16  critlis,  and  14  critlis.  So  again  with 
reference  to  the  compound  gases,  the  relative  volume-weight  of  each  is  equal  to  half 
the  weight  of  its  product- volume.  Hydrochloric  acid  (HCl),  for  example,  consists  of  1 
volume  of  hydrogen  + 1 volume  of  chlorine. = 2 volumes,  or  by  weight,  1 + 35.5  = 36.5 
units;  whence  it  follows  that  the  relative  value-weight  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas  is 
36  5 

~ — = 18.25  units;  which  last  figure  therefore  expresses  the  number  of  criths  which  1 

liter  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas  weighs  at0°  C.  and  0“a76  pressure,  18.26  X 0.0896  = 1.6352 
as  the  actual  weight  in  grams  of  hydrochloric  acid  gas.  Again,  as  the  product-vol- 
ume of  water  gas  (HaO),!  taken  at  the  above  temperature  and  pressure,  contains  2 vol 
umes  of  hydrogen  1 volume  of  oxygen,  and  therefore  weighs  2 -f- 16  = 18  units,  the 

single  volume  of  water-gas  weighs  — = 9 units,  or  substituting  as  before  the  concrete 

for  the  abstract  value,  1 liter  of  water-gas  weighs  9 criths;  that  is  to  say,  9 X 0.0896 
gram  = 0.8064  gram.” — Op.  cit.  p.  131.  In  concluding  this  subject  we  will  only- 
further  remark,  that  when  a closely  approximative  result  suffices,  the  crith  may  be  esti- 
mated at  0.09  gram. 

2.  Such  terms  as  atomic  weight,  atom,  and  molecule  are  now  employed  in  a stricter 
sense  than  formerly.  Every  element  has  been  held  from  the  time  of  Dalton  to  have  a 
number  called  its  atomic  weight.  This  number,  according  to  Dr.  Frankland,  one  of  our 
most  distinguished  modern  chemists,  is  made  to  represent,  as  far  as  possible:  Is^,  The 
smallest  proportion  by  weight  in  which  the  element  enters  into  or  is  expelled  from  a 
chemical  compound — the  smallest  weight  of  hydrogen  so  entering  or  leaving  a chemical 
compound  being  taken  as  unity.  2d,  The  weight  of  the  element  in  the  solid  condition 
at  any  given  temperature  contains  the  same  amount  of  heat  as  seven  parts  by  weight  of 
solid  lithium  at  the  same  temperature,  dd,  The  weight  of  the  element  which,  in  the 
form  of  gas  or  vapor,  occupies,  under  like  conditions  of  temperature  and  pressure,  the 
same  volume  as  one  part  by  weight  of  hydrogen.” — Lecture  Notes  for  Chemical  Stu- 
dents, 1866,  p.  2.  Recent  investigations  have  led  chemists  to  assign  to  many  of  the 
elements  double  the  atomic  weights  that  were  previously  assigned  to  them.f  Thus, 
taking  as  formerly  the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  as  the  unit,  the  atomic  weight,  or, 
as  it  is  now  often  styled,  the  atomic  number  of  oxygen  is  changed  from  8 to  16,  that 
of  carbon  from  6 to  12,  that  of  sulphur  from  16  to  32;,  and  this  doubling  is  by  the 
latest  writers  extended  to  most  of  the  elements  except  the  halogens,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phorus, boron,  the  metals  of  the  alkalies,  gold,  and  silver.  The  old  atomic  weights 
are  still  recognized  as  combining  or  equivalent  numbers.  The  reason  why  this  doubling 
of  the  number  has  been  adopted  will  be  presently  given.  The  distinction  between  an 
atom  and  a molecule  must  be  clearly  recognized.  “We  may  define  an  atom  of  an  ele- 
mentary body  to  be  the  smallest  proportional  weight  thereof  which  is  capable  of  existing 

* It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  notice  that  0m76  signifies  0.76  of  a meter,  or  nearly  30  inches— the  ordi- 
joary  atmospheric  pressure  at  the  level  of  the  sea.  and  at  lat.  51)4°. 

T The  reason  why  the  formula  H2O,  instead  of  HO,  for  water  is  used,  will  be  presently  explained. 

t The  article  “ Atomic  Theory”  in  the  body  of  the  work  has  been  rewritten  in  accordance  with  the 
'new  views. 


Chemistry. 


744 


in  chemical  comUnation;  and  we  may  define  the  molecule  of  an  elementary  body  to  be- 
the  smallest  proportional  weight  thereof  which  is  capable  of  existing  in  the  free  or 
uncombined  state."  This,  which  is  Hofman’s  definition  {Modern  Chemistry,  p.  157),  is 
now  generally  accepted.  Thus  a molecule  (or  elementary  molecule,  as  it  is  often  termed) 
may  consist  either  of  an  isolated  atom,  or  of  a group  of  atoms. 

The  bulk  of  a molecule,  or  the  molecular  volume  of  an  element  in  the  gaseous  or 
vaporous  state,  is  the  same  as  the  molecular  volume  of  hydrogen  at  the  same  temper- 
ature and  pressure,  and  in  a large  number  of  cases  the  molecutar  weight  of  an  element 
is  twice  its  atomic  weight.  Dr.  Frankland  gives  the  following  list  of  the  elements 
whose  molecular  volumes  have  as  yet  been  determined:  The  molecules  of  mercury, 
cadmium,  and  zinc  contain  one  atom,  and  are  termed  monatomic  molecules;  those  of 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  fluorine,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  selenium 
contain  two  atoms,  and  are  termed  diatomic  Tnolecules;  the  molecules  of  oxygen,  as  ozone, 
contain  three  atoms,  or  are  triatomic;  while  those  of  phosphorus  and  arsenic  are  tetra- 
tomic,  and  those  of  sulphur  under  certain  conditions  are  hexatomic.  Thus  an  element, 
as  in  the  cases  of  oxygen  and  sulphur,  may,  under  different  conditions,  have  two  dis- 
tinct molecular  weights. 

3.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  explain  the  reasons  why  many  of  the  atomic  weights 
have  been  doubled.  “It  is  obvious,”  says  Dr.  Odling,  in  his  elaborate  article  on 
“Atomic  Weights”  in  Watts’s  Dictionary  of  Chemistry,  vol.  i.  p.  456,  “that  the  atomic 
weights  of  an  element  and  of  its  combinations  should  be  selected  so  as  to  express  the 
entire  series  of  combinations  by  the  simplest  series  of  formulae;  so  as  best  to  accord 
with  the  chemical  properties  and  metamorphoses  of  the  bodies;  so  as  best  to  illustrate 
their  analogies  with  other  bodies;  and  so  as  to  be  in  relation  with  their  physical  prop- 
erties, such  as  their  specific  volumes,  specific  heats,  isomorphism,  etc.”  We  shall 
endeavor  to  show  how  he  applies  these  views  to  prove  that,  in  the  case  of  oxygen,  16 
parts  of  that  element,  or  the  quantity  thereof  which  unites  Avith  2 atoms  of  hydrogen, 
is  the  smallest  proportion  of  oxygen  that  can  enter  into  a combination.  “We  find, 
in  the  first  place,”  says  Dr.  Odling,  “that  the  quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in  the 
great  majority  of  definite  oxidized  compounds  must  necessarily  be  represented  by  16, 
or  some  multiple  of  16  parts.  Thus,  the  molecules  of  all  hydrates,  double  oxides, 
acids,  oxisalts.  aldehydes,  ketones,  alcohols,  oxacid-ethers,  and  a great  number  and 
Variety  of  other  compounds,  doubtless  forming  together  99  per  cent  of  all  known 
compounds  of  oxygen,  cannot  be  represented  save  with  16  parts,  or  some  multiple  of 
16  parts  of  oxygen.  For  example,  the  molecules  of  hydrate  of  potassium,*  benzoic 
aldehyde,  acetone,  chloral,  hypochlorite  of  sodium,*  etc.,  each  contain  16  parts  of  oxygen. 
The  molecules  of  spineUe,  brown  Immatite,  camphor,  benzile,  acetate  of  sodium,*  benzoic 
acid,  etc. , each  contain  twice  16  parts  of  oxygen.  The  molecules  of  nitric  acid,  gly- 
cerin, chlorate  of  potassium,*  salicylic  acid,  augite,  etc.,  each  contain  three  times  16  parts 
of  oxygen.  We  need  not  carry  the  quotation  further,  it  being  sufficient  to  remark  that 
Dr.  Odling  gives  similar  lists  of  substances  whose  molecules  each  contain  4,  5,  6,  7, 
etc. , times  16  parts  of  oxygen.  Hence  it  follows  that  when  two  bodies  only  differ  in 
composition  by  the  different  proportions  of  oxygen  which  they  contain,  that  difference 
amounts  to  16  parts,  or  some  multiple  of  16  parts  of  oxygen.  This  is  well  shown  in 
the  two  following  series  of  bodies  given  by  Odling,  in  the  former  of  which  the  symbols 
are  arranged  according  to  modern  views: 


KCl,  Chloride  of  potassium. 
KCIO2,  Hypochlorite  of  potash. 
KCIO4,  Chlorite  of  potash. 
KClOe,  Chlorate  of  potash. 
KClOs,  Perchlorate  of  potash. 


C4H4,  Ethylene. 
C4H4O2,  Aldehyde. 
C4H4O4,  Acetic  acid. 
C4H4O6,  Glycolic  acid. 
C4H4O8,  Glyoxylic  acid. 


It  is  obvious  that  in  both  these  series  each  term  differs  from  the  preceding  one 
simply  by  O2,  or  16  parts  of  oxygen.  Again,  the  quantity  of  oxygen  which  can  be  lib- 
erated by  any  reaction,  and  which,  either  alone  or  in  the  form  of  water,  can  be  added 
to  or  separated  from  a compound,  must  be  16,  or  some  multiple  of  16  parts.  Thus, 
each  molecule  of  nitrate  of  soda  (Na0,N06),  when  decomposed  by  heat,  yields  nitrate  ■ 
of  soda  (Na0,N03).  and  O2  (or  16  parts  of  oxygen);  similarly,  each  molecule  of  per- 
manganate of  potash,  when  decomposed  by  sulphuric  acid,  yields  manganese — alum, 
and  O4  (or  twice  16  parts  of  oxygen);  and  each  molecule  of  chlorate  of  potash 
(KO.ClOs)  is  decomposed  by  heat  into  chloride  of  potassium  (KCl)  and  0$  (or  three 
times  16  parts  of  oxygen).  Again,  water  (and  consequently  its  main  constituent,  oxy- 
gen) is  always  eliminated  in  double  or  some  higher  even  atoms.  Thus,  formic 
acid  (C2H2O4)  yields  carbonic  oxide  (C2O2)  and  two  atoms  of  water  (H2O2);  alcohol 
(C4H6O2)  yields  olefiant  gas  (C4H4)  and  two  atoms  of  water  (H2O2);  oxalate  of  ammo- 
nia (NH3,C2H04)  jdelds  cyanogen  (C2N)  and  four  atoms  of  water  (H4O4):  and  innu- 
merable additional  examples  might  be  given.  On  these  grounds  (and  many  additional 
ones  might  be  adduced  if  space  permitted)  it  becomes  obvious  that  if  the  vast  majority 
of  oxidized  bodies  Avere  correctly  formulated,  they  would  be  represented  more  simply 


* In  these  cases,  one  of  the  new  forms  of  nomenclature  is  introduced. 


745 


Chemistry. 


hy  the  formulae  in  which  O = 16  than  by  the  formulae  in  which  0 = 8.  Reasons  of  a 
similar  nature  have  led  to  the  duplication  of  the  atomic  weight  of  carbon,  sulphur,  and 
many  of  the  other  elements.  There  must  obviously  be  some  means  of  distinguishing 
when  O indicates  8 or  16  parts  of  oxygen,  C indicates  6 or  12  parts  of  carbon,  etc. 
Yarious  modes  of  distinction  have  been  adopted  by  different  chemists.  In  Watts’s 
Dictionary  of  Chemistry  (published  between  1863  and  1868),  the  new  atomic  weights  are 
represented  by  the  same  symbols  which  have  hitherto  been  adopted  for  the  old  weights; 
while  the  latter  (when  they  are  occasionally  introduced)  are  printed  in  italic  capitals; 
thus  water  is  represented  by  HaO  in  the  new  and  by  HO  in  the  old  system,  acetic  acid 
by  C2H4O2  in  the  new  and  by  C^H^Oi  in  the  old  system,  etc.  A more  common  means 
of  indicating  when  the  value  of  the  symbol  of  an  element  is  doubled  in  value  is  by 
drawing  a horizontal  bar  through  it,  a notation  due  to  Berzelius;  thus,  0,0, & repre- 
sent respectively  an  atom  of  carbon,  of  oxygen,  and  of  sulphur  in  the  new  system. 
This  system  is  useful  in  forming,  as  it  were,  a bridge  to  facilitate  the  passage  from 
the  old  to  the  new  system,  and  will  gradually  disappear  when  all  chemists  recognize 
the  doubled  atomic  weights.  Naquet,  Miller  (in  the  3d  edition  of  his  Chemistry,  1864), 
nnd  others,  adopt  this  barred  system,  and  the  latter  frequently  gives  the  formulae  per- 
taining to  both  systems;  for  example,  Fe0,S03H03,6H0,  or  Fe-SrO-^  H2-9,6H2-0,  repre- 
4sents  the  composition  of  the  crystallized  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron  often  described 
as  protosulphate  of  iron. — Inorganic  Chemistry,  3d  ed.,  p.  6.  Some  writers,  as  Frank- 
iand,  in  his  Lecture  Notes  for  Chemical  Students,  1866,  following  the  plan  of  Watts  and  the 
<jontributors  to  his  dictionary,  unreservedly  adopt  the  doubled  atomic  weights,  and 
represent  them  by  the  old  formulae ; thus  O,  C,  and  S represent  in  these  works  precisely 
■double  the  weight  of  oxygen,  carbon,  and  sulphur  that  these  capitals  represent  in  the 
1st  and  2d  editions  of  Miller’s  Chemistry,  Fownes’s  Manual  of  Chemistry,  and  other 
standard  works  published  a few  years  ago.  It  is  now  customary  for  the  writers  of 
chemical  papers  who  object  to  the  barred  symbols  as  being  unseemly,  to  insert  at  the 
commencement  C = 6,  O = 8,  or  C = 12,  O = 16,  in  order  that  the  reader  may  be  able  to 
recognize  which  system  is  adopted. 

Chemical  Nomenclature  is  still  in  an  unfinished  state.  The  chemists  of  all  countries 
sxe,  with  one  notable  exception,  agreed  as  to  the  names  and  symbols  which  should 
represent  the  different  elements.  The  French  chemists  persist  in  designating  nitrogen 
by  the  name  of  azote,  and  of  using  Az  instead  of  N for  its  symbol;  and  in  Italy  the  term 
azoto  is  still  employed,  but  as  it  is  often  coupled  with  the  symbol  N,  it  will  probably  soon 
be  exchanged  for  the  more  general  term  nitrogen.  When  the  elementary  bodies  unite 
together,  they  form  a binary  compound.  The  nomenclature  of  the  binary  compounds  is 
in  a transitional  state.  The  compounds  of  sulphur  with  metals  used  to  form  sulphurets, 
latterly  they  have  been  termed  sulphides,  and  now  they  are  denominated  after  a third 
fashion ; sulphuret  of  potassium  (for  example),  after  having  been  for  some  years  sul- 
phide of  potassium,  now  being  termed  potassic  sulphide.  In  order  to  obtain  uniformity, 
the  following  rule  is  adopted  by  the  representatives  of  the  modern  school.  The  names 
of  binary  compounds  are  formed  from  those  of  their  constituents,  the  English  or  Latin 
name  of  the  positive  constituent  with  the  terminal  ic  preceding  that  of  the  negative 
constituent,  which  is  made  to  end  in  ide.  Thus : potassium  and  sulphur  form  potassic 
sulphide;  sodium  and  oxygen  form  sodic  oxide  (formerly  soda  or  oxide  of  sodium); 
silver  and  chlorine  form  argentic  chloride  (formerly  chloride  of  silver) ; lead  and 
iodide  form  plumbic  iodide  (formerly  iodide  of  lead);  calcium  and  chlorine  form  calcic 
chloride  (formerly  chloride  of  calcium),  etc.  When  the  same  elements  form  two  com- 
pounds, the  one  which  contains  the  smallest  proportion  of  the  negative  element  is  dis- 
tinguished by  changing  the  terminal  syllable  of  the  name  of  its  positive  constituent 
into  ous,  while  the  terminal  ic  is  retained  for  the  compound  containing  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  the  negative  element.  Thus,  1 atom  of  iron  and  1 atom  of  oxygen  form 
ferrous  oxide  (the  old  protoxide  of  iron) ; 2 atoms  of  iron  and  3 atoms  of  oxygen  form 
ferric  oxide  (the  old  peroxide  of  iron).  Sometimes  the  same  elements  form  more  than 
two  compounds  with  one  another,  and  then  the  prefixes  hypo  and  per  are  employed. 
When  a binary  compound  contains  oxygen,  and  becomes  an  acid  when  made  to  unite 
with  water,  or  becomes  a salt  when  united  to  a base,  it  is  termed  an  anhydride  (q.v.)  or 
anhydrous  acid.  Thus  1 atom  of  carbon  and  2 atoms  of  oxygen  form  carbonic  anhydride, 
formerly  known  as  carbonic  acid  gas ; 1 atom  of  sulphur  and  3 atoms  of  hydrogen  form 
sulphuric  anhydride,  etc.  In  a considerable  number  of  cases,  the  trivial  or  common 
name  has  not  been  displaced  by  the  new  systematic  name;  thus  water,  ammonia,  hydro- 
chloric acid,  phosphureted  hydrogen,  sulphureted  hydrogen,  etc.,  are  not  as  yet 
replaced  by  hydric  oxide,  hydric  nitride,  hydric  chloride,  hydric  phosphide,  hydric 
sulphide,  etc. ; and  soda  and  potash  are  still  preferred  by  some  chemists  to  sodic  and 
potassic  hydrates. 

The  term  acid  was  originally  applied  only  to  substances  which,  like  vinegar,  pos- 
sessed an  acid  taste ; it  is  now  made  to  include  a large  number  of  compounds  which  do 
not  possess  this  property.  The  most  general  definition  of  acids  is  that  of  Gerhardt, 
which  is  adopted  in  Watts’  Dictionary  of  Chemistry — namely,  that  “acids  are  salts  of 
hydrogen.”  A more  intelligible  definition  to  ordinary  readers  is  that  which  is  adopted 
by  Frankland,  in  which  an  acid  is  described  “ as  a compound  containing  one  or  more 
atoms  of  hydrogen,  which  become  displaced  by  a metal  when  the  latter  is  presented  to 


Chemistry* 


746 


the  compound  in  the  form  of  a hydrate.  ” Thus,  using  the  new  nomenclature  and  atomicr 
weights,  nitric  acid  and  sodic  hydrate,  yield  sodic  nitrate  and  water — 

Nitric  acid.  Sodic  hydrate.  Sodic  nitrate.  Water, 

or,  NO3H  4-  NaOH  = NOgNa  -f  H3O. 


in  which  reaction  the  hydrogen  of  the  nitric  acid  is  displaced  by  the  sodium  of  the  sodic 
hydrate  (or  soda),  and  as  only  one  atom  of  hydrogen  is  displaced,  nitric  acid  is  said  ta 
be  monobasic.  When  an  acid  admits  of  the  displacement  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  it 
is  termed  dibasic — as  tartaric,  oxalic,  and,  according  to  recent  views,  sulphuric  acid ; 
and  when  three  atoms  can  be  replaced — as  in  the  case  of  common  phosphoric  acid, 
H3P04,  in  which  H3  may  be  displaced  by  K3  or  Ags,  the  acid  is  termed  tribasic.  The 
nomenclature  of  the  compounds  of  acids  with  bases  is,  still  unfixed.  The  names  of  the 
alkali-metals  (potassium,  sodium,  and  lithium)  and  alkaline-earth  metals  (barium,  cal- 
cium, etc.)  are  now  commonly  substituted  for  those  of  their  oxides  in  the  nomenclature 
of  the  corresponding  oxygen  salts — as,  for  example,  carbonate  of  sodium  and  sulphate  of 
calcium  for  carbonate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  lime.  The  names  of  these  bodies  are 
thus  brought  into  uniformity  with  those  of  the  salts  of  iron,  copper,  etc.  In  Watts’ 
Dictionary  and  Frankland’s  Lecture  Notes  such  compounds  are  denominated  sodic  car- 
bonate, calcic  sulphate,  sodic  nitrate,  etc. , and  these  terms  will  doubtless  soon  be  generally 
adopted  for  the  metallic  salts  of  the  oxygen-acids  generally.  The  nomenclature  of  com- 
plex inorganic  bodies  is  founded,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  theory  of  types,  the  names 
of  particular  compounds  being  obtained  from  the  name  of  the  type  by  prefixing  to  it 
adjectives  which  express  the  nature  of  the  element  by  which  the  hydrogen  of  the  type 
is  replaced  and  the  number  of  atoms  of  it  contained  in  one  molecule  of  the  compound 
By  way  of  illustration,  we  give  a simple  and  a complicated  example : 


same 

principles  as  that  of  inorganic  bodies;  but  our  limited  space  prevents  our  entering  inte 
this  subject. 

Chemical  notation  has  been  considerably  altered  by  certain  members  of  the  recent 
chemical  school;  but  on  the  whole,  the  modifications,  since  the  time  when  the  system 
of  Berzelius  was  introduced  into  England  in  the  third  edition  of  Turner’s  Elements  of 
Chemistry,  are  not  numerous.  The  most  important  are  the  introduction  of  “ general 
formulse”  by  Gerhardt,  in  which  letters  of  variable  value  are  used  as  coeflacients  instead 
of  numbers,  and  Odling’s  method  of  denoting  the  atomicity  of  polyatomic  elements  and 
radicals  by  means  of  accents  placed  above  the  symbols,  which  are  then  called  dashed 
symbols.  See  Triads.  Chemists  are  still  at  variance  as  to  whether,  when  two  or  more 
atoms  are  represented  in  a compound,  the  figure  indicating  the  repetition  should  be 
above  or  below  the  symbol ; whether,  for  example,  water  should  be  represented  by  H'^G 
or  H2O,  and  alcohol  by  C'^H®0  or  CaHeO.  The  ordinary  or  dualistic  system,  according 
to  which  the  elements  combine  in  couples  to  form  compounds,  which  similarly  unite  bj- 
twos,  led  to  the  division  of  salts  into  two  classes — viz.,  into  salts  composed  of  an  oxygen, 
acid  and  an  oxygen  base,  which  were  hence  called  oxygen  salts,  as  Ka0,S03,  and 
KOjNOs,  which  in  the  old  notation  represent  sulphate  of  soda  and  nitrate  of  potash; 
and  binary  or  haloid  salts,  of  which  chloride  of  sodium,  NaCl,  is  the  type,  which  are 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  radical  in  hydrogen  acids  with  some  metal.  Davy  consid- 
ered that  the  former  class  might  be  made  similar  to  the  latter  by  regarding  them  as  com- 
posed of  a metal  and  a compound  radical  having  the  same  electro-negative  chemical 
relations  as  the  radicals  in  the  hydrogen  acids.  According  to  this  view,  a radical,  SO^, 
not  yet  isolated,  combines  with  hydrogen  to  form  sulphuric  acid,  and  with  a metal  to- 
form  sulphates,  sulphuric  acid  being  represented  by  H,S04,  and  sulphate  of  lime  by 
Ca,S04.  In  like  manner,  nitric  acid  and  the  nitrates  were  supposed  to  contain  a radical,. 
NOe.  Against  this  view  Gerhardt  urges  that  we  know  nothing  of  the  proximate  con- 
stitution, but  are  merely  acquainted  with  the  ultimate  composition  of  compounds. 
Hence  we  now  no  longer  use  a formula  for  sulphuric  acid  indicating  its  supposed  con- 
stitution (H0,S03),  but  regarding  it  as  a dibasic  acid,  express  it,  either  as  Miller  does, 

by  HaSGu,  or  by  H2SO4  (where  S = 32  and  O = 16),  or  by  j-  O2,  if  we  adopt  the 

type-notation ; and  we  must  not  omit  that  Frankland,  who  may  be  regarded  as  the  lead- 
ing representative  of  the  English  school  of  modern  chemistry,  represents  it  by  the 
formula  SO2H02,  when  Ho  is  the  abbreviated  formula  for  HO,  and  represents  a com- 
pound radical,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of  hydroxyle,  and  which  is  comnmnly 
known  as  binoxide  of  hydrogen,  being  expressed,  according  to  the  old  system,  by  HOa^ 
The  following  examples  may  enable  the  reader  to  pass  from  one  system  to  another: 


( Cl  Hff  \ 

Bi  I Q = bismuthic  oxychloride,  while  jj  ^ ^3  = tetramercuro-tetrahydric  ^ 

dichloro-dinitride.  The  nomenclature  of  organic  compounds  is  founded  on  the 


Sulphate  of  potassium, 

Sulphate  of  zinc 

Nitric  acid 

Nitrate  of  sodium 


Did  System.  Barred  System.  New  Atomic  Weights.  Frankland’s  Notation 

^na§>3.7HO  Jnfat.THaO  Znlot.THsO  S^0HOsZno'^60H 

lO.NOs  HN^3  HNO3 

ra6,NOs  NaN0^3  NaNO,  NOaNao. 


747 


Chemistry. 


The  Ko,  Zno",  and  Nao  in  Frankland’s  notation  represent  compound  radicals,  to 
’which  he  has  given  the  names  potassoxyl,  zincoxyl,  and  sodoxyl,  and  which  are  repre- 
sented in  the  ordinary  new  notation  by  KO,  ZnOa,  and  NaO.  These  new  names  will 
probably  soon  get  into  general  use  in  consequence  of  Frankland’s  great  influence  as  the 
teacher  of  chemistry  in  the  government  school  of  mines,  and  at  the  royal  institution.* 
We  must  refer  to  the  article  Triads  for  a description  of  what  is  meant  by  atomicity,  or, 
as  Hofmann  terms  it,  quantivalence,  and  the  reader  -vdll  do  well  to  study  lectures  10  and 
11  of  his  Modern  Ghemietry.  In  the  article  just  mentioned,  we  have  stated  that  the 
degree  of  atomicity  of  an  element  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  dashes  with  which  it 
is  furnished.  In  the  so-called  graphic  notation,  which,  in  the  hands  of  Kekule,  Crum 
Brown,  Naquet,  Frankland,  and  others,  has  proved  a most  valuable  aid  in  explanation 
of  the  constitution  of  chemical  compounds,  the  degree  of  atomicity  of  an  atom  is  thus 
•expressed  • 

H'by  0_,Zn"by  -0-.  B"' 

(boron)  by  » Cb  by  -(c)-  • N’  by  t 
S-by 


'‘‘Ho  element,”  says  Frankland,  “either  alone  or  in  combination,  can  exist  with 
any  of  its  bonds  disconnected;  hence  the  molecules  of  all  elements  with  an  odd 
number  of  bonds  are  generally  diatomic,  and  always  polyatomic — i.e.,  they  contain  two 
vr  more  atoms  of  the  element  united  together.  Thus : 


Hydrogen, 

BjmbollQi 

HV 

0^ 

ddorlofiy 

era 

0-@ 

mirogeo. 

Phosphorus 

An.  element  with  an  even  number  of  bonds  can  exist  as  a monatomic  molecule,  its 
own  bonds  satisfying  each  other.  Thus : 


Mercorj, 

QrmMla 

Har 

C®) 

Zinc, 

Zn* 

This  graphic  notation  is  most  useful  in  fixing  upon  the  mind  the  true  meaning  of 
symbolic  formulae,  and  in  elucidating  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  very  complex 
molecules  which  often  occur  in  both  mineral  and  organic  compounds.  It  also  affords 
an  easy  means  of  showing  the  causes  of  isomerism  in  organic  bodies.  The  following 
example  will  suffice  to  illustrate  our  meaning.  The  simplest  of  the  alcohol  family, 
methylic  alcohol,  is  derived  from  marsh-gas  by  the  substitution  of  one  atom  of  Frank- 
land’s hydroxyl.  Ho  or  HO  (O  = 16),  for  one  of  hydrogen. 


CH4  CHsHo  (or  CHaO). 


Uanh-giu,  Methylic  alcohol. 


The  classification  of  oi'ganic  compounds  has,  during  the  last  few  years,  been  much 
improved.  Until  a comparatively  few  years  ago,  organic  compounds  were  arranged, 
according  to  their  most  obvious  properties,  into  acid^s,  bases,  fatty  bodies,  etc.  How 

♦ Another  peculiarity  of  Frankland’s  notation  is  the  introduction  of  thick  letters  (Egyptian  capi- 
tals). His  formulae  are  so  written  as  to  denote  that  the  element  represented  by  the  first  symbol  of  a 
formula,  and  printed  in  this  type,  is  directly  united  by  points  of  attachment  or  bonds  with  the  other 
elements  or  compound  radicals  following  the  first  symbol.  Thus,  to  use  his  own  illustration  and  nota- 
tion, the  formula  SO3H02  (sulphuric  acid)  signifies  that  the  hexad  atom  of  sulphur  is  combined  with 
the  four  bonds  of  the  two  atoms  of  oxygen,  and  also  with  the  two  bonds  of  the  two  atoms  of  hydroxyL 
<By  hexad  we  mean  an  atom  with  six  boncis,  one  of  which  is  subsequently  figured  in  the  text.) 


Chemistry. 


748 


the  great  majority  of  these  compounds  are  arranged  in  series,  of  which  each  group  dif- 
fers from  the  preceding  one  by  a fixed  additional  number  of  certain  atoms.  Thus  (see 
Armstrong’s  Organic  Chemistry,  pp.  143,  144)  twelve  alcohols  are  represented  by  the  gen- 
eral formula  CnH2n+20  (new  notation),  the  first  being  represented  by  CH40,and  the  others 
differing  from  it  by  an  additional  number  of  multiples  of  CH2.  Bodies  of  analogous  prop- 
erties thus  united  are  termed  homologous.  Again,  every  compound  in  a homologous  series- 
yields  other  compounds  differing  in  composition  from  that  from  which  they  are  derived, 
but  yet  bearing  a different  relation  to  it.  Thus,  alcohol  yields  ether,  aldehyde,  and 
acetic  acid,  and  these  so-called  heterologous  bodies  form  collateral  series.  This  mode  of 
classification  is  daily  extending.  It  includes  the  organic  radicals,  such  as  methyl,  ethyl, 
allyl,  phenyl,  cyanogen,  etc. ; the  hydrides  of  the  compound  radicals,  such  as  methylic 
hydride  or  marsh-gas,  benzol,  cyanic  hydride  or  hydrocyanic  acid,  etc. ; the  alcohols, 
which  form  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  families  of  organic  compounds,  and  which 
are  considered  in  a special  article  in  this  Encyclopaedia  ; the  aldehydes  and  ethers,  both 
of  which  are  specially  described ; the  acids,  of  which  the  monobasic  acids  alone  include 
six  series,  amongst  which  are  the  acetic  or  fatty  series,  represented  by  the  general  for- 
mula C^H2n02,  and  containing  19  or  20  distinct  acids,  the  oleic  series,  the  lactic  series, 
the  benzoic  or  aromatic  series,  etc. — while  the  dibasic  acids  may  be^  divided  into  four' 
series,  in  which  occur  the  succinic  series,  containing  nine  acids,  most  of  which  present 
several  modifications,  and  the  tartaric  series;  the  anhydrides  (q.v.),  of  which  those  be- 
longing to  the  acetic  acid  group  may  be  arranged  in  series ; the  ketones  or  acetones;  the 
compounds  of  nitrogen  containing  the  amines,  amides,  hnides,  etc. ; and,  in  short,  except- 
ing the  natural  alkaloids,  the  protein-compounds  and  their  derivatives,  the  uric  acid 
group,  pigments,  etc.,  there  are  few  organic  compounds  which  will  not  soon  find  a 
definite  place  in  a series. 

In  this  article  we  have  strictly  confined  our  remarks  to  the  subjects  bearing  on  gen- 
eral, and  for  the  most  part  on  theoretical  chemistry.  We  may,  however,  allude,  in  con- 
clusion, to  two  subjects,  which  have  undergone  a great  development  during  the  last  few 
years — viz. , volumetric  analysis  and  the  synt/iesis  of  organic  bodies,  both  of  which  are  dis- 
cussed in  special  articles. 

The  general  tenor  of  this  article  shows  that  chemistry  is  at  present  in  altogether  a 
transitional  state.  As  prof.  Anderson  of  Glasgow  observes  in  his  address  to  the  chemi- 
cal section  of  the  British  association  in  Sept.,  1867,  the  atomic  theory,  which,  at  the- 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  sufficed  to  explain  all  the  facts  of  chemistry 
that  were  then  known,  is  now  quite  inadequate  to  that  end.  At  that  time,  chemists 
were  acquainted  with  comparatively  few  compounds,  and  in  these,  oxygen  was  of  such 
preponderating  importance,  that  the  science  might  have  been  almost  termed  “ the  chem- 
istry of  oxygen.”  Oxygen  is  now  deposed  from  its  high  place,  and  is  supplanted  by 
carbon  to  such  a degree,  that  one  of  the  first  living  chemists  has  actually  proposed  for 
organic  chemistry  the  name  of  “ the  science  of  the  carbon  compounds.”  Facts  gradually 
accumulated  in  the  course  of  time  which  did  not  admit  of  explanation  on  the  Daltonian 
theory;  and  as  their  number  increased,  such  terms  as  catalysis,  allotropy,  etc.,  were- 
invented,  under  which  such  facts  were  grouped  together  as  were  supposed  to  depend  on 
similar  causes.  Such  grouping  may  have  certain  temporary  advantages,  provided  it  is 
understood  that,  to  use  prof.  Anderson’s  words,  it  is  “the  grouping  of  ignorance.” 

It  is  indeed  obvious  that  a true  theory  of  chemistry  must  be  a part  of  a general  theory 
of  dynamics,  and  that  until  we  obtain  some  more  distinct  idea  of  how  the  atoms  are 
grouped  in  the  molecules  of  substances  (see  Atomic  Theory)  than  we  at  present  possess, 
the  link  connecting  theoretical  chemistry  and  theoretical  dynamics  is  wanting.  The 
doctrine  of  atomicity  evidently  points  to  some  general  truth ; it  has  been  of  great  use  in 
grouping  together  numerous  facts,  and  in  leading  to  investigations  wdiich  have  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  many  new  facts  and  new  generalizations,  but  we  now  want  an  explana- 
tion of  this  doctrine,  and  this  chemistry  does  not  appear  to  be  able  to  give  us.  The  want 
of  a theoretical  explanation  does  not,  however,  render  a generalization  valueless,  and 
much  progress  has  been  made  of  late  years  in  ascertaining  the  “ chemical  structure  ” of 
substances — that  is,  in  obtaining  graphic  formulae,  which  consistently  represent^  all  the- 
reactions  by  which  the  substances  are  formed  or  transformed.  Before  discussing  the 
subject  of  chemical  structure,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  somewhat  more  fully  than  ha& 
been  done  above,  the  reasons  why  certain  numbers  have  been  selected  for  the  atomic 
weights  of  the  elements  rather  than  any  multiples  or  submultiples  of  them  (see  Atomic- 
Weights).  It  was  pointed  out  by  Dulong  and  Petit  that  a close  relation  exists  between 
the  specific  heat  of  a solid  elementary  substance  and  its  atomic  w^eight.  Thus,  if  we 
take  the  old  system  of  atomic  weights  (q.v.),  and  multiply  the  specific  heat  of  each  solid 
element  by  its  atomic  weight,  we  find  that  the  elements  form  three  groups.  In  the  first, 
the  product  of  specific  heat  into  atomic  weight,  or  atomic  heat,  varies  from  6 to  6.6.  In 
the  second  it  varies  from  3 to  3.3.  In  the  third  group,  containing  the  allied  elements, 
carbon,  boron,  and  silicon,  no  regularity  can  be  traced.  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
solid  elements  belong  to  the  first  or  second  group.  Now  it  is  plain  that  the  atomic  heat 
of  a member  of  the  first  group  is  approximately  double  that  of  a member  of  the  second 
group.  But  as  the  atomic  weights  are  to  a certain  extent  arbitrary,  we  can  make  the 
atomic  heats  of  the  two  groups  agree  by  doubling  the  atomic  weights  of  the  members  of 
the  second  group.  This  was  first  proposed  by  the  eminent  Italian  chemist,  Cannizzaro,. 


749 


Chemistry. 


and  has  now  been  accepted  by  most  chemists.  These  new  atomic  weights  not  only 
greatly  simplify  Dulong  and  Petit’s  law,  but  are  also  in  harmony  with  many  other 
facts,  most  of  which  were  observed  after  the  change  had  been  made.  Thus  the  formulae 
of  corrosive  sublimate,  bichloride  of  tin,  and  zinc  methyl  are,  according  to  the  old 
system,  HgCl;  SnCla;  and  ZnCaHs  and  H = 1,  According  to  the  new  system,  they  are 
HgCla;  SnCh;  and  ZnCaHe. 

It  will  be  at  once  observed  that  the  second  set  of  formulae  represent  just  twice  the 
quantity  represented  by  the  first;  now  the  second  formulae  express  the  molecular  weights 
of  the  substances  according  to  Avogadro’s  law  (see  Atomic  Theory).  Further,  if  we 
adopt  the  old  atomic  weights,  we  see  no  reason  why  oxide  of  lead  should  readily  form 
basic  salts,  while  oxide  of  silver  does  not.  This  peculiarity  is  to  some  extent  explained 
by  the  new  atomic  weights;  thus  we  have  nitrate  of  silver — old  formula  AgNOe,  new 
formula  AgNOs;  nitrate  of  lead — old  formula  PbNOe,  new  formula  Pb(N03)a;  basic 
nitrate  of  lead — old  formula  Pb0,PbN06,  new  formula  Pb20(N0s)2.  The  contrast  will 
be  better  seen  if  we  put  the  new  formulae  into  a graphic  form. 


Nitrate  of  Silver. 

0 

II 

Ag— 0— N 

1 


Nitrate  of  Lead. 

O O 

II  II 

N— O— Pb— O— N 


A 


A 


Basic  Nitrate  of  Lead. 

0 o 

1 II 

A— O— Pb— O— Pb— O— N 


A 


We  at  once  see  the  connection  between  the  dyad  character  of  lead  ( — Pb — ),  and  the 
occurrence  of  basic  salts. 

Similarly  we  know  that  if  we  pass  a current  of  chlorine  gas  into  a cold  solution  of 
caustic  potash,  we  obtain  a mixture  of  chloride  of  potassium  and  hypochlorite  of  potash 
— Cla  + 2KH0  = KCl  + KClO-j-HaO.  But  that  if,  instead  of  caustic  potash,  we  take 
slaked  lime,  we  obtain,  not  a mixture,  but  a single  substance;  ClaH-  CaHaOa  = CaOCla 
+ HaO.  Putting  the  new  symbols  into  a graphic  form  we  have : 

Cl  H— O— K Cl— K 

1 _L  = 4-  H— O— H,  and 

Cl  H— 0— K Cl— O— K 


Cl  H— O > Cl . 

I + Ca  = Ca  4-  H— O— H. 

Cl  H— O ' Cl— O ' 

Where  we  see  why  we  have  a mixture  in  the  first  case,  and  a single  substance  in  the 
second,  the  reason  being  that  calcium  being  a dyad,  one  atom  of  it  represents  two 
atorps  of  potassium.  Many  other  examples  might  be  given,  but  these  may  suffice  as 
an  indication  of  the  reasons  which  have  induced  chemists  to  prefer  the  atomic  weights 
given  in  the  second  column  in  the  table  in  the  article  Atomic  Weights. 

Assuming,  then,  these  atomic  weights,  let  us  return  to  the  subject  of  Chemical  Struc- 
ture. This  may  be  defined  in  various  ways,  but  most  conveniently  as  the  indication  by  a 
graphic  formula,  or  something  equivalent  to  it,  of  all  the  chemical  changes  by  which 
the  substance  can  be  formed  or  decomposed.  This  will  best  be  illustrated  by  means 
of  a few  examples,  and  we  shall  select  these  from  among  organic  compounds,  that  is, 
compounds  of  carbon,  because  the  structure  of  these  compounds  has  been  most  fully 
investigated. 

Acetic  acid  has  (on  the  new  system,  which  will  be  exclusively  used  in  the  remainder 
of  this  article)  the  formula  C2H4O2.  If  it  is  treated  with  caustic  potash,  it  yields 
acetate  of  potash  according  to  the  equation  C2H4O2  + KHO  = C2H8KO2  + H2O.  Here 
one  atom  of  hydrogen  has  been  replaced  by  one  atom  of  potassium,  and  we  find  that 
further  treatment  with  caustic  potash  does  not  cause  any  further  replacement  of  hydro- 
gen by  potassium.  We  may  therefore  write  the  formula  of  acetic  acid  thus:  H — (C2HSO2), 
and  this  formula  indicates  the  replaceability  of  one  atom  of  hydrogen  by  metal,  and 
explains  (as  far  as  such  formulae  can  explain  anything)  the  occurrence  of  such  com- 
pounds as  acetate  of  lead  (C2H3O2) — Pb— (C2H3O2),  and  all  the  other  acetates.  The 
question  now  remains,  what  is  the  structure  of  the  group  (C-^HsOa),  which  is  united  in 
acetic  acid  to  hydrogen,  and  in  the  acetates  to  metal? 

To  answer  it  we  must  examine  some  other  reactions  of  acetic  acid.  When  treated 
with  pentachloride  of  phosphorus,  it  loses  an  atom  of  oxygen,  the  place  of  which  is 
taken  by  two  atoms  of  chlorine — the  pentachloride  of  phosphorus  taking  the  oxygen  in 
exchange  for  the  chlorine;  but  instead  of  obtaining  a compound  (C2H4OCI2),  we  find 
that  the  result  is  expressed  by  the  equation;  C2H4O2  + PCI5  = C2H3OCI  -j-  HCl  P0(^3. 
We  thence  conclude  that  in  acetic  acid  the  atom  of  dyad  oxygen  removed  in  the  action 
given  above  was  united  to  an  atom  of  hydrogen,  and  to  the  group  (C2H3O),  and  repre- 
sent the  change  thus: 

(CaHaO)— O— H -f- PCU  = (CaH30)--Cl  + Cl— H 4- POCI3 ; 


Cbemists. 


750 


the  replacement  of  the  dyad  oxygen  by  two  atoms  of  the  monad  chlorine  necessitating 
the  falling  asunder  of  the  compound.  The  reactions  of  chloride  of  acetyl  (CjHsOCl) 
lead  us  to  the  further  conclusion  that  the  atom  of  hydrogen  replaceable  by  metal  is  the 
atom  not  present  in  chloride  of  acetyl,  so  that  the  formula  (C2H3O) — O — H is  a fuller 
and  more  explanatory  form  of  (C2H3O2) — H.  Again,  if  we  heat  acetate  of  potash  with 
caustic  potash,  we  have  marsh  gas  (CH4)  given  off,  and  the  residue  consists  of  carbon- 
ate of  potash 

H 

(C,H,0)— 0— K + K— 0-H  = H— i— H + K— O— C— 0— K; 

i I) 

and  this  decomposition  can  only  be  represented  if  we  give  acetic  acid  the  formula 


H— i— C— O— H; 

u 

: H : 


when  we  have 


O— K 4-  K— O— H = H— di  — 

kh  i 


H + K— O— C— O— K; 


k\  id 


the  dotted  lines  separating  in  the  diagram  the  symbols  of  the  parts  of  the  molecules 
which  change  places. 

We  have  considered  only  a few  of  the  reactions  of  acetic  acid,  but  the  formula  just 
given  is  equally  consistent  with  all  the  others.  It  is  therefore  said  to  exhibit  the  struct- 
ure of  acetic  acid.  This  word  “structure”  is  perhaps  a little  misleading — we  must 
recollect  the  precise  sense  in  which  it  is  used,  as  a concise  representation  of  man^ 
reactions.  It  is  conceivable  that  it  may  have  some  relation  to  the  actual  relative  posi* 
tion  of  the  atoms  in  a molecule  of  acetic  acid,  but  we  have  not  as  yet  any  means  ol 
ascertaining  whether  this  is  so  or  not. 

We  may  illustrate  the  meaning  of  chemical  structure  further  by  a somewhat  more 
complex  case.  Asparagine,  a colorless  crystalline  substance  extracted  from  asparagus, 
and  also  from  the  blanched  shoots  of  other  plants,  has  the  composition  expressed  by  the 
formula  C4H8N2O3.  When  treated  with  caustic  potash  it  yields  ammonia  and  a body 
called  aspartate  of  potash — the  potash  salt  of  aspartic  acid.  The  change  is  obviously 
H . 

an  exchange  of  K — O — and  N — and  may  be  thus  indicated: 

H ' 


i : i \ r- 

C4HeN03— N + H— O— K = C4HeN03— O— K -f  H— N 
: v__H  : i : ^ 


H 

H 


Aspartic  acid  is  then  (C4H6NO3) — 0 — H,  and  we  have  to  study  its  decompositions  in 
order  to  discover  the  structure  of  the  group  (C4H4NO3).  Now,  aspartic  acid  is  attacked 
by  nitrous  acid,  and  the  products  are  nitrogen  gas,  water,  and  malic  acid,  thus; 
C4H7N04-j-HN02  = C4H6O5+N2  + H2O.  Here  we  have  the  triad  nitrogen  of  the 
aspartic  acid  replaced  by  the  dyad  O,  and  the  monad  group  — O — H of  the  nitrous  acid, 


H- 

and  this  leads  to  the  formula 

H- 

above  thus  becomes: 


N — (C4H4O8)— O — H for  aspartic  acid. 


The  equation 


N-^C4H40s)— O— H+H— O— N 


0=N 


N+ 


i 

: o+H— O— (C4H4OS— O— H. 
: 


Aspartic  Acid.  Nitrous  Acid.  * Nitrogen.  Water.  Malic  Acid. 

When  malic  acid  is  treated  with  hydrobromic  acid,  we  obtain  water  and  bromo-succinic 
acid: 


H— O— (C4H4O3)— O— H-f  Br— H = H— O— H + Br-^C4H403)— O— H; 
Malic  Acid.  Hydrobromic  Acid.  Water.  Bromo-succinic  Acid. 


and  we  can  prove  that  the  group  H — O — , here  replaced  by  Br,  is  that  one  which  in 

aspartic  acid  is  represented  by  N — . Bromo-succinic  acid,  when  treated  with  nas- 

H — ' 


751 


ChemlstSr 


cent  hydrogen,  has  its  bromine  removed  and  hydrogen  put  in  its  place,  thus  yielding 
succinic  acid  (C4H6O4).  We  shall  most  easily  arrive  at  the  structure  of  succinic  acid 
by  studying  its  synthesis. 

Olefiant  gas  (C3H4)  unites  with  bromine  to  form  a liquid  having  the  composition; 
(CaH4Br3),  and  (as  can  easily  be  proved  by  its  relation  to  glycol  and  glycollic  acid),  a 
structure  represented  thus: 

H H 


Br 


-h-i 

k k 


Br. 


This  bromide  of  ethylene,  as  it  is  called,  when  treated  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  gives 
bromide  of  potassium,  and  a substance  which  may  be  called  cyanide  of  ethylene — bro- 
mine and  cyanogen  changing  places  •(C2H4Br2)-}-2KCN  = C2H4(CN)a  + 2KBr.  As 
cyanide  of  potassium  is  K — C = N,  it  follows  that  cyanide  of  ethylene  is 
H H 

N = C — C — (!) — C = N ; when  this  product  is  boiled  with  caustic  potash  and  water,  ammo- 

kk 

nia  is  given  off,  and  succinate  of  potash  remains  in  solution.  Here  we  have  nitrogen 
uniting  with  hydrogen,  while  the  place  of  the  nitrogen  is  taken  by  that  with  which 
the  hydrogen  was  united — viz.,  the  dyad  O,  and  the  monad — O — K.  We  thus  obtain 
the  structural  formula  of  succinic  acid. 


O H H 0 


H 


— 0— i— i— c— o-H 

kk 


Here  are  obviously  two  hydrogen  atoms  having  a different  function  from  the  rest — 
those,  namely,  which  are  replaceable  by  metal,  and  which,  in  the  above  formula,  are 
represented  as  directly  united  to  oxygen.  That  it  is  not  one  of  these  that  is  replaced  by 
bromine  follows  from  the  fact  that  bromo-succinic  acid  has  also  two  atoms  of  hydrogen 
replaceable  by  metals  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  in  succinic  acid  itself,  and  as  the 
other  four  atoms  of  hydrogen  do  not  differ  in  position  in  the  diagram  from  one 
another,  we  have  only  one  possible  formula  for  bromo-succinic  acid;  and  therefore,  for 
malic  acid: 

O H H O 


and  for  aspartic  acid; 


H— O— C— I)— (i— O— H; 

H-U 

O H H O 

H— O— 0— H. 
H— li  i 


k 


We  have,  however,  two  possible  structural  formulae  for  asparagine,  as  it  is  plain  that  the 
two  groups  H — O — in  aspartic  acid  are  not  similar  to  one  another,  and  we  have  not  as 
yet  any  means  of  deciding  between  them.  The  reader  will  see  that  they  are  different, 
and  from  the  way  in  which  structure  has  been  proved,  will  also  see  that  reactions  may 
be  obtained  which  would  decide  between  the  two. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  give  any  further  examples  of  chemical  structure — the  two  we 
have  treated  in  some  detail  may  suffice  to  show  how  the  principle  is  applied,  and  what 
is  the  nature  of  the  evidence  in  favor  of  particular  structural  formulae. 

CHEMISTS  AND  DRUGGISTS,  Laws  relating  to.  Under  the  head  Apothecary 
(q.v.)  will  be  found  the  distinction  between  that  profession  and  the  kindred  one  of 
pharmaceutical  chemist.  The  pharmaceutical  society  of  Great  Britain,  founded  in  1841 
for  raising  the  standard  of  efficiency  in  the  practice  of  dispensing  and  compounding 
drugs,  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1843.  An  act  was  passed  in  1853  defining 
the  qualifications  of  pharmaceutical  chemists,  and  the  society’s  powers  for  examining 
and  granting  qualifying  certificates.  The  pharmacy  act  of  1868,  referred  to  below,  still 
further  defines  its  duties  and  privileges.  As  in  the  case  of  medical  practitioners,  there  is 
no  penalty  for  mere  practice;  but  the  assumption  of  the  specific  title  named  in  the  act  is 
punishable  by  fine.  The  legislature  presumes  that  certificates  obtained  by  examination 
are  evidence  of  efficient  education,  but  that  the  freedom  of  engaging  in  business  ought 
not  to  be  interfered  with;  and  that  the  right  of  the  subject  to  consult  whom  he  chooses, 
or  to  buy  drugs  from  whom  he  will,  must  be  respected.  This  seems  a sound  view. 


Chemitype. 

Chenier. 


752 


Serious  mistakes,  such  as  the  substitution  of  one  medicine  for  another,  to  the  injury  of 
the  purchaser,  are  punishable  by  law,  both  in  the  unqualified  and  in  the  case  of  those 
qualified  under  the  act.  The  public  also  derives  ^reat  and  increasing  security  in  this 
and  in  all  other  departments  of  human  enterprise,  from  the  improving  effect  of  free  com- 
petition. The  operation  of  the  act  was  simply  that  of  indicating  to  the  public,  by  a 
name  or  title,  a class  of  druggists  possessing  a higher  education.  In  1868  it  was  deemed 
necessary,  owing  to  the  frequent  evils  arising  from  the  facility  of  obtaining  poisons,  to 
enact  that  no  person  should  sell,  or  keep  open  shop  for  selling  poisons,  or  assume  or  use 
the  title  of  chemist  or  druggist  or  pharmacist,  unless  he  be  registered  under  the  act  31 
and  32  Viet.  c.  121,  amended  by  32  and  33  Viet.  c.  117,  and  conform  to  the  regulations 
as  to  sale  of  poisons.  All  persons  who  in  1868  carried  on  the  business  of  chemists  and 
druggists,  and  their  apprentices  and  assistants,  were  entitled  to  be  registered.  The 
register  of  chemists  and  druggists  under  this  act  now  contains  the  names  of  all  qualified 
persons  in  Great  Britain. 

CHEMITYPE  is  the  name  given  by  its  inventor,  C.  Pill,  a Dane,  to  the  art  of  pro 
ducing  on  a metal  plate,  by  a chemical  process,  an  engraving  in  relief.  The  outline  of 
the  process  is  this:  On  a polished  plate  of  zinc  an  etching  or  an  engraving  is  made  in  the 
usual  way.  The  depressions  of  this  design  are  then  filled  up  with  a melted  metal — the 
nature  of  which  is  not  revealed — and  this  superadded  metal  is  then  reduced  to  the  exact 
level  of  the  zinc,  so  that  the  design  now  appears  as  if  inlaid.  An  acid  is  next  applied 
to  the  surface,  which  attacks  the  zinc,  without  affecting  the  inlaid  metal ; and  thus 
there  results  an  exact  copy  in  relief  of  the  original  intaglio  engraving.  In  competition 
with  wood-cuts,  relief-lithographs,  and  copperplates,  C.  does  not  seem  as  yet  to  evince 
anj^  great  superiority;  it  fails  especially  in  that  character  of  strength  and  softness 
which  wood-cuts,  express  so  well.  The  prints  produced  by  this  art  look  more  like 
engravings  than  like  wood-cuts.  They  have  this  advantage,  however,  that  they  give  an 
exact  copy  of  the  original  design  made  by  the  artists  on  the  metal ; whereas  in  wood-cutting 
the  drawing  made  on  the  block  may  be  impaired  in  its  effect  by  the  engraver.  C.  is 
particularly  adapted  for  producing  maps  by  the  common  printing-press.  Ptil  practiced 
his  invention  at  first  on  a small  scale  in  Copenhagen,  from  1843  to  1846,  and  then  exten- 
sively in  Leipsic.  In  1850,  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  was  employed  in  the  imperial 
printing  establishment. 

CHEMNITZ,  a t.  of  Saxony,  is  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  river  Chemnitz  with  three  other  rivers,  in  lat.  50°  50'  n.,  and  long.  17°  55' 
east.  It  is  the  principal  manufacturing  town  of  Saxony — its  industry  consisting  in 
weaving  cottons,  woolens,  and  silks,  and  in  printing  calicoes,  chiefly  for  German  con- 
sumption. Cotton  stockings  are  a most  extensive  manufacture,  and  rival  the  British  in 
quality  and  cheapness.  The  American  markets  are  chiefly  supplied  from  this  place.  It 
has  several  extensive  machine  factories,  producing  machinery  for  flax  and  wool  spin- 
ning, weaving,  and  mining  industry.  Amongst  the  numerous  educational  institutes 
of  C.  are  schools  of  weaving,  mining,  and  tailoring.  For  four  centuries  C.  was  a free 
imperial  city.  Traces  of  its  antiquity  are  seen  in  many  of  the  buildings.  Pop.  75, 
85,334. 

CHEMNITZ,  Martin,  next  to  Luther  and  Melanchthon  the  most  distinguished  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian  of  the  16th  c.,  wash,  at  Treuenbrietzen,  in  Brandenburg,  9th 
Nov.,  1522;  studied  at  Frankfurt  and  Wittenberg;  and,  in  1548,  became  rector  of  the 
cathedral-school  of  Konigsberg.  About  1550,  he  began  to  devote  himself  seriously  to 
theology,  and  in  1553  went  back  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  delivered  prelections  on 
Melanchthon’s  Loci  Communes,  from  which  sprang  his  own  Loci  Theologici,  which,  for 
method  and  learning,  excels  all  similar  books  of  the  same  age.  In  1554,  he  was  made  a 
preacher  in  Brunswick,  where  he  wrote  his  Itepetitio  Sance  Doctrinoe  de  Vera  Presentia 
Corporis  et  Sanguinis  Domini  in  Ccena  Sacra  (Leip.  1561),  in  which  he  defended  Luther’s 
view  of  the  Lord’s  Supper  against  that  of  the  Swiss  reformers;  the  Tlieologm  Jesuitorum 
Prcecipua  Capita  (Leip.  1562);  and  the  Examen  Concilii  TridentiniiV^^V-  1565),  a w^ork  in 
which  he  has  argued  with  remarkable  acuteness  and  learning  against  the  dogmas  of  the 
church  of  Kome.  His  Caiyus  Doctrince  Prutenicce  (1566),  written  in  conjunction  with 
Mbrlin,  became  a standard  work  of  divinity  among  the  Prussian  Protestants.  But 
his  greatest  ecclesiastical  achievement  was  inducing  the  Saxon  and  Suabian  churches 
to  adopt  as  their  confession  of  faith  the  Concordienformel,  and  thus  extending  and  con- 
solidating the  creed  of  Luther.  He  died  at  Brunswick,  8th  April,  1586. 

CHEMNITZIA,  a genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusca.  It  has  a slender,  elongated,  many - 
whorled  shell ; the  whorls  striated;  a simple  semi-oval  aperture;  and  a horny  operculum. 
There  are  many  recent  species  scattered  all  over  the  world.  The  discriminating  char 
acters  of  the  fossil  species  being  taken  from  the  form  of  the  shell,  it  is  more  than  prob- 
able that  the  remains  of  very  different  animals  are  classed  under  this  generic  name.  No 
less  than  180  species  have  been  described,  occurring  throughout  all  the  divisions  of  the 
fossiliferous  strata  from  the  lower  Silurian  upwards. 

CHEMOSH,  the  national  deity  of  the  Moabites  and  the  Amorites.  Solomon  intro 
duced  the  worship  of  C.  into  Jerusalem,  but  Josiah  put  a stop  to  it.  Scholars  are  not 


753 


Chemitype.  * 
Chenier. 


figreed  as  to  descriptions  either  of  the  deity  or  the  worship.  Jerome  identifies  C.  with 
Baal-Peor;  others  with  Baal-Zebub;  Genesius  with  Mars,  or  some  god  of  war;  some  with 
Saturn,  as  the  star  of  ill-omen;  C.  having,  according  to  Jewish  legend,  been  worshiped 
in  the  form  of  a black  stone ; and  Maimonides  says  his  worshipers  went  bareheaded,  and 
used  no  garments  sewn  by  the  needle.  Hackmann  makes  the  name  equivalent  to  “ royal 
■deity,”  and,  apparently,  children  were  sacrificed  to  him. 

CHEMUNG',  a co.  in  s.  New  York,  on  the  Pennsylvania  border,  intersected  by 
Tioga  river,  and  traversed  by  the  New  York  and  Erie  and  the  Northern  Central  railroads, 
und  the  canal  from  Seneca  lake  to  Elmira;  513  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  43,065.  The  surface  is 
partly  level  and  partly  hilly;  soil  fertile.  The  chief  productions  are  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
buckwheat,  potatoes,  hay,  butter,  wool,  honey,  and  tobacco.  There  are  in  the  county 
several  carriage  and  wagon  manufactories,  flour-mills,  saw-mills,  tanneries,  etc.  Co. 
seat,  Elmira. 

CHENAB',  the  largest,  according  io  general  opinion,  of  the  five  rivers  which  give 
name  to  the  Punjab.  Like  most  of  the  principal  streams  of  India,  it  rises  to  the  n.  of 
the  Himalayas,  making  its  way  through  the  Ritanki;  pass  at  the  height  of  13.600  ft.  above 
the  sea,  and  having  its  source  about  lat.  32°  48'  n.,  and  long.  77°  27  east.  After  a descent 
of  300  m.,  the  C.  reaches  the  level  country.  At  the  close  of  a course  of  the  same  length, 
it  receives,  on  its  right,  the  Jhelum  in  lat.  31°  12'  n.,  and  long.  72°  12'  e. ; 50  m.  further 
down,  it  is  joined,  on  its  left,  by  the  Ravee;  and  110  m.  lower,  it  absorbs,  through  the 
Ohara,  on  its  left,  the  mingled  waters  of  the  Beas  and  the  Sutlej.  Lastly,  at  a dis- 
tance of  60  m.,  the  accumulated  floods,  under  the  designation  of  Punjnud,  lose  them- 
selves in  the  Indus  in  lat.  28°  55'  n.,  and  long.  70°  28'  e. — being  still  470  m.  from  the 
ocean. 

CHENAN'GO,  a co.  in  s.  New  York,  on  a branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  and ’the  Che- 
nango and  Unadilla  rivers,  intersected  by  the  Chenango  canal,  and  the  Albany  and  Sus- 
quehanna, the  New  York  Midland,  and  a branch  of  the  Delaware  and  Lackawanna 
railroads;  624  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  3U,890.  It  has  an  elevated,  hilly,  and  broken  surface,  with 
fruitful  soil,  producing  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  cheese,  butter,  wool,  maple 
sugar,  and  hops.  There  are  in  the  county  more  than  40  cheese  factories,  and  several 
flour-mills,  tanneries,  furniture  and  carriage  manufactories.  Co.  seat,  Norwich. 

CHENAN'GO  RIVER,  a stream  in  central  New  York,  rising  in  Oneida  co.,  and 
flowing,  with  a length  of  about  90  m. , through  Madison  and  Chenango  counties  to  the 
Susquehanna,  near  the  Pennsylvania  boundary. 

CHENDAREE,  or  Chunderee.  See  Chandhairee,  ante. 

CHENEY,  Charles  Edward,  d.d.,  b.  1836;  a graduate  of  Hobart  college  and  a 
■student  in  the  Virginia  theological  seminary  (Episcopal).  He  had  pastoral  charge  in 
Rochester  and  Havana,  N.  Y.,  and  in  Chicago,  111.  In  Dec.,  1873,  having  left  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church,  he  was  chosen  assistant  bishop,  and  afterwards  bishop,  of 
the  Reformed  Episcopal  ehurch,  then  newly  organized.  He  is  a vigorous  thinker  and 
an  able  organizer;  he  is  still  rector  of  Christ  church,  Chicago. 

CHIiNIER,  Andre-Marie  de,  1762-94;  a French  poet,  b.  in  Constantinople.  He 
undertook  military  life,  but  resigned  his  commission  after  six  months’  trial,  and  returned 
to  Paris,  where  he.  wrote  idyllic  poems,  such  as  Le  Mendicant;  L'Aveugle;  and  Le  Jeune 
Malade.  Overwork  made  a journey  for  health  necessary,  and  he  traveled  in  Switzerland, 
Italy,  and  the  Grecian  islands.  Returning  to  Paris  in  1786,  he  recommenced  study  and 
work,  and  produced  the  Elegies;  Art  d' Aimer;  E Invention;  Hermes;  Susanne,  and  La 
Liberte.  From  1787  to  1790,  he  resided  in  Loudon  as  a secretary  to  the  French  embassy, 
but  neither  the  position  nor  the  people  were  congenial,  and  he  returned  to  France,  plung- 
ing at  once  into  the  revolution,  then  well  under  way,  taking  the  moderate  side.  In 
1791,  he  was  defeated  as  a candidate  for  a seat  in  the  national  assembly,  and  the  next 
year  an  invective  against  the  Jacobins  involved  him  in  a quarrel  with  his  brother  Joseph, 
whom  he  was  afterwards  to  defend  against  the  attack  of  Burke.  When  the  hopes  of 
the  monarchy  were  gone,  he  returned  to  literature,  but  the  trial  of  the  king  brought  him 
-once  more  forward,  and  he  took  part  in  preparing  the  defense,  and  also  drew  up  an 
appeal  to  the  people.  He  was  broken  in  health  and  spirits;  Paris  was  dangerous;  and 
he  went  to  Versailles,  where  he  wrote  poems  to  “ Fanny.”  At  Passy,  Jan.  6, 1794,  he 
opposed  the  arrest  of  a lady  in  whose  house  he  was  living,  an  act  which  resulted  in  his 
own  seizure  and  incarceration  in  St.  Lazare.  Here  he  wrote  La  Jeune  Captive  for  the 
duchess  of  Fleury,  and  for  the  convention  the  furious  iambics  so  often  quoted.  At  the 
tribunal  he  appeared  with  44  others,  and  38,  including  himself,  were  condemned  to 
execution.  The  next  day,  July  25,  1794,  he,  with  the  counts  de  Montalembert  and  de 
Crequi,  was  led  to  death.  As  he  descended  the  steps  of  the  conciergerie,  he  said  to 
Roucher,  “ Je  n’ai  rien  fait  pour  la  posterite.  Pourtant”  (striking  his  forehead),  “ j’avais 
quelque  chose  la.”  Three  days  later,  in  the  same  place,  Robespierre  and  his  fellows 
were  executed,  and  the  “reign  of  terror”  was  at  an  end.  C.’s  poems,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two,  remained  unedited  for  a quarter  of  a century. 

CH^1NIER,  Marie  Joseph  de,  1764-1811;  poet  and  dramatist,  younger  brother  of 
Andre  Chenier  ; b.  in  Constantinople,  and  educated  at  the  college  de  Navarre.  He  also 
served  a short  time  in  the  army,  but  left  it  for  literary  composition,  producing,  at  the  age 


Chenonceaux. 

Cherbourg. 


754 


of  20,  Azemire,  a tragedy  which  was  not  very  successful.  His  next  work,  however,. 
Charles  XII. , gave  occasion  for  the  commencement  of  Talma’s  renown,  and  gained  great 
popularity.  It  still  keeps  the  stage.  Following  these  came  Henry  VIII.  and  Galas; 
in  1792,  Cains  Gracchus,  which  was  proscribed  and  burned  because  of  the  anti-anarchical 
phrase  “The  law,  and  not  blood;”  and  the  drama  Timoleon,  proscribed  in  1793.  The 
death  of  his  brother  on  the  scaffold  took  him  away  from  play-writing,  which  he 
attempted  again  only  once  (in  1804),  w^hen  he  produced  Cyrus,  which  was  not  a success. 
He  was  long  a prominent  member  of  the  Jacobin  club;  a member  of  the  convention,, 
and  also  of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  over  both  of  which  he  presided;  he  had  a seat  in 
the  tribunate,  and  belonged  to  the  committees  of  public  instruction,  of  general  securit}'’, 
and  of  public  safety.  In  1806-7,  he  delivered  a course  of  lectures,  on  the  language  and 
literature  of  France  from  the  earliest  period;  and  in  1808,  at  Napoleon’s  request,  he 
prepared  his  Tableau  Historique  de  VEtat  et  du  Progres  de  la  Litterature  Frangaise.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  hymns,  songs,  and  odes,  among  them  the  famous  Chant  du 
Depart;  odes  on  the  death  of  Mirabeau,  the  oligarchy  of  Robespierre,  etc.;  tragedies 
that  never  reached  the  stage,  and  translations  from  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  German 
authors.  As  a satirist  he  was  said  to  possess  great  merit. 

CHENONCEAUX,  Castle  of.  See  Blere,  ante. 

CHEN0P0DIACE.E,  or  Salsola'cejs,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting 
of  herbaceous  and  half-shrubby  plants,  with  leaves  entire  or  divided,  and  destitute  of 
stipules.  The  flowers  are  inconspicuous,  hermaphrodite,  or  unisexual ; the  perianth  deeply 
divided,  persistent ; the  stamens  inserted  into  its  base,  opposite  to  its  segments,  and  equal 
to  them  m number,  or  fewer;  the  ovary  single,  free,  or  occasionally  adhering  to  the  tube 
of  the  perianth,  with  a single  ovule  attached  to  the  base  of  the  cavity;  the  style  generall.^ 
with  2 to  4 divisions.  The  fruit  is  membranous,  inclosed  in  the  perianth,  which  some- 
times  becomes  fleshy.  The  seed  has  a curved  or  spiral  embryo. — There  are  about  360> 
known  species,  most  of  which  have  a weed-like  appearance,  and  grow  in  waste  places. 
They  are  widely  diffused  over  the  world,  but  are  particularly  abundant  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Beet  and  spinage  are  among  the  best  known  and  most  useful 
plants  of  the  order.  Many  are  occasionally  used  as  pot-herbs,  as  some  species  of 
chenopodiuin  and  of  orache.  The  fruit  of  strawberry  blite  (blitum  capitatum  and  B. 
virgatum),  a common  weed  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  has  some  resemblance  in  appearance  to- 
a strawberry,  from  the  coherence  of  the  fleshy  perianths  of  a whole  spike  or  head  of 
flowers,  and  a sweetish,  insipid  taste.  The  seed  of  quinoa  (q.v.)  is  used  for  food  as  a 
kind  of  grain.  Some  of  the  C.  are  aromatic  (see  Chenopodium).  Some  inhabit  salt- 
marshes,  and  abound  in  soda,  as  the  saltworts  (q.v.). 

CHENOPO'DIUM,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  chenopodiacem,  of  wdiichsome 
of  the  native  British  species  are  well  known  by  the  name  of  Goosefoot,  as  weeds  grow- 
ing in  gardens,  on  heaps  of  rubbish,  and  in  waste  places.  The  species  are  mostly  annuals, 
with  entire  or  toothed  leaves,  which  in  some  of  them  have  a sort  of  mealy  hoariness. 
They  are  mostly  natives  of  Europe,  and  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia;  but  some  are 
natives  of  America,  into  which,  however,  some  of  the  common  European  species  have- 
found  their  way,  and  are  naturalized  as  weeds.  The  genus  has  hermaphrodite  flowers, 
with  perianth  of  five  small  green  scales,  five  stamens,  and  solitary  flat  seeds.  The  leaves 
of  many  species  are  used  as  a substitute  for  spinage,  particularly  those  of  the  GooD' 
Henry,  Wild  Spinage,  or  English  Mercury  ((7.  iTe/mcMs),  a perennial  plant, 
native  of  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  often  found  growing  by  waysides,  with 
stem  more  than  a foot  high,  powdered  with  minute  transparent  globules,  and  large, 
alternate,  triangular,  arrow-shaped,  entire  leaves.  It  is  cultivated  in  some  places,  par- 
ticularly in  Lincolnshire,  chiefly  for  the  leaves,  but  the  young  shoots  are  also  used  as-^ 
asparagus.  C.  intermedium,  C.  album,  etc.,  annuals,  common  in  waste  places,  are  also’ 
excellent  substitutes  for  spinage.  C.  olidum  or  rulraria  (Stinking  Goosefoot),  an 
annual  with  an  extremely  nauseous  odor,  growing  in  waste  places  in  Britain,  etc., 
especially  near  the  sea,  is  a popular  medicine,  in  much  repute  as  an  antispasmodic  and 
emmenagogue.  G.  botrys,  a native  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  with  pinnatifid  leaves  resem- 
bling those  of  the  oak,  and  hence  called  Jerusalem  Oak,  is  in  use  as  an  expectorant  and 
anthelmintic.  It  is  not  fetid  like  the  species  last  named,  but  agreeably  fragrant.  C. 
ambrosioides  has  a strong  aromatic  odor,  is  used  in  Mexico  instead  of  tea,  and  is  much 
cultivated  in  France,  an  infusion  of  it  being  deemed  useful  in  nervous  disorders.  C. 
anthelminticum,  the  Wormseed  of  the  United  States,  has  a strong  and  somewhat, 
aromatic  odor,  and  a high  reputation  as  a vermifuge.  Its  seeds  are  chiefly  used,  or  the 
essential  oil  extracted  from  them,  called  oil  of  wormseed.  More  important  than  any 
of  these  species,  as  affording  a principal  article  of  food  in  the  countries  of  which  it  is  a 
native,  is  quinoa  (q.v.). 

CHEOPS,  according  to  Herodotus,  an  Egyptian  king,  called  Chombes  by  Diodorus, 
Souphis  by  Manetho,  Saophis  by  Eratosthenes,  and  in  Egyptian  “Khufu.”  He  was  the 
second  king  of  the  fourth  dynasty  of  Manetho,  and  the  hiiilder  of  the  great  pyramid  at 
Ghizeh.  His  name  was  supposed  to  mean  “wealthy,”  or  “having  much  hair.”  He 
spent  enormous  sums  on  the  pyramid  (see  Pyramid,  ante),  and  one  improbable  story  is 
that  he  was  compelled  through  want  of  money  to  sacrifice  the  honor  of  his  daughter  to 
insure  its  comnletion.  He  is  also  deoicted  as  impious  towards  the  gods,  closing  the- 


765 


Chenonceanz. 

Cherbourg. 


temples,  and  stopping  the  worship ; hut  subsequently  repenting,  and  writing  a sacred 
book  much  esteemed  by  the  Egyptians,  The  monumental  information  about  C.  does 
not  confirm  the  Greek  historians;  on  the  contrary,  it  records  the  construction  of  temples 
in  honor  of  the  gods,  the  repair  of  the  shrine,  and  the  gift  of  various  figures  to  the  temple 
of  Isis  and  Athor,  close  to  his  own  pyramid,  and  his  construction  or  repair  of  the  temple 
of  the  same  goddess  Adior,  the  Egyptian  Venus,  at  Denderah,  or  Tentyris.  C.  carried 
on  war  at  the  valley  Magarah,  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  in  Arabia;  and  a rock  tablet 
represents  him  as  having  conquered  the  hostile  tribes  in  the  presence  of  the  god  Thoth, 
who  had  revealed  to  him  the  mines  of  the  locality.  His  oppression  had  so  afflicted 
Egypt,  that  charges  of  impiety  had  attached  to  his  name;  but  the  tombs  of  his  children 
reveal  no  change  in  the  established  religion,  and  his  pyramid  differs  from  those  of  his 
predecessors  and  immediate  successor  only  by  its  larger  size  and  greater  beauty.  The 
date  of  C,,  according  to  Lepsius,  is  3,095  to  3,032  b.c.  ; but  great  difference  of  opinion, 
amounting  to  nearly  2,000  years,  exists  as  to  the  time  of  Menes,  from  whom  the  lists 
.separate  him  by  an  interval  of  898  years. 

CHEPHREN,  in  the  hieroglyphs  “ Khafra,”  called  also  Cephren,  Chabrias,  Souphis 
II.,  and  Saophis  II.;  according  to  the  legends,  the  son  or  brother  of  the  Egyptian 
king  Cheops.  * He  built  the  second  of  the  great  pyramids  at  Ghizeh,  near  the  sphynx 
and  the  great  pyramid,  and  was  said  to  have  been  tyrannical  and  hated,  like  his  brother, 
so  that  his  mummy  was  not  buried  in  the  sepulcher,  but  torn  to  pieces,  and  the  sarcoph- 
agus emptied  of  its  contents;  but  there  is  no  more  reason  for  believing  in  his  impiety 
than  in  that  of  Cheops.  His  wife  was  a priestess  of  the  god  Thoth,  and  another  prince 
of  the  family  was  a priest  at  Hermopolis.  He  also  built  the  small  temple  behind  the 
sphynx.  It  is  probable  that  he  lived  95  years,  and  his  reign,  according  to  Lepsius, 

was  3,032  to  2,966  b.c.  A statue  of  him  is  in  the  Boulaq  museum. 

CHEP'STOW,  a river-port  in  the  s.e.  of  Monmouthshire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Wye,  2|  m.  from  its  junction  with  the  estuary  of  the  Severn,  and  14|  m.  e.n.e.  of 
Newport.  It  lies  between  bold  cliffs,  on  a slope  rising  from  the  river,  in  the  midst 

of  beautiful  and  grand  scenery.  There  is  a fine  view  from  a rock  called  Wind- 

cliff,  970  ft.  high,  3 m.  and  a half  up  the  river.  The  streets  are  broad.  x.^ere  occurs 
the  highest  tide  in  Europe,  rising  suddenly,  with  a fierce  current,  often  50,  and  on 
rare  occasions  even  70  feet.  Large  vessels  reach  the  town.  One  of  the  wells  of  the 
town  ebbs  and  flows  with  the  tide.  Over  the  Wye  is  a railway  bridge  combining 
the  suspension  and  tubular  principles  of  construction.  C.  has  a magnificent  castle, 
built  in  the  11th  c.,  and  a fine  Benedictine  priory  recently  restored.  It  has  few  manu- 
factures, but  exports  corn,  cider,  bark,  iron,  millstones,  timber,  and  salmon.  Pop.  ’71, 
■3,347.  In  1875,  1013  vessels,  of  31,586  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 

CHEQUE.  See  Check,  ante. 

CHER,  a tributary  on  the  left  side  of  the  river  Loire,  rising  near  Crocq,  in  the 
•department  of  Creuse;  flows  flrst  n.  by  Auzances,  Evaux,  Montlu9,  and  St.  Amand; 
then  n.w.  through  the  department  of  C.  by  Vierzon;  then  westward  by  Selles,  Mont- 
richard,  and  Blere,  to  the  Loire,  which  it  joins  below  Tours.  Its  whole  length  is  about 
"200  m. ; and  it  is  navigable  for  the  last  47  of  its  course. — Cheb,  the  central  department 
of  France,  to  which  the  above  river  gives  its  name,  is  situated  in  lat.  46°  25'  to  47°  39' 
n.,  and  in  long.  1°  55'  to  3°  10'  east.  The  surface  is  mostly  level,  traversed  by  well- 
wooded  elevations,  and  produces  corn,  fruits,  wine,  hemp,  flax,  etc.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  pleasant.  Agriculture  and  pasturage  of  cattle  are  both  capable  of  improve- 
ment. Area,  upwards  of  2,700  sq.  miles.  Pop.  ’76,  345,613.  C.  is  divided  into  the 
three  arrondissements — Bourges,  St.  Amand,  and  Sancerre.  Bourges  is  the  chief  town. 

CHERAS'GO,  a t.  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  n.  Italy,  situated  on  the  Tanaro,  30  m. 
s.e.  of  Turin.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk,  and  a pop.  of  (1871)  4,694.  A peace  was 
■concluded  here  between  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  in  1631.  On 
April  26,  1796,  the  place  was  taken  by  the  French;  and  here,  three  days  after,  the 
“Armistice  of  Cherasco”  was  concluded  between  the  Sardinian  commissioners  and 
Napoleon,  by  which  the  latter  obtained  the  right  of  free  passage  for  his  troops  through 
the  Sardinian  states;  and  the  treaty  that  followed  gave  to  the  French  republic  Savoy, 
Nice,  and  the  possessions  of  Piedmont  to  the  westward  of  the  Alps’  highest  ridge. 

CHERBOURG,  a fortified  seaport  t.  and  arsenal  of  France  in  the  department  of 
Manche,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  a deep  bay  on  the  northern  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Cotentin,  on  the  English  channel,  and  opposite  the  w.  coast  of  the  isle  of 
Wight,  in  lat.  49°  40'  n.,  and  long.  1°  35'  west.  Napoleon  I.  began  to  build  the  great 
defenses  of  this  northern  stronghold  of  France.  His  nephew,  Napoleon  III.,  developed 
his  plans,  but  not  with  the  original  view  of  an  invasion  of  England.  Occupying  a 
prominent  position  on  the  French  coast,  only  some  60  m.  removed  from  the  s.  shore 
of  England,  the  harbor- works  have  been  extended,  strengthened,  fortified,  and  provi 
sioned  with  cannon — the  dock-yards  improved,  and  facilities  of  embarkation  afforded, 
to  a degree  that,  as  it  is  unparalleled  in  ancient  or  modern  times,  not  unnaturally  excites 
the  lively  apprehension  of  Englishmen.  A description  of  the  stupendous  breakwater 
of  C.,  inclosing  a space  of  nearly  2000  acres,  will  be  found  in  the  article  Breakwater. 
In  connection  with  its  fortifications,  this  breakwater  assumes  an  importance  that  attaches 


Cherbuliez. 

Cherry. 


756 


to  no  other  work  of  the  kind  in  existence.  At  the  apex  of  the  angle  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  the  two  branches  of  the  breakwater  or  digue,  there  is  a center  fort  or  batler)^ 
measuring  509  ft.  on  the  inner  line  of  the  parapet,  which  forms  a flat  semi-ellipse.  The 
circular  forts  at  the  extremities  of  the  breakwater  are  remarkably  well  placed  for  pur- 
poses of  defense.  Behind  the  center  battery  there  is  to  be  an  elliptical  tower,  measuring 
225  ft.  on  the  major,  and  123  ft,  on  the  minor  axis.  Altogether  there  are  six  large  batter- 
ies on  the  mole.  The  entrances  to  the  harbor  are  round  the  ends  of  the  mole ; and  the 
passages  are  further  defended  by  the  fortifications  of  the  He  Pelee,  and  by  the  batteries 
of  La  Roche  Chavaignac  and  fort  Querqueville.  A series  of  coast  redoubts,  and  the 
two  large  fortifications  of  Les  Roches  des  Flamands  and  du  Hornet,  are  situated  behind 
this  outer  zone  of  defense.  “The  arsenal,”  says  Mr.  W.  H.  Russell,  who  visited  C.  dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1860,  “is  inclosed  by  a continuous  line  of  bastion  and  curtain  of  a 
very  elevated  profile,  defended  by  outworks,  wet  and  dry  ditches,  and  by  profuse  bat- 
teries of  the  heaviest  guns,  either  in  casement  or  en  barbette.  Wherever  you  look,  you 
fancy  that  on  the  spot  you  occupy  are  specially  pointed  dozens  of  the  dull  black  eyes 
from  their  rigid  lids  of  stone.”  Altogether,  besides  the  batteries  on  the  mole,  C.  is- 
defended  by  24  regular  forts  and  redoubts.  The  town  itself  is  commanded  by  La  Roule 
(an  exceedingly  strong  fort)  and  fort  d’Octeville  on  the  heights  behind.  The  military 
port  of  C.  consists  of  an  outer  harbor  of  776  ft.  in  length  by  663  ft.  wide,  its  minimum 
depth  being  58  ft.,  and  the  entrance  to  which  is  206  ft.  wide  at  its  narrowest  point.  This 
harbor  communicates  by  means  of  a lock  with  a floating  basin,  957  ft.  long  by  712  wide. 
The  outer  harbor  has  four  building-slips  for  120-gun  ships,  besides  some  smaller  slips, 
and  a fine  graving-dock.  In  Aug.,  1858,  an  inner  floating-harbor  was  inaugurated  by 
the  emperor  of  the  French,  in  presence  of  the  queen  and  many  of  the  lords  and  com- 
mons of  Great  Britain.  This  harbor,  entirely  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  has  a length  of 
about  930  yards,  and  a breadth  of  437  yards,  and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  building- 
slips  and  capacious  graving-docks.  It  is  calculated  that  the  roads  of  C,  cannot,  on 
account  of  the  small  depth  of  the  greater  portion,  shelter  more  than  25  or  30  sail  of  the 
line,  and  about  as  many  frigates,  at  one  time.  C.  has  a commercial  port  quite  distinct 
from  the  other,  situated  on  the  s.e. ; but  it  displays  little  activity,  the  principal  exports 
being  eggs,  butter,  and  cattle.  The  town  itself  is  insignificant,  the  streets  being  narrow 
and  dirty ; and  there  are  no  public  buildings  of  note.  There  are  some  manufactures  of 
hosiery,  chemicals,  lace,  and  leather,  and  sugar  and  salt  refineries ; but  the  industrial 
energies  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  are  absorbed  in  the  arsenal  and  dock-yards. 
C.  is  a very  ancient  place;  in  the  10th  c.  it  was  known  under  the  name  of  Carusburg. 
In  1758,  C.  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  destroyed  the  naval  and  military  works, 
and  levied  a contribution  on  the  town.  Pop.,  exclusive  of  naval  and  military  forces 
(1876),  36,338. 

CHERBULIEZ,  Antoine  ^lLTSEE,  1797-1869;  a native  of  Switzerland,  professor  of 
political  economy  in  Geneva  and  in  the  national  polytechnic  school  in  Zurich.  He  was 
a contributor  to  cyclopaedias  and  periodicals,  and  author  oi  L’ Utilitaire,  and  Preces  de  la. 
Science  economique. 

CHERBULIEZ,  Victok,  b.  1832;  a Swiss  author,  the  son  of  a Hebrew  professor  in 
Geneva.  He  has  written  many  novels  for  the  Revue  dies  Deux  Mondes  (Paris),  among  them 
Le  Comte  Kostia;  Le  Prince  Vitale;  Paule  Mere;  Le  Roman  d'une  Jionnete  Femme;  and  L& 
Idee  de  Jean  Tetetrol. 

GHEB'IBON,  or  Sheribon,  a seaport  t.  of  Java,  situated  on  the  n.  coast,  125  m.  e.s.e. 
of  Batavia.  It  has  a considerable  trade  in  coffee,  indigo,  and  teak- wood,  and  is  the  resi- 
dence of  a Dutch  governor.  Pop.  11,000. 

GHEBIMOY'EE,  or  Chirimoya,  Anona  cherimolia,  the  most  esteemed  fruit  of  Brazil 
and  Peru,  now  common  and  even  naturalized  in  some  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  and  other 
tropical  countries  of  the  old  world.  It  is  a fruit  of  most  delicious  flavor,  is  sometimes 
described  as  the  finest  of  all  fruits,  and  sometimes  as  inferior  only  to  the  mangosteen. 
It  belongs  to  the  same  genus  with  the  custard  apple  (q.v.).  Both  flowers  and  fruit  emit 
a pleasant  fragrance,  but  when  the  tree  is  covered  with  blossom,  the  odor  is  so  strong  as 
to  be  almost  overpowering.  The  fruit  varies  from  the  size  of  an  orange  to  16  lbs.  or 
upwards  in  weight.  It  is  roundish,  or  heart-shaped.  Externally,  it  is  greenish,  covered 
with  small  knobs  and  scales.  The  skin  is  rather  thick  and  tough.  Internally,  the  fruit 
is  snow-white  and  juicy,  and  contains  a number  of  small  brown  seeds.  The  eatable  part 
is  soft  like  a custard,  and  forms  almost  the  entire  mass  of  the  fruit.  The  C.  attains  its 
highest  excellence  only  in  particular  soils  and  situations,  and  some  varieties  are  much 
finer  than  others.  No  tropical  fruit  seems  better  to  deserve  a higher  degree  of  attention, 
than  it  has  yet  received  in  our  hot-houses. 

GHERKASK'.  See  Tcherkask. 

CHEROKEE,  a co.  in  n.e.  Alabama,  on  the  Georgia  border,  on  the  Coosa  and  Chat- 
tooga rivers,  reached  by  the  Selma,  Rome,  and  Dalton  railroad;  250  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
19,109 — 2691  colored.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  and  in  large  part  covered  with', 
forests  of  pine  and  oak.  Productions  mainly  agricultural.  Co.  seat.  Centre. 


'757 


Cherbuliez* 

Cherry. 


CHEROKEE,  a co.  in  n.  w.  Georgia,  on  the  Etowah  river,  which  is  navigable  by 
steamboats;  620  sq.m,;  pop.  ’80,  14,  325 — 1623  colored.  It  has  a rolling  surface  and  fer- 
tile soil,  yielding  the  usual  agricultural  crops.  Co.  seat.  Canton. 

CHEROKEE,  a co.  in  n.w.  Iowa,  on  Little  Sioux  and  Maple  rivers,  traversed  by  the 
Dubuque  and  Sioux  City  railroad;  600  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  8240.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
business.  Co.  seat,  Cherokee. 

CHEROKEE,  a co.  in  s.e.  Kansas,  bordering  on  Missouri  and  the  Indian  territory; 
604  sq.m.;  pop.  80,  21,907.  It  is  an  agricultural  region,  and  is  intersected  by  the 
Missouri,  Fort  Scott,  and  Gulf  railroad.  Co.  seat,  Columbus. 

CHEROKEE,  a co.  in  s.w.  North  Carolina,  the  extreme  point  of  the  state,  adjoining 
Georgia  and  Tennessee;  650  sq.m. ; pop.  '80,  8182.  It  has  a mountainous  forest-covered 
surface,  and  is  little  cultivated.  Co.  seat,  Murphy. 

CHEROKEE,  a co.  in  e.  Texas,  between  the  Angelina  and  the  Neches  rivers,  inter- 
sected by  the  International  and  Great  Northern  railroad;  1144  sq.m.;  pop.  80,16,724— 
5710  colored.  It  is  in  an  excellent  agricultural  region,  consisting  of  alternating  wood- 
land and  prairie.  Co.  seat.  Rusk. 

CHEROKEES,  in  their  own  tongue  called  Tsanaghee,  a tribe  of  Indians  of  the 
United  States,  now  settled  in  the  Indian  territory,  where  they  occupy  5,960  sq.m,  in  the 
n.e.,  and  8,500  along  the  n.  side.  Their  original  home  was  in  the  country  now  forming 
portions  of  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Tennessee.  They  were  then  in 
two  great  divisions,  the  Ottare,  or  Otari,  dwelling  in  the  mountainous  districts,  and  the 
Airate,  or  Erati,  occupying  the  lower  lands;  and  they  were  further  divided  into  seven 
clans,  each  of  which  prohibited  intermarriage  between  its  own  members.  They  adhered 
to  the  English  in  early  colonial  times,  formally  recognized  the  king  in  1730,  and  in  1755- 
ceded  territory  and  permitted  the  establishment  of  English  forts.  The  tribe  was  con- 
siderably advanced  in  civilization  when  the  war  of  the  revolution  began.  They  clung 
to  the  royalist  side,  and  in  consequence  their  country  was  laid  waste  by  American  forces. 
They  were  subjugated  after  a few  years  of  intermittent  war,  during  which  they  lost 
much  territory,  and,  by  the  treaty  of  Hopewell,  Nov.  28,  1785,  they  acknowledged  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States,  and  were  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  their  hunting 
grounds.  Then  began  the  ever-recurring  story  of  white  man’s  encroachment  and  red 
man’s  resistance,  with  the  ultimate  advantage  on  the  side  of  the  intruders.  By  treaties 
in  1791  and  1798,  portions  of  their  territory  were  surrendered,  and  many  of  their  people 
emigrated  beyond  the  Mississippi.  In  1817,  the  C.  on  the  Arkansas  numbered  3,000. 
Those  who  remained  in  their  old  territory  abandoned  hunting,  and  the  greater  portion 
of  them  lived  by  agriculture.  But  the  white  men  of  Georgia,  who  coveted  their  lands, 
demanded  the  removal  of  the  remaining  C.  notwithstanding  the  great  services  which 
they  had  rendered  (1812-15)  in  the  war  with  England;  and  though  the  Indians  were 
entirely  peaceable,  generally  industrious,  and  were  fast  becoming  Christianized  by  the 
efforts  of  Moravian  missionaries  and  those  of  the  American  board,  the  clamor  for  their 
removal  prevailed,  and  in  July,  1817,  they  were  forced  to  exchange  their  eastern  lands 
for  territory  w.  of  the  Mississippi.  The  end  was  not  effected,  however,  without  much 
trouble  and  bloodshed.  Georgia  passed  laws  extending  over  the  territory  of  the  C. , by 
which  the  Indians  were  practically  outlawed,  deprived  of  citizenship,  and  prohibited 
from  being  witnesses.  They  appealed  to  the  U.  S.  supreme  court,  and  that  body — 
which  long  afterward  decided  that  a negro  had  no  rights  that  a white  man  was  bound 
to  respect — refused  the  Indians  the  right  to  bring  an  action ; and  finally  the  general 
government  confessed  its  inability  to  fulfill  its  own  treaty  obligations.  But  this  inability 
did  not  prevent  the  federal  government  (in  1835)  from  making  a treaty  with  a small  por- 
tion of  the  tribe  for  the  removal  of  the  whole  of  them,  and  three  years  later  an  armed 
force  was  sent  into  their  country  to  compel  the  removal.  At  that  time  the  whole  number 
of  Indians  in  their  old  homes  was  about  27,000.  The  Indians  were  themselves  divided; 
one  section,  led  by  John  Ross,  at  first  opposed,  but  at  last  directed  the  removal.  Within 
a few  years,  after  much  difiiculty  and  not  a few  murders,  their  removal  was  effected. 
Since  their  occupation  of  a share  of  the  Indian  territory,  the  C.  have  greatly  advanced 
in  learning  and  in  material  prosperity.  About  1821,  a member  of  the  tribe  invented  an 
alphabet,  and  books  and  newspapers  have  been  printed  in  their  own  language  for  half  a 
century.  In  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  they  at  first  favored  the  confederates,  but  the 
majority  soon  came  over  to  the  union  side.  Between  the  two  armies,  their  territory 
suffered  severely,  and  they  were  compelled  to  emancipate  their  slaves.  The  territory  of 
the  C.  now  amounts  to  about  5,000,000  acres,  and  they  have,  in  the  keeping  of  the 
United  States,  school  and  orphan  funds  to  the  amount  of  about  $1,600,000.  They  are 
governed  by  a national  committee  and  council  elected  for  two  years,  and  a chief  who  is. 
chosen  for  four  years.  In  1873,  the  C.  numbered  17,217,  and  they  had  63  schools  with 
1,884  pupils.  They  live  in  well-built  villages,  and  are  peaceable  and  industrious. 
Tahlequah  is  their  chief  town. 

CHERRY,  Cerasus,  a genus  or  sub-genus  of  plants,  of  which  the  best  known  yields 
one  of  our  most  esteemed  stone-fruits.  This  is  usually  regarded  as  a sub-genus  of  pru- 
nus  (see  Plum),  but  is  erected  by  some  botanists  into  a distinct  genus  on  very  slender 
grounds,  the  most  obvious  distinction  between  the  species  of  cerasm  and  the  true  species 


Cherry. 

Cherubini. 


768 


of  prunus  being  that,  in  the  former,  the  young  leaves  are  conduplicate,  or  folded  up,  and 
in  the  latter  they  are  convolute,  or  rolled  together.  Two  species  are  pretty  generall3" 
regarded  as  the  parents  of  the  garden  cherries  usually  cultivated,  pranus  or  cerasv/i 
avium,  and  P.  cei'asus  or  0.  vulgaris — the  former  having  the  underside  of  the  leaves 
hairy  and  a small  austere  fruit;  the  latter  having  smooth  shining  leaves  and  a more  juicy 
fruit.  C.  avium  attains  a height  of  40  to  50  feet  G.  vulgaris  is  a smaller  tree.  Both 
have  white  flowers  in  clusters  or  nearly  sessile  umbels,  and  both  are  generally  regarded 
as  natives  of  Britain,  and  of  the  middle  and  s.  of  Europe.  In  a wild  state,  they  are 
usually  called  Gean  {guigne),  and  G.  avium  is  frequently  planted — not  only  because  it  is 
exceedingly  ornamental  when  in  flower,  but  also  as  a timber-tree,  being  of  rapid  growth, 
with  firm,  strong,  close-grained  wood,  suitable  for  the  purposes  of  cabinet-makers,  turn- 
ers, and  musical-instrument  makers.  But  according  to  some  botanists,  there  is  only  one 
species,  of  which  these  are  varieties ; and  according  to  others,  G.  vulgaris  is  a native  of  Syria 
and  other  parts  of  western  Asia,  and  is  only  naturalized  in  Europe,  having  been  first 
brought  to  Italy  by  Lucullus,  after  his  victory  over  Mithridates(74B.c.).  from  Kerasunt, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Black  sea,  from  whence  it  derives  its  name.  The  cultivated  varie- 
ties of  the  C.  are  very  numerous,  and  differ  very  considerably  in  size,  color,  and  flavor. 
The  fruit  of  the  C.  supplies  the  inhabitants  of  some  parts  of  France  with  a principal 
article  of  food,  especially  the  wood-cutters  and  charcoal-burners  of  the  forests;  and 
among  their  modes  of  preparing  it  is  that  of  making  it  a principal  ingredient  in  soups. 
It  ripens  in  Norway  and  East  Bothnia  as  far  n.  as  lat.  63°.  In  some  parts  of  Germany, 
the  public  roads  are  lined  for  many  miles  together  with  avenues  of  C.  trees.  Besides  its 
use  for  the  dessert  and  for  preserves,  the  C.  is  extensively  used  for  making  liquors.  See 
Kirschwasser  and  Maraschino.  Varieties  of  C.  with  double  flowers,  and  with  pen- 
dulous branches,  are  frequently  planted  for  ornament  in  shrubberies,  and  few  trees  or 
shrubs  are  more  beautiful.  The  all-saints  G.  produces  flowers  almost  all  summer,  and 
even  in  autumn.  Its  fruit  is  small  and  rather  acid. — The  other  species  of  C.  are  numer- 
ous. Some  species  are  low,. or  even  prostrate  shrubs,  as  G.  or  P.  chamm-cerasus,  the 
Ground  C.  of  the  s.  of  Europe  and  of  Siberia;  and  G.  or  P.  pumila,  the  Sand  C.  of 
North  America. — The  genus  or  sub-genus  cerasus  contains  also  the  different  kinds  of 
bird  C.  (q.v.)  and  choke  C.  (q.v.),  including  the  American  Wild  C.,  famous  for  its  med- 
icinal bark;  the  Mahaleb  {G.  or  P.  mahaleb)  of  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  the  Capollim 
{G.  or  P.  capollim)  of  Mexico  and  Peru — the  first  famous  for  the  fragrance  of  its  flowers, 
and  the  second  for  the  fragrance  of  its  fruit;  and  the  Cherry-laurel  (q.v.). 

CHEEET-LAUEEL,  or  Laurel-Cherry,  a name  given  to  those  species  of  prunus  or 
cerasus  (see  Cherry)  which  have  evergreen  leaves.  They  are  also  often  called  Laurel. 
They  have  small  flowers  in  long  racemes,  and  small  fruit;  the  fruit  of  a nauseous  taste; 
and  most  parts  of  the  plant,  but  particularly  the  leaves  and  kernels,  remarkably  abound- 
ing in  hydrocyanic  (prussic)  acid,  and  theiefore  very  poisonous. — The  Common  Cherry- 
laurel,  sometimes  called  the  Bay-laurel  or  Laurel-bay,  very  often  spoken  of  simply  as 
the  Laurel  or  Common  Laurel  {prunus  or  cerasus  lauro-cerasus),  is  a shrub,  sometimes 
of  very  large  size,  with  ovato-lanceolate,  convex,  smooth,  remotely  serrated,  shining,  yel- 
lowish green  leaves,  and  erect  racemes  of  flowers.  It  is  originally  from  Asia,  but  is  now 
naturalized  throughout  the  s.  of  Europe,  and  is  one  of  the  most  common  ornamental 
shrubs  in  Britain,  where  it  suffers  only  from  such  severe  frosts  as  are  of  rare  occurrence. 
It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  layers,  and  cuttings.  Its  leaves  resemble  bitter  almonds  in 
smell  and  taste,  and  contain  in  great  abundance  the  same  essential  oil  (see  Almonds, 
Volatile  Oil  of),  rich  in  hydrocyanic  acid.  From  these  leaves,  by  maceration  in 
water  for  24  hours,  and  subsequent  distillation,  is  obtained  the  laurel-xcater  (q.v.),  or 
cherry-laurel  water,  sometimes  employed  in  medicine  as  a substitute  for  hydrocyanic 
acid,  and  which  formerly  was  so  much  used  as  a poison.  The  leaves  are  sometimes 
employed  also  for  flavoring  puddings,  sauces,  etc.,  and  are  safer  for  such  purposes  than 
oil  of  bitter  almonds,  but  ought  to  be  used  with  caution. — Another  species,  also  very 
common  as  an  ornamental  shrub  in  Britain,  but  not  quite  so  hardy  as  the  common 
cherry-laurel,  is  the  Portugal  Laurel  {pi'unus  or  cerasus  Lusitanica),  a native  of  Por- 
tugal, a large  shrub — sometimes  a tree — with  dark -green  leaves  and  lateral  racemes.  It 
does  not  grow  so  well  under  the  shade  of  trees  as  the  common  cherry-laurel.  From  the 
dissimilarity  of  form  and  color  of  their  leaves,  these  species  present  a pleasant  appearance 
when  mixed,  as  they  usuallj’^  are,  in  the  shrubbery. 

CHERRY  VALLEY,  a village  in  Otsego  co.,  N,  Y.,  68  m.  w.  of  Albany,  reached  by 
way  of  the  Albany  and  Susquehanna  railroad;  pop.  of  township,  ’75,  2,240.  The  village 
was  the  scene  of  a massacre  of  Americans,  Oct,  11,  1778,  by  Indians  and  tories  under 
direction  of  British  officers ; 16  soldiers  of  the  revolutionary  army  and  32  inhabitants, 
nearly  all  women  and  children,  were  killed,  and  all  others  carried  into  captivity.  Every 
house  in  the  settlement  was  burned, 

CHER'SIPHRON,  an  architect  of  Crete,  who,  with  his  son  Metagenes,  built  or  began 
to  build  the  great  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus,  commenced  about  600  b.c.  The  col- 
umns were  erected  about  40  years  later.  It  was  completed  220  years  after  its  com- 
mencement, and  a few  years  afterwards  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  the  night  m which 
Alexander  the  great  was  born.  This  temple  was  considered  to  be  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 


759 


Cherry. 

Cherubinir 


CHER'SO,  an  island  of  Illyria,  belonging  to  Austria,  in  the  Adriatic,  12  m.  s.s.w.  of 
Fiume.  A bridge  unites  it  with  the  adjoining  isle  of  Lossini.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
105  sq.m.,  with  a pop.  of  (1869)  14,000.  Its  surface  is  generally  hilly  and  rugged,  with 
forests  in  the  north.  The  chief  town  is  Cherso,  at  the  head  of  a bay  on  the  w.  side. 
Pop.  ’69,  7,590. 

CHERSON'.  See  Kherson. 

CHERSONE'SUS,  the  ancient  name  of  several  peninsulas  and  promontories  in  Europe, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Crimea  (q.v.),  0.  Taurica;  Gallipoli  (q.v.),  G.  Thra- 
cia;  and  Jutland  (q.v.),  G.  Gimhrica. 

CHERT,  or  Hornstone,  a variety  of  quartz,  always  massive,  and  having  a kind  of 
granular  appearance  and  structure.  It  is  common  in  the  mountain  limestone,  oolite, 
and  greensand  formations;  sometimes  forms  rocks;  and  often  contains  petrifactions. 
It  passes  into  common  quartz  and  chalcedony,  also  into  flint  and  flinty  slate.  Its  colors 
are  gray,  white,  red,  yellow,  green,  or  brown.  The  name  C.  is  sometimes  limited  to 
the  finer  varieties,  and  the  coarser  are  called  hornstone. — The  name  C.  is  very  commonly 
given  to  the  silicious  concretions  which  occur  as  nodules  and  layers  in  limestone  rocks, 
like  flints  in  the  chalk.  When  these  materials  exist  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  the 
limestone  useless  for  economical  purposes,  it  is  said  to  be  “cherty.” 

CHERT 'SEY  (Anglo-Saxon,  Ceort’s  Eye  or  Island),  a t.  in  the  co.  of  Surrey,  on  a low 
strip  of  land  between  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by  a stone  bridge,  and 
the  brook  from  Virginia  water,  20  m.  w.s.w.  of  London.  It  is  irregularly  built,  chiefly 
consisting  of  two  long  cross- streets,  and  is  surrounded  by  villas.  The  chief  trade  is  in 
malt  and  flour.  Many  vegetables  are  raised  for  the  London  market.  Pop.  ’71,  3,146. 
C.  arose  in  a monastery  founded  in  666,  and  rebuilt  in  964  by  Edgar  and  the  Benedictine 
monks.  The  South  Saxon  kings  had  a seat  here  during  the  heptarchy.  Charles  James 
Fox  lived  on  St.  Anne’s  hill,  an  abrupt  elevation  about  a mile  from  the  town.  Cowley 
the  poet  resided  in  Chertsey. 

CHERUB,  in  the  plural  cherubim  or  cherubs,  is  the  Hebrew  name  of  a winged  creature 
with  a human  countenance,  which  in  the  Scriptures  is  almost  always  represented  in 
connection  with  Jehovah,  and  especially  as  drawing  his  chariot-throne.  Cherubim  are 
first  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  as  guards  of  paradise ; a C.  with  a flaming  sword 
hindered  the  return  of  the  expelled  human  pair.  In  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  taberna- 
cle, and  afterwards  in  the  temple,  cherubim  wrought  in  embossed  metal  were  represented 
above  the  mercy-seat,  or  covering  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  so  that  they  appeared  to 
rise  out  of  it.  Figures  of  cherubim  were  also  w'rought  into  the  hangings  of  the  Holy  of 
Holies.  The  cherubim  that  appear  in  the  visions  of  Ezekiel  and  the  revelations  of  John 
depart  much  from  the  early  representations.  In  Ezekiel  they  have  the  body  of  a man, 
whose  head,  besides  a human  countenance,  has  also  that  of  a lion,  an  ox,  and  an  eagle ; 
they  are  provided  with  four  wings,  two  of  which  support  the  chariot  of  Jehovah,  and 
serve  to  fly,  while  the  other  two  cover  the  body;  the  hands  are  under  the  wings,  and 
the  whole  body  is  spangled  with  innumerable  eyes.  In  the  revelation,  four  cherubim, 
covered  with  eyes,  and  having  six  wings,  surround  the  throne  of  Jehovah;  the  first  has. 
the  face  of  a lion,  the  second  of  an  ox,  the  third  of  a man,  and  the  fourth  of  an  eagle. 
This  gave  rise  at  a very  early  period  to  the  symbolical  figures  of  the  four  evangelists, 
the  human  countenance  being  associated  with  Matthew,  that  of  the  lion  with  Mark,  of 
the  ox  with  Luke,  and  of  the  eagle  with  John.  Most  Jewish  writers  and  Christian 
fathers  conceived  the  cherubim  as  angels;  and  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  in  his  Gelestial 
Hierarchy,  makes  them  a separate  class  in  the  first  hierarchy.  Most  theologians  alsa 
considered  them  as  angels,  until  Michaelis  showed  them  to  be  a poetical  creation ; and 
Herder,  in  his  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  compared  them  tothe  griffins  that  watch  treasures, 
and  other  fabulous  figures.  In  Christian  art,  they  are  generally  represented  as  sexless 
figures,  with  wings  from  the  shoulders,  the  legs  also  being  either  covered  by  wings,  or 
having  wings  substituted  for  them.  Very  often  they  have  also  a glory  round  the 
head. 

CHERUBINI,  Luigi-Carlo-Zenobio-Salvatore-Maria,  an  eminent  musical  com- 
poser, was  b.  at  Florence  in  1760,  and  received  his  early  musical  training  there  under 
the  Felici  (father  and  son),  P.  Bizzari,  and  C.  Castrucci.  He  afterwards  studied  for  a 
year  at  Bologna  under  Sarti,  to  whom  he  owed  his  thorough  knowledge  of  counterpoint 
and  fugue.  He  visited  London  in  1784,  where  he  brought  out  two  operas.  La  Finta 
Principessa  and  Qiulio  Sabino,  and  afterwards  settled  in  Paris  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  paying  occasional  visits  to  Italy.  His  Ifigenia  in  Aulide  appeared  in  1788;  and  in 
1791,  his  Loddiska,^  which  work  first  secured  proper  appreciation  for  his  genius,  and 
effected  a change  in  the  whole  character  of  the  French  school  of  composition.  These 
operas  were  followed  in  succession  by  Elisa,  Medea,  Les  Deux  Jqurnees  (also  known  as 
Die  Wassertrdger),  Anacreon,  and  HHotellerie  PorUigaise.  His  latest  opera,  Ali  Baba,  was 
produced,  after  a long  interval,  in  1833.  Besides  operas,  C.  wrote  numerous  masses, 
motets,  and  other  sacred  compositions  of  so  great  merit,  that  Beethoven  regarded  him 
as  the  greatest  living  master  of  sacred  music;  also  quartets  for  the  violin,  viola,  and 


Cherubini. 

Chesney. 


760 


violoncello,  and  symphonies.  His  latest  work,  (Jours  de  Contrepoint  et  de  Fugue,  appeared 
in  1835.  C.  died  at  Paris  in  1843,  and  his  Requiem,  the  last  of  his  masses,  was  performed 
at  his  funeral  service. 

CHEETJBI'NI,  Maria  Luigi  Carlo  Zenobi  Salvador,  one  of  the  best  Italian  com- 
posers, was  b.  Sept.  8,  1760,  at  Florence,  and  d.  Mar.  15,  1843,  in  Paris,  where  he  was 
director  of  the  conservatoire.  In  his  thirteenth  year,  by  his  early  compositions — a mass 
and  an  intermezzo — he  attracted  the  attention  of  Sarti,  who  received  him  as  a pupil.  In 
the  interval  from  1780  to  1788,  he  composed  eleven  Italian  operas,  including  IJigenia  in 
Aulide,  the  most  successful  of  the  series.  In  1784,  he  visited  London.  After  1786,  C. 
resided  chiefly  in  Paris,  whence  his  fame  rapidly  extended  over  Europe.  Besides  the 
IJigenia,  his  chief  pieces  are  Bemoplwon  (1788),  Lodoiska  (1791),  Elisa  (1794),  MHee  {11^1), 
the  Portuguese  Inn  (1798),  Les  Deux  Journees,  and  Anacreon.  C.  also  composed  church 
music,  chamber  music,  etc. , with  singular  beauty  and  success.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  richness  of  his  instrumental  music,  which  was  once  made  a ground  of  objec- 
tion, now  appears  moderate  as  contrasted  with  the  monstrous  prodigalities  of  the  modern 
orchestra.  See  Cherubini:  Memorials  illustrating  his  Life,  by  Bellasis  (Lond.  1874). 

CHERUSCI,  a German  tribe  first  mentioned  b}"  Caesar.  They  first  dwelt  n.  of  the 
Silva  Bacencis,  or  Harz  forest,  but  the  exact  boundaries  of  their  territory  cannot  be 
ascertained.  They  are  chiefly  memorable  in  connection  with  their  great  leader  Arminius, 
or  Hermann,  who,  having  formed  an  alliance  with  other  German  tribes,  attacked  and 
annihilated  the  Roman  legions  under  Varus,  in  the  forest  of  Teutoburg,  9 a.d.  After 
the  death  of  Arminius,  internal  strifes  broke  out  among  the  C.,  and  Tacitus  says  that 
they  were  subjugated  by  the  Chatti,  a neighboring  tribe.  Notwithstanding  this,  they 
again  appear  as  the  chief  tribe  in  the  military  league  of  the  Saxons  about  the  end  of  the 
3d  century.  In  the  beginning  of  the  4th  c.,  they  are  included  among  the  peoples  who 
had  leagued  against  Constantine,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  same  are  still  mentioned 
distinctively  by  Claudian. 

CHERVIL,  Anthriscus  cerefolium,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  which  has  been  long  culti- 
vated as  a pot-herb,  and  used  in  soups  and  for  a garnish,  etc.,  in  the  same  manner  as 
parsley.  It  is  much  more  used  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  than  in  Britain. 
It  is  a native  of  Europe,  naturalized  in  some  parts  of  England.  The  leaves  have  a 
peculiar,  somewhat  sweetish,  pleasantly  aromatic  smell  and  taste,  by  which  the  plant 
may  be  known  from  its  congener  anthriscus  rulgaris  or  scandix  anthriscus,  a poisonous 
weed,  whose  leaves  have  a disagreeable  smell,  and  which  is  also  distinguished  by  its 
hispid  fruit.  There  is  a variety  of  C.  with  large  roots,  for  the  sake  of  wMch  it  is  culti- 
vated.— The  umbelliferous  plant  called  Venus’  Comb  or  Shepherd’s  Needle  {scandix 
pecten  or  8.  pecten  reneris),  a native  of  Britain  and  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  often 
found  in  corn-fields,  and  remarkable  for  the  appearance  and  large  size  of  its  fruit, 
and  another  species  {8.  australis)  which  grows  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  have  a taste  and 
smell  resembling  C.,  and  are  used  in  the  same  way  on  the  continent.  Sweet  C.  or 
Sweet  Cicely  {myrrhis  odorata;  scandix  odorata  of  the  older  botanists),  a native  of  the 
s.  of  Europe  and  of  some  parts  of  Asia,  common  in  the  neighborhood  of  houses  in 
Britain,  although  probably  not  a true  native,  is  frequently  cultivated  in  Germany  under 
the  name  of  8panish  C.  or  anise  chervil.  In  Scotland,  the  plant  is  commonly  called 
myrrh  by  the  peasantry.  Its  smell  is  peculiarly  attractive  to  bees;  and  the  insides  of 
empty  hives  are  sometimes  rubbed  with  its  leaves,  to  induce  swarms  to  enter. — The 
species  of  cheer ophy Hum,  coarse  weeds,  are  also  called  chervil. 

CHESAPEAKE  BAY,  the  largest  inlet  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  being 
300  m.  long,  and  from  4 to  40  broad.  Its  entrance,  13  m.  wide,  has,  on  the  n.,  cape 
Charles,  in  lat.  37°  3'  n.,  and  long.  76°  3'  w. ; and  on  the  s.,  cape  Henry,  in  lat.  36°  56'  n., 
and  long,  76°  4'  w.,  both  promontories  being  in  Virginia,  C.  B.  has  numerous  arms, 
which  receive  many  navigable  rivers,  such  as  the  Susquehanna  and  the  Patapsco  on  the 
n.,  through  Maryland;  the  James  on  the  s.w.,  from  Virginia;  and  the  Potomac  on  the 
w.,  between  these  two  states.  Unlike  the  shallow  sounds  towards  the  s.  (see  Carolinas), 
this  network  of  gulfs  and  estuaries,  to  say  nothing  of  its  noble  feeders,  affords  depth 
•of  water  for  ships  of  any  burden,  virtually  carrying  the  ocean  up  to  the  wharves  of 
Baltimore  and  the  arsenals  of  Washington. 

CHESEBRO’,  Caroline,  1835-73;  a native  of  New  York,  author  of  a number  of 
w'orks  of  fiction,  mostly  of  a moral  or  religious  nature;  among  them.  Dreamland  by 
Daylight;  The  Little  Gross-bearers;  The  Fisherman's  Daughter;  The  Beautiful  Gate;  and 
The  Foe  in  the  Household.  She  was  for  many  years  a teacher  in  the  Packer  institute,  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

CHE'SELDEN,  William,  an  English  surgeon  and  anatomist,  was  b.  in  1688,  at  Bar- 
row-on-the-llill,  in  Leicestershire.  He  commenced  his  medical  studies  at  fifteen,  at 
twenty-three  established  himself  as  a lecturer  on  anatomy,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  elected  a fellow  of  the  royal  society.  He  was  afterwards  appointed  surgeon  to  St. 
Thomas’s,  St.  George’s,  and  Westminster  hospitals,  where  he  acquired  great  reputation 
as  an  operator.  In  this  respect,  few  surgeons,  if  any,  ever  surpassed  him.  He  died  at 


761 


Cherubini. 

Chesney. 


Bath,  11th  April,  1752,  C.’s  principal  works  oxe  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body  (1713), 
long  a text-book  on  the  subject  in  England;  a Treatise  on  the  Operation  for  the  Stone 
(1723);  and  Osteology,  or  Anatomy  of  the  Bones  (1733).  He  also  contributed  several 
valuable  papers  to  the  philosophical  transactions  of  the  royal  society. 

CHESHIRE,  a co.  in  s.w.  New  Hampshire,  bordering  on  Vermont  and  Massachu- 
setts, bounded  on  the  w.  by  the  Connecticut  and  drained  by  the  Ashuelot  river,  and 
traversed  by  the  Ashuelot  and  Cheshire  railroad;  770  sq.m.;  pop,  ’80,28,734.  It  has  a 
hilly  surface,  with  some  mountains,  the  highest  being  Grand  Monadnock.  There  are 
several  small  lakes  and  ponds  in  the  county.  The  soil  is  fertile,  particularly  along  the 
rivers.  The  chief  productions  are  grain,  potatoes,  hay,  wool,  butter,  cheese,  and  maple 
sugar;  and  there  are  also  many  manufactories.  Co.  seat,  Keene. 

CHESHIRE,  a maritime  co.  in  the  w.  of  England,  bounded  n.  by  the  river  Mersey,  and 
partly  also  by  the  Irish  sea,  in  lat.  52°  56'  to  53°  54'  n.,  long.  1°  47'  to  3°^T1'  west.  Its 
greatest  length  from  n.e.  to  s.w.  is  58  m. ; greatest  breadth,  32;  area,  1052  sq.m.,  of 
which  only  is  uncultivated;  circuit,  200  m.,  of  which  8 are  coast.  The  surface  forms 
an  extensive  nearly  level  plain  between  the  Derbyshire  and  Welsh  mountains,  well 
wooded,  and  studded  with  small  lakes  or  meres,  and  chiefly  occupied  by  grazing  and 
dairy  tracts,  which  are  among  the  most  important  in  England.  This  plain,  comprising 
four  fifths  of  the  surface,  rests  on  new  red  sandstone,  and  is  crossed,  near  the  middle, 
by  % tract  of  high  ground  running  s.w.  from  a promontory  overlooking  the  Mersey,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Weaver,  to  Beeston  castle  rock,  366  ft.  high.  On  the  e.  border  of  the 
CO.  is  a line  of  new  red  sandstone  hills.  In  the  n.e.  is  part  of  the  Lancashire  coal-field 
In  the  e.  are  large  tracts  of  peat,  and  much  of  the  co.  is  wet  and  rushy.  The  n.w.  pari- 
of  C.  forms  a hammer-headed  peninsula  called  Wirral,  about  8 m.  broad,  between  the 
estuaries  of  the  Dee  and  Mersey.  Coal-measures  appear  on  the  w.  side  of  this  peninsula, 
as  well  as  on  the  w.  border  of  the  main  part  of  the  county.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Dee,  Mersey,  and  Weaver,  which  are  navigable.  The  Dee  skirts  the  co.  on  the  w.  55 
m.,  and  the  Mersey  on  the  n.  for  40  miles.  ^The  Weaver  rises  in  the  e.  part  of  the  co., 
and  runs  40  m.  w.n.w.  into  the  Mersey.  The  co.  contains  an  almost  unrivaled  system 
of  canals,  including  the  celebrated  Bridgewater  canal,  and  is  traversed  by  the  main  line 
of  the  London  and  Liverpool  railway,  and  the  Crewe,  Chester,  and  Holjdiead  railway. 
The  chief  mineral  products  are  rock-sait  and  coal.  The  rock-salt,  discovered  in  1670, 
and  mined  by  gunpowder,  is  found  near  the  Weaver  and  its  branches,  especially  near 
Norwich,  at  the  deph  of  28  to  48  yards,  in  two  beds,  the  upper  one  being  15  to  25  yards, 
and  the  low^er  one  above  40  yards  thick,  under  a stratum  of  hard  rock,  25  to  35  yards 
thick.  The  mines,  one  occupying  35  acres,  when  lighted  up,  resemble  a fairy  palace 
sparkling  with  gems  and  crystal.  Much  salt  is  also  made  from  brine-springs  20  to  40 
yards  deep.  Coal  is  worked  in  the  n.e.  part  of  the  county.  There  are  also  lead  (with 
cobalt)  and  copper-mines,  and  in  almost  every  part  of  the  co.  freestone,  limestone, 
millstone,  and  marl  are  found.  The  climate  is  moist.  The  soil  is  mostly  a clayey  or 
sandy  loam,  with  marl  and  peat,  and  very  fertile.  The  soil  and  climate  are  well  fitted 
for  pasturing,  dairy-farming,  and  cheese-making,  which  are  the  chief  agricultural  occu- 
pations. Arout  160,000  cows  are  kept  in  C.,  and  the  quantity  of  cheese  annually  pro- 
duced is  estimated  at  from  15,000  to  30,000  tons — the  best  being  made  on  the  strongest 
lands.  The  hedgerows  abound  in  oaks.  C.  is  a manufacturing  as  well  as  an  agricultural 
county.  Pop.  in  1871,  561,131.  The  chief  town  are  Chester  (the  co.  town),  Mac- 
clesfield, Stockport,  Congleton,  Knutsford,  and  Birkenhead,  The  co.  of  C.  returns  ^ 
members  to  parliament.  C.  has  some  Roman  roads,  tumuli,  barrows,  remains'  of 
religious  houses,  and  many  old  castles  and  halls.  The  12th  Roman  legion  occupied  Ches- 
ter till  the  3d  century.  Egbert,  in  828,  added  C.  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdom  of  Mercia. 
William  the  conqueror  erected  C.  into  a co.  palatine,  under  Hugh  Lupus,  with  an 
independent  parliament  and  8 barons.  Henry  VIII.  subordinated  it  to  the  English  crown  ; 
but  C,  did  not  send  representatives  to  the  English  parliament  till  1549,  and  the  separate 
jurisdiction  ceased  entirely  only  in  1831. 

CHESNE,  Andre  Du.  See  Duchesne,  ante. 

CHESNEY,  Charles  Cornwallis,  1826-76;  a brevet-col.  in  the  Brit  ish  royal  engi- 
neers, who  first  attracted  attention  by  A Military  View  of  Recent  Campaigns  in  Virginia 
and  Maryland,  published  in  1863,  which  was  followed  two  years  later  by  Campaigns  in 
Virginia  and  Maryland,  both  having  reference  to  the  war  of  the  rebellion  in  the  United 
States.  The  work  from  which  he  received  the  greatest  fame  at  home  was  Waterho  Lec- 
tures. He  published,  also.  The  Military  Resources  of  Prussia  and  Prance;  Recent  Changes 
in  the  Art  of  War;  and  Essays  in  Modern  Military  Biography. 

CHESNEY,  Francis  Rawdon,  1789-1872,  a British  soldier  who  projected  and  led 
the  Euphrates  expedition  bj^  an  overland  route  to  India  in  1835-6.  He  was  a brig. gen. 
in  China  in  1843,  maj.geii.  in  1855,  and  gen.  in  1868.  He  wrote  Expedition  for  the  Survey 
of  Euphrates  and  Tigris;  Ohserijations  on  the  Past  and  Present  States  of  Fire-arms;  Russo- 
Turkish  Campaigns  of  1828-29;  and  Narrative  of  the  Phiphrates  Expedition. 


Oliess. 


762 


CHESS  (Fr.  ^hec&,  Ger.  schacli).  The  origin  of  this,  the  most  purely  intellectual  of 
all  games  of  skill,  has  been  much  disputed ; thus  much  may  now  be  considered  as  cer- 
tain, that,  under  the  Sanscrit  name  of  chaturanga,  a game,  essentially  the  same  as  mod- 
ern C.,  was  played  in  Hindustan  nearly  5,000  years  ago.  In  its  gradual  diffusion  through 
the  world  in  succeeding  ages,  the  game  has  undergone  many  alterations  and  modifica- 
tions, both  in  nature  and  in  name ; but  marked  traces  of  its  early  Asiatic  origin  and 
descent  are  still  discerned  by  the  learned  in  its  nomenclature  and  other  characteristics. 
From  Hindustan,  C.  spread  into  Persia,  and  thence  into  Arabia.  The  Arabs,  it  would 
appear,  in  the  8th  c.,  introduced  the  game  into  Spain  and  the  rest  of  western  Europe; 
and  in  England,  chess-play  seems  to  have  been  known  prior  to  the  Norman  conquest. 
Into  Constantinople,  and  probably  some  other  cities  of  eastern  Europe,  the  game  may 
have  been  imported  from  Persia  at  a period  earlier  than  its  Moorish  conveyance  into  Spain. 

The  original  Hindu  game  was  played  on  a board  of  sixty-four  squares,  as  now,  but 
hy  four  persons,  two  being  allied  against  two,  as  in  whist.  Hence  the  name  chaturanga, 
from chatur,  “four,”  and  anga,  “a  member”  or  “ component  part.”  The  name shatranj, 
used  by  the  Persians  and  Arabs,  is  a corruption  of  the  Sanscrit.  The  English,  French,  and 
other  European  names  are  derived  from  the  Persian  term  shah,  “king.”  Check,  the 
warning  when  the  king  is  in  danger,  is  but  another  form  of  shah;  in  fact,  “king”  is 
sometimes  used  for  “check,”  and  in  German  schach  is  both  the  name  of  the  game  and 
the  term  of  warning.  The  term  rook  is  from  the  Sans,  roka,  Pers.  rukh,  meaning  a ship 
or  chariot ; pawn  is  said  to  be  from  peon,  an  attendant,  or  foot-soldier. 

The  books  written  upon  C.  “ would  form  a tolerably  large  library.”  Of  works  on  the 
antiquities  of  the  subject,  we  may  mention  Dr.  D.  Forbes’s  History  of  Chess  (Lond.  1860). 
The  best  modern  practical  works  on  the  art  of  chess-play  are  the  Chessplayer's  Hand- 
book; C.  Praxis;  and  Chess:  Theory  and  Practice,  by  Staunton;  Morphy’s  Carnes  at  C., 
edited  by  Lowenthal;  Jaenisch’s  Treatise  on  the  Openings,  translated  by  Walker;  and 
Horwitz  and  Kling’s  Collection  of  End-games.  The  subject  is  also  pretty  fully  treated  in 
Chambers’s  Information  for  the  People,  “In-door  Amusements.” 

The  game  of  C.  is  played  upon  a square  board  marked  out  into  sixty-four  square 
divisions,  which  are  colored  alternately  black  and  white,  in  order  the  more  clearly  to 
determine  and  denote  the  respective  movements  of  the  several  pieces.  In  placing  the 
board  for  play,  each  player  must  always  have  a white  corner  square  at  his  right  hand. 
There  are  two  sets  of  pieces,  of  opposite  colors,  of  sixteen  men  each,  and  of  various 
powers  according  to  their  rank.  These  sets  of  men  are  arrayed  opposite  to  each  other, 
and  attack,  defend,  and  capture,  like  hostile  armies.  The  accompanying  diagram  will 
best  explain  the  name,  form,  and  place  of  each  man  at  the  commencement  of  the  game ; 

Black. 


Rook.  Knight.  Bishop.  Queen.  King.  Bishop.  Knight.  Rook. 
White. 


The  superior  officers  occupying  the  first  row  on  each  side  are  coWed pieces;  the  infe- 
rior men,  all  alike,  standing  on  the  row  immediately  in  front  of  the  pieces,  are  called 
pawns.  Their  moves  and  powers,  along  with  the  peculiar  terms  used  in  C. , may  be 
briefly  described  as  follows; 


763 


Chess. 


Kpawn,  at  first  move,  may  advance  either  ono  or  two  squares,  straightforward; 
but  after  having  once  moved,  he  can  only  advance  a single  square  at  a time.  In  capturing* 
an  adverse  piece,  however,  a pawn  moves  one  square  diagonally,  either  right  or  left;  but 
the  pawn  never  moves  backward.  On  arriving  at  an  8th  square,  or  the  extreme  line  of 
the  board,  a pawn  may  be  exchanged  for  any  piece  his  owner  chooses  to  call  for,  except 
a king,  so  that  a player  may  have  several  queens  on  the  board  at  once.  If,  on  moving 
two  squares,  a pawn  pass  by  an  adverse  pawn  which  has  arrived  at  the  5th  line,  the 
advanced  adverse  pawn  may  take  the  other  in  passing  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  if 
the  latter  had  moved  but  one  square. 

A bishop  moves  any  number  of  squares  diagonally,  but  diagonally  only;  therefore  a 
bishop  can  never  change  the  color  of  his  square. 

A knight  moves  two  squares,  so  as  always  to  change  color — that  is,  he  moves  one 
square  forward  or  backward,  and  one  diagonally.  On  account  of  this  crooked  move- 
ment, he  can  leap  over  or  between  any  surrounding  pieces;  and  therefore  a knight’a 
check — unless  he  can  be  taken — always  compels  the  king  to  move. 

The  rook,  or  castle,  moves  any  number  of  squares  forward,  backward,  or  sidewise, 
but  not  diagonally. 

The  queen  is  by  far  the  most  powerful  of  the  pieces,  and  moves  over  any  number  of 
squares,  either  in  straight  lines  or  diagonals,  forward,  backward,  or  sidewise;  so  that 
her  action  is  a union  of  that  of  the  rook  and  bishop.  At  starting,  the  queen  always 
stands  on  a square  of  her  own  color. 

The  king  is  the  most  important  piece  on  the  board,  as  the  game  depends  upon  his 
safety.  He  moves  only  one  square  at  once,  in  any  direction,  except  when  he  castles — a 
term  to  be  explained  presently.  The  king  cannot  be  taken ; but  when  any  other  piece 
attacks  him,  he  is  said  to  be  in  check,  and  must  either  move  out  of  check  or  interpose 
some  one  of  his  subjects,  unless  the  checking  piece  can  be  captured.  When  there  is 
no  means  of  rescuing  the  king  from  check,  he  is  said  to  be  checkmated,  and  the 
game  is  over.  Of  course,  the  two  kings  can  never  meet,  as  they  would  be  in  check  to 
each  other.  Double-check  is  when  a piece,  by  being  moved,  not  only  gives  check  itself, 
but  also  discovers  a previously  masked  attack  from  another. 

Castling  is  a privilege  allowed  to  the  king  once  in  a game.  The  move  is  performed 
either  with  the  king’s  rook  or  queen’s  rook — in  the  former  case,  the  king  is  moved  to  the 
king’s  knight’s  square,  and  the  king’s  rook  is  placed  on  the  king’s  bishop’s  square;  in 
the  latter  case,  the  king  is  played  to  the  queen’s  bishop’s  square,  and  the  queen’s  rook  is 
played  to  the  queen’s  square.  But  the  king  cannot  castle  after  having  once  moved,  nor 
at  a moment  when  he  is  actually  in  check,  nor  with  a rook  that  has  moved,  nor  when 
he  passes  over  a square  attacked  or  checked  by  an  adverse  piece,  nor  when  any  piece 
stands  between  him  and  the  rook  with  which  he  would  castle,  nor  when  in  the  act  of 
castling  either  the  king  or  rook  would  have  to  capture  an  adverse  piece. 

A drawn  game  results  from  neither  pjayer  being  able  to  checkmate  the  other:  thus,  a 
king  left  alone  on  each  side  must  of  course  produce  a draw,  as  do  also  a king  with  a 
bishop,  or  a knight,  against  a king. 

Stalemate,  or  the  not  being  able  to  move  either  the  king  or  any  other  piece,  also  con- 
stitutes a drawn  game. 

Odds  is  a term  applied  to  the  advantage  which  a stronger  player  should  give  to  a 
weaker:  thus,  the  removal  of  a rook  or  knight  from  the  better  player’s  forces  m^  be 
fair  odds;  or  if  the  players  are  more  nearly  matched,  the  one  may  give  a pawn.  When 
the  odds  of  a pawn  are  given,  it  is  always  understood  to  be  the  king’s  bishop’s  pawn. 

Gambit  is  a technical  word  implying  the  sacrifice  of  a pawn  early  in  the  game,  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  up  an  attacking  position  with  the  pieces. 

Supposing  the  worth  of  a pawn  to  be  represented  by  unity,  the  following  is  a toler- 
able average  estimate  of  the  comparative  value  of  the  pieces:  Pawn  1,  biship  3,  knight 
3,  king  4,  rook  5,  queen  9. 

The  chess-men  being  placed,  the  players  begin  the  engagement  by  moving  alternately ; 
each  aiming  to  gain  a numerical  superiority  by  capturing  his  opponent’s  men,  as  well  as 
such  advantages  of  position  as  may  conduce  to  victory. 

The  rows  of  squares  running  straight  up  and  down  the  board  are  called  files,  those 
running  from  side  to  side  are  called  lin£s,  and  those  running  obliquely  across  are  termed 
diagonals. 

The  playing  over  the  following  short  game  will  serve  the  learner  as  a little  initiatory 
practice : 


WHITE. 

1.  King’s  Pawn  two. 

2.  King’s  Bishop  to  Queen’s  Bishop’s  4th. 

3.  Queen  to  King’s  Kook’s  5th. 

4.  Queen  takes  King’s  Bishop’s  Pawn,  giv- 

ing Black  checkmate. 


BLACK. 

1.  King’s  Pawn  two. 

2.  King’s  Bishop  to  Q Bp’s  4th. 

3.  King’s  Knight  to  K Bp’s  3d. 


the  captor 


* Taking  is  always  performed  by  lifting  the  captured  man  from  the  board,  and  placing 
on  his  square.  The  pawn  is  the  only  man  whose  mode  of  taking  differs  from  his  ordinary  move. 


Chess. 

Chest. 


764 


The  foregoing  brief  mode  of  giving  a checkmate  is  called  the  Scholar's  mate,  and  is 
often  practiced  upon  young  and  unwary  players.  Any  contractions  used,  such  as  “ K ” 
for  king,  “ B ” for  bishop,  etc.,  will  readily  be  understood  by  the  use  of  the  diagrams. 

In  the  conduct  of  the  game,  and  in  the  practice  of  C.,  the  following  rules,  precepts, 
and  hints  will  be  found  very  generally  useful : 

Play  forth  your  minor  pieces  early,  and  castle  your  king  in  good  time.  You  may 
sometimes  delay  castling  with  advantage,  but  not  often. 

Do  not  expect  to  be  able  to  establish  an  enduring  attack  with  half  your  forces  at 
home. 

Seek  to  let  your  style  of  play  be  attacking;  and  remember  the  gaining  or  losing  of 
time  in  your  measures  is  the  element  of  winning  or  losing  the  game. 

Never  touch  a piece  without  moving  it,  nor  suffer  yourself  or  your  opponent  to 
infringe  any  other  of  the  laws  of  the  game. 

You  will  find,  when  first  player,  that  the  opening,  springing  from  your  playing  1st 
king’s  pawn  two,  and  then  your  king’s  knight  to  the  bishop’s  3d,  is  one  of  the  best 
that  you  can  adopt ; but  do  not  adhere  to  any  one  opening  only. 

If  you  wish  to  adopt  a purely  defensive  opening,  you  may  play  1st  king’s  pawn 
one,  and  follow  up  with  Q P 2,  and  Q B P 2. 

Next  to  playing  with  good  players,  nothing  will  conduce  to  improvement  more  than 
looking  on  at  two  expert  players  whilst  they  play.  Wanting  these  advantages,  it  is  best 
to  play  over  openings,  and  actual  games,  from  books  or  journals. 

To  prevent  blunders  and  oversights,  always  endeavor  to  perceive  the  motive  of  your 
adversary’s  move  before  you  play;  and  look  often  round  the  board  to  see  that  you  are 
not  losing  sight  of  any  better  move  than  the  one  you  intended,  or  that  you  are  not 
suffering  yourself  to  be  tempted  by  a bait. 

When  an  onlooker,  never  interfere. 

Always  endeavor  to  lose  with  good  temper,  and  to  bear  your  adversary’s  faults  with 
a good  grace. 

The  Laws  op  Chess. — The  laws  of  C.  are  at  present  in  a somewhat  unsettled, 
unsatisfactory  condition ; but  the  following  are  the  principal  prevailing  regulations  of 
the  game : 

1.  If  any  error  have  been  committed  in  the  placing  of  the  board  or  men,  either  player 
may  claim  that  the  game  shall  be  finished  as  it  stands,  after  four  moves  have  been  com- 
pleted on  each  side,  but  not  else. 

2.  A move  once  made,  by  your  having  moved  a piece  and  left  hold  of  it,  cannot  be 
retracted. 

3.  If  you  touch  a piece,  you  must  play  that  piece ; but  as  long  as  you  retain  your 
hold,  you  can  play  it  where  you  like.  If  you  touch  a piece  that  cannot  move,  your 
opponent  may  compel  you  to  play  your  king,  unless  the  king  be  unable  to  move.  When 
you  touch  your  pieces  for  the  mere  purpose  of  adjusting  them,  you  are  bound  to  say  so. 

4.  If  you  make  a false  move,  your  opponent  may  either  cause  you  to  retract  it  and 
move  your  king,  or  he  may  claim  that  the  false  move  shall  stand,  or  that  you  shall  make 
a legal  move  with  the  same  piece,  at  his  pleasure. 

5.  If  you  touch  one  of  your  opponent’s  men,  he  may  compel  you  to  take  that  man; 
or  if  that  be  impossible,  to  move  your  king,  provided  he  can  move  without  going  into 
check. 

6.  If  on  the  king  being  checked,  due  notice  is  not  given,  the  player  whose  king  is 
attacked  is  not  bound  to  notice  it. 

7.  In  every  fresh  game,  except  when  one  is  drawn,  the  first  move  alternates. 

8.  Drawn  games  counting  as  no  games  at  all,  the  player  who  had  the  first  move  in  a 
drawn  game  is  also  entitled  to  it  in  the  next.  (This  absurd  regulation  is  fast  becoming 
obsolete;  and  it  is  now  a common  agreement  in  playing  a series  of  games,  that  the  move 
shall  invariably  alternate.) 

9.  A player  who  gives  the  odds  of  a piece,  is  entitled  to  the  first  move. 

10.  The  time  for  consideration  of  a move  is  not  limited;  but  a player  leaving  a game 
unfinished  without  his  opponent’s  permission,  loses  such  game. 

11.  When  at  the  end  of  a game  one  player  is  left  with  just  sufficient  superiority  of 
force  to  win — such  as  a king  and  rook  against  king,  king  and  two  bishops,  or  king, 
knight,  and  bishop  against  king — he  who  has  the  greater  force  must  give  checkmate 
within  fifty  moves  on  each  side,  or  else  the  game  is  adjudged  to  be  drawn.  This  law  is 
framed  to  prevent  unskillful  players  from  wearying  their  opponents  by  persisting  in  the 
.attempt  to  accomplish  what  they  are  too  untutored  to  effect;  and  it  is  perfectly  just, 
since  the  allotted  number  of  moves  is  amply  large  enough  and  to  spare. 

12.  In  case  of  any  dispute  about  the  laws,  both  players  are  to  agree  as  to  an  umpire, 
whose  decision  is  to  be  considered  final. 

As  there  is  no  branch  of  chess-study  better  calculated  to  advance  the  skill  of  a learner 
than  the  attentively  playing  over  recorded  games  between  first-rate  players,  we  have 
given  an  example  of  a game  played  blindfold,  simultaneously  with  five  other  games,  by 
the  celebrated  American  chess-player,  Paul  Morphy.  This  gentleman  visited  England 
and  the  continent  of  Europe  in  1858,  and  in  his  contests  with  the  best  players  fairly 
<'arried  all  before  him,  so  that  he  soon  ranked  as  the  greatest  chess-player  living. 


765 


Chess. 

Chest. 


White— Mr.  Morphy. 


1.  P to  K 4. 

2.  ICt  to  B 3. 

3.  K B to  Q B 4. 

4.  P to  Q Kt  4. 

6.  PtoQBS 

6.  P to  Q 4. 

7.  Castles. 

8.  Q B to  R 3. 

9.  Q to  Q Kt  3. 

10.  Q Kt  takes  P. 

11.  Q takes  B. 

12.  Q R to  Q. 

13.  PtoKRS. 

14.  Kt  takes  Kt. 

15.  B to  K 2. 

16.  P to  K B 4. 

17.  KBtoB4,  ch. 

18.  QBtoKt2. 

19.  QRtoK. 

20.  P takes  P. 

21.  RtoK8. 

22.  Q takes  R. 

23.  Q takes  Kt  P,  ch. 

24.  P to  K B 6. 

25.  K takes  Q. 

26.  K takes  B. 

27.  R to  K Kt,  and  wins. 


Black— Mr.  C . 

1.  P to  K 4. 

2.  Q Kt  to  B 3. 

3.  K B to  Q B 4. 

4.  B takes  Kt  P. 

5.  B to  Q R 4. 

6.  P takes  P. 

7.  P takes  P. 

8.  P to  Q 3. 

9.  K Kt  to  R 3. 

10.  K B takes  Kt. 

11.  Castles. 

12.  KttoKKt5. 

13.  K Kt  to  K 4. 

14.  Kt  takes  Kt. 

15.  P to  K B 4. 

16.  Kt  to  Q B 3. 

17.  KtoR. 

18.  Q to  K 2. 

19.  R to  B 3. 

20.  Q to  K B squ. 

21.  Q takes  R. 

22.  Q to  K 2. 

23.  Q takes  Q. 

24.  Q takes  Kt  P,  ch. 

25.  B takes  P,  ch. 

26.  PtoKR4. 


CHESS,  or  Cheat,  common  names  of  the  hromus  secalinus,  a plant  of  the  order 
graminacecB;  a troublesome  weed  that  frequently  springs  up  in  wheat-fields,  the  seed 
mixing  with  the  true  wheat,  from  which  it  can  be  separated  only  with  difficulty.  It  was 
once  generally  believed  among  farmers  that  wheat  itself  was  transmuted  into  chess. 

CHEST,  Militaky,  is  a technical  name  for  the  money  and  negotiable  securities  carried 
with  an  army,  and  intended  to  defray  the  current  expenses.  In  the  English  military 
system,  this  department  is  managed  by  the  commissariat. 

CHEST,  Naval.  The  name  of  C.  has  been  given  to  certain  funds,  maintained  for 
the  benefit  of  seamen  belonging  to  the  royal  navy.  A fund,  called  the  Chest  at  Chatham, 
was  suggested  so  long  ago  as  the  days  of  Drake  and  Hawkins,  for  the  relief  of 
wounded  and  superannuated  seamen.  * In  1590,  all  seafaring  men  in  queen  Elizabeth’s 
service  consented  to  a stoppage  out  of  their  pay  of  2d  to  6d  per  month,  to  support  this 
fund.  The  money  was  not  in  those  days,  as  it  would  be  now,  put  out  to  interest ; it 
was  kept  in  a C.,  and  hence  the  name  given  to  the  fund  itself.  During  the  18th  c.,  the 
system  became  organized  in  a better  manner;  but  still  the  fund  retained  the  name  of  C. ; 
insomuch  that  when  the  office  was  removed  from  Chatham  to  Greenwich,  in  1803,  it 
became  the  Chest  at  Greenwich.  The  C.  is  managed  ex  officio,  and  the  accounts  are 
annually  laid  before  parliament.  Handsome  gifts  are  occasionally  made  to  the  fund  by 
individuals.  Disabled  sailors  receive  a present  sum  of  money,  if  not  deprived  of  the 
power  of  earning  a living;  but  if  their  injuries  are  more  permanent,  they  receive  a 
pension  from  the  C.,  for  one  year,  or  for  several  years,  or  for  life,  paid  half-yearly. 

CHEST,  or  Tho'rax,  in  anatomy,  is  the  part  of  the  body  which  lies  beneath  the  neck 
and  above  the  abdomen  (q.v.),  constituting  the  uppermost  of  the  two  divisions  of  the 
trunk,  or  that  which  contains  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  is  bounded  externally  by  the 
ribs.  The  C.  is  somewhat  conical  in  form,  the  broad  or  lower  end  of  the  cone 
being  shut  in  by  the  diaphragm,  a large  muscular  partition  which  projects  upwards  from 
the  lower  ribs,  being  convex  towards  the  C.,  and  concave  towards  the  abdomen.  In 
respiration  (q.v.),  the  diaphragm  descends  by  its  own  muscular  contraction,  whde  at  the 
sarne  time  the  ribs  are  drawn  upwards  and  outwards  by  the  intercostal  muscles.  The 
■cavity  of  the  C.  is  thus  enlarged,  the  lungs  are  expanded,  and  air  is  drawn  into  them 
through  the  trachea  or  windpipe  and  bronchi.  See  Lungs.  The  combination  of  bone, 
■cartilage,  muscle,  and  tendon  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  C.  is  such  as  to  per- 
mit of  expansion-movement  to  the  extent  required,  and  yet  to  guard  against  over-expan- 
sion, which  would  be  fatal  to  the  delicate  textures  within.  The  bones  of  the  C.  are  at 
the  same  time  a powerful  protection  against  external  injury. 

The  structures  forming  the  walls  of  the  C.  are:  1.  The  backbone  or  spinal  column, 
divided  into  24  vertebrae,  12  of  which,  called  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  form  the  thoracic 
portion.  2.  Twelve  ribs,  attached  to  the  transverse  processes  or  projecting  portions  of 
the  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  ending  in  front  in  the  costal  cartilages,  by  which  thecibs  are 
connected  with.  3.  The  sternum  or  breast-bone,  which  occupies  the  middle  line.  4. 
The  diaphragm  (q.v.).  See  also  Skeleton. 

The  contents  of  the  C.  are  the  heart,  the  great  arteries  and  veins,  the  lungs,  the 


Chester. 

Chestnut. 


766 


trachea  or  windpipe,  the  bronchi  or  branches  of  the  trachea,  leading  to  the  lungs, 
the  oesophagus  or  gullet,  and  the  thoracic  duct  (q.v.),  or  general  terminus  of  the 
lymphatic  system  of  vessels,  by  which  the  chyle  and  lymph  are  discharged  into  the 
blood.  The  very  great  importance  of  these  parts  to  life,  and  their  great  liability  to 
deranged  action,  renders  the  C.  the  seat  of  a large  proportion  of  the  diseases  which 
afflict  humanity,  and  especially  of  those  which  (hid  in  death.  Indeed,  of  the  three 
organs  which  the  great  physiologist,  Bichat,  called  the  “tripod of  life” — viz.,  the  brain, 
heart,  and  lungs — the  C.  contains  two;  hence  its  condition  in  almost  all  diseases,  and 
especially  in  fatal  diseases,  is  an  object  of  the  utmost  solicitude  to  the  physician. 

The  diseases  of  the  C.  depend  in  some  cases  on  alterations  in  its  form,  as  by 
rickets  (q  v.)  and  other  diseases  affecting  the  bones  in  early  childhood  or  in  youth,  as  by 
too  tight  lacing  in  girls.  The  lungs  and  air-tubes  are  subject  to  a great  variety  of 
diseases,  among  which  the  principal  are  consumption  or  phthisis  pulmonalis,  pneumonia, 
pleurisy,  bronchitis  or  pulmonary  catarrh.  The  heart  is  subject  to  pericarditis, 
endocarditis,  and  chronic  organic  disease  of  the  valves,  as  well  as  to  enlargement 
(hypertrophy),  dilatation,  and  degenerations  of  its  muscular  texture.  The  aorta,  or 
great  artery,  is  often  affected  with  degeneration  of  its  walls,  and  occasionally  with 
aneurism.  The  great  veins  are  liable  to  over-distension,  and  to  obstruction  by  tumors 
or  by  coagulation  of  the  contained  blood.  The  thoracic  duct  is  also  sometimes  obstructed 
by  external  pressure;  and  the  oesophagus  has  a number  of  diseases  usually  described  in 
connection  with  the  alimentary  canal.  Most  of  the  diseases  here  referred  to  are 
described  either  under  special  articles,  or  under  Lungs  and  Heart. 

The  examination  of  the  C.  by  physicians  is  now  conducted  not  only  by  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  symptoms  or  obvious  characters  of  the  disease,  but  by  a minute  and  elaborate 
examination  into  the  physical  condition  of  the  contained  organs  by  means  of  auscultation 
(q.v.),  percussion  (q.v.),  measurement,  etc.  The  application  of  these  methods  is  too 
complicated  and  technical  for  explanation  in  detail,  but  their  results  will  be  shortly 
alluded  to  incidentally  in  the  articles  above  referred  to  on  the  diseases  of  the  chest. 
The  name  of  Laennec  (q.v.)  will  be  long  remembered  in  medicine  as  that  of  a great 
original  observer,  who  has  contributed  more  than  any  other  to  the  progress  of  knowl- 
edge in  this  department. 

CHESTER,  a co.  in  s.e.  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Delaware  and  Maryland  borders, 
traversed  by  the  Pennsylvania  Central,  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore,  Philadelphia  and 
Reading,  and  other  railroads;  738  sq.m. ; pop.  SO,  83,480.  The  soil  is  rich  and  is  thor- 
oughly cultivated,  producing  wheat,  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  butter,  wool,  etc.  There 
are  deposits  of  chromate  of  iron,  gneiss,  porcelain  clay,  sandstone,  copper,  lead,  iron, 
and  occasionally  zinc,  agate,  amethyst,  silver,  titanium,  zircon,  sapphire,  and  beryl  are 
found.  The  historical  Valley  Forge  is  in  the  co.,  which  also  contains  the  birthplace  of 
Anthony  Wayne.  Co.  seat.  West  Chester. 

CHESTER,  a co.  in  n.  South  Carolina,  between  the  Catawba  and  Broad  rivers, 
traversed  by  the  Charlotte,  Columbia  and  Augusta,  and  the  King’s  Mountain  railroads. 
The  surface  is  uneven,  soil  fertile;  business  mainly  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Chesterville. 

CHESTER,  a city  in  Delaware  co.,  Penn.,  on  the  Delaware  river  and  the  Philadel- 
phia and  Wilmington  railroad;  10  m.  s.w.  of  Philadelphia;  pop.  ’70,  9,485.  C.  is  the 
oldest  town  in  the  state,  having  been  settled  by  Swedes  in  1643.  William  Penn’s  pro- 
vincial assembly  was  held  in  Chester,  and  it  was  the  co.  seat  of  Chester  co.  until  Dela- 
ware CO.  was  set  off  in  1789. 

CHESTER,  an  ancient  and  episcopal  city,  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  and 
river-port,  the  capital  of  Cheshire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dee,  22  m.  from  the  mouth 
of  its  estuary,  16  m.  s.e.  of  Liverpool.  It  stands  on  a rocky  sandstone  height,  and  is. 
mostly  inclosed  in  an  oblong  quadrangle  of  ancient  walls,  7 or  8 ft.  thick,  nearly  2 m. 
in  circuit,  and  with  4 gates,  and  now  forming  a promenade  with  parapets,  where  two 
persons  can  walk  abreast.  The  two  main  streets  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and 
were  cut  out  of  the  rock  by  the  Romans  4 to  10  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  houses.  ^ The 
houses  in  these  streets  are  curiously  arranged;  the  front  parts  of  their  second  stories,  as 
far  back  as  16  ft.,  form  a continuous  paved  promenade  or  covered  gallery,  open  in  front 
where  there  are  pillars  and  steps  up  from  the  street  below,  with  private  houses  above, 
inferior  shops  and  warehouses  below,  and  the  chief  shops  of  the  town  within.  This 
arrangement,  called  the  “rows,”  together  with  the  ancient  walls,  and  the  half-timbered 
construction  of  many  of  the  houses,  with  quaintly  carved  ornamented  gables  of  the  16th 
c.,  render  C.  perhaps  the  most  picturesque  city  in  England.  C.  cathedral  is  an  irregular 
massive  structure  of  crumbling  sandstone,  375  by  200  ft.,  with  a tower  of  127  feet.  It 
was  formerly  the  church  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Werburgh.  and  for  650  years  was  one  of 
the  richest  in  England.  St.  John’s  church,  now  partially  in  ruins,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Ethelred  in  698.  The  Dee  is  crossed  by  a superb  stone  arch  of  200  ft. 
span.  Suburbs  of  villas  have  recently  arisen  outside  the  walls ; and  a public  park,  pre- 
sented by  the  marquis  of  Westminster,  was  opened  in  1867.  The  C.  railway  station  is 
the  centq^-  of  several  important  railways,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  in  the  king- 
dom. C.  has  manufactures  of  lead,  iron-foundries,  chemical  works,  and  an  iron-ship- 
building yard.  The  chief  exports  are  cheese,  copper,  cast-iron,  and  coal.  C.  has  many 
charitable  and  religious  institutions,  and  is  the  abode  of  many  wealthy  families.  Pop. 


767 


Chester. 

Chestnut. 


’71,  35,257.  The  city  is  a county  in  itself,  and  returns  two  members  to  parliament. 
In  1875,  3,550  vessels,  of  218,368  tons,  entered  and  cleared,  but  the  silting  up  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Dee  is  against  the  shipping  trade, 

C.  was  Devana'  Castra,  or  Colouia  Devana,  an  important  Roman  station,  and  has 
yielded  many  Roman  remains — as  masonry,  coins,  inscriptions,  fibulae,  altars,  a hypo- 
caust,  and  a statue  of  Pallas.  C.  was  only  in  828  taken  by  the  Saxons  from  the  Britons. 
Its  strength  made  it  a refuge  against  the  descents  of  the  Danes  and  Northmen,  but 
the  Danes  took  it  in  894.  Ethelfrida  retook  it  in  904,  and  rebuilt  the  walls.  From  the 
Norman  conquest  to  the  time  of  Henry  III. , the  earls  of  C.  had  their  own  courts  and 
parliaments  at  C,,  with  8 subfeudatories  and  the  superiors  of  the  great  religious  houses, 
C.  being  then  a county  palatine.  Henry  III.  made  his  eldest  son  earl  of  C.,  a title  held 
since  by  the  prince  of  Wales.  Llewelyn  ravaged  C.  in  1255.  The  25  famous  C.  mys- 
teries or  religious  plays  by  Randle,  a monk  (1250-60),  were  acted  in  the  church.  After 
a long  siege,  the  parliamentary  forces  defeated  those  of  Charles  I.  at  C.,  and  took  the 
city.  Pearson  and  Porteus  were  bishops  of  Chester.  Trinity  church  contains  the 
remains  of  Matthew  Henry,  the  Biblical  commentator.  The  commerce  of  C.  has  stead- 
ily declined  since  the  rise  of  Liverpool. 

CHESTERFIELD,  a co.  in  n.e.  South  Carolina,  intersected  by  the  Cheraw  and  Dar- 
lington railroad ; 868  sq.m.;  pop.  80,16,345 — 6846  colored.  Productions  chiefly  agri- 
cultural. Co.  seat.  Chesterfield  Court  House. 

CHESTERFIELD,  a co.  in  s.e.  Virginia,  between  the  Appomattox  and  the  James 
river,  traversed  by  the  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  and  the  Richmond,  Danville,  and 
Piedmont  railroads;  300  sq.m. ; pop.  '80,  23,773 — 10,538  colored.  Coal  is  abundant,  but 
agriculture  is  the  chief  business,  and  corn  and  tobacco  are  the  principal  crops.  Co.  seat. 
Chesterfield  Court  House. 

CHESTEEFIELD,  a municipal  borough  in  Derbyshire,  near  the  Hipper  and  Rother 
rivulets,  24  m.  n.n.e.  of  Derby  by  rail.  There  are  manufactures  of  leather,  silk,  lace, 
earthenware,  and  machinery ; and  there  are  several  blasting-furnaces  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  manufactures  are  increasing  rapidly,  and  the  minerals  in  the  neighborhood, 
including  coal,  iron,  potters’  and  brick  clay,  slates,  and  lead,  are  being  greatly  developed. 
The  population  was,  in  1851,  7,100;  in  1871, 11,427.  Trade  is  facilitatea  by  a canal  con- 
necting C.  with  the  Trent,  and  by  the  main  line  of  the  Midland  railway. 

CHESTERFIELD,  Earl  of  (Philip  Dobmer  Stanhope),  an  English  statesman  and 
author,  eldest  son  of  the  third  earl  of  C.,  was  b.  in  London,  Sept.  22,  1694,  and 
studied  at  Cambridge.  In  1714,  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  and  the  following  year 
was  appointed  a gentleman  of  the  bedchamber  to  the  prince  of  Wales.  About  the  same 
time,  he  was  elected  m.p.  for  St.  Germains,  in  Cornwall.  In  1726,  on  his  father’s  death, 
he  became  earl  of  C.,  and  in  1727  was  sworn  a privy-councillor.  In  1728,  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  extraordinary  to  Holland,  and  in  1730  was  made  a knight  of  the 
garter  and  lord  steward  of  the  household,  but  soon  resigned  that  oflSce.  An  eloquent 
and  frequent  speaker,  he  took  an  active  part  in  all  the  important  business  in  the  house 
of  lords,  and  was  for  several  years  the  strenuous  opponent  of  sir  Robert  Walpole,  then 
premier.  In  1744,  he  connected  himself  with  the  administration,  and  in  1745  was 
reappointed  ambassador  to  the  Hague,  but  was  soon  nominated  lord-lieut.  of  Ireland, 
where  he  rendered  himself  exceedingly  popular.  In  Oct.,  1746,  he  became  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state,  but,  two  years  after,  declining  health  caused  him  to  resign 
office,  and  in  1752  he  was  seized  with  deafness.  Distinguished  by  brilliancy  of  wit, 
polished  grace  of  manners,  and  elegance  of  conversation,  he  lived  in  intimacy  with 
Pope,  Swift,  Bolingbroke,  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  day.  Dr.  Johnson,  whose 
dictionary,  on  its  appearance,  he  affected  to  recommend,  called  him  “a  wit  among 
lords,  and  a lord  among  wits.”  He  wrote  several  papers,  on  temporary  subjects,  in  The 
Craftsman,  ±he  World,  periodicals  of  the  time;  but  he  is  now  best  known  by  his  Letters 
to  his  Son,  Philip  Dormer,  written  for  the  improvement  of  his  manners.  These  letters 
have  been  often  republished,  and  they  afford  a good  idea  of  the  mental  and  moral  caliber 
of  the  author.  Lord  C.  died  Mar.  24,  1773. 

CHESTERFIELD  INLET,  a long  and  narrow  gulf,  penetrating  to  the  westward  from 
the  n.w.  of  Hudson’s  bay.  Its  extreme  dimensions  are  250  and  25  m. ; and  the  lat,  and 
long,  of  its  mouth  are  63°  30'  n.,  and  90°  40'  west.  C.  I.  is  studded  nearly  throughout 
with  islands. 

CHESTNUT,  Gastanea,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  cupuUferce,  closely  allied 
to  the  beech  (fagus),  and  distinguished  from  it  by  long  male  catkins,  longitudinally  set 
with  groups  of  flowers,  a 5 to  8-celled  ovary,  and  compressed  rounded  nuts.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  town  of  Castanum,  near  Magnesia,  in  Asia  Minor.  The  Common  C., 
Spanish  C.,  or  Sweet  C.  {C.  vulgaris),  is  said  to  have  been  first  brought  from  Asia  Minor 
to  Sardinia,  and  from  thence  to  have  gradually  extended  over  the  s.  of  Europe,  where  it 
has  long  been  naturalized,  and  forms  extensive  woods.  It  is  an  ornamental,  stately,  or, 
in  exposed  situations,  a very  spreading  tree,  of  great  size  and  longevity ; the  still  surviv- 
ing C.  of  Totworth  in  England  was  known  as  a boundary-mark  in  the  reign  of  king 
John.  A celebrated  C.  tree  on  Mt.  Etna  measured  204  ft.  in  circumference  of  trunk. 
The  C.  has  oblongo-lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrated,  smooth  leaves.  The  timber  is  dura- 


Chesuncook. 

Chevrons. 


T68 


ble  and  hard,  and  is  used  in  house-building,  for  making  furniture,  and  for  many  other 
purposes.  The  timber  of  the  C.  so  much  resembles  that  of  the  oak,  as  in  old  buildings 
to  be  distinguished  with  difficulty.  The  bark  is  used  for  tanning,  but  is  worth  only 
about  half  the  price  of  oak-bark.  Young  C.  trees  are  much  esteemed  for  hop  and  espa- 
lier poles.  The  C.  is  therefore  frequently  grown  in  England  as  coppice- wood;  but  it 
succeeds  well  as  a timber-tree  even  in  Scotland,  although  it  does  not  generally  ripen  its 
fruit.  In  Devonshire,  however,  and  in  some  other  parts  of  England,  it  is  planted  to  a 
considerable  extent  as  a fruit-tree.  It  succeeds  throughout  all  the  middle  latitudes 
of  Germany,  but  dislikes  a damp  foggy  atmosphere.  It  prefers  a dry  light  soil,  and 
succeeds  only  where  there  is  a dry  subsoil.  The  nuts  are  generally  two  in  each  husk. 
They  form  a principal  part  of  the  food  of  the  poor  in  the  s.  of  Europe,  being  used  either 
roasted  or  boiled,  and  often  ground  into  flour,  and  made  into  a kind  of  bread. 
They  contain  15  per  cent  of  sugar,  and  by  pressure  yield  a sugary  juice,  which  readily 
undergoes  the  vinous  fermentation,  and  from  which  a crumb-like  kind  of  sugar  may  be 
obtained.  The  best  kinds  of  chestnuts  are  called  by  the  French  marrons.  When  cultivated 
as  a fruit-tree,  the  C.  is  generally  grafted,  by  which  means  the  better  varieties  are  secured. 
— Other  species  of  C.  also  bear  eatable  fruits:  those  of  the  Amrican  C.  ((7.  Americana),  a. 
tree  much  resembling  the  commonC.,  and  of  the  Dwarf  C.,  or  Chinquapin  ((7.  pumila), 
a low  tree,  or  more  generally  a shrub  of  7 to  8 ft.  high,  are  used  in  America.  The  fruit 
of  the  dwarf  C.  is  of  the  size  of  a common  hazel-nut;  the  nut  is  convex  on  both  sides. 
The  plant  reaches  its  southern  limit  on  the  banks  of  the  Delaware. — A number  of  spe- 
cies are  natives  of  the  east.  The  inhabitants  of  the  mountains  of  Java  eat  the  fruit  of 
the  Silvery  C.  ((7.  argentea),  and  the  Tungurrut  ((7.  tungurrut),  boiled  or  roasted,  like  the 
common  chestnut.  Both  of  these  are  laige  trees,  the  tungurrut  reaching  a height  of  150 
ft. — The  horse  C.  Cpuv.)  is  entirely  different  from  the  true  chestnut. 

CHESUlSr'COOK  LAKE,  an  expansion  of  Penobscot  river  In  Piscataquis  co.,  Me.» 
about  24  m.  long  by  2 to  4 m.  wide. 

CHEVALIER  (Fr.  cheval,  a horse),  in  heraldry,  a horseman  armed  at  all  points.  In 
its  more  general  acceptation  it  signifles  a knight  (q.v.).  See  also  Banneret  and 
Chivalry. 

CHEVALIER,  Michel,  an  eminent  French  economist,  born  at  Limoges,  Jan.  13, 1806, 
was  at  the  age  of  18  admitted  a pupil  of  the  polytechnic  school.  Thence  he  went  to- 
the  school  of  mines,  and  some  days  before  the  revolution  of  July,  he  was  attached  as 
an  engineer  to  the  department  du  Nord.  Led  away  by  the  theories  of  the  St.  Simonians, 
he  was  for  two  years  editor  of  the  Olobe,  the  organ  of  that  sect.  Joining  the  schism  of 
M.  Enfantin,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  compilation  of  the  Lirre  Nouveau,  the  stand 
ard  of  their  doctrines,  and  in  1832  suffered  six  months’  imprisonment,  on  account  of  his 
free  s])eculations  in  regard  to  religious  and  social  questions,  being  regarded  as  an  out- 
rage oil  public  morals.  On  his  liberation,  he  at  once  retracted  all  that  he  had  written  in 
the  Globe  contrary  to  Christianity,  and  against  marriage,  and  obtained  from  M.  Thiers 
a special  mission  to  the  United  States,  to  inquire  into  the  systems  of  water  and  railway 
communication  there.  The  results  were  published  in  his  Letters  from  North  America 
(1836,  2 vols.  8vo).  After  a visit  to  England,  he  issued  a work,  entitled  Material  Inter- 
ests in  Wrance : Public  Works,  Roads,  Canals,  Railways  (1838,  8vo).  He  was  named,  suc- 
cessively, chevalier  of  the  legion  of  honor,  councilor  of  state  (1838),  a member  of  the 
superior  council  of  commerce,  and  of  the  royal  council  of  the  university;  and  in  1840, 
professor  of  political  economy  in  the  college  of  France.  In  1840,  he  was  re-established 
in  the  corps  of  mines  as  engineer  of  the  flrst-class;  and  in  1846,  elected  a member  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  Under  the  republic,  he  lost  his  various  employments.  He  pub- 
lished, in  1848,  Letters  on  the  Organization  of  Labor  and  the  Question  of  the  Laborers; 
and  after  the  coup  d'Mat  of  Dec.  2 was  restored  to  his  professorship,  and  named  coun- 
cillor of  state.  In  1860,  C.  assisted  Mr.  Cobden  in  carrying  into  effect  the  commercial 
treaty  between  France  and  England,  and  was  created  a senator.  He  became  a grand 
officer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  1861.  Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  has  written  Polit- 
ical Economy  {IMZ-bQi)-,  Probable  Fall  of  the  Value  of  Gold  (1859 — translated  by  Cobden); 
Mexico,  Ancient  and  Modern  (1863) ; etc. 

CHEVATJX-DE-FRISE,  in  fortiflcation,  is  a hastily  constructed  substitute  for  a regular 
abattis,  to  stay  the  progress  of  an  advancing  enemy.  It  may  be  constructed  in  any  way 
of  wood  or  iron,  provided  it  presents  an  array  of  sharp  or  ragged  points  towards  the 
enemy.  Sometimes  it  is  made  of  barrels  or  centers  of  timber,  with  spears  springing  out 
from  all  sides,  in  such  a way  as  to  constitute  both  a support  and  a defense.  Among  the 
materiel  of  an  army  under  the  care  of  the  engineers,  are  sometimes  comprised  chevaux 
de-frise  formed  of  cylindrical  iron  barrels,  about  6 feet  long,  each  having  12  holes  to 
receive  as  many  spears;  the  spears  can  be  packed  away  in  the  barrel,  when  not  in  use. 
Each  such  piece  constitutes  a cheval;  and  many  such,  ranged  end  to  end,  form  chevaux, 
to  be  used  in  ditches  around  a fortification,  on  the  berme  beneath  the  parapet,  behind 
the  glacis,  across  a breach  in  the  rampart,  or  in  any  spot  where  a check  to  the  storm- 
ing-party  is  needed.  At  Badajoz,  during  the  peninsular  war,  great  service  was  ren- 
dered by  a chevaux-de-frise  formed  of  sword-blades  fixed  into  beams  of  wood.  The 
name  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  “Friesland  horse, ” and  to  have  been  first  applied 
by  the  French  during  the  wars  of  the  17th  century. 


769 


Chesuncoolii 

Chevrons. 


CHEV'ERUS,  Jean  Louis  Anne  Madeleine  Lepebvre  de,  d.d.,  1768-1836 ; the 
first  Roman  Catholic  bishop  in  New  England.  He  was  raised  to  the  priesthood  in  1790, 
and  had  a curacy  at  Mayence,  in  France ; but  on  refusing  to  take  the  oath  required  by 
the  assembly  he  went  to  England,  and  in  1795  came  to  America  and  joined  the  Roman 
'Catholic  mission  in  Boston,  He  spent  some  months  in  Maine  as  an  Indian  missionary. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  yellow  fever  in  Boston  his  faithful  and  efficient  service, 
without  regard  to  sect  or  belief,  made  him  remarkably  popular,  and  when  he  started  a 
subscription  for  funds  to  build  a church  of  his  faith,  John  Adams,  then  president  of 
the  United  States,  headed  the  list.  In  1808,  he  was  made  bishop  against  his  own  protest. 
In  1823,  he  v/as  recalled  to  France,  and  made  bishop  of  Montauban,  and  still  later  bishop 
■of  Bordeaux  and  peer  of  France.  He  was  appointed  a cardinal  Feb.  1, 1836.  Six  months 
afterward  he  died  suddenly  from  apoplexy. 

CHEVES,  Langdon,  ll.d.,  1776-1857;  a native  of  South  Carolina;  elected  to  the 
state  assembly  in  1808;  and  to  congress  in  1811,  serving  five  years,  for  a part  of  the  time 
being  speaker  of  the  house,  in  which  position  he  gave  the  casting  vote  that  defeated  the 
rechartering  of  the  U.  S.  bank;  but  in  1819  he  became  president  of  the  same  bank. 
He  was  chief  commissioner  in  settling  some  of  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  Ghent. 
In  1850,  he  was  a delegate  to  the  Nashville  national  convention,  and  in  1852,  a mem- 
ber of  the  South  Carolina  state  convention,  in  which  he  opposed  a separate  state  seces- 
sion. 

CHEVIOT  HILLS,  a mountain-range  occupying  contiguous  parts  of  the  counties  of 
Northumberland  and  Roxburgh,  on  the  English  and  Scotch  borders,  and  running  35  m. 
from  near  the  junction  of  the  Till  and  Tweed,  in  the  n.e.,  to  the  sources  of  the 
Liddel,  in  the  s.w.  The  highest  points  are  C.  hill,  2,684  ft.,  and  Carter  Fell,  2,020. 
West  of  Carter  Fell,  these  hills  chiefly  consist  of  carboniferous  sandstone  and  limestone, 
with  protrusions  of  trap.  The  e.  portion  of  the  range  is  porphyritic,  and  includes 
higher  and  more  or  less  conical  hills.  In  the  C.  H.  are  the  sources  of  the  Liddel,  Tyne, 
■Coquet,  and  some  of  the  branches  of  the  Tweed.  Grouse  abound,  and  the  golden  eagle 
is  seen.  These  hills  afford  pasture  for  the  Cheviots,  a superior  breed  of  sheep.  They 
have  been  the  scene  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the  English  and  Scotch. 

CHEVRETTE'.  See  Gyn. 

CHEVRETTL,  Michel  Eug^:ne,  a distinguished  French  chemist,  b.  Aug.  31,  1786,  at 
A.ngers,  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire.  In  1820,  he  was  made  an  examiner  in  the 
polytechnic  school;  and  in  1824,  director  of  the  dyeing  department  in  the  manufactory 
<of  the  Gobelins.  This  last'  position  led  him  to  institute  a series  of  accurate  researches 
■^on  colors,  the  results  of  which  he  made  known  in  a series  of  Memoir es  of  the  academy 
of  sciences.  Previous  to  this,  C.  had  made  himself  known  in  the  scientific  world  by  a 
Tariety  of  researches  and  writings.  In  1826,  he  was  made  a member  of  the  academy; 
and  in  1830,  professor  of  applied  chemistry  in  the  museum  of  natural  history.  Besides 
a great  number  of  articles  in  the  Journal  des  Savants,  beginning  with  1820,  the  following 
works  of  C.  deserve  mention:  Legons  de  Ghimie  appUquee  a la  Teinture  (1828-31);  De  la 
Jjoi  du  Contraste  simultane  des  Gouleurs  et  de  V Asscrriiment  des  Objets  colories  (1839);  Iheorie 
des  Effets  Optiques  que  prhentent  les  Etoffes  de  Soie  (1846) ; De  la  Baqueite  divinatoire,  du 
Pendule,  et  des  Tables  tournantes  (1854);  Des  Gouleurs  et  de  leur  Application  aux  Arts 
Industriels  (1864);  and  a work  on  a new  organic  acid,  EAcide  Avique  (1871).  C.  is  a 
lellow  of  the  royal  society  of  London,  and  a commander  of  the  legion  of  honor. 

CHEVREUSE,  Marie  de  Rohan  Montbazon,  Duchesse  de,  1600-79;  a native  of 
France,  married  first  to  the  due  de  Luynes,  and  next  to  Claude  de  Lorraine,  due  de 
Chevreuse.  Her  friendship  for  Anne  of  Austria  made  Richelieu  her  enemy,  and 
he  resolved  to  have  her  arrested ; but,  learning  of  his  purpose,  she  dressed  in  male  attire, 
■swam  across  the  Somme,  and  escaped  to  England.  She  was  concerned  in  other  political 
intrigues,  and  was  kept  in  banishment  nearly  all  her  life. 

CHEV'RON,  in  heraldry,  an  ordinary  representing  the  couples  or  rafters  of  a house, 
and  supposed  to  betoken  the  accomplishment  of  some  memorable  work,  or  the  comple- 
tion of  some  business  of  importance,  generally  the  foundation  of  his  own  family  by  the 
bearer.  The  C.  is  formed  of  two  lines  placed  pyramidically,  i.e.,  joined  together  at 
the  top,  and  descending  to  the  extremities  of  the  shield  in  the  form  of  a pair  of  com- 
passes. Ghevronel,  a diminutive — half  the  size — of  the  chevron.  Per  chevron,  or  party 
per  chevron,  is  where  the  shield  is  divided  by  a line  in  the  form  of  the  chevron. 

CHEVRON,  in  architecture,  a molding  in  the  form  of  a succession  of  chevrons, 
otherwise  called  a zigzag  molding.  In  general,  it  is  characteristic  of  Norman  archi- 
tecture, but  is  also  found  with  the  pointed  arch,  during  the  transition  period  from  Nor- 
iman  to  early  English. 

CHEVRONS  are  braids  or  bands  of  lace,  worn  as  distinguishing  marks  by  the  non- 
commissioned officers  of  regiments.  The  corporals,  and  the  various  grades  of  sergeant, 
have  C.  varying  from  one  to  four  in  number,  either  of  white  or  of  gold  lace.  In  most 
corps,  they  are  worn  on  the  right  arm  only ; but  in  the  guards,  the  fusileers,  the  light 
infantry,  and  the  grenadier  and  light  infantry  companies  of  the  ordinary  regiments,  on 
both  arms. 

U.  K.  III.-49 


Chevy. 

Chiavari. 


770 


CHEVY  CHASE,  the  name  of  perhaps  the  most  famous  of  British  ballads.  In  its 
present  form,  the  piece  does  not  seem  to  be  older  than  about  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  But  more  ancient  versions,  doubtless,  existed;  and  bishop  Percy  has 
published  a poem  of  the  16th  c.,  which  has  obviously  suggested  passages  in  the  more 
recent  composition.  It  is  impossible  to  reconcile  its  incidents  with  history,  but  the 
event  which  is  meant  to  be  commemorated  appears  to  have  been  the  battle  of  Otter- 
burn,  in  Aug.,  1388 — a fight  which  Froissart  declares  to  have  been  the  bravest  and  most 
chivalrous  which  was  fought  in  his  day.  According  to  the  ballad,  Percy  vowed  that 
he  would  enter  Scotland,  and  take  his  pleasure  for  three  days  in  the  woods  of  his  rival, 
and  slay  the  deer  therein  at  will.  Douglas,  when  he  heard  the  vaunt,  exclaimed. 
“ Tell  him  he  wfill  find  one  day  more  than  enough,”  Accordingly,  at  the  time  of  the 
hay-harvest,  Percy,  with  stag-hounds  and  archers,  passed  into  the  domains  of  his  foe, 
and  slew  a “hundred  fallow-deer  and  harts  of  grice.”  When  the  English  had  hastily 
cooked  their  game,  and  were  about  to  retire,  earl  Douglas,  clad  in  armor,  and  heading 
his  Scottish  spears,  came  on  the  scene.  Haughty  challenge  and  defiance  passed  between 
the  potentates,  and  the  battle  joined.  In  the  center  of  the  fray  the  two  leaders  met: 
“Yield  thee,  Percy !”  cried  Douglas.  “ I will  yield  to  no  Scot  that  ever  was  born  of 
woman!”  cried  Percy.  During  this  colloqu}^  an  English  arrow  struck  Douglas  to  the 
heart.  “Fight  on,  my  merry  men!”  cried  he,  as  he  died.  Percy,  vuth  all  the  chival- 
rous feeling  of  his  race,  took  the  dead  man  by  the  hand,  and  vowed  that  he  would, 
have  given  all  his  lands  to  save  him,  for  a braver  knight  never  fell  by  such  a chance. 
Sir  Hugh  Montgomery,  having  seen  the  fall  of  Douglas,  clapped  spurs  to  his  horse, 
dashed  on  Percy,  and  struck  his  spear  through  his  body  a long  cloth-yard  and  more. 
Although  the  leaders  on  both  sides  had  fallen,  the  battle,  which  had  begun  at  break  of 
day,  continued  till  the  ringing  of  the  curfew-bell.  Scotsmen  and  Englishmen  claim  the 
victory.  When  the  battle  ended,  representatives  of  every  noble  family  on  either  side 
of  the  border  lay  on  the  bloody  greensward. 

CHEWINK,  the  popular  name  for  the  ground  robin,  or  towhee  bunting,  pipilo’ 
eryihrophthalma.  It  is  of  variegated  colors,  red,  white,  and  brown,  is  about  7 or  8 in. 
long,  nests  on  the  ground,  and  flies  with  a peculiar  jerky  motion.  It  lives  in  thickets, 
and  finds  its  sustenance  in  seeds  and  worms  scratched  up  from  leaves  and  grasses. 

CHEYENNE,  a co.  in  s.w.  Nebraska,  on  the  Colorado  and  Wyoming  border,  inter- 
sected by  the  n.  and  s.  forks  of  the  Platte;  6,000  sq.m.;  pop. ’80,  1558.  The  Union 
Pacific  railroid  passes  through  the  s.  part.  Co.  seat,  Sidney. 

CHEYENNE,  a city  in  Laramie  co.,  Wyoming,  the  capital  of  the  territory,  on  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Denver  Pacific,  516  m.  w.  of  Omaha 
and  1400  m.  e.  of  San  Francisco;  pop.  about  5,000.  The  town  is  on  a broad  open 
plain,  6,000  ft.  above  tide,  and  the  streets  are  wide  and  regular.  It  is  connected  by  rail 
with  Denver,  106  m.  s.  of  Colorado.  The  main  business  is  in  receiving  and  distributing 
supplies  for  Indian  agencies  and  government  forts.  There  are,  however,  several  man- 
ufactories, and  a rapidly  growing  general  business.  The  place  was  first  settled  in  1867, 
when  the  Union  Pacific  railroad  reached  that  point.  In  1869,  a large  portion  of  the 
city  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

CHEYENNES,  an  Indian  tribe  of  the  Algonquin  family,  once  residing  on  and  near 
the  Cheyenne  river,  a tributary  of  the  Red  river  of  the  North.  Driven  away  by  the 
Sioux,  they  retired  beyond  the  Missouri,  and  about  the  beginning  of  the  century  they 
were  further  driven  to  the  Black  Hills -region.  In  1825,  the  first  treaty  with  them  was 
made  by  gen.  Atkinson.  Since  then  many  treaties  have  been  made,  and  almost  all  of 
them  immediately  broken  by  the  whites,  and  constant  trouble  has  been  the  result.  The 
fearful  and  cold-blooded  massacre  of  nearly  a hundred  men,  women,  and  children  of 
this  tribe,  by  col.  Chivington,  of  Colorado,  in  Nov.,  1864,  led  to  war  that  cost  the 
U.  S.  government  $40,000,000,  and  so  embittered  the  Indians  that  a permanent  peace 
can  hardl}'"  be  looked  for.  In  1867,  gen.  Hancock  burned  some  of  the  villages,  and 
began  or  rather  continued  a state  of  war,  in  the  course  of  which  gen.  Custer  defeated 
them  at  Washita,  where  Black  Kettle,  a chief,  and  two  or  three  dozen  squaws  and  pap- 
pooses  were  killed.  The  revenge  taken  upon  Custer  a few  years  later  will  not  soon  be 
forgotten.  Almost  while  this  article  is  being  written,  the  government  is  in  danger  of 
another  general  Indian  war,  growing  out  of  unfair  dealing  on  its  own  part  with  the 
Cheyennes  and  other  Indians  with  whom  it  has  entered  into  solemn  contracts. 

CHEYNE,  George,  an  eminent  Scottish  physician,  b.  in  Aberdeenshire  in  1671,  was 
at  first  intended  for  the  church,  but,  preferring  the  medical  profession,  studied  at  Edin- 
burgh, under  the  celebrated  Dr.  Pitcairn.  In  1700,  after  taking  the  degree  of  m.d.,  he 
repaired  to  London,  where  he  practiced  in  winter,  and  in  Bath  in  summer.  From  full 
living  he  became  enormously  fat,  as  well  as  asthmatic,  and  resolved  on  strictly  adhering 
to  a milk  and  vegetable  diet,  from  which  he  derived  so  much  benefit  that  he  recom- 
mended it  in  all  his  principal  medical  treatises.  In  1702,  he  published  A New  Theory  of 
Fevers,  and,  in  1703,  a work  On  Fluxions,  which  procured  him  admission  into  the  royal 
society.  Among  his  other  works  are:  Philosophical  Principles  of  Natural  Bdigion,  1705 » 
Observations  on  Gout,  1722;  Essay  on  Health  and  Long  Life,  1725;  The  English  Malady— 


m 


Clievy. 

ChiavarL 


u Treatise  on  Nervous  Disorders,  1733  ; Essay  on  Begimen,  1739;  Account  of  Himself  and 
ff  his  various  Cures,  1743.  Dr.  C.  died  at  Bath,  April  12,  1743. 

CHHATISGARH,  a division  of  British  India  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  commis- 
sioner of  the  central  provinces,  comprising  the  districts  of  Raipur,  Bilaspur,  and  Sam- 
balpur,  and  seven  small  feudatory  states,  between  16°  50'  and  23°  10'  n.,  and  80°  30'  and 
83°  15'  e. ; 36,467  sq.m.;  pop.  ’72,  3,289,043,  of  whom  2,054,874  were  Hindus,  26,046 
Mohammedans,  243  Buddhists,  451  Christians,  and  1,207,429  aboriginal  tribes  of  religion 
not  specified.  Two  large  rivers,  the  Nerbuddha  and  the  Son,  rise  in  the  n.e.  corner  of 
the  division,  the  former  running  nearly  w.  to  the  Bombay  coast,  and  then  falling  into 
the  Ganges  in  lower  Bengal. 

CHHINDWARA.  See  Chindwaka,  ante. 

CHIABBERA,  Gabriello,  an  Italian  poet,  b.  at  Savona,  8th  June,  1552.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Rome  under  the  care  of  his  uncle,  aRer  whose  death  he  entered  the  service  of 
cardinal  Cornaro,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  it  in  consequence  of  the  revenge  he  had  taken 
cn  an  Italian  nobleman  who  had  done  him  an  injury.  In  his  50th  year  he  married,  and 
remained  independent  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  14th  Oct.,  1637.  C.’s  poetical 
faculty  developed  itself  late.  Having  commenced  to  read  the  Greek  writers  at  home, 
he  conceived  a great  admiration  of  Pindar,  and  strove  successfully  to  imitate  him.  He 
was  not  less  happy  in  catching  the  naive  and  pleasfint  spirit  of  Anacreon ; his  canzonetti 
being  distinguished  for  their  ease  and  elegance,  while  his  Lettere  Famigliari  was  the  first 
attempt  to  introduce  the  poetical  epistle  into  Italian  literature.  C.  also  wrote  several 
epics,  bucolics,  and  dramatic  poems.  His  Opere  appeared  at  Venice,  in  6 vols.,  1768. 

CHIA'NA  (in  ancient  times,  Glanis),  a river  in  Tuscany,  formed  by  several  streams 
from  the  Apennines,  and  falling  into  the  Arno  a few  miles  below  Arezzo.  Along  with 
another  river  of  the  same  name,  which,  flowing  in  the  opposite  direction,  enters  the 
Paglia  at  Orvieto,  it  waters  the  perfectly  level  Val  di  Chiana,  which  its  overflow  ren- 
dered once  the  most  pestilential  district  of  Italy.  Ferdinand  III.  and  his  minister,  Fos- 
sombroni,  undertook  extensive  hydraulic  works  for  improving  the  bed  of  the  river, 
which  they  led  through  the  lakes  of  Montepulciano  and  Chiusi,  and  employed  for  the 
artificial  irrigation  of  the  whole  valley.  The  district  has  since  become  the  most 
fruitful,  perhaps,  of  all  Italy — a perfect  garden,  supporting  a pop.  of  more  than  100,000. 

CHIA'FA,  or  Chiapas,  a state  in  the  s.e.  of  the  Mexican  confederation,  lying  to  the 
«.w.  of  Yucatan,  and  extending  in  lat.  between  16°  and  18°  n.,  and  in  long,  between  90° 
SO'  and  94°  west.  It  contains  about  19,000  sq.m.,  and  194,000  inhabitants,  chiefly  abo- 
rigines. Near  Palenque,  one  of  the  towns  of  C.,  are  some  of  the  most  extensive  and 
magnificent  ruins  in  Central  America. 

CHIAKAMON'T^,  a t.  of  Sicily,  about  32  m.  w.s.w.  of  Syracuse.  It  is  situated  on  a 
hill,  and  has  well-built,  regular  streets.  Wine  of  good  quality  is  produced  in  the  dis- 
trict. Pop.  about  9,000. 

CHIA'RI,  a t.  of  Lombardy,  14  m.  w.  of  Brescia,  on  the  railway  between  that  place 
and  Milan.  It  is  an  ancient  place,  many  Roman  remains  being  still  found  here;  and  at 
one  time  it  was  strongly  fortified,  but  its  walls  are  now  ruinous.  Silk  is  the  staple 
manufacture.  Pop.  10,000. 

GHIAB-OSCU'RO  (Ital.),  an  artistic  term,  composed  of  two  Italian  words,  the  one  of 
which  signifies  light,  the  other  darkness  or  shadow.  But  C.  signifies  neither  light  nor 
shadow ; neither  is  it  adequately  described  by  saying  that  it  is  the  art  of  disposing  of 
both  the  lights  and  shadows  in  a picture,  so  long  as  either  is  regarded  apart  from  the 
other.  It  is  rather  the  art  of  representing  light  in  shadow,  and  shadow  in  light,  so  that 
the  parts  represented  in  shadow  shall  still  have  the  clearness  and  warmth  of  those  in 
light,  and  those  in  light  the  depth  and  softness  of  those  in  shadow.  It  is  not  the  making 
of  the  one  die  softly  and  gradually  away  into  the  other,  but  the  preservation  of  both  in 
oombination,  as  we  constantly  see  it  in  nature,  when  the  light  is  not  the  mere  glare  of 
the  sun  striking  on  a particular  object,  nor  the  shadow  the  entire  absence  of  the  influ- 
ence of  light.  That  the  skillful  treatment  of  C.  is  a matter  of  extreme  difficulty,  is 
plain  enough  from  the  very  small  number  of  artists  who  ever  attain  to  it.  Still  it  is  a 
branch  of  art  without  the  mastery  of  which  no  painting  can  be  successful  in  any  depart- 
ment. It  is  as  indispensable  in  portrait-painting  as  in  the  highest  departments  of  ideal 
art;  and  though  a just  and  even  a lofty  conception  of  the  subject  may  be  distinctly  indi- 
cated by  attention  to  form  alone,  it  is  impossible  that  its  realization  can  ever  be  satis- 
factorily accomplished  by  any  one  who  has  not  mastered  this  most  subtle  mode  of 
handling  colors.  ^ The  only  mode  by  which  a knowledge  of  C.  can  be  attained,  so  as  to 
apply  it  to  practice,  is  by  studying  it  as  exhibited  by  such  painters  as  Titian,  Rubens, 
Rembrandt,  and,  above  all,  Correggio. 

CHIAVA'RI,  a maritime  t.  of  Piedmont,  situated  on  the  gulf  of  Rapallo,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Sturla,  21  m.  e.s.e.  of  Genoa.  The  houses  in  general  are  well  built,  with  open 
arcades  skirting  the  narrow  streets.  C.  has  several  fine  churches,  the  principal  of  which 
is  Madonna  deV  Orto.  Numerous  picturesque  old  towers,  one  of  them  of  consider- 
able size,  are  scattered  over  the  town.  Lace  and  silk  are  manufactured  here;  and  the 
place  is  also  noted  for  its  light,  handsome,  cheap  furniture,  made  chiefly  of  cherry- 


Chiavenna. 

Cbicago. 


772 


Wood.  The  anchovy  fishery  is  important;  and  in  the  vicinity  are  extensive  slate-quar^ 
ries.  Pop.  10,457. — The  old  province  of  C.,  of  which  the  above  town  was  the  capital,, 
had  an  area  of  155  sq.m.,  with  a pop.  of  109,000.  Its  surface  is  generally  mountainous, 
but  it  has  valleys  of  great  fertility,  yielding  grain,  grapes,  olives,  etc.  Cattle,  sheep,, 
goats,  and  silk- worms  are  reared. 

CHIAVEN'NA,  a t.  of  Lombardy,  beautifully  situated  in  the  midst  of  vineyards,  at 
the  junction  of  the  valley  of  St.  Giacomo  and  Val  Bregaglia,  38  m.  n.n.w.  of  Bergamo, 
It  is  overlooked  by  the  Rhetian  Alps;  and  its  position  on  the  Splugen  road  secures  it 
considerable  traffic.  Silk,  cotton,  and  a coarse  ware  cut  out  of  a soft  stone  found  in  the 
neighborhood,  are  the  chief  manufactures.  Pop.  about  4,000. 

CHICA,  a red  feculent  substance,  valuable  as  a dye-stuff,  giving  an  orange-red  color  to 
cotton.  It  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  leaves  of  a species  of  hignonia  {h.  ^ica),  a native 
of  the  banks  of  the  Cassiquiare  and  the  Orinoco.  The  Indians  use  it  for  painting  their 
bodies.  The  C.  plant  is  a climber,  with  abruptly  bipinnate  leaves,  smooth  heart-shaped 
leaflets,  and  flowers  in  pendulous  axillary  panicles.  See  Bignoniace:®. 

CHICA,  PiTO,  Poso,  or  Maize  Beer,  is  a fermented  liquor  made  from  maize  or 
Indian  corn.  It  is  much  used  in  some  parts  of  South  America,  and  is  made  in  a 
similar  manner  to  ordinary  beer ; but  the  Indians  sometimes  prepare  it  by  chewing 
instead  of  crushing  the  grain ; and  that  which  is  so  prepared  {chica  mascada,  or  chewed 
C.)  is  most  highly  esteemed  by  them.  When  they  wish  to  make  this  liquor  particularly 
strong  and  well  flavored,  they  have  also  a practice  of  pouring  it  into  an  earthen  jar, 
which  contains  some  pounds  of  beef;  and  having  made  the  jar  perfectly  air-tight,  they 
bury  it  several  feet  deep  in  the  ground,  where  it  is  left  for  several  years.  On  the  birth 
of  a child,  it  is  their  custom  thus  to  bury  a jar  of  C.,  to  be  drunk  at  the  same  child’s, 
marriage.  C.  has  an  agreeable  flavor,  and  is  very  strong  and  intoxicating.  A spirit- 
uous liquor  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation ; vinegar  is  also  made  from  it. 

CHICACOLE',  a t.  of  the  district  of  Gan  jam,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  being  in  lat. 
18°  18'  n.,  and  long.  83°  58'  e.,  and  lying  415  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Calcutta,  and  435  to  the 
n.e.  of  Madras.  It  stands  on  the  left  or  n.  bank  of  Naglaudee,  not  far  from  the 
bay  of  Bengal.  It  is  a military  station,  and  contains,  besides  its  garrison  (1871),  15,587 
native  inhabitants.  The  place  has  a reputation  for  its  richly  worked  muslins. 

CHICA'OO  (pronounced  She-lcaw-go),  the  principal  city  of  Illinois,  and  seat  of  Cook 
CO.,  is  situated  on  the  south-western  shore  of  lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chicaga 
river,  lat.  41°  50'  20"  n.,  long.  87°  37'  west.  The  name  is  of  Indian  origin,  signifying  “wild 
onion,”  and  is  first  mentioned  by  Perrot,  a Frenchman,  by  whom  it  was  visited  in  1671. 
In  1803,  a stockade  fort  was  built  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  named  fort  Dear- 
born. When  the  war  with  Great  Britain  broke  out  in  1812,  the  government,  apprehen- 
sive that  a post  among  the  Indians  so  far  from  the  frontiers  could  not  be  successfully 
maintained,  ordered  the  commander  to  abandon  it.  The  Indians  destroyed  the  fort, 
which  was  rebuilt  in  1816.  C.  was  first  settled  in  1831,  previous  to  which  time  it  was 
a mere  frontier-post;  in  1832,  it  contained  about  a dozen  families,  besides  the  officers 
and  soldiers  in  fort  Dearborn.  The  town  w'as  organized  by  the  election  of  a board  of 
trustees,  Aug.  10,  1833.  On  Sept.  26,  of  the  same  year,  a treaty  was  made  for  all 
their  lands  with  the  Pottawatomies,  7,000  of  the  tribe  being  present,  after  which  they 
were  removed  w.  of  the  Mississippi  river.  The  first  charter  of  the  city  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  Mar.  4,  1837.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  rapid  increase  of 
Chicago.  The  estimated  number  of  the  pop.  in  1835  was  1000,  and  the  exact  number, 
according  to  the  census  returns,  was,  in 


1840 

4,470 

1852 

38,733 

1865 

187,446 

1845 

12,080 

1853 

60,652 

1870 

1848 

20,035 

1855 

83,509 

1872 

1850 

28,260 

1860 

150,000 

1875 

410,000 

C.,  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  city  in  the  world  for  its  rapid  growth,  is  built  upon  a 
plain  sufficiently  elevated  to  prevent  inundaiton.  Some  years  ago,  the  elevation  of  the 
principal  streets,  also  the  buildings,  were  raised  from  4 to  10  ft.,  the  object  of  this 
gigantic  undertaking  being  to  admit  a thorough  system  of  sewerage.  The  Chicago  river 
and  its  branches  separate  the  city  into  three  divisions,  connected  by  large  tunnels.  The 
main  stream,  flowing  directly  w.,  is  about  100  yards  wide,  and  forms  one  of  the  best 
harbors  on  the  lakes.  Vessels  ascend  the  river  and  its  branches  a distance  of  4 m.  from 
its  mouth,  thus  affording  nearly  18  m.  of  wharfage.  The  water  for  the  city  is  now  sup- 
plied by  a tunnel  from  lake  Michigan,  which  v^a^ opened  in  1867,  and  supplies  57,000,- 
000  gallons  daily.  There  are  also  about  40  artesian  wells.  C.  possesses  a splendid 
system  of  public  parks,  and  numerous  handsome  buildings.  More  than  30  railways 
meet  here. 

The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal,  completed  in  1848,  connects  the  Chicago  and 
Illinois  rivers,  thus  affording  communication  between  the  lakes  and  Mississippi  to  the 
coal-fields  of  Illinois,  and  to  the  vast  quarries  of  so-called  Athens  marble,  regarded  as 
the  finest  building-material  in  the  country.  It  is  found  on  the  banks  of  the  canal,  about 
W m.  from  C. ; and  is  easily  worked  when  first  quarried,  like  the  Caen  stone. 

The  36  public  schools  of  C. — some  capable  of  holding  1000  children — afford  the- 


773 


Chiavenna. 

Chicago 


means  of  education,  free  of  charge,  to  every  child  in  the  city.  At  the  head  of  the 
system  is  the  high  school.  Here  the  sons  and  daughters  of  the  poorest  man  may  aspire 
to  the  highest  honors  in  the  classics  and  modern  languages.  There  are  also  numerous 
private  schools  and  seminaries,  besides  several  universities,  medical  colleges,  theological, 
literary,  and  scientific  institutions,  located  in  Chicago. 

Since  1853,  pork-packing  has  been  conducted  on  an  enormous  scale.  In  1872,  cattle 
to  the  value  of  $41,000,000  were  received,  and  16,080  head  were  packed  as  beef.  The 
value  of  hogs  received  was  $33,500,000,  and  1,456,650  were  packed  as  pork.  Since 
1854,  C.  has  been  the  largest  primary  grain  depot  in  the  world.  In  1872,  88,426,842 
bushels  of  breadstuffs  were  received,  and  83,364,224  shipped.  C.  is  also  the  most 
extensive  lumber  market  in  the  world.  There  are  80  newspapers  and  periodicals. 

In  Oct.,  1871,  a terrible  fire  occurred,  which  burned  18,000  houses,  extending  over 
more  than  2,000  acres;  200  persons  perished,  and  nearly  100,000  were  rendered  home- 
less. The  property  burned  was  estimated  at  200,000,000  dollars.  This  stupendous 
calamity  awakened  the  sympathy  of  the  civilized  world.  Great  Britain  and  other 
countries  subscribed  money  freely  for  the  sufferers.  The  city  was  entirely  rebuilt  in  a 
style  of  great  magnificence  within  two  years. 

CHICAGO  (ccwfe).  In  1831,  when  the  first  white  settlement  was  made  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Chicago  river,  it  seemed  an  unpromising  site  for  a great  city,  and  for  years  after- 
wards there  probably  was  not  among  its  inhabitants  one  who  expected  that  such  a city 
would  grow  up  on  that  spot..  The  river  mouth  was  a sluggish  bayou;  its  banks  marshy, 
muddy  flats,  suggestive  of  intermittent  and  congestive  fevers.  But  harbors  on  the  great 
lakes  were  not  turned  out  ready  made  by  nature,  but  had  to  be  constructed  to  a greater 
or  less  extent  by  human  enterprise  and  skill,  and  that  of  Chicago  was  no  exception  to 
the  general  rule.  There  was  need  of  a good  harbor  at  that  point,  and  the  location  was 
not  unfavorable,  if  the  citizens  and  the  government  could  be  persuaded  to  spend  money 
enough  in  the  effort.  The  channel  could  be  dredged,  the  flats  fllled,  and  the  waves  of 
the  lake  beaten  back  by  artiflcial  structures  of  wood  or  stone.  This  work,  begun  upon 
a small  scale,  has  been  rapidly  extended  to  meet  the  growing  wants  of  commerce,  until 
C.  now  has  a harbor  adequate  to  the  demands  of  a great  city.  The  shore  of  the  lake  at 
this  point  presents  an  even  line,  extending  very  nearly  due  north  and  south.  The  river 
extends  back  from  the  lake  westerly  flve  eighths  of  a mile,  at  which  point  two  branches 
come  in,  one  from  the  northward,  the  other  from  the  southward;  thus  dividing  the  city 
into  three  parts,  known  as  the  n. , s. , and  w.  divisions.  The  s.  branch  of  the  river  is 
connected  by  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  with  the  Illinois  river  at  La  Salle,  thus 
opening  a direct  water  communication  with  the  Mississippi.  In  the  earlier  period  of 
its  history,  C.  suffered  much  from  intermittent  and  bilious  fevers,  cholera  and  other 
diseases,  consequent  upon  its  low,  marshy  situation;  but  at  length  the  grade  of  a large 
portion  of  the  city  was  raised  from  8 to  10  ft. ; block  after  block  of  heavy  buildings, 
including  some  of  the  largest  hotels  and  stores,  being  raised  to  the  required  level  by 
jack-screws,  worked  by  steam-power.  It  was  one  of  the  most  stupendous  engineering 
experiments  ever  undertaken,  but  it  was  successfully  accomplished.  The  Illinois  and 
Michigan  canal  was  completed,  1848.  It  is  96  m.  in  length,  and  at  its  highest  level  was 
originally  12  ft.  above  the  lake;  but  in  1866-70  the  city  deepened  it  at  a cost  of  $3,251,- 
621.  It  is  now  8|  ft.  below  the  ordinary  level  of  the  lake.  The  river  channel  was  also 
deepened,  so  that  the  lake  no  longer  receives  its  waters,  but  itself  furnishes  a clear 
stream  flowing  the  other  way,  giving  improved  navigation  and  carrying  off  the  sewerage 
of  the  city  towards  the  Illinois  river  at  the  rate  of  a mile  an  hour.  The  fruits  of  this 
engineering  enterprise  are  seen  in  the  suppression  of  the  foul  odors  so  long  endured  by 
the  inhabitants,  and  the  consequent  improvement  in  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  city. 
The  harbor  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  protected  by  magnificent  lines  of  breakwater,  so 
arranged  as  to  afford  space  for  extensive  ship  channels  and  docks.  One  of  the  basins 
thus  provided  comprises  an  area  of  nearly  300  acres,  the  entrance  to  which  from  the 
lake  is  600  ft.  wide.  The  city  extends  along  the  lake  side  about  8 m.,  and  westward  5 
m.,  embracing  an  area  of  about  35  sq.  miles.  Its  grade  is  14  ft.  above  the  lake  on  the 
eastern  side,  and  28  ft.  at  the  western  extremity.  The  descent  towards  the  lake  from 
the  w.  is  sufficient  for  drainage.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  the  principal  avenues 
running  parallel  with  the  lake  shore.  The  streets  are  generally  80  ft.  wide,  and  some  of 
them  are  from  3 to  7 m.  in  length.  The  scarcity  of  stone  has  led  to  the  use  of  wood, 
cinders,  and  gravel  for  pavements.  The  streets  are  lighted  with  gas,  and  amply  supplied 
with  sewers.  The  n.,  s.,  and  w.  divisions  are  connected  by  numerous  bridges  across  the 
river  and  its  branches,  and  by  two  stone  tunnels  under  the  river-bed,  of  which,  one 
passes  under  the  s.  branch,  connecting  the  s.  and  w.  divisions;  the  other,  under  the  main 
river,  connecting  the  n.  and  s.  divisions.  These  tunnels  cost  nearly  $1,000,000.  Horse 
cars  traverse  the  city  in  every  direction.  The  business  portion  of  the  city  is  mainly  in 
the  s.  division,  and  here  also  are  the  chief  public  buildings,  hotels,  retail  stores,  etc. 
The  most  important  public  buildings  are  the  U.  S.  custom-house  and  post-office, 
occupying  an  entire  block  342  by  210  ft.,  and  costing  upwards  of  $5,000,000;  the 
chamber  of  commerce,  a spacious  and  imposing  structure,  with  elaborate  interior  deco- 
rations; the  new  city  hall  and  county  court-house,  occupying  a whole  block  and  costing 
$5,000,000;  and  the  exposition  building,  a vast  edifice  of  iron  and  glass,  800  ft.  long  and 
200  ft.  wide,  and  surmounted  by  a dome  60  ft.  in  diameter  and  160  ft.  in  height.  Some 


Chiclien. 

Chichester. 


774 


of  the  300  churches  of  the  city  are  fine  specimens  of  various  styles  of  ecclesiastical 
architecture.  C.  has  6 public  parks,  with  an  aggregate  area  of  nearly  2,000  acres,  con- 
nected by  boulevards  250  ft.  wide,  extending  around  the  three  sides  of'the  city,  with  a 
drive  on  the  lake  shore.  These  afford  a continuous  driveway  of  more  than  30  miles.  Lin- 
coln park,  in  the  n.  division,  contains  230  acres  fronting  upon  the  lake.  A boulevard  on 
the  n.,  3|  m.  long,  connects  this  with  Humboldt  park  on  the  w. ; while  that  by  another 
boulevard  is  in  turn  connected  with  Central  park,  and  that  again  by  still  another  with 
Douglas  park.  From  the  latter  a boulevard  runs  a distance  of  9 m.  to  a park  in  the  s. 
division.  From  the  s.  end  of  the  northern  park  a broad  avenue  extends  eastward  to 
another  fronting  upon  the  lake.  The  parks  of  the  s.  division  are  just  outside  of  the 
city  limits. 

The  water  communications  of  C,  are  of  vast  extent,  embracing  the  whole  chain  of 
northern  lakes,  with  their  3,000  m.  of  coast-line.  Steamboats  and  sailing  vessels  of  the 
largest  class  are  employed  in  commerce  with  lake  Superior,  bringing  down  vast  stores 
of  iron  and  copper  ore  from  that  region;  while  through  the  Welland  canal  (around 
Niagara  falls),  connecting  lake  Erie  with  lake  Ontario,  vessels  loaded  at  C.  pass  east- 
ward to  Montreal,  where  connection  is  made  with  steamships  for  Europe.  The 
Erie  canal  through  New  York  is  also  a commercial  highway  for  Chicago  to  the  ports  of 
the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal,  already  mentioned,  gives  the 
city  communication  with  the  Mississippi  and  its  aflfuents  during  nine  months  of  every 
year.  But,  important  as  all  these  water  channels  are,  they  are  not  more  so  than  the 
network  of  railroads  by  which  C.  is  put  in  rapid  communication  with  a vast  region  of 
country  extending  from  the  lakes  of  the  north,  eastward  to  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  and  Portland;  southward  to  Louisiana  and  Florida;  and  westward  to  the  Pacific 
coast.  There  is  not  another  such  railroad  center  in  the  world.  From  10,000  to  12,000 
m.  of  railway  are  in  a greater  or  less  degree  tributary  to  this  great  city,  now  about  50 
years  old.  The  different  lines  of  road  converging  to  the  city,  as  represented  on  the 
map,  are  bewildering  alike  to  the  eye  and  to  the  imagination.  Nearly  400  trains  enter 
and  leave  daily  upon  these  roads,  making  an  aggregate  of  nearly  800  arrivals  and  depart- 
ures. The  accommodations  for  these  roads  are,  upon  the  whole,  excellent.  The  Union 
depot,  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  buildings  of  the  kind  in  the  country,  is  used  by  two 
of  the  principal  roads;  the  Central  depot,  by  two  others;  and  there  are  three  or  four 
more  for  the  use  of  others.  Plans  for  uniting  all  the  roads  at  a common  center,  or  for 
connecting  them  by  a common  track,  have  been  proposed. 

C.  is  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  pure  water  from  lake  Michigan  by  a process 
which  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  modern  engineering  skill.  Two  cylindrical  brick  tunnels, 
one  6 ft.,  the  other  7 ft.  in  diameter,  starting  from  the  shore  at  different  points,  extend  a 
distance  of  2 m.  under  the  lake,  and  meet  in  an  immense  crib  inclosing  a grated  cylin- 
der, through  which  the  water  descends  into  them  in  a stream  unfailing  as  the  lake  itself. 
The  smallest  of  these  tunnels,  extending  from  the  shore  of  the  n.  division  of  the  city, 
was  completed  in  1866.  The  water  as  it  is  received  at  the  shore  end  of  the  tunnel  is 
forced  by  steam-pumps  through  a stone  tower  to  a height  of  160  ft.  into  a reservoir, 
whence  it  is  distributed  by  pipes  to  different  parts  of  the  city.  The  top  of  the  water- 
tower,  which  is  reached  by  a spiral  staircase,  affords  a fine  view  of  the  city  and  the  sur- 
rounding country.  On  the  crib,  2 m.  out  in  the  lake,  stands  a light-house,  with  a 
dwelling  for  the  keeper.  The  second  and  larger  tunnel,  which  supplies  the  south-west- 
ern section  of  the  city,  was  completed  in  1874.  A tunnel  7 ft.  in  diameter,  passing 
under  the  central  portion  of  the  city,  is  to  connect  the  old  works  with  the  new,  and 
afford  an  independent  supply  of  water  for  extinguishing  fires.  The  tunnels  under  the 
lake  cost  $1,507,622.  The  water-works  altogether,  to  Jan.  1,  1873,  are  estimated  to 
have  cost  more  than  $5,000,000.  Besides  the  supply  from  the  lake,  the  city  has  another 
resource  in  some  40  artesian  wells,  two  of  which  (694  and  911  ft.  deep  respectively) 
yield  about  1,200,000  gallons  per  day.  The  great  stock-yards,  the  west-side  parks,  and 
some  of  the  manufacturing  establishments,  are  supplied  from  these  wells. 

The  educational  facilities  of  C.  are  extensive,  and  of  a high  order  of  excellence. 
The  public  schools,  which  give  instruction  to  the  children  of  citizens  with  no  distinc- 
tion of  class,  are  well  organized  and  eflicient.  The  number  of  these  schools  in  1872 
was  32,  occupying  45  buildings  and  employing  476  teachers — all  but  31  women.  The 
school  pop.  of  the  city  (between  6 and  21  years  of  age)  was  88,219;  the  number  of  pupils 
enrolled  38,035,  of  whom  512  were  in  the  high  school,  and  63  in  the  normal  school. 
Of  the  teachers,  221  were  graduates  of  the  normal  and  high  schools.  Total  expenditure 
for  these  schools  in  1872,  $499,349,  including  about  $360,000  for  teachers’  salaries.  The 
school  buildings  with  the  land  on  which  they  stood  were  valued  at  over  $2,265,000. 
The  Roman  Catholics  also  have  schools,  and  there  are  many  private  academies.  The 
university  of  Chicago,  a Baptist  institution,  founded  by  the  efforts  of  Stephen  A. 
Douglas,  has  connected  with  it  a law  school,  and  the  Dearborn  astronomical  observa- 
tory, both  well  equipped  and  efficient,  and  a library  of  20,000  volumes.  St.  Ignatius’s 
college,  founded  in  1870,  also  is  a flourishing  institution.  Of  the  six  medical  colleges  of 
the  city,  one  is  open  to  women,  one  is  homeopathic,  and  one  eclectic.  Of  the  four  theo- 
logical seminaries,  one  is  Baptist,  one  Congregational,  one  Lutheran,  and  one  Presby- 
terian, There  are  also  three  commercial  colleges,  and  four  female  colleges  or  seminaries 
of  high  grade.  The  academy  of  sciences,  established  1857,  lost  heavily  by  the  g?*eat 


115 


Chlchen. 

Chichester. 


fire  of  1871,  but  is  getting  a new  museum  and  library.  The  public  library  occupies  the 
old  custom-house  and  post-office,  whose  walls  outlasted  the  great  fire:  the  number  of 
volumes  is  estimated  at  100,000.  According  to  the  latest  reports,  there  were  more  than 
100  newspapers  and  periodicals  published  in  the  city.  Of  these  11  were  daily,  5 tri- 
weekly, 45  weekly,  S semi-monthly,  1 bi-monthly,  and  4 quarterly;  18  were  religious, 
16  political,  18  literary,  10  commercial,  and  5 juvenile.  Some  of  these  papers  have  a 
very  large  circulation,  exerting  a very  wide  influence  in  the  north-western  states. 

The  principal  religious  denominations,  according  to  the  number  of  their  churches, 
rank  as  follows:  Roman  Catholic,  27;  Methodist,  22;  Baptist,  Presbyterian,  and  Epis- 
copal, each  18;  Congregational,  17;  Swedenborgian,  4;  Unitarian,  5;  Universalist,  4. 
Benevolent  and  charitable  associations  and  institutions  are  numerous.  Among  them  are 
7 orphan  asylums,  6 dispensaries,  2 asylums  for  the  aged  and  indigent,  1 home  for  the 
friendless,  and  a multitude  of  smaller  eharities.  The  C.  relief  and  aid  society,  from  its 
foundation,  1857,  has  had  the  management  of  a large  portion  of  the  voluntary  charities 
of  the  city  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  infirm,  and  helpless.  The  same  society  disbursed 
to  the  sufferers  by  the  great  fire  of  1871  the  sum  of  nearly  $6,000,000,  sent  for  their 
relief  from  Europe  and  every  part  of  the  United  States.  The  young  men’s  Christian 
association  was  also  very  active  at  that  time,  as  i Is  was  before  and  has  been  since,  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor  and  destitute.  The  population  of  C.  in  1870  was  298,977;  according 
to  the  unofficial  figures  of  the  census  of  1880,  as  reported  by  the  Tribune  of  that  city,  it 
is  503,298.  [At  the  date  of  this  writing  the  census  has  not  been  officially  issued.] 

As  a commercial  city  C.  ranks  next  to  New  York.  It  is  the  center  of  a vast  trade  in 
breadstuffs,  live-stock,  pork,  beef,  provisions,  lumber,  wool,  hides,  groeeries,  dry-goods, 
boots  and  shoes,  hardware,  clothing,  and  tobacco.  The  statistics  now  accessible  are 
very  inadequate  as  a means  of  showing  the  present  extent  of  the  trade  and  manufactures 
of  the  city.  Every  year  shows  a startling  augmentation  of  the  volume  of  business  of 
almost  every  kind  in  this  great  western  emporium,  itself  the  wonderful  growth  of  but 
half  a century.  The  aggregate  wholesale  trade  of  the  city  in  1872  was  reported  by  the 
board  of  trade  at  $500,000,000.  The  total  receipts  of  wheat  in  1873  were  16,626,923 
bushels;  to  this  add  88,426,842  bushels  represented  by  the  flour  received  in  1872  (less, 
doubtless,  than  was  received  in  1873),  and  we  have  a total  of  105,053,765  bushels  for  a 
single  year,  The  great  yards  which  are  the  center  of  the  live-stock  trade  were  opened 
in  1858.  They  cover  an  area  of  345  acres,  affording  a capacity  for  21,000  cattle,  75,000 
hogs,  22,000  sheep,  and  200  horses.  They  are  thoroughly  drained,  supplied  with  water 
from  artesian  wells,  and  furnished  with  every  convenience  for  the  reception,  care,  and 
transfer  of  the  animals.  The  total  value  of  live-stock  received  in  1872  was  estimated 
by  the  board  of  trade  at  $75,475,000.  The  chief  branches  of  manufactures  in  C.  are 
iron,  flour,  high-wines,  agricultural  implements,  pork  and  meats,  boots  and  shoes, 
leather,  cotton,  and  watches.  It  is  supposed  that  at  the  present  time  not  less  than  60,000 
people  are  employed  in  manufactures  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  that  nearly  one  third 
of  the  commerce  of  the  city  is  based  upon  what  they  produce.  Ship-building  also  is 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  The  flour  manufacture  was  temporarily  crippled  by  the 
great  fire,  6 of  the  15  mills  having  been  destroyed.  The  banking  business  of  C.  is  very 
large.  In  1872,  there  w'ere  21  national  banks,  with  a capital  of  over  $11,000,000,  and 
more  than  $23,000,000  of  deposits.  There  were  also  18  savings-banks  with  over 
$12,000,000  of  deposits,  and  numerous  private  banks.  The  total  valuation  of  real  and 
personal  property  for  taxation  in  1872  was  $284,197,430;  the  actual  value  at  the  same 
time  was  more  than  $620,000,000. 

The  great  fire  of  Oct.,  1871,  raged  two  days  and  nights,  destroying  everything  upon 
an  area  of  2,100  acres,  embracing  nearly  all  the  business  portion  of  the  city,  and  a very 
large  number  of  private  residences,  among  which  were  the  most  costly  in  the  place. 
More  than  17,000  buildings  were  destroyed,  including  the  custom-house,  court-house, 
post-office,  gas-works,  the  principal  newspaper  offices,  32  hotels,  3 railroad  depots,  8 
school-houses,  10  theaters  and  halls,  41  churches,  5 grain  elevators,  and  all  the  national 
banks  but  one.  The  loss  on  buildings  was  estimated  at  $50,000,000;  on  personal  prop- 
erty and  merchandise,  $140,000,000;  total  $190,000,000,  of  which  a little  over  $40,000,- 
000  was  recovered  on  insurance.  Many  insurance  companies  were  utterly  ruined.  Not 
less  than  $7,000,000  were  contributed  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  to  aid  the  sufferers. 
Over  98,000  persons  were  rendered  homeless,  while  200  were  killed.  The  recovery  of 
the  city  from  this  calamity  was  rapid,  insomuch  that  after  the  lapse  of  three  years 
scarcely  a trace  of  it  could  be  seen,  and  almost  its  only  evidence  was  in  the  immense 
improvement  of  the  buildings  over  all  the  ravaged  district. 

CHICKEN',  a t.  of  Central  America,  in  the  n.e.  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  which 
separates  the  gulf  of  Mexieo  from  the  Caribbean  sea,  18  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Valladolid.  It 
is  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  the  state,  and  is  worthy  of  notice  chiefly  for  the  remains 
of  an  ancient  city,  comprising  a ruined  temple  450  ft.  long,  a pyramid  with  a base  of 
550  ft.  square,  and  a domed  edifice  ornamented  with  sculpture. 

CHICH'ESTEE,  a municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  and  Episcopal  city  in  Sussex, 
17i  m.  e.n.e.  of  Portsmouth.  It  stands  on  a plain  between  an  arm  of  the  sea  and  the 
South  Downs,  which  rise  gently  on  the  north.  It  is  well  built,  and  has  wide  streets. 
The  two  main  streets  cross  at  right  angles,  and  meet  in  an  elaborately-worked  eight-sided 


Chickadee. 

Chickasaws. 


776 


cross.  Within  the  suburbs  the  city  is  surrounded  by  an  ancient  wall,  m.  in  circuit, 
with  some  semicircular  bastions,  and  now  a promenade  under  the  shade  of  elms.  Thh 
cathedral,  erected  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  on  the  site  of  a wooden  one  founded 
1108,  and  burned  1114,  measures  410  by  227  ft.,  with  a spire  300  ft.  high.  The  aisles 
are  double — a mode  of  construction  to  be  seen  nowhere  else  in  Britain.  The  cathedral 
has  a rich  choir,  and  portraits  of  the  English  sovereigns  from  the  conquest  to  George  I., 
and  of  the  bishops  down  to  the  reformation.  The  chief  trade  is  in  agricultural  produce, 
and  live-stock.  There  are  malting,  brewing,  and  tanning  establishments.  Pop.  71, 
9,054.  C.  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  The  harbor,  2 m.  to  the  s.w.  of  the  city, 
is  a deep  inlet  of  the  English  channel,  of  about  8 sq.m. ; has  several  creeks  and  Thorny 
isle ; and  is  connected  with  C.  by  a canal.  C.  was  the  Roman  Regnum,  and  has  afforded 
Roman  remains — as  a mosaic  pavement,  coins,  urns,  and  an  inscription  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  a temple  to  Neptune  and  Minerva.  C.  was  taken  and  partly  destroyed,  in  491, 
by  the  South  Saxons.  It  was  soon  after  rebuilt  by  Cissa,  their  king,  and  called  Cissan- 
caster,  or  Cissa’s  camp.  It  was  for  some  time  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sussex.  In 
1642,  the  royalists  of  C.  surrendered  to  the  parliamentarians,  after  a siege  of  ten  days. 

CHICKADEE,  Parus  atricapillus,  is  distinct  from  the  European  blackcap.  It  is  about 

in.  long,  and  8 in.  in  spread  of  wings.  Head  and  neck,  and  a patch  on  the  throat, 
black;  other  plumage,  ash-gray  and  brown;  tail  edged  with  white,  and  a white  bar  on 
the  wings.  Where  it  has  not  been  driven  away  by  the  English  sparrow,  it  destroys 
great  numbers  of  canker  worms  and  other  caterpillars.  It  is  a very  lively,  sociable,  and 
useful  bird. 

CHICK AHOMTNY,  a river  in  Virginia,  rising  n.w.  of  Richmond  and  running  e. 
between  the  James  and  the  Pamunkey  to  the  w.  line  of  James  City  co.,  where  it  turns 
abruptly  s.,  and  after  a course  of  about  10  m.,  joins  the  James.  The  surrounding  country 
e.  of  Richmond  is  level,  and  in  one  section  there  is  a large  swamp.  On  and  near  the 
C.  in  the  early  years  of  the  civil  war  occurred  many  of  the  most  important  military 
movements,  skirmishes,  and  battles — here  mentioned  in  the  order  of  time.  In  1862,  the 
peninsular  campaign  on  the  part  of  the  union  army  began  with  the  siege  of  Yorktown, 
the  objective  point  being  Richmond,  to  reach  which  it  was  necessary  tMt  the  C.  should 
be  crossed.  McClellan,  on  the  union  side,  had  118,000  men  when  the  siege  was  begun, 
April  5.  On  the  other  side,  the  confederates  had  15,000  men  in  Yorktown,  and  about 

50.000  more  scattered  over  n.  Virginia,  all  under  gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  The  6th  of 
May  was  the  day  for  opening  fire  upon  Yorktown,  but  on  the  4th  Johnston  left  the 
place,  taking  guns,  baggage,  etc.,  and  retreated  towards  Richmond.  On  the  5th  he  was 
assailed  by  Hooker ; and  Longstreet,  who  commanded  the  rear  of  the  confederates,  turned 
on  the  defensive  just  as  he  had  passed  Williamsburg.  He  was  met  by  Hancock’s  divis- 
ion, and  was  compelled  to  abandon  his  works  after  a sharp  fight;  but  Longstreet  held 
his  position  long  enough  to  secure  the  confederate  trains  from  pursuit.  This  was  the 
battle  of  Williamsburg.  The  union  loss  was  1856  killed  and  wounded,  and  372  missing. 
The  confederate  loss  was  about  the  same.  On  the  27th  of  May  occurred  the  battle  of 
Hanover  Court-House,  in  which  the  union  loss  was  53  killed  and  344  wounded  and 
missing.  The  confederate  loss  must  have  been  much  greater,  for  McClellan’s  report 
says  there  were  about  200  of  their  dead  buried  by  our  troops,  and  730  prisoners  were 
sent  to  the  rear.  The  confederates  had  now  concentrated  in  and  around  Richmond, 
where  they  had  67,000  men.  The  next  fight  on  the  C.  was  the  battle  of  the  Seven  Pines, 
or  of  Fair  Oaks,  which  took  place  on  the  31st  of  May,  and  resulted  in  a substantial 
union  victory.  The  confederate  leader,  gen,  Johnston,  was  severely  wounded,  and  their 
losses  were  very  heavy,  but,  as  in  most  cases,  no  trustworthy  report  was  made  of  the 
numbers.  The  union  army  lost  890  killed,  3,627  wounded,  and  1222  missing.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  confederates  felt  this  to  be  a disastrous  defeat,  and  in  common  with  the 
people  of  the  northern  states,  they  expected  that  the  next  move  would  be  the  capture  of 
Richmond;  but,  for  reasons  concerning  which  it  is  to  be  said  only  that  they  were  never 
explained  to  the  general  satisfaction  of  the  people  in  the  northern  states,  McClellan 
made  no  demonstration,  and  soon  the  almost  defenseless  city  was  powerfully  fortified 
under  the  direction  of  gen.  Robert  E,  Lee,  who  had  superseded  Johnston  in  the  confed- 
erate command.  The  fourth  of  the  contests  of  the  C.  was  the  battle  of  Mechanicsville, 
June  26,  and  was  not  important  in  results.  The  confederates  made  several  attacks  upon 
two  union  brigades,  but  finally  abandoned  the  work  after  losing  about  1500  men^ 
federal  loss,  300.  A more  important  action  which  occurred  June  27,  is  known  as  the 
battle  of  Cold  Harbor,  or  Gaines’  Mill;  the  confederates  call  it  the  battle  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy.  Their  loss  was  about  9,500;  the  union  loss,  4,000  killed  and  wounded,  and 

2.000  prisoners.  The  sixth  conflict  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  C.  is  known  as  the  battle 
of  Savage’s  Station,  June  30,  and  was  not  an  important  affair.  The  losses  were,  union, 
600;  confederate  reported  at  400.  The  next  was  the  battle  of  Frazier’s  Farm,  also  June 
30,  in  which  there  was  some  sharp  fighting,  resulting  in  a union  loss  of  300  killed  and 
1500  wounded;  and  on  the  other  side,  325  killed  and  1700  wounded.  The  battle  of  Mal- 
vern Hill  occurred  July  1,  and  involved  a union  loss  of  375  killed  and  1800  wounded; 
and  of  confederates,  900  killed  and  3,500  wounded.  All  these  engagements  from  June 
26  to  July  1 cost  the  federals  1582  killed  and  7,709  wounded;  and  the  confederates  3,150 
killed  and  15,255  wounded.  Including  prisoners  and  missing,  the  totals  of  loss  were; 


777 


Chickadee. 

Chickasaws* 


union,  15,429;  confederate,  19,405.  The  object,  on  the  part  of  the  confederates,  was  to 
relieve  Richmond  from  the  threatened  siege  and  capture ; and  they  succeeded.  Near  the 
end  of  the  summer  the  union  armies  were  withdrawn  and  combined  to  form  the  army 
of  the  Potomac.  But  nearly  two  years  later  there  occurred  one  more  (the  second)  battle 
of  Cold  Harbor,  when  Grant  had  command.  The  fight  took  place  June  3,  1864,  and 
was  substantially  a check  of  the  union  advance.  The  federal  losses  were  about  7,000 
in  all ; the  losses  on  the  other  side  were  said  to  be  only  half  as  many.  It  was  at  this 
time  that  Grant  sent  to  Washington  the  historical  dispatch:  “ I propose  to  fight  it  out 
on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer.” 

CHICKAMATJ'GA,  Battle  of,  Sept.  19-20,  1863,  between  the  union  army  of  the 
Cumberland,  led  by  gen.  Rosecranz,  and  the  confederate  forces  led  by  gens.  Bragg  and 
Longstreet.  The  forces  on  the  union  side  numbered  about  55,000,  a quarter  of  whom 
were  not  engaged;  the  losses  were  1644  killed,  9,262  wounded,  and  4,948  prisoners; 
total,  15,854.  The  confederate  reports  embrace  but  two  thirds  of  their  army,  and  show 
1394  killed,  8,974  wounded,  and  882  missing;  total,  11,250.  A few  days  after  the  battle 
gen.  Rosecranz  was  relieved,  and  gen.  Grant  placed  in  command.  The  battle  was 
credited  as  a victory  for  the  confederates,  though  no  substantial  advantage  was  gained 
by  them. 

CHICKAREE,  a popular  name  for  the  red  squirrel,  sciurus  Hudsonius.  It  abounds 
in  the  southern  and  middle  Atlantic  states,  and  is  esteemed  for  the  tenderness  and  flavor 
of  its  flesh.  It  is  not  so  gentle  or  so  easily  tamed  as  the  gray  squirrel. 

CHICKASAW,  a co.  in  n.e.  Iowa,  on  the  Wapsipinican  river  and  its  tributaries, 
reached  by  the  Mc(4regor  and  Missouri  river  and  the  Cedar  Palls  and  Minnesota  rail- 
roads; 576  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  14,534.  The  surface  is  prairie  and  woodland,  and  the  soil 
fertile;  agriculture  is  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat.  New  Hampton. 

CHICKASAW,  a co.  in  n.e.  Mississippi,  on  the  head  waters  and  tributaries  of  the 
Tombigbee  river,  and  touched  by  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  railroad;  990  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
17,904 — 10,215  colored.  The  county  is  a part  of  the  territory  ceded  by  the  Chickasaw 
Indians.  It  has  a level  surface  and  fertile  soil,  producing  corn,  cotton,  etc.  Co.  seat, 
Houston. 

CHICKASAW  BLUFFS,  Battle  op,  Dec.  29,  1862.  The  siege  of  Vicksburg  being 
in  progress,  gen.  Sherman  (union)  was  ordered  to  make  an  attack  in  the  rear,  and  for 
that  purpose  sent  a force  up  Yazoo  river  to  land  above  the  city  and  approach  it  from 
the  north.  In  this  march  they  came  upon  a bayou  held  by  a confederate  force  strongly 
intrenched.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  force  a passage,  but  without  success.  The 
union  loss  was  192  killed,  and  982  wounded.  That  of  the  other  side  was  very  small. 

CHICKASAWS,  a nation  of  Indians  occupying  a section  of  the  Indian  territory, 
embracing  6,840  sq.m,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Red  river.  According  to  their  traditions 
and  the  evidence  of  philology,  they  are  closely  connected  with  the  Creeks  and  Choctaws; 
and  they  believe  that  they  emigrated  with  those  tribes  from  the  west,  crossed  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  settled  in  the  district  now  forming  the  n.e.  part  of  the  state  of  Mississippi. 
Here  De  Soto  visited  them  in  1540.  From  the  first  they  were  hostile  to  the  French,  and 
were  frequently  a,t  war  with  them;  but  with  the  English  they  were  generally  friendly. 
In  1786,  they  made  a treaty  with  the  United  States,  and  in  1793,  they  aided  the  whites 
in  the  war  against  the  Creek  Indians.  In  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  part  of 
their  territory  was  ceded  for  certain  annuities,  and  a portion  of  the  tribe  migrated  to 
Arkansas;  and  in  1832-34,  the  remainder,  about  3,600  in  number,  surrendered  to  the 
federal  government  the  6,642,000  acres  of  which  they  were  still  the  owners,  and  entered 
into  a treaty  with  the  Choctaws  for  incorporation  into  that  tribe.  This  union  was  after- 
wards dissolved  and  by  paying  the  Choctaws  $150,000  they  secured  full  possession  of  their 
present  territory.  In  the  civil  war  they  assisted  the  confederates,  but  their  rights  were 
restored  by  the  Union  government  in  1866.  The  next  year  they  surrendered  7,000,000 
acres  of  land  at  4^  cents  per  acre,  the  money  ($300,000)  to  go  to  their  late  slaves  unless, 
within  two  years,  they  adopted  them  as  members  of  the  tribe.  In  Jan.,  1873,  they  con- 
cluded to  adopt  the  negroes.  The  nation  has  a printed  constitution  prefaced  by  a 
declaration  of  rights,  which  asserts  that  all  political  power  inheres  in  the  people ; that 
all  men  should  be  free  to  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  and 
not  be  compelled  to  attend,  erect,  or  support  any  religious  ministry  against  their  con- 
sent; that  there  should  be  freedom  of  speech;  that  there  should  be  security  from 
unreasonable  searches  of  property  or  person;  that  every  person  accused  of  crime  should 
have  a speedy  trial.  All  free  males  19  years  old  or  over  who  are  Chickasaws  by  birth  or 
adoption,  may  vote,  unless  idiotic,  insane,  or  convicted  of  infamous  crime.  There  are  a 
senate  and  house  of  representatives,  the  latter  of  18  members  elected  annually  by  the 
voters  of  the  counties  or  districts.  A representative  must  be  21  years  old.  There  are 
12  senators  elected  for  two  years  from  the  four  districts  of  the  state.  A senator  must  be 
80  years  old,  a Chickasaw  by  birth  or  adoption,  and  a resident  of  his  district  six  months. 
The  governor  must  have  all  the  qualifications  of  a senator;  he  is  chosen  for  two  years  by 
popular  vote,  and  has  about  the  same  powers  and  functions  as  a governor  of  one  of 
the  states.  There  is  a supreme  court  consisting  of  a chief  and  two  assistant  justices 
elected  to  the  legislature  for  four  years.  There  are  also  circuit  and  county  courts.  The 


Cliicken-pox. 

Chidti. 


778 


nation  has  in  the  custody  of  the  federal  government  $1,200,000  in  bonds  on  which  inter- 
est is  paid.  In  1873,  the  number  of  Chickasaws  was  about  6,000.  One  newspaper  is 
published  at  Tanlequah. 

CHI'CKEN-POX,  a contagious  febrile  disease,  chiefly  of  children,  and  bearing  some 
resemblance  to  a very  mild  form  of  small-pox  (q.v.).  C.  is  distinguished  by  an  eruption 
of  vesicles  or  blebs,  which  rarely  become  pustular  or  yellow,  and  leave  only  a very 
slight  incrustation,  which  falls  off  in  a few  days,  without  any  permanent  mark  or  pit, 
as  in  small-pox.  From  its  vesicular  character,  it  has  been  called  the  crystal  pock.  It 
has  been  argued  that  C.  is,  in  fact,  only  small-pox  modified  by  previous  vaccination; 
but  this  opinion,  though  maintained  on  good  authority,  is  not  generally  received  by 
medical  men.  It  is  a disease  of  little  or  no  danger,  the  fever  being  often  hardly  percep- 
tible, and  never  lasting  long. 

CHICKEN  SNAKE,  or  Milk  Snake,  OpMholus  Eximius,  a harmless  individual  of 
the  serpent  tribe,  frequenting  houses,  stables,  and  dairies.  It  is  sometimes  5 ft.  long, 
though  usually  much  less;  the  color  is  milky  white  above,  sometimes  tinged  with  red, 
wuth  dusky  spots  along  the  vertebral  line  and  smaller  spots  along  the  sides,  the  abdomen 
silver  white  or  yellowish.  It  feeds  on  insects,  mice,  toads,  frogs,  and  small  birds. 

CHICKERING,  Jonas,  1798-1853;  a self-taught  piano-maker  of  Boston,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  the  largest  piano-manufactory  in  the  country,  at  times  producing 
at  the  rate  of  1,500  instruments  in  a year. 

CHICK  PEA  {Gicer),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Leguminoscc,  sub-order 
PapilionacecB,  having  pinnate  leaves;  solitary,  axillary,  stalked  flowers;  and  two-seeded 
pods,  inflated  like  bladders.  The  common  C.  P.  {G.  arietinum)  grows  wild  in  the  corn- 
fields of  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and  in  many  parts  of  the  east.  It 
is  an  annual,  1|  to  2 ft.  high,  of  a stiff  upright  habit,  covered  with  glandular  hairs.  The 
seeds  abound  in  farina,  and  have  a slightly  bitterish  taste.  They  are  about  the  size  of 
common  peas,  curiously  wrinkled,  so  that  they  have  been  thought  to  resemble  a ram’s 
(arietis)  head.  They  are  used  as  food,  either  boiled  or  roasted,  and  are  the  most 
common  parched  pulse  of  the  east.  They  are  an  important  article  of  French  cookery. 
They  have  been  in  general  use  from  the  earliest  times,  and  the  plant  is  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  Egypt,  Syria,  India,  the  s.  of  Europe,  etc.  Its  cultivation  extends  as  far 
north  as  the  southern  part  of  Germany;  but  in  the  climate  of  Britain  it  is  found  too 
tender  to  be  a profitable  crop.  It  is  the  Oram  of  India,  and  the  Oarvance  of  the  French, 
whence  the  English  name  Garavances.  The  herbage  affords  a nutritious  food  for  cattle, 
and  the  seeds  are  one  of  the  occasional  substitutes  for  coffee.  In  great  summer 
heats,  drops  exude  from  this  plant,  which,  on  drying,  leave  crystals  of  almost  pure 
oxalic  acid. 

CHICKWEED,  Stellaria  media,  one  of  the  most  common  weeds  of  gardens  and  culti- 
vated fields,  is  a species  of  stitch  wort  (q.v.).  It  is  a native  of  most  parts  of  Europe  and 
of  Asia,  appearing  during  the  colder  months  even  on  the  plains  of  India;  an  annual, 
with  a weak  procumbent  stem  and  ovate  leaves,  very  variable;  some  of  the  smaller  vari- 
eties in  dry  sunny  situations  sometimes  puzzling  young  botanists,  from  having  only  five 
or  three  instead  of  ten  stamens;  but  always  characterized  by  having  the  stem  curiously 
marked  with  a line  of  hairs,  which  at  each  pair  of  leaves  changes  from  one  side  to  another, 
and  in  four  changes  completes  the  circuit  of  the  stem.  The  leaves  of  C.  afford  a fine 
instance  of  the  sleep  of  plants,  closing  up  on  the  young  shoots  at  night.  C.  is  a good 
substitute  for  spinach  or  greens,  although  generally  little  regarded  except  as  a trouble- 
some weed,  or  gathered  only  by  the  poor  to  make  poultices,  for  which  it  is  very  useful, 
or  for  feeding  cage-birds,  which  are  very  fond  both  of  its  leaves  and  seeds.  A number 
of  species  of  a nearly  allied  genus,  cerastium,  natives  of  Britain,  also  bear  the  name  of 
C.,  or  Mouse-ear  C.,  and  the  name  is  occasionally  given  to  other  plants,  either  botani- 
cally  allied,  or  of  somewhat  similar  appearance. 

CHICLANA,  a t.  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  about  12  m.  s.e.  of  Cadiz.  It  is  pleasantly  sit- 
uated on  a plain  between  two  hills,  and  its  houses  being  all  built  of  white  stone,  present 
a cheerful  appearance.  It  has  a splendid  hospital.  The  manufactures  are  linen,  earthen- 
ware, and  brandy.  Its  mineral  baths  are  much  frequented  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cadiz. 
Pop.  variously  estimated,  but  probably  about  5,000. 

CHICOPEE,  formerly  Cabotsville,  and  including  Chicopee  Falls,  a manufacturing  t. 
of  Massachusetts,  U.  S.,  on  the  left  bank  of  Connecticut  river,  at  the  mouth  of  Chicopee 
river,  5|  m.  n.  of  Springfield.  Chicopee  falls  supplies  water-power  to  numerous  cotton 
and  woolen  factories,  paper-mills,  brass  cannon  and  bell  foundries,  and  the  Ames  manu- 
facturing company,  which  makes  machinery,  swords,  bronze  cannon,  statues,  etc.  C. 
has  10  churches  and  several  newspapers.  Pop.  ’80,  11,325. 

CHICORY,  or  Succory  {cichorium),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  compositcB, 
sub-order  Gichoracece,  distinguished  by  bracts  in  tw^o  unequal  rows,  the  outer  always 
reflexed,  the  inner  latterly  becoming  so,  a nearly  naked  receptacle,  obovate  striated 
achenia,  and  a pappus  of  two  rows  of  minute  scales.  The  species  are  few  in  number, 
herbaceous  plants,  full  of  milky  juice,  natives  chiefly  of  the  warmer  temperate  regions 
of  the  eastern  hemisphere.  The  common  C.  or  Succory  {G.  intybus)  is  a perennial 
X'-lant,  found  wild  in  England  and  most  parts  of  Europe,  growing  in  waysides,  borders 


V79 


Chicken-pox. 

Chieti. 


of  fields,  etc.  It  has  a long  carrot-like  root,  externally  of  a dirty  or  brownish  yellow 
color,  and  white  within.  The  stem  rises  to  the  height  of  2 to  5ft.,  branching,  the  leaves 

r uncinate,  resembling  those  of  the  dandelion;  the  flowers  sessile,  axillary,  in  pairs, 
rather  large,  beautiful,  generally  blue,  more  rarely  pink  or  white.  C.  is  pretty  exten- 
sively cultivated,  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  for  its  roots.  It  is 
also  cultivated  for  feeding  cattle  with  its  leaves.  The  blanched  leaves  are  sometimes 
used  as  a salad,  and  they  are  readily  procured  in  winter  by  placing  the  roots  in  a box 
wi,th  a little  earth  in  a cellar. — To  this  genus  belongs  also  the  endive  (q.v.). 

C.  has  been  used  as  a substitute  for  coffee,  or  to  mix  with  coffee,  for  at  least  a cen- 
tury. The  roots  are  pulled  up,  washed,  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  dried  on  a kiln,  which 
leaves  a shriveled  mass  not  more  than  one  fourth  the  weight  of  the  original  root.  It  is 
then  roasted  in  heated  iron  cylinders,  which  are  kept  revolving  as  in  coffee-roasting, 
during  which  it  loses  about  25  to  30  per  cent  of  its  weight,  and  evolves  at  the  same  time 
a disagreeable  odor,  resembling  burned  gingerbread.  An  improvement  to  the  C.  during 
roasting  is  the  addition  of  2 lbs.  of  lard  or  butter  for  every  cwt.  of  C,,  which  communi- 
cates to  it  much  of  the  luster  and  general  appearance  of  coffee.  It  is  then  hand-picked, 
to  remove  chips  of  wood,  stones,  etc.,  and  is  reduced  to  powder,  and  sold  separately  as 
G.  powder  or  G.  coffee,  or  is  added  to  ordinary  ground-coffee,  and  is  sold  as  a mixture. 
C.  contains  a good  deal  of  sugar,  but  otherwise  does  not  serve  to  supply  the  animal 
economy  with  any  useful  ingredient.  It  gives  off  a deep  brown  color  to  water,  when 
an  infusion  is  made,  and  hence  its  main  use  in  coffee.  Some  people  dislike  the  taste  of 
C.,  and  when  largely  used,  it  has  a tendency  to  produce  diarrhea;  but  many  people  pre- 
fer to  use  coffee  mixed  with  C.  owing  partly  to  the  taste  it  communicates,  but  mainly  to 
the  appearance  of  strength  which  it  gives  to  the  coffee.  The  C.  is  liable  to  adulteration; 
and  roasted  beans,  pease,  carrots,  parsnips,  mangold-wurzel,  acorns,  horse-chestnuts,  bis- 
cuit, oak-bark  tan,  logwood  and  mahogany  dust,  and  even  the  livers  of  horses  and  bul- 
locks, are  said  to  be  employed  in  its  adulteration. 

CHI'COT,  a CO.  in  s.e.  Arkansas,  on  the  Louisiana  border  and  the  Mississippi  river, 
intersected  by  Crooked  and  Mason’s  bayous;  820  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  10,117 — 8555  colored. 
The  surface  is  level,  and  in  some  parts  is  subjected  to  inundations;  chief  productions, 
corn  and  cotton.  Co.  seat.  Lake  Village. 

CHICOUTIMI,  the  n.e.  section  of  the  organized  territory  of  the  province  of  Quebec* 
Canada;  little  settled  except  along  the  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  on  the  Saguenay 
rivers;  23,753  sq.m.;  pop.  ’71,  17,493,  all  except  about  100  being  Roman  Catholics,  and 
all  except  about  800  of  French  descent.  The  surface  is  mostly  rugged,  and  there  are 
immense  pine  forests  of  great  value.  Chief  town,  Chicoutimi,  on  th^e  Saguenay,  75  m. 
from  the  mouth. 

CHIEF,  in  heraldry,  an  ordinary  formed  by  a horizontal  line,  and  occupying  the 
upper  part  of  the  escutcheon.  Like  the  other  honorable  ordinaries,  the  C.  ought  prop- 
erly to  take  up  a third  part  of  the  shield;  but  when  the  other  charges  are  numerous,  the 
C.  is  frequently  diminished  in  size. — Any  object  borne  in  the  upper  or  chief  part  of  the 
shield  is  said  to  be  in  chief,  though  the  C.  be  not  divided  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
field,  as  a separate  portion. — On  a chief:  Is  when  the  object  is  represented  on  the  C., 
divided  off  as  above  described. 

CHIEF- JUSTICE,  the  presiding  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  the  courts  of  highest  jurisdiction  in  most  of  the  several  states.  The  chief -justice 
of  the  United  States  administers  the  oath  on  the  occasion  of  the  inauguration  of  the 
president  and  vice-president ; he  presides  when  an  impeached  president  is  tried,  and  has 
the  nomination  of  certain  judicial  officers. 

CHIEF-JUSTICE.  See  Justice  Courts. 

CHIEM-SEE,  a lake  of  Upper  Bavaria,  the  largest  in  the  country,  lies  about  42  m.  s.e. 
of  Munich.  It  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  1600  fr.  above  the  sea;  its  length 
is  12  m.,  with  a breadth  of  9,  and  its  greatest  depth  500  feet.  Its  shape  is  irregular,  and 
its  coast  much  indented.  It  has  three  islahds;  the  Achen  and  Prien  flow  into  it,  and  its 
surplus  water  is  discharged  by  the  Alz  into  the  Inn.  The  C.  is  famous  for  its  fish;  and 
a small  steamer  which  plies  on  it,  enables  travelers  to  view  its  fine  scenery. 

CHIE'RI,  a t.  of  Piedmont,  northern  Italy,  situated  on  the  slope  of  a hill  9 m.  s.e.  of 
Turin.  C.  is  an  ancient  place.  By  the  later  Romans  it  was  called  Carea.  The  church 
of  St.  Dominico,  built  in  1260,  has  some  good  paintings ; and  that  of  Santa  Maria  della 
Scala,  built  in  1405,  is  one  of  the  largest  Gothic  structures  in  Piedmont.  C.  is  one  of 
oldest  manufacturing  towns  in  Europe,  its  manufacture  of  fustians  and  cotton  stuffs 
dating  from  1422.  Silk,  cotton,  and  linen  are  still  important  manufactures.  Pop.  9,000. 

CHIETI  (Province).  See  Abruzzo,  ante. 

CHIE'TI,  an  archiepiscopal  city  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  a hill  near  the  Pescara,  about  100  m.  n.  of  Naples.  It  is  a well-built  and 
flourishing  place,  with  some  imposing  public  edifices,  including  a cathedral,  lyceum, 
and  theater;  and  its  agreeable  situation  has  made  it  the  residence  of  numerous  wealthy 
families.  The  district  around  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  and  in  the  city,  the  cloth 
and  silk  manufactures  afford  employment  for  a considerable  number  of  people.  Pop; 


ChifT-chair. 

Chili. 


78C 


15,000.  C.  is  a very  old  place,  being  built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Teate  of  the  Romans, 
many  of  the  remains  of  which  are  still  visible.  In  the  year  1524,  St.  Gaetano  founded 
here  the  order  of  the  Theatines. 

CHIFF-CHAFF,  Sylvia  Mppolais,  a small  species  of  warbler,  very  widely  diffused, 
being  found  both  in  England  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Calcutta.  It  is  common  in 
the  s.  of  Europe,  is  in  Britain  a summer  bird  of  passage,  arriving,  however,  very- 
early  in  spring,  and  does  not  extend  northward  into  Scotland.  Its  general  color  is 
brown ; the  under  parts  lighter.  It  is  a very  sprightly  little  bird ; but  its  song  consists 
merely  of  a frequent  repetition  of  two  notes  resembling  the  syllables  chiff-chaff.  It  is 
also  called  the  lesser  pettychaps. 

CHIGNEC'TO  BAY,  the  more  westerly  of  the  two  inlets  at  the  head  or  n.  end  of  the 
bay  of  Fundy,  in  British  North  America.  It  separates  Nova  Scotia  from  New  Bruns- 
wick, is  30  m.  long  and  8 broad,  and  has  an  isthmus  of  only  14  m.  in  width  between  it 
and  Northumberland  strait,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

CHIGOE,  or  Jig'ger,  Ptdex,  or  Sarcopsylla  penetrans,  a species  of  flea  (q.v.),  rather 
smaller  than  the  common  flea,  and  with  less  powerful  limbs,  found  in  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America,  where  it  is  excessively  troublesome,  attacking  any  exposed  part  of 
the  human  body,  and  affecting  a lodgment  between  the  skin  and  flesh,  often  under  the 
skin  of  the  foot  or  the  nails  of  the  toes.  At  first,  its  presence  is  indicated  only  by  a 
slight  itching  or  tingling;  but  an  ulceration  is  likely  soon  to  be  the  result,  which  is  not 
only  very  painful,  but  even  dangerous,  when  the  female  C.  is  allowed  to  remain  and 
to  deposit  her  numerous  eggs.  Before  these  are  deposited,  her  abdomen  becomes  dis- 
tended in  an  ex:traordinary  manner,  as  a membranous  bag,  to  the  size  of  a pea.  The 
ulcer  speedily  contains  a great  colony  of  chigoes.  The  negresses  of  the  West  Indies  are 
very  expert  in  extracting  the  C.,  which  is  also  removed  by  washing  with  tobacco- 
juice.  Rubbing  with  tobacco-leaves  is  also  employed  as  a preventative  of  its  attacks. 

CHIH-LE,  or  Pechih-le,  one  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China,  and  the  most 
important  of  the  18,  as  being  the  center  of  government,  and  containing  Pekin,  the 
imperial  capital,  the  residence  of  the  emperor  and  court.  Pop.  about  28,000,000;  area, 
58,949  sq.  miles. 

CHI-  (or  TSIN-CHI-)  HOANG-TI,  or  Ching-Wang,  Emperor  of  China  from  246  to 
210  B.c.  He  is  said  to  have  consolidated  eight  or  more  feudatory  states  in  a single 
kingdom,  which  covered  nearly  the  territory  now  occupied.  One  of  his  monuments  is 
the  great  wall,  built  to  keep  out  barbarians. 

CHIHUA'HTJA,  a city  of  the  Mexican  confederation,  with  12,000  inhabitants,  and  a 
considerable  trade  between  Santa  Fe,  in  New  Mexico,  and  the  United  States.  It  is  in 
lat.  28°  40'  n.,  and  long.  105°  33'  w.,  and  has  a cathedral,  convents,  and  an  aqueduct  3 
m.  long,  besides  appropriate  buildings,  as  the  capital  of  the  state  of  its  own  name.  The 
territory  in  question,  stretching  in  lat.  from  27°  to  32°  n.,  and  in  long,  from  104°  to  108° 
40'  w.,  is  divided  from  Texas,  in  the  United  States,  by  the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte.  It  is  a 
table-land,  more  remarkable  for  mineral  resources  than  for  agricultural  productions. 
It  abounds  in  niter  and  other  salts,  and  is  rich  in  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  Pop.  180,000. 

CHILBLAINS.  See  Chapped  Hands. 

CHILD,  Sir  Josiah,  an  eminent  London  merchant,  and  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  earliev 
English  writers  on  commerce  and  political  economy,  b.  in  1630,  was  the  second  son  of 
Richard  Child,  a merchant  of  London.  His  principal  work  is  entitled,  Brief  Observa- 
tions concerning  Trade  and  the  Interest  of  Money  (Lond.  1668,  4to) ; a 2d  edition,  much 
enlarged,  entitled  A New  Discourse  of  Trade,  was  published  in  1690.  In  this  work  he 
explains  his  plans  for  the  relief  and  employment  of  the  poor,  including  the  substitu- 
tion of  districts  or  unions  for  parishes,  and  the  compulsory  transportation  of  paupers 
to  the  colonies.  He  was  one  of  the  directors,  and  for  some  time  chairman  of  the  East 
India  company,  and  is  said  to  have  written  several  tracts  in  defense  of  the  trade  to  the 
East  Indies,  which  were  published  anonymously.  In  1678  he  was  created  a baronet,  and 
died  in  1699. 

CHILD,  Lydia  Maria,  b.  Mass.,  1802.  When  22  years  of  age  she  published 
Hohomok,  an  Indian  Story,  and  a year  afterwards  The  Rebels,  a Tale  of  the  Revolution,  in 
which  she  gave  a speech  by  James  Otis,  and  a sermon  by  Whitfield,  both  long  believed 
to  have  been  made  by  the  men  themselves.  For  eight  years  she  was  the  editor  of  The 
Juvenile  Miscellany,  a monthly  magazine  for  the  young.  Among  her  earlier  works  are : 
The  American  Frugal  Housewife;  The  Girl’s  Own  Book;  and  The  Mother’s  Book.  She  was 
among  the  first  of  the  New  England  anti-slavery  writers,  hegmnmgyvith.  Appeal  in  behalf 
of  that  Glass  of  Americans  called  Africans;  and  in  1841  she  became  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  National  Anii- Slavery  Standard,  in  which  paper  she  published  her  popular  Letters 
from  New  York.  Subsequently  she  published  History  of  the  Condition  of  Women  in  aU 
Ages  and  Nations;  Biographies  of  Good  Wives;  Life  of  Isaac  T.  Hopper;  Progress  of  Relig- 
ious Ideas;  Autumnal  Leaves;  Looking  towards  Sunset;  The  Freedman’s  Book;  ARmnance 
9f  the  Republic,  etc. 

CHILDBIRTH.  See  Midwifery,  ante. 


781 


ChifT-chaff. 

Chili. 


CHILDSRMAS,  or  Holy  Innocents’  Day  (28th  Dec.),  is  observed  by  the  church  of 
Home  with  masses  for  the  children  killed  by  Herod.  It  was  considered  unlucky  to 
marry  or  to  begin  any  work  on  this  day.  From  Fenn’s  Letters  (vol.  i.  p.  234)  we  learn 
that  the  coronation  of  king  Edward  IV.  was  put  off  till  the  Monday,  because  the  pre- 
■ceding  Sunday  was  Childermas  day.  The  learned  Gregory  says:  “ It  hath  been  a custom 
•and  yet  is  elsewhere,  to  whip  up  the  children  upon  Innocents’  day  morning,  that  the 
memory  of  Herod’s  murder  might  stick  the  closer,  and  in  a moderate  proportion  to  act 
over  the  crueltie  again  in  kinde.”  C.  is  also  a holiday  of  the  church  of  England, 

CHILD-KILLING.  See  Infanticide. 

CHILDEEN,  Legal  Capacity  op.  See  Infant,  Minok,  Pupil,  Guardian,  Tutor, 
•Curator. 

CHILDREN,  John  George,  1777-1852;  an  English  scientist  who  traveled  in  the 
United  States,  devoting  his  attention  chiefly  to  electricity  and  galvanism.  Among  his 
papers,  are  those  discussing  the  conversion  of  iron  into  steel  by  union  with  diamond, 
«,nd  a method  of  extracting  silver  from  the  ore  without  amalgamation.  He  translated 
Berzelius  on  the  blow-pipe,  and  Thenard  on  chemical  analysis.  He  was  for  some  years 
secretary  of  the  royal  society. 

CHILDREN’S  AID  SOCIETIES,  first  established  in  New  York  city,  chiefly  by  the 
-exertions  of  Charles  L.  Brace,  about  the  year  1853.  The  object  of  this  and  its  many 
imitative  societies  is  to  care  for  the  poor  and  neglected  children  of  large  cities,  to  rescue 
them  from  want  and  crime,  afford  rudimentary  education,  and  provide  homes  for  them, 
usually  among  the  farmers  of  the  agricultural  states.  At  the  last  annual  meeting  of  the 
New  York  society,  the  report  showed  that,  during  the  26  years  of  its  operation,  55,717 
persons  had  been  sent  to  homes  and  places  of  work,  and  of  these  more  than  45,000 
were  children.  During  the  year  1879,  no  less  than  3,713  persons  were  sent  to  homes,  of 
whom  1920  were  boys,  1380  girls,  210  men,  and  203  women.  In  the  lodging-houses, 
during  26  years,  200,000  different  boys  and  girls  have  been  sheltered  and  partly  fed  and 
instructed.  In  the  industrial  schools  over  50^,000  poor  little  girls  have  been  taught.  The 
society  brings  forward  the  police  statistics  on  crime  to  show  that  “vagrancy  and  crime 
among  young  girls  have  been  greatly  diminished  during  the  past  15  or  20  years;  while 
among  boys,  criminal  offenses  have  not  grown  with  the  population,  but  have  been  held 
decidedly  in  check.”  Among  162,  153  boys  who,  during  the  past  25  years,  have  been  in 
the  newsboys’  lodging-house,  there  has  been  no  case  of  contagious  disease,  and  only  one 
death.  The  other  boys’  lodging-houses  have  been  almost  equally  fortunate.  Statistics 
are  given  to  show  that  since  the  establishment  of  the  sick  children’s  mission  and  summer 
home  six  years  ago,  1000  lives  annually  have  been  saved  under  diarrheal  diseases  alone, 
and  that  the  general  death-rate  has  been  reduced  from  33.76  to  24.93  per  1000.  The 
total  expense  of  the  21  industrial  schools  in  1879  was  $71,540.15,  and  the  average  attend- 
ance 3,632,  making  the  annual  cost  for  each  child  $19.6^  The  cost  in  1878  for  each 
ehild  in  the  public  schools,  not  including  rents,  was  $38.41 ; this  expense  not  including 
food  or  clothing.  In  the  lodging-houses,  13,652  boys  and  girls  were  fed,  sheltered,  and 
taught  during  the  year,  at  a total  expense  of  $47, 143. 66.  Deducting  the  receipts,  together 
with  the  cost  of  construction  ($26,916.17),  the  net  cost  was  $20,227.49;  dividing  this  by 
the  nightly  average  attendance,  the  average  cost  to  the  public  of  each  child  was  $42.67. 
The  average  cost  per  year  of  each  prisoner  in  the  Tombs  is  $107.75,  and  the  Roman 
Oatholic  protectory  draws  from  the  city  treasury  over  $100,  annually,  for  each  of  its 
inmates.  The  total  number  placed  out  by  the  society,  mainly  in  western  homes,  during 
last  year,  was  3,713;  the  total  cost  for  railroad  fares,  clothing,  food,  salaries,  etc.,  was 
$29,679.48;  the  average  cost  to  the  public,  accordingly,  for  each  person  was  $8.04.  Yet 
any  one  of  these  children  placed  in  an  asylum  or  poor-house  for  a year  would  have  cost 
undoubtedly  nearly  $140.  The  number  who  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  the  summer  home 
was  2,912;  the  total  expense,  deducting  cost  of  construction,  $1000.28,  and  rent  of  1878, 
$350,  was  $5,036.30;  making  the  average  cost  for  each  child  $1.89. 

CHILDS,  George  Washington,  b.  Md.,  1829;  a journalist,  for  many  years 
and  now  proprietor  of  the  Philadelphia  Ledger,  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  successful 
cheap  newspapers  of  the  country.  He  is  noted  especially  for  liberal  patronage  of 
men  of  letters,  and  for  generosity  towards  deserving  charities. 

CHILD-STEALING.  See  Abduction. 

CHILI,  a republic  of  Spanish  origin,  in  South  America,  is  the  most  southerly  state  on 
the  w.  side  of  that  continent.  It  lies  wholly  between  the  water-shed  of  the  Andes  and 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  stretching  coastwise  from  Bolivia  to  Patagonia,  in  lat.  25°  30' 
to  43°  20' s.,  and  in  long.  69°  to  74°  w.,  having  an  extreme  length  of  about  1240  m.,  and 
an  average  breadth  of  fully  120.  Within  these  limits,  however,  lies  the  virtually 
independent  Araucania  (q.v.),  comprising  most  of  the  mainland  to  the  left  of  the  Bio- 
bio; while  the  southern  portion  is  confined  chiefly  to  Chiloe  (q.v.)  and  its  archipelago. 
C.  is  divided  into  16  provinces,  of  which  the  aggregate  area  is  oflicially  stated  at  nearly 
130,000  sq.m. ; and  the  pop.,  in  1875,  at  2,068,^7.  This  pop.  and  area  exclude  certain 
regions  in  Patagonia,  over  which  C.  has  a merely  nominal  sway.  The  capital  is  Santiago, 
situated  pretty  nearly  in  the  heart  of  the  country,  and  connected  with  Valparaiso,  the 
principal  port,  by  a railway  of  115  m.  in  length,  and  also  by  telegraphic  wires.  The 


Chili. 

Chilian. 


782 


Other  towns  are  on  or  near  the  ocean ; and,  to  arrange  them  according  to  the  relative 
amounts  of  their  trade,  they  are  Valparaiso,  Copiapo  and  Caldera,  Coquimbo,  Talca- 
huano  and  Concepcion,  Huasco,  Constitucion,  and  Valdivia.  In  1876,  the  total  imports 
of  C.  were  valued  at  £7,058,220,  and  the  exports  at  £7,554,208;  in  1874,  at  £7,688,600 
and  £7,308,200  respectively.  The  foreign  commerce  of  C.  is  carried  on  mainly  with 
Great  Britain.  The  staple  article  of  export  to  this  country  is  copper,  the  value  of 
which,  in  1874,  was  £2,812,013.  The  articles  of  export  next  in  importance  are,  in  order 
of  value,  wheat,  to  the  value  of  £1,180,278;  silver  ore,  to  the  value,  in  the  same  year,  of 
£225,988;  and  wool,  £160,637.  The  principal  articles  of  British  produce  imported  into 
C.  are  cotton  and  woolen  manufactures  and  iron.  In  1874,  the  value  of  the  total  imports 
of  cotton  fabrics  was  £1,923,753;  that  of  woolens,  £258,288;  and  that  of  iron,  wrought 
and  unwrought,  £465,596.  Among  the  other  imports  were  hardwares  and  cutlery,  val- 
ued at  £128,550.  The  national  income  amounted  in  1878  to  £4,088,800,  while  the  expcn 
diture  was  £4,275,000.  In  1879,  the  public  debt  was  close  on  £11,000,000,  of  which 
above  £7,000,000  was  held  outside  the  country.  The  army,  as  mobilized  and  increased 
on  account  of  the  war  that  had  then  broken  out  between  C.  and  Peru  allied  with  Bolivia, 
comprised  in  1879  as  much  as  20,000  men,  besides  a national  guard  raised  to  30,006 
men.  The  navy,  which  took  an  important  part  in  the  war,  consisted  in  1879  of  10 
small  steamers,  and  two  large  and  powerful  iron  clads. 

Roman  Catholicism  is  the  prevailing  religion,  but  other  beliefs  are  protected  by  a 
law  of  1875.  In  its  political  constitution,  C.  appears  to  be  the  least  democratic  republic 
in  the  new  world.  The  legislature  is  composed  of  two  houses.  The  deputies  sit  for 
three  years;  and  the  senators  are  chosen  for  nine,  retiring  in  thirds  at  the  end  of  every 
third  year.  The  voters  for  a deputy — to  say  nothing  of  t&  still  more  select  voters  for  a 
senator — must  possess  either  £100  in  real  property,  or  £200  in  personal  effects,  or  £20^ 
of  income;  a pecuniary  qualification  which  is  exceptionally  doubled  for  the  wealthier 
localities  of  Valparaiso  and  Santiago.  In  1848,  attempts  were  made,  but  in  vain,  to 
abolish  or  modify  these  restrictions  on  the  suffrage.  Under  this  form  of  government, 
C.  has  maintained  a degree  of  peace  and  prosperity  utterly  unknown  to  the  other  trans- 
atlantic commonwealths  of  kindred  race.  In  this  respect,  however,  the  character  of 
the  people  has  doubtless  co-operated  with  the  tendency  of  the  institutions.  As  con- 
trasted with  Spanish  America  in  general,  C.  contains  an  unusually  large  proportion  of 
European  blood. 

Immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Peru,  C.  was  seized  by  Almagro,  a companion  of 
Pizarro,  subsequently  becoming  the  seat  of  a captain-generalship,  which  held  sway  as 
far  as  cape  Horn.  In  1810,  commenced  the  war  of  independence,  which,  at  the  close 
of  eight  years,  was  decided  against  Spain  by  the  victory  of  Maypo. 

Geology. — The  predominant  rocks  of  C.  are  crystalline  and  metamorphic.  They 
form  the  range  of  the  Andes,  except  in  those  districts  in  which  active  volcanoes  exist, 
where  they  are  covered  with  recent  volcanic  rocks.  They  occupy  also  the  whole  of  the 
level  ground  between  the  mountain-range  and  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a narrow  stretch  of  paloezoic  fossiliferous  strata  which  run  along  the  coast  s. 
from  Santiago  for  a distance  of  300  miles.  The  coast-line  of  C.  is  being  continually 
altered  from  the  elevation  of  the  whole  country  to  an  extent  of  at  least  1200  m.  along 
the  Pacific  shores,  produced  by  volcanic  agency.  In  1822,  the  coast  was  raised  4 ft.  at 
Quintero,  and  3 ft.  at  Valparaiso.  Oysters  and  other  mollusks  w^ere  left  dry,  and  per- 
ished, becoming  offensive  as  they  decomposed.  The  change  of  level  was  permanent, 
over  an  area  of  100,000  sq.m.,  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  extent  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  A similar  extensive  elevation  was  noticed  in  1835  by  Capt.  Fitzroy.^ 

Physically,  the  continental  portion  of  the  republic — for  its  insular  section  will,  in 
this  respect,  be  noticed  under  the  head  of  Chiloe— presents  many  singularities.  Of  all 
the  maritime  regions  on  the  globe,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  isolated.  On  every  side  but 
the  sea — and  that  sea  very  remote  from  the  main  thoroughfares  of  commerce — it  is 
beset  by  difficulties  of  communication.  With  the  lonely  wilderness  of  Patagonia  to  the 
s.,  and  the  dreary  desert  of  Atacama  on  the  n.,  it  is  bounded  on  the  e.  by  a mountain 
chain  which,  altogether  impracticable  in  winter,  can  be  crossed,  even  in  summer,  only 
by  a few  passes  ranging  between  12,450  ft.  and  14,370  in  elevation.  Moreover,  this 
strip  between  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific  is  broken  into  plateaus  in  the  interior, 
and  valleys  on  the  coast,  by  two  longitudinal  ranges,  wdth  numerous  lateral  spurs ; 
while,  throughout  the  length  and  breadth,  the  general  level  gradually  descends,  as  well 
to  the  s.  as  to  the  west.  In  point  of  mere  temperature,  so  rugged  a surface — covering 
fully  15°  of  lat.,  and  attaining  an  altitude  of  more  than  4 m.  within  about  2°  of  long. — 
must  present  nearly  every  possible  variety.  Through  the  reciprocal  action  of  the  Andes 
(q.v.)  and  the  prevailing  winds,  the  rain-fall  graduates  itself,  with  something  of  mathe- 
matical regularity,  from  the  parching  skies  of  the  n.  to  the  drenching  clouds  of  the  s.— 
a graduation  which,  disturbed  merely  by  the  melting  of  the  mountain-snows,  is,  in  a 
great  measure,  necessarily  reflected  in  the  condition  and  magnitude  of  the  countless 
water-courses.  Hence  the  rivers  to  the  n.  of  the  Maypo,  which  enters  the  Pacific  near 
lat.  34°,  are  but  inconsiderable  streams;  while,  further  to  the  s.,  the  Maule,  the  Biobio, 
and  the  Calacalla  are  all  to  some  extent  navigable. 

From  the  cause  last  mentioned,  different  districts  vary  remarkably  in  their  produc- 
tions. To  the  n.  of  the  Coquimbo,  about  lat.  30°,  is  chiefly  an  arid  waste,  redeemed, 


783 


Chili. 

Chilian. 


-however,  from  being  valueless  by  its  mines;  and  to  the  s.  of  the  Biobio,  about  lat.  37“, 
timber  and  pasturage  divide  the  soil  between  them.  The  intermediate  center  alone  is 
^tted  for  agriculture,  yielding,  besides  maize  and  hemp,  European  grains  and  fruits  in 
abundance.  Notwithstanding  all  the  varieties  and  vicissitudes  of  climate,  the  country 
may  claim  to  be,  on  the  whole,  extremely  healthy.  The  manufactures  are  earthen- 
wares, copper-wares,  linens,  cordage,  soap,  leather,  and  brandy;  and,  in  addition  to  the 
wheat  and  metals  already  specified,  the  exports,  especially  to  the  south,  embrace  tallow, 
hides,  jerked  beef,  and  live-stock.  C.  had,  in  1878,  1050  m.  of  railways.  Santiago  is 
connected  with  Buenos  Ayres  by  a line  going  over  a pass  of  the  Andes  6,000  ft  high. 
There  are  also  common  roads;  but  they  are  neither  numerous  nor  good.  In  fact,  the 
want  of  highways  and  bridges  is  a serious  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  trade  and  cultiva- 
tion. In  the  basin  of  the  lower  Biobio,  coal  is  plentiful. 

CHILI  {ante),  though  less  revolutionary  than  some  of  its  sister  republics,  has  been 
subjected  to  several  forcible  attempts  to  change  the  government.  The  most  formidable 
of  these  was  in  1851.  At  first  the  insurgents  were  victorious,  but  after  4,000  men  had 
fallen  in  battle  and  great  damage  had  been  done  to  business  and  commerce,  the  govern- 
ment succeeded  in  effecting  peace  by  money  more  than  by  arms.  This  was  during  the 
presidency  of  Don  Manuel  Montt,  a man  of  great  ability.  He  restored  peace  and  pros- 
perity to  the  country,  and  it  has  since  been  free  from  internal  strife.  In  1864,  C. 
sympathized  warmly  with  Peru  against  Spain,  and  in  the  following  year  its  coast  waa 
blockaded  by  a Spanish  fleet.  March  31,  Valparaiso  was  bombarded,  notwithstanding 
the  protest  of  the  foreign  ministers  and  consuls.  Thousands  of  shot  and  shell  were 
thrown  into  it,  destroying  many  public  and  private  buildings  and  involving  a loss  of  10 
millions  of  dollars,  the  chief  part  of  which  fell  on  the  foreign  residents.  The  remonstrances 
of  the  European  governments  soon  compelled  a cessation  of  hostilities  and  the  raising 
of  the  blockade.  In  1871,  a treaty  of  peace  was  negotiated  through  the  mediation  of  the 
United  States  government,  and  signed  at  Washington.  During  the  past  few  years  C.  has 
advanced  greatly  both  in  material  and  intellectual  development.  New  mines  are  worked, 
agricultural  schools  and  societies  are  exerting  a beneficial  influence,  and  great  improve- 
ments in  rivers,  harbors,  and  streets  are  projected.  In  1877,  more  than  1200  m.  of  rail- 
road and  nearly  5,000  m.  of  telegraph  were  in  operation,  and  additional  lines  of  both  are 
in  progress.  There  are  500  efficient  government  schools,  and  an  equal  number  established 
by  cities,  churches,  and  private  persons.  Two  normal  schools,  for  male  and  female 
teachers  are  in  good  condition.  The  government  university  at  Santiago  has  a prepara- 
tory department  connected  with  its  higher  course.  The  conciliar  seminary  combines 
collegiate  and  theological  studies.  There  are  also  at  the  capital  agricultural,  naval,  and 
military  schools.  The  national  library,  founded  by  the  Jesuits,  contains  25,000  vol- 
umes, many  of  which  are  on  theological  subjects.  In  1843,  a dispute  arose  between  C. 
^nd  the  Argentine  Republic  for  the  possession  of  Patagonia.  Many  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  settle  it  were  made,  and  war  between  the  two  countries  often  seemed  imminent,  but 
in  1879  a treaty  was  signed  by  which  the  disputed  territory  was  ceded  to  the  Argentine 
Republic.  C.  having  transferred  a portion  of  disputed  territory  to  Bolivia  on  condition 
that  the  Chilians  residing  in  it  should  not  be  taxed,  Bolivia  did  refrain  from  taxation 
but  confiscated  some  property  owned  by  a Chilian  company.  Upon  this  C.  sent  troops 
into  Bolivia.  Peru  offered  to  mediate  between  the  parties,  but  the  offer  having  been 
rejected  an  alliance  followed  between  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and,  in  April,  1879,  w'ar  against 
C.  was  declared.  Hostile  operations  have  been  carried  on  with  great  energy.  In  a naval 
engagement  the  Chilians  captured  the  powerful  iron-clad  steamer  Huascar  and  turned  it 
against  its  former  owners.  Peru,  with  inferior  vessels,  has  since  accomplished  several 
daring  exploits,  and  the  war  goes  on  with  bitterness  and  varied  success.  Recently,  how- 
ever, C.  has  gained  decided  advantages,  capturing  Arica,  and  entering  on  the  siege  of 
Lima.  The  victories  in  this  war  have  been  not  without  the  accompaniment  of  indis- 
iCriminate  pillage  and  ravage. 

CHILI,  or  Chilli.  See  Capsicum. 

CHILTASTS.  See  Millennium,  ante. 

CHILI  NETTLE.  See  Loasace^. 

CHILI  SALTPETER  is  a commercial  name  applied  to  the  nitrate  of  soda.  See  Soda, 
Nitrate. 

CHILL  AN,  a t.  in  the  province  of  Nuble,  Chili;  120  m.  n.e.  of  Concepcion,  35®  56' 
s.,  and  71®  37' west.  The  houses  have  only  a ground  floor  and  are  built  around  rec- 
tangular courts;  the  streets  are  60  to  70  ft.  wide,  having  open  drains  in  the  center.  C.  is 
in  the  center  of  a large  agricultural  district  of  great  productiveness,  and  is  an  important 
outlet  for  grain  and  cattle  by  railroad  to  Tome.  The  place  is  also  celebrated  for 
mineral  baths.  The  town  was  founded  by  Ruiz  de  Gamboa  in  1594,  but  has  since  been 
several  times  destroyed  and  reconstructed.  In  1601,  it  was  wasted  by  the  Indians;  in 
1657,  by  an  earthquake,  and  in  1797,  by  the  overflow  of  the  river  Nuble.  The  people  then 
removed  to  La  Horca,  where  in  1835  their  town  was  again  leveled  by  an  earthquake. 
The  next  year  they  began  to  rebuild  on  the  present  site,  and  now  have  a prosperous 
town  of  about  20,000  population. 


Chillian  walla* 
Cliimboraco. 


784 


CHILLI  ANW  ALL  A,  a yillag©  of  Punjab,  being  5 m.  from  the  left  or  e.  bank 
of  the  Jhelum,  the  most  westerly  of  the  five  rivers  which  give  name  to  the  countr3^  It 
is  in  lat.  33°  40'  n,,  and  long.  73°  39'  e.,  being  85  m,  to  the  n.w.  of  Lahore.  C.  claims 
notice  as  the  scene  of  lord  Gough’s  dearly  won  victory,  over  the  Sikhs,  of  Jan.,  1849,  and 
also  as  the  site  of  an  obelisk  erected  to  the  memory  of  those  who  fell  in  the  two  Sikh  wars» 

CHILLICO'THE,  a city  in  Lexington  co..  Mo.,  on  the  Hannibal  and  St.  Joseph,  the 
Chillicothe  and  Des  Moines,  and  a branch  of  the  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City  and  Northern 
railroads,  76  m.  e.  of  St.  Joseph;  pop.  ’70,  3,978.  It  is  the  largest  town  in  the  Grand- 
River  valley. 

CHILLICO'THE,  or  Chtlicothe,  a city  of  Ohio,  U.  S.,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Scioto  river,  45  m.  from  its  confluence  with  the  Ohio,  and  the  same, 
distance  s.  of  Columbus,  on  the  Cincinnati  and  Marietta  railway  and  Ohio  and  Erie 
canal;  has  13  churches,  3 banks,  court-house,  foundries,  steam-engine  and  agricultural 
implement  factories,  etc.  Founded  in  1796,  and  former  capital  of  the  state.  Pop.  ’70,. 
8,920. 

CHILLINGWORTH,  William,  a famous  theologian  of  the  church  of  England,  was 
b.  at  Oxford  in  1602,  and  educated  at  Trinity  college  in  that  university,  where  the 
arguments  of  a Jesuit  named  Fisher  induced  him  to  become  a Roman  Catholic.  He- 
withdrew  to  Douay;  but  was  induced  by  his  godfather.  Dr.  Laud,  then  bishop  of  Lon- 
don, to  re-examine  the  whole  controversy  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  and,  in 
1631,  he  returned  to  the  bosom  of  the  Anglican  church.  Four  years  later,  he  published 
a work,  entitled  The  Religion  of  Protestants  a Safe  Way  to  Salvation.  It  was  exceed- 
ingly keen,  ingenious,  and  conclusive  in  point  of  argument.  C.  was  perhaps  the  ablest 
disputant  of  his  age;  and  had  there  not  been  a certain  fickleness  and  want  of  solidity 
about  his  intellect,  and  a nervous  suspicion  that  all  human  rea.soning  might  be  vitiated 
by  undiscovered  fallacies,  he  might  have  produced  a really  great  work.  The  Religion 
of  Protestants  acquired  a wide  popularity.  C.  was  offered  church  preferment,  which  he 
at  first  refused — having  certain  scruples  in  regard  to  the  subscription  of  the  39  articles 
— but  afterwards  accepted.  He  became  chancellor  of  the  church  of  Sarum,  and  preben- 
dary of  Brixworth,  in  Northamptonshire.  He  was  a strong  royalist,  and,  on  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  civil  war,  accompanied  the  king’s  forces.  He  died  Jan. , 1644.  The  best 
edition  of  The  Religion  of  Protestants  appeared  in  1742,  with  sermons,  etc.,  and  a life  of 
the  author,  by  Dr.  Birch. 

CHILLON,  a celebrated  castle  and  fortress  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  6 
m.  s.e.  of  Vevay.  It  is  situated  at  the  e.  end  of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  on  an  isolated 
rock,  almost  entirely  surrounded  by  deep  water,  and  is  connected  with  the  shore  by  a 
wooden  bridge.  The  castle  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  1238,  by  Amadeus  IV.  of 
Savoy,  and  it  long  served  as  a state  prison.  It  is  famous  as  the  prison  of  Bonnivard,, 
the  prior  of  St.  Victor,  who  having,  by  his  efforts  to  free  the  Genevese,  rendered  him- 
self obnoxious  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  was  carried  off  by  emissaries  of  that  potentate,  and 
confined  here  for  six  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  castle  had  to  surrender  to  the 
Bernese  and  Genevese,  when  Bonnivard  was  liberated.  C.  has  been  immortalized  by 
Byron’s  Prisoner  of  Chilton.  The  castle  is  now  used  as  a magazine  for  military  stores. 

CHILMA'REE,  or  Chalamari,  a t.  in  British  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal, 
35  m.  s.e.  of  Rungpur,  on  the  Brahmaputra.  It  is  remarkable  chiefly  as  the  seat  of  a 
great  religious  and  commercial  festival  which  brings  together  sometimes  100,000  people. 

CHILOE',  the  insular  province  of  Chili  (q.v.),  is  an  archipelago  on  the  w.  side  of 
South  America,  which  takes  its  name  from  its  principal  island.  It  is  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  republic,  or  rather  from  Patagonia,  by  the  gulf  of  Ancud,  extending  in 
s.  lat.  from  41°  40'  to  43°  20',  and  in  w.  long,  from  73°  to  74°.  The  province — which,  in 
1875,  numbered  64,536  inhabitants — contains,  in  addition  to  C.  proper,  about  60  islets, 
of  which  about  30  are  uninhabited.  In  the  archipelago  are  two  towns,  both  of  them 
seaports  of  C.  proper — Castro,  the  ancient  capital,  on  the  e.  coast;  and  San  Carlos, 
the  modern  seat  of  government,  towards  the  n.w.  extremity.  The  atmosphere,  like  that 
of  the  mainland  opposite,  is  excessively  moist ; the  westeT-ly  winds,  more  particularly  in 
winter,  bringing  almost  constant  rains.  The  climate,  however,  is  on  the  whole  healthy. 
This  fact  is  the  more  remarkable,  inasmuch  as  C.  proper  is  one  natural  forest,  measur- 
ing 100  m.  by  40,  with  a partially  cleared  and  cultivated  margin  on  the  sea.  The  chief 
products  are  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  apples,  and  strawberries;  and  cattle,  sheep,  and 
pigs  are  reared  in  consideralble  numbers.  Agriculture,  however,  is  in  a very  primitive 
state  ; and  the  staple  food  of  many  consists  of  mussels  and  oysters.  The  population, 
equally  indolent  and  poor,  differs  from  that  of  the  rest  of  Chili  in  the  great  preponder- 
ance of  aboriginal  blood.  Schools  are  numerous;  but,  from  the  ignorance  of  the  teach- 
ers, education  has  not  made  satisfactory  progress.  The  principal  manufacture  is  a 
coarse  woolen  cloth,  dyed  blue.  This  archipelago  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  as 
late  as  1558;  and  as  it  was  the  last  integral  portion  of  Spanish  America  to  be  colonized, 
so  also  was  it  the  last  to  throw  off  the  mother-country’s  yoke. 

CHILOGNA'THA  and  CHILO'PODA.  See  Myriapoda. 

CHILON,  or  Chilo,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of  Greece,  by  birth  a Lacedaemonian. 
He  appears  to  have  lived  about  the  6th  c.  b.c.  It  is  said  that  he  died  from  joy,  oa 


785 


Chillianwalla* 

Chimboraco. 


learning  that  his  son  had  gained  a prize  in  the  Olympian  games.  Many  of  his  apoph- 
thegms have  been  handed  down  to  us.  According  to  Chilon,  the  greatest  virtue  of  man. 
was  prudence,  or  well-grounded  judgment  as  to  future  events. 

CHIL'TEEN  HILLS,  the  s.  part  of  the  low  chalk  range  which  runs  n.e.,  about  70  m., 
from  the  n.  bend  of  the  Thames,  in  Oxfordshire,  through  Bucks  and  the  borders  of 
Herts  and  Beds,  and  ends  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  In  Oxford,  Herts,  and  Beds,  the 
C.  H.  are  15  to  20  m.  broad,  and  the  highest  points  are  Wendover,  905  ft. ; and  White- 
house,  893. 

CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.  In  former  times,  the  beech-forests  which  covered  the  Chil- 
tern  Hills,  in  Buckinghamshire,  were  infested  with  robbers,  and  in  order  to  restrain 
them,  and  protect  the  peaceable  inhabitants  of  the  neighborhood  from  their  inroads,  it 
was  usual  for  the  crown  to  appoint  an  officer,  whawas  called  the  steward  of  the  Chiltern 
Hundreds.  The  office,  which  has  long  ceased  to  serve  its  primary,  now  serves  a second- 
ary purpose.  A member  of  the  house  of  commons  cannot  resign  his  seat  unless  disquali- 
fied either  by  the  acceptance  of  a place  of  honor  and  profit  under  the  crown,  or  by  some 
other  cause.  Now,  the  stewardship  of  the  C.  H.  is  held  to  be  sueh  a place,  and  it  is 
consequently  applied  for  by,  and  granted,  in  the  general  case  as  a matter  of  course,  to 
any  member  who  wishes  to  resign.  As  soon  as  it  is  obtained,  it  is  again  resigned,  and 
is  thus  generally  vacant  when  required  for  the  purpose  in  question.  When  the  C.  H. 
are  not  vacant,  however,  the  same  purpose  is  served  by  the  stewardship  of  the  manors 
of  East  Hendred,  Northshead,  and  Hempholme.  As  to  the  offices  which  are  held  to 
vacate  seats,  see  Election.  “The  practice  of  granting  the  C.  H.  for  the  purpose 
above  described  began  only  about  the  year  1750,  and  its  strict  legality  has  been  doubted, 
on  the  ground  that  the  stewardship  is  not  an  office  of  the  kind  requisite  to  vacate  a seat. 
The  gift  of  the  C.  H.  lies  with  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  there  is  at  least  one 
instance  of  its  being  refused.  In  1842,  after  very  awkward  disclosures  had  been  made 
before  a committee  of  the  house  of  commons,  as  to  corrupt  compromises,  which  had 
been  entered  into  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  investigation  into  gross  bribery  in  the 
election  to  certain  boroughs,  of  which  Reading  was  one,  the  member  for  Reading 
applied  for  the  stewardship  of  the  C.  H.,  and  was  refused — the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  being  of  opinion  that,  by  granting  it,  he  would  in  some  sort  have  made  him- 
self a party  to  transactions  which  he  did  not  approve,  and  of  which  the  house  of  com- 
mons had  implied  its  condemnation.  ” — Standard  Library  of  Political  Knowledge,  p.  500. 

CHIMiS'RA,  a genus  of  cartilaginous  fishes,  ranked  by  Cuvier  with  the  sturgeons 
{Sturionidm),  but  now  generally  regarded  as  the  type  of  a distinct  family,  of  which  only 
two  or  three  species  are  known.  The  gills  have  a single  wide  opening,  as  in  the  stur- 
geons; but  the  gill  lid  or  opercutum  is  merely  rudimental,  and  concealed  in  the  skin, 
whilst  there  is  an  approach  to  sharks  in  the  structure  of  the  gills.  The  only  known 
species  of  C.  is  G.  monstrosa,  occasionally  found  in  the  British  seas,  and  more  common 
in  more  northern  latitudes,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  king  of  the  herrings.  It  pursues 
the  shoals  of  herrings,  and  is  consequently  sometimes  taken  in  herring-nets.  It  is  seldom 
more  than  3 ft.  long.  Its  general  color  is  silvery  white,  the  upper  parts  mottled  with 
brown.  It  produces  very  large  leathery  eggs. 

CHIM.3:RA,  a mythical  monster,  described  by  Homer  as  having  a lion’s  head,  a goafs 
body,  and  the  tail  of  a dragon.  The  rationalistic  account  of  C.  is,  that  it  represented  a 
mountain  in  Lycia  whose  top  was  the  resort  of  lions,  its  middle  of  goats,  and  the  marshy 
ground  at  the  bottom  of  which  abounded  with  serpents.  In  the  same  manner,  Belle- 
rophon’s  (q.v.)  victory  over  the  C.  is  explained  by  saying,  that  he  first  made  his  residence 
on  this  mountain.  The  myth  seems,  at  all  events,  to  have  belonged  to  Asia  Minor,  as 
gigantic  carvings  of  the  C.  on  rocks  are  there  found.  It  is  usually  represented  as  a lion, 
out  of  the  back  of  which  grows  the  head  and  neck  of  a goat. — C.  is  used  figuratively  to 
denote  any  monstrous  or  impossible  conception,  the  unnatural  birth  of  the  fancy,  it  is 
frequently  depicted  on  shields,  as  a heraldic  charge. 

CHIMAFH'ILA.  See  Winter-green. 

CHIMA'RA,  or  Chimari.  See  Ceraunian  Mountains. 

CHIMAY,  Jeanne  Marie  Ignace  Therese,  Princess  of;  1775-1835;  daughter  of 
count  Cabarrus,  minister  of  finance  in  Spain;  early  married  to  M.  de  Fontenay,  soon 
divorced,  and  next  married  to  Tallien,  the  French  revolutionist,  whom  she  induced  to 
engage  in  a plot  for  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre,  and  thus  made  herself  the  chief  pro- 
moter of  the  revolution  of  July,  1794.  Her  beauty  and  her  free  manners  with  her  con- 
sequent social  triumphs  gave  her  husband  offense,  and  he  left  her,  going  with  Napoleon 
to  Egypt.  A mutual  divorce  followed  on  his  return,  and  Jeanne  then  married  count 
Caraman,  with  whom  she  lived  peaceably.  While  ranking  first  among  the  beauties  of 
the  time,  she  was  never  admitted  to  court  circles.  She  is  represented  as  amiable,  witty, 
kind,  and  always  ready  to  serve  even  her  enemies. 

CHIMBORA'CO,  a conical  peak  of  the  Andes,  in  Quito,  21,510  ft.  above  the  sea,  but 
only  about  12,000  above  the  level  of  its  own  table-land.  It  is  capped  with  perpetual 
snow,  and  was  long  regarded  as  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  world.  Latterly,  how- 
U.  K.  III.— 50 


Chi  mere. 
Chimuey. 


786 


€ver,  it  has  been  ascertained  to  be  overtopped  by  some  peaks,  not  merely  of  the  Hima- 
nyas,  but  even  of  the  central  division  of  its  own  chain.  Its  lat.  and  long,  are  1°  20' s., 
and  79°  west.  The  summit  was  for  the  first  time  reached  by  Stiibel  in  1872.  Humboldt 
ascended  within  2,138  ft.  of  it,  and  Boussingault  and  Hall  within  1729. 

CHIME'RE,  “ the  upper  robe  worn  by  a bishop,  to  which  the  lawn-sleeves  are  now 
generally  attached.”  Since  the  time  of  queen  Elizabeth,  it  has  been  of  black  satin,  but 
previously  it  was  of  a scarlet  color,  like  that  worn  by  the  bishops  when  assembled  in 
convocation,  and  when  the  sovereign  attends  parliament. 

CHIMES,  music  performed  on  bells  in  a church  tower,  either  by  the  hands  of  a per- 
former or  by  mechanism.  The  most  perfect  C.  are  to  be  found  in  Holland  and  Belgium. 

CHIMES  {ante).  This  class  of  music  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  some  of  the 
German  monasteries,  and  the  first  instrument  for  the  production  of  C.  to  have  been 
made  in  4487  at  Alost,  in  the  Netherlands.  Among  the  celebrated  chimes ’of  Europe  are 
those  of  Copenhagen,  Ghent,  and  Amsterdam.  A number  of  bells  is  required  for  a 
proper  execution  of  this  music.  The  carillons  a clavier  are  played  like  a piano-forte;  the 
keys  are  handles  connected  with  the  bells  by  rods  or  cords,  and  the  carillonneur  employs 
his  hands  and  feet  to  play  an  air.  The  pedals  communicate  with  the  larger  bells  for  the 
bass.  The  keys  on  which  the  treble  notes  depend  are  struck  with  the  hand,  which  is 
protected  by  a leather  covering.  It  is  stated  that  Potthoff,  a blind  organist  of  Amster- 
dam, was  able  to  perform  fugues  on  this  instrument.  The  invention  of  carillon  machin- 
-ery  is  of  modern  origin;  one  person  now  is  able  by  simply  tdrning  a barrel  similar  to 
that  of  a music  box  to  chime  eight  bells  with  little  difficulty.  C.  have  been  largely  intro- 
duced into  our  American  churches.  In  New  York  there  are  four  churches  that  have  large 
chimes,  St.  Thomas,  Grace,  Trinity,  and  St.  Ann’s.  The  C.  of  Christ  church  in  Phila- 
delphia, Christ  church  in  Boston,  and  Trinity  church  in  New  York,  are  probably  the 
oldest  in  this  country.  Little  is  known  of  the  Trinity  church  bells,  except  that  five  of 
them  were  cast  in  London  before  the  year  1845.  The  ten  bells  have  an  aggregate  weight 
of  about  15,000  lbs.;  the  largest  weighs  3,081  lbs.,  the  smallest,  700  lbs. ; they  are  hung 
in  a frame-work  of  wood,  and  the  machinery  is  somewhat  primitive.  St.  Thomas 
church  has  ten  bells  which  were  cast  at  Meneely’s  in  w.  Troy,  and  put  up  in  1874;  they 
are  very  fine  in  tone  and  tune.  Grace  church  has  ten  bells  with  an  aggregate  weight  of 
10,300  lbs.,  the  largest,  called  the  Rector’s  bell,  weighs  2,835  lbs. ; they  are  played  on  by 
means  of  a carillon  a clavier,  like  those  in  Holland.  The  C.  of  old  Christ  church  in 
Philadelphia  are  of  historic  interest.  These  bells  were  sent  from  England  as  a present 
from  queen  Anne;  they  were  taken  down  during  the  revolution,  and  sunk  in  the  Dela- 
ware river,  as  it  was  feared  the  British  might  capture  them.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
they  were  hung  in  the  old  belfry;  and  may  now  be  heard  on  every  holida}"  through  the 
year.  Christ  church  in  Boston  also  has  an  ancient  and  notable  chime.  Full  and  partial 
chimes,  the  latter  called  peals,  can  now  be  heard  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  There  are 
three  sets  of  chimes  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  The  church  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  in  Hartford; 
St.  James  church  in  Birmingham,  Conn. ; old  St.  John’s  in  Savannah,  Ga. ; churches  of 
different  denominations  in  Indianapolis,  Petersburg,  Va. ; Cleveland,  O. ; Concord,  N.  H. ; 
Rochester,  N.  Y. ; and  many  others,  produce  chime  music.  Worth  mentioning  are 
those  of  St.  Ann’s,  in  Brooklyn;  St.  John’s,  in  Newark;  Grace  church,  and  St.  Patrick’s, 
in  Buffalo;  the  cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  in  Albany;  St.  Paul’s,  in  Read- 
ing, Pa. ; Pilgrim  church,  in  St.  Louis;  in  the  bell-tower  of  Cornell  universit)%  at  Ithaca, 
N.  Y. ; and  in  the  college  chapel  at  Amherst,  Mass.  The  half  C.  and  peals  in  the  United 
States  are  very  numerous.  (See  Bell,  ante}) 

CHIMNEY  (Fr.  cheminee,  Lat.  caminus).  There  seems  reason  to  believe  that  the  C., 
in  its  present  sense  of  a funnel  from  the  hearth  or  fire-place  to  the  roof  of  the  house,  is  a 
modern  invention.  In  Greek  houses  it  is  supposed  that  there  were  no  chimneys,  and 
that  the  smoke  escaped  through  a hole  in  the  roof.  What  the  arrangement  was  in 
houses  in  which  there  was  an  upper  story,  is  not  known ; perhaps  the  smoke  was  con- 
veyed by  a short  funnel  through  the  side-wall  of  the  house,  which  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  form  of  C.  invented  in  the  middle  ages.  The  Roman  caminus,  again,  was  not 
a C.,  but  a sort  of  stove;  and  it  has  been  a subject  of  much  dispute,  whether  the  Romans 
had  any  artificial  mode  of  carrying  off  the  smoke,  or  whether  it  was  allowed  to  escape 
through  the  doors,  windows,  and  openings  in  the  roof.  As  the  climate  and  the  habits 
of  the  people  both  led  to  the  houses  of  the  ancients  being  very  much  more  open  than  ours 
are,  it  is  probable  that  the  occasional  fires  which  they  had  of  wood  or  charcoal  may  have 
given  them  no  great  inconvenience.  It  is  known,  besides,  that  the  rooms  in  Roman 
houses  were  frequently  heated  by  means  of  hot  air,  which  was  brought  in  pipes  from  a 
furnace  below.  In  England,  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  chimney-shafts  earlier 
than  the  12th  century.  In  Rochester  castle  {circa  1130),  complete  fire-places  appear;  but 
the  flues  go  only  a few  feet  up  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  are  then  turned  out 
through  the  wall  to  the  back  of  the  fire-place,  the  openings  being  small  oblong  holes. 
The  earliest  chimney-shafts  are  circular,  and  of  considerable  height.  Afterwards, 
chimneys  are  found  in  a great  variety  of  forms.  Previous  to  the  16th  c.,  many  of  them 
are  short,  and  terminated  by  a spire  or  pinnacle,  having  apertures  of  various  shapes. 


787 


Chimere* 

CMmney. 


These  apertures  are  sometimes  in  the  pinnacle,  sometimes  under  it,  the  smoke  escaping 
as  from  some  modern  manufacturing  cliimuey-stalks  which  are  built  in  the  form  of  an 
Egyptian  obelisk.  Clustered  chimney-stalks  do  not  appear  until  late  in  the  15th  c,, 
when  they  seem  to  have  been  introduced  simultaneously  with  the  use  of  brick  for  this 
purpose.  Each  of  the  earlier  clustered  chimneys  consists  of  two  flues  which  adhere  to 
each  other,  and  are  not  set  separate,  as  afterwards  was  the  practice.  Long  after  they 
were  invented,  and  in  use  for  other  rooms,  our  ancestors  did  not  generally  introduce  them 
into  their  halls,  which,  till  the  end  of  the  15th,  or  beginning  of  the  16th  c.,  continued  as 
formerly  to  be  heated  by  a fire  on  an  open  hearth  in  the  center  of  the  hall,  the  smoke 
escaping  through  an  opening  in  the  roof  known  by  the  name  of  louvre.  In  many  of 
the  older  halls  in  which  chimneys  exist,  they  have  evidently  been  inserted  about  this 
period. 

The  action  of  a C.  depends  upon  the  simple  jjrinciple,  that  a column  of  heated  air 
is  lighter  than  a cooler  column  of  equal  height ; when  therefore  a flue  full  of  heated 
air  communicates  freely  by  the  lower  part  with  the  cooler  air  around  it,  the  greater 
weight  of  the  latter  pushes  the  warm  air  upwards,  and  thus  an  ascending  current  is  pro- 
duced. Other  conditions  being  equal,  the  draught  of  a C.  will  thus  be  proportional  to 
its  perpendicular  height,  and  the  difference  between  the  temperature  within  and  without 
it.  The  straighter  and  more  perpendicular  the  C.,  the  stronger  will  be  the  draught, 
because  the  friction  of  the  ascending  current  will  be  less,  and  the  cooling  effect  of  a 
long  or  tortuous  course  will  be  saved.  The  maximum  efficiency  of  a given  C.  is  attained 
when  all  the  air  that  passes  up  it  enters  by  the  bottom  of  the  fire.  In  this  case,  its 
temperature  is  raised  to  the  uttermost  by  passing  through  the  whole  of  the  fire,  and  the 
fire  is  at  the  same  time  urged  to  vivid  combustion  by  the  blast  thus  obtained.  A power- 
ful furnace  may  be  constructed  by  connecting  a suitable  fire-place,  capable  of  being 
closed  all  round  excepting  at  the  bottom,  with  a tall  C. ; and  the  amount  of  draught  may 
be  regulated  by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  aperture  through  which  the  air  is  admitted 
to  the  bottom  of  the  fire-place,  or  by  an  adjustable  opening  above  the  fire-place,  which 
will  diminish  the  effective  draught  as  its  size  is  increased,  or  by  a combination  of  both 
of  these  contrivances. 

When  the  fireplace  can  be  inclosed  thus,  there  is  little  liability  to  descending  cur- 
rents or  “ smoky  chimneys,”  as  they  are  called,  even  when  the  C.  is  very  short,  or  has  a 
tortuous  course.  It  is  chiefly  with  open  fireplaces  that  this  defect  occurs,  and  the 
means  of  prevention  and  cure  is  a subject  of  some  interest  and  importance.  As  with 
most  other  evils,  the  prevention  is  far  easier  than  the  cure;  for  by  properly  constructing 
the  C.  in  accordance  with  the  principles  above  stated— by  placing  the  opening  of  the  C. 
as  nearly  over  the  fire,  and  contracting  the  open  space  above  the  fire,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble— downward  smoking  may  in  most  cases  be  easily  prevented.  When  a C.  is  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a wall  or  building  nearly  as  high  as  itself,  or — what  is  still  worse — 
higher,  it  is  apt  to  smoke  on  account  of  the  eddies  and  other  complex  currents  in  the 
air,  caused  by  the  interference  which  such  an  obstacle  presents  to  the  regular  movement 
of  the  wind.  In  towns,  such  tortuous  movements  of  the  atmosphere  are  very  common, 
and  the  contrivance  for  preventing  the  wind  from  blowing  down  the  chimneys  are  very 
numerous,  and  often  grotesque.  Revolving  cowls  of  various  forms,  but  alike  in  having 
a nearly  horizontal  outlet,  which  is  so  turned  by  the  wind  that  the  mouth  shall  always 
point  in  thq  direction  opposite  to  that  whence  the  wind  is  blowing,  are  the  most  com- 
mon, and  usually  the  most  effectual.  They  are  generally  constructed  of  sheet-zinc,  with 
an  arrow,  a flattened  pigeon,  or  other  device,  as  a vane,  to  determine  the  rotation  of 
the  cowl.  The  curing  of  smoky  chimneys,  in  conjunction  with  the  economizing  of 
fuel,  was  one  of  the  favorite  subjects  of  investigation  of  that  very  practical  philosopher, 
count  Rumford.  He  says:  “ Those  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  consider  the  nature  and 
properties  of  elastic  fluids — of  air,  smoke,  and  vapor — and  to  examine  the  laws  of  their 
motions,  and  the  necessary  consequences  of  their  being  rarefied  by  heat,  will  perceive 
that  it  would  be  as  much  a miracle  if  smoke  should  not  rise  in  a chimney — all  him 
drances  to  its  ascent  being  removed — as  that  water  should  refuse  to  run  in  a siphon,  o^ 
to  descend  a river.  The  whole  mystery,  therefore,  of  curing  smoky  chimneys  is  com 
prised  in  this  simple  direction:  find  out  and  remove  those  local  hindrances  which  forci 
bly  prevent  the  smoke  from  following  its  natural  tendency  to  go  up  the  chimney;  oi 
rather,  to  speak  more  accurately,  which  prevent  its  being  forced  up  by  the  pressure  of 
the  heavier  air  of  the  room.”  * He  then  goes  on  to  speak  of  above  500  smoking  chim- 
neys that  he  has  had  under  his  hands,  and  which  were  supposed  incurable,  and  states 
that  he  was  never  obliged,  “ except  in  one  single  instance,  to  have  recourse  to  any  other 
method  of  cure  than  merely  reducing  the  fireplace  and  throat  of  the  chimney,  or  that 
part  of  it  which  lies  immediately  above  the  fireplace,  to  a proper  form  and  just 
dimensions.” 

In  this  reduction,  the  section  of  the  fireplace  is  changed  in  form  and  size,  whence  it 
is  better  adapted  for  radiation  into  the  room  than  the  former  square  opening ; the  fire 
being  brought  further  forward,  has  also  more  heating  effect ; the  space  of  the  fireplace 
being  smaller,  the  air  within  it  will,  with  a given  sized  fire,  become  hotter,  and  therefore 

* Essays : Political,  Economical,  and  Philosophical,  by  Benjamin  coimt  Rumford,  voL  i.  p.  299. 


Chimpanzee. 

Chinchilla. 


788 


Lave  more  ascending  power;  while  in  the  contracted  throat  widening  downwards,  and 
having  its  sides  strongly  heated,  there  is  a rapid  rush  of  heated  air,  which  carries  the 
smoke  upwards,  and  resists  the  passage  of  temporary  down-draughts.  Most  modern 
chimneys  and  fireplaces  are  now  constructed  in  accordance  with  count  Rumford’s  sug- 
gestions. See  Grate. 

One  frequent  cause  of  smoky  chimneys  is  the  want  of  sufficient  inlet  for  air  to  the 
room.  Sand-bags  placed  under  doors,  and  other  devices  for  preventing  ventilation,  may 
cause  a well-constructed  C.  to  smoke.  Openings  must  exist  somewhere,  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  supply  the  air  which  is  to  ascend  the  chimney.  If  the  air  enters  the  room 
on  the  same  side  as  the  fireplace,  and  sudden  gusts  of  air  pass  across  the  front  of  the 
fireplace,  a temporary  descending  current  is  likely  to  be  produced.  The  openings  are 
best  opposite  the  fire.  For  the  methods  of  arranging  and  regulating  such  openings  for 
the  admission  of  air,  see  Ventila<tion. 

Tall  factory-chimneys,  usually  built  of  brick,  are  very  costly  structures,  many  of 
them  rivaling  in  height  our  loftiest  cathedral  spires.  Their  construction  has  been  con- 
siderably economized  by  building  from  the  inside,  and  thus  saving  the  expensive  scaf- 
folding. Their  walls  are  built  very  thick  at  the  base,  and  gradually  thinner  upwards: 
recesses  are  left  at  regular  intervals  in  the  inside,  and  stout  wooden  or  iron  bars  rest 
upon  these  to  form  a sort  of  temporary  ladder  for  the  workmen  to  ascend;  the  materials 
are  hoisted  by  ropes  and  pulleys. 

Sheet-iron  chimneys  are  largely  used  in  Belgium.  They  are  much  cheaper  but  less 
durable  than  brick,  and  are  objectionable  on  account  of  their  rapid  cooling  by  the  action 
of  the  external  air. 

CHIMP AN'ZEE,  Troglodytes  niger,  a species  of  ape;  one  of  those  which  in  form  and 
structure  exhibit  the  greatest  resemblance  to  man.  It  is  a native  of  the  w^armest  parts 
of  Africa;  to  which  also  the  gorilla  (q.v.),  a larger  species  of  the  same  genus,  belongs. 
The  C.  is  sometimes  called  the  black  orang;  but  differs  from  the  orang  (q.v.)  {jpithecus) 
of  Asia  in  the  proportionally  shorter  arms,  which,  however,  are  much  longer  than  those 
of  man ; in  the  possession  of  an  additional  dorsal  vertebra,  and  an  additional  or  thir- 
teenth pair  of  ribs;  and  in  other  particulars,  in  some  of  which  it  more  nearly  resembles, 
and  in  others  more  widely  differs,  from  the  human  species.  In  both,  the  difference 
from  man  is  very  wide  in  the  general  adaptation  of  the  structure  for  movement  on  all- 
fours  and  for  climbing  and  moving  about  among  branches,  rather  than  for  erect  walking, 
although  the  C.  is  able  to  move  in  an  erect  posture  more  easily  than  any  other  ape, 
usually,  however,  when  so  doing,  holding  its  thighs  with  its  hands;  and  still  more  in  the 
form  of  the  skull,  and  consequent  aspect  of  the  countenance,  the  facial  angle  being  as 
low  as  35°  in  the  C.  when  it  is  measured  without  regard  to  the  high  bony  ridges  which 
project  above  the  eyes;  the  jaws  excessively  projecting,  and  the  outline  of  the  face 
rather  concave.  There  is  also  an  important  difference  from  the  human  species  in  the  den- 
tition ; although  the  number  of  teeth  of  each  kind  is  the  same,  the  canine  teeth  of  the  apes 
are  elongated,  so  as  to  pass  each  other,  and  corresponding  intervals  are  provided  for  them 
in  the  opposite  jaw.  An  interesting  point  of  difference  of  the  anatomy  of  the  C.  and 
orang  from  that  of  man,  is  in  the  muscle  which  in  man  terminates  in  a single  tendon, 
and  concentrates  its  action  on  the  great  toe,  terminating  in  the  apes  in  three  tendons, 
none  of  which  is  connected  with  the  great  toe  or  hinder  thumb,  but  whiqh  fiex  the 
three  middle  toes ; part  of  the  adaptation  of  the  foot  for  clasping  as  a hand.  The  great 
toe  both  of  the  C).  and  orang  is  shorter  than  the  other  toes,-  and  opposed  to  them  as  a 
thumb. 

^ The  C.  does  not  seem  to  attain  a height  of  quite  4 ft.  when  in  an  erect  posture.  Its 
skin  is  thinly  covered  with  long  black  hair  in  front;  the  hair  is  thicker  on  the  head, 
back,  and  limbs.  The  ears  are  remarkably  prominent,  thin,  and  naked,  not  unlike 
human  ears  in  shape.  The  nose  appears  aS  little  more  than  a mere  wrinkle  of  the  skin. 
The  thumb  of  the  hand  is  small  and  weak,  that  of  the  foot  comparatively  large  and 
powerful.  In  a wild  state,  the  animal  appears  to  be  gregarious,  but  its  habits  are  not 
well  known.  Truth  and  fable  have  been  so  mixed  up  in  the  accounts  of  it  that  new 
information  must  be  obtained  from  reliable  sources,  before  even  things  not  in  themselves 
very  improbable  can  be  believed.  In  a state  of  confinement,  it  exhibits,  at  least  when 
young,  considerable  gentleness  and  docility,  and  readily  learns  to  imitate  human  actions, 
in  eating  with  a spoon,  drinking  out  of  a glass,  and  the  like ; but  its  intelligence  does 
not  appear  to  be  superior  to  that  of  many  other  monkeys,  or  indeed  of  many  kinds  of 
brutes.  Its  natural  food  consists  chiefly  of  fruit  and  other  vegetable  substances;  in 
confinement,  it  exhibits  a great  fondness  for  sweetmeats  and  for  wine.  The  C.  is 
impatient  of  cold,  and  the  climate  of  Britain  soon  proves  fatal  to  it. 

CHIMSEYAlSrS,  Indians  of  the  n.w.  coast  of  North  America,  between  53°  and  55° 
n.,  including  several  small  tribes.  They  are  noted,  like  the  Indians  of  Alaska,  for  di^ 
figuring  themselves  by  inserting  a large  piece  of  wood  or  ivory  in  the  under  lip.  Their 
language  is  said  to  be  sonorous  and  comprehensive. 


CHINA.  See  Chinese  Empire. 


789 


Chimpanzee. 

Chinchilla. 


CHINA,  or  China-ware.  See  Porcelain. 

CHINA  BABK,  a name  of  cinchona  (q.v.)  bark,  often  to  be  met  in  books,  and  in  com- 
mon use  on  the  continent.  It  is  derived,  not  from  the  empire  of  China,  but  from  kina 
or  quina,  the  Peruvian  name  of  cinchona. 

CHINA  CLAY,  or  Ka'olin.  See  Clay. 

CHINA  GRASS,  or  Chinese  Grass,  the  popular  name  of  a fiber  used  in  China  for 
the  manufacture  of  a beautiful  fabric  known  as  grass-cloth.  The  name  appears  to  have 
originated  in  the  belief  that  the  fiber  was  that  of  a grass ; but  this  is  not  the  case,  it  being 
chiefly  obtained  from  hoshmeria  (q.v.)  nivea,  a plant  allied  to  the  nettle.  Besides  this 
and  other  species  of  the  natural  order  urticaceos,  other  plants,  as  species  of  corchorus 
<q.v.)  and  (q.v.)  are  believed  to  yield  fibers  employed  in  the  same  manufacture. 
The  fibers  are  said  not  to  be  spun  after  the  European  manner,  but  joined  into  long 
threads  by  twisting  their  ends  together.  Grass-cloth  is  now  brought  in  considerable 
ouantity  to  Europe,  especially  in  the  form  of  pocket-handkerchiefs.  It  has  a fine  glossy 
appearance  and  a peculiar  transparency. 

CHINANDE'GA,  a t.  of  Central  America,  Nicaragua,  stands  in  a fertile  plain  at  the 
foot  of  some  mountains,  about  18  m.  n.w.  of  Leon,  and  about  10  m.  from  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  houses  are  straggling,  of  one  story,  built  of  adobes,  and  many  of  them  are 
inclosed  by  gardens  and  plantations.  Maize,  sugar,  cotton,  hides,  and  poultry  are  pro- 
duced in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  about  10,000. — Old  Chinandega,  which  is  contiguous,  has 
a pop.  of  about  4,000. 

CHINA  ROOT,  the  root,  or  rather  the  rhizome  (root-stock)  of  smilax  China,  a climbing 
shrubby  plant,  closely  allied  to  sarsaparilla,  and  belonging  to  the  same  genus;  a native 
of  China,  Cochin-China,  and  Japan.  See  Sarsaparilla  and  Smilace.®.  The  stem  is 
round  and  prickly,  the  leaves  thin  and  roundish  oblong;  the  rhizome  tuberous  and 
large;  sub-astringent  and  diaphoretic.  It  is  occasionally  used  in  medicine,  and  is 
imported  in  a dry  state  into  Europe;  but  it  is  also  employed  in  the  e.  as  an  article  of 
food.  It  abounds  in  starch. 

CHINA  WAX,  produced  by  an  insect  which  lies  on  the  ash  trees  of  China.  It  is 
scraped  from  the  limbs,  melted  and  strained,  when  it  resembles  bees’  wax. 

CHINCHA  ISLANDS,  three  small  islands  in  the  Pacific,  13°  38' s.  and  76°  28' w., 
12  m.  from  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  106  m.  from  Callao.  The  largest,  known  as  north 
island,  is  only  about  170  acres  in  surface.  The  importance  of  the  islands  is  owing  to 
their  immense  deposits  of  guano.  They  are  of  granitic  formation,  rising  from  the  sea 
in  precipitous  cliffs,  worn  into  countless  caves  and  hollows,  which  furnish  convenient 
resting  places  for  sea-fowl.  Their  highest  point,  now  113  ft.,  was  once  nearly  90  ft. 
higher,  the  whole  deposit  being  of  guano.  The  name  of  the  islands  and  of  the  town 
and  valley  of  Chincha  in  the  mainland  is  derived  from  an  ancient  Indian  race,  which  has 
left  some  interesting  relics  of  its  sojourn.  A stone  idol  and  two  water-pots  of  grotesque 
form  were  discovered  under  62  ft.  of  guano ; and  a number  of  wooden  idols,  two  regal 
emblems,  and  a curious  stone  slab  have  been  found.  In  1846,  the  amount  of  guano  in 
these  islands  was  estimated  to  be  18,250,000  tons,  and  in  1852  there  still  remained  12,- 
360,000  tons.  The  supply  is  now  nearly  exhausted.  Between  1853  and  1872,  8,000,000 
were  taken  from  the  n.  and  middle  islands.  In  1868,  there  was  a population  of  6,000; 
in  1874,  only  105  remained. 

CHINCH AYCO'CHA,  a lake  in  Peru,  10°  42' s.  and  75°  40'  w.,  10  m.  s.s.e.  of  Pasco, 
and  13,000  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  is  35  m.  long  by  about  7 wide. 

CHINCH  BUG,  Blissus  leucopterus,  an  insect  which  has  sometimes  done  immense 
damage  to  wheat  and  other  crops  in  the  western  United  States.  The  female  lays  her  eggs 
on  the  ground,  and  there  are  often  two  swarms  of  bugs  in  a single  year,  one  in  June  and 
one  in  the  autumn.  The  chinch  bug  is  from  a seventh  to  a fifth  of  an  inch  in  length;  the 
wing-covers  are  black,  with  three  or  four  white  dashes,  sometimes  wanting;  the 
body  is  usually  black,  though  the  unwinged  young  are  at  first  red,  with  a white  band 
on  the  back. 

CHINCHEW,  or  Chinchh,  an  ancient  and  famous  port  of  China,  in  the  province  of 
Fuh-keen,  27°  57'  n.  and  118°  35'  east.  Though  occasionally  visited  by  missionaries  and 
others,  Chinchu  is  not  one  of  the  treaty  ports.  The  chief  exports  are  tea,  sugar,  china- 
ware,  tobacco,  and  nankeens.  The  English  Presbyterians  have  had  a chapel  in  the  city 
since  1862.  In  the  middle  ages  this  city  was  the  great  port  for  western  trade  with 
China,  and  was  known  to  Europeans  as  Zayton. 

CHINCHILLA,  Chinchilla,  Eriomys,  or  Callomys,  a genus  of  South  American  quad- 
rupeds, of  the  order  rodentia;  the  type  of  a family,  chinchilUdoe,  allied  to  cavies  {cavida), 
but  differing  from  them  in  possessing  clavicles.  The  general  aspect  is  somewhat  rabbit- 
like. There  are  several  genera  of  distinguished  in  part  by  the  number  of 

toes ; the  true  chinchillas  having  four,  with  the  rudiment  of  a fifth  on  the  fore-feet,  and 
four  on  the  hind -feet;  whilst  in  the  genus  lagidium  or  lagotis  there  are  four  on  each  foot; 


Chinchilla. 

Chinese. 


790 


and  in  lagostomus,  four  on  the  fore-feet  and  three  on  the  hind-feet.  All  the  species  of  this 
family  are  gregarious;  feed  much  on  roots,  for  which  their  strong  and  sharp  incisors  are 
particularly  adapted;  and  live  either  in  holes,  which  they  select  for  themselves  in  rocky 
districts,  or  in  burrows,  which  they  excavate.  They  are  valued  for  their  fur,  particularly 
the  Chinchilla  of  the  Andes  {G.  lanigera),  of  which  the  fur  constitutes  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  Their  numbers  are  said  to  be  sensibly  decreasing  in  consequence 
of  the  demand  for  the  fur.  The  ancient  Peruvians  were  accustomed  to  employ  the 
wool  of  the  C.  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  fabrics.  Molina  suggests  that  it  might 
easily  and  profitably  be  kept  in  a domesticated  state. 

CHINCHILLA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Albacete,  10  m.  s.e.  of  the  city  of 
that  name.  It  is  situated  on  an  abrupt  rocky  hill,  crowned  by  a castle,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls.  The  town  is  in  general  well  built,  with  good  streets,  and  a fine 
parish  church,  containing  some  excellent  works  of  art.  It  has  ^manufactures  of  cloth, 
linen,  leather,  earthenware,  and  glass,  and  a trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the 
district.  Pop.  7,500. 

CHINCHON',  at.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Madrid,  25  m.  s.s.e.  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a hill  near  the  Tagus,  and  is  well  built,  with  wide, 
regular,  and  clean  streets.  Agriculture  forms  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  leather,  linen,  and  earthenware  are  manufactured  to  a small  extent.  Pop.  5,400. 

CHINDWA'RA,  a t.  in  the  central  provinces  of  India,  lat.  22°  3'  n.,  and  long.  78°  58 
east.  It  occupies  a plateau  amid  the  Deoghur  mountains,  standing  2,100  ft.  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Its  climate  is  consequently  one  of  the  most  agreeable  and  salubrious  in 
India,  attracting  many  visitors  in  search  of  health  or  recreation.  Pop.  ’72,  8,626. 

CHINE,  La,  a village  of  the  dominion  of  Canada  on  the  s.  side  of  the  island  of 
Montreal,  and  about  9 m.  to  the  w.  of  the  city  of  that  name.  Both  the  city  and  the 
village  stand  on  the  left  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  or  rather,  of  a branch  of  the  Ottawa; 
for  here,  and  at  least  10  or  12  m.  further  down,  these  united  rivers  keep  their  waters 
unmingled.  As  the  intermediate  portion  of  the  stream  forms  the  rapids  of  St.  Louis* 
the  consequent  interruption  of  the  navigation  naturally  rendered  La  C.  a turning-point 
between  the  maritime  and  the  inland  communications.  Gradually,  however,  its  impor- 
tance in  this  respect  has  been  diminished,  if  not  extinguished,  by  works  between  it  and 
Montreal — a canal,  a railway,  and  even  improvements  in  the  rapids  themselves.  The 
pop.  in  1871  was  1696. 

CHINESE  EMPIRE,  a vast  territory  in  eastern  Asia,  comprehending  five  great  divisions, 
viz.:  1.  Mantchuria  (q.v.);  2.  Mongolia  (q.v.);  3.  Turkestan  (q.v.);  4.  Thibet  (q.v.);  5. 
China  proper  or  the  eighteen  provinces  {8hih-pd-sang\  including  the  two  laige  islands  of 
Formosa  and  Hainan — the  former  being  reckoned  in  the  province  of  Fuh-keen,  and  the 
latter  as  a department  of  Kwang-tung. 

China  Proper  occupies  the  eastern  slope  of  the  table-lands  of  central  Asia.  In  form  it 
approaches  to  a square,  and  covers  a surface  eighteen  times  as  large  as  Great  Britain.  It 
is  inhabited  by  more  than  360  millions  of  the  human  race,  living  under  the  same  govern- 
ment, ruled  by  the  same  laws,  speaking  the  same  language,  studying  the  same  literature, 
possessing  a greater  homogeneity,  a history  extending  over  a longer  period,  and  a more 
enduring  national  existence  than  any  other  people,  whether  of  ancient  or  modern  times; 
indeed,  when  we  consider  its  high  antiquity,  its  peculiar  civilization,  its  elaborate  admin- 
istrative machinery,  its  wondrous  language,  its  philosophy  and  classic  literature,  its 
manufacturing  industry  and  natural  productions,  giving  rise  to  such  a gigantic  com- 
merce with  our  own  land,  China  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  country  in  the  world, 
and  is  worth  a closer  and  more  serious  study  than  has  yet  been  generally  accorded  to  it. 
China  proper  is  included  between  18°  and  40°  n.  lat.  (which  takes  in  the  island  of 
Hainan),  and  98°  to  124°  e.  longitude.  Its  coast-line  exceeds  2,500  m.  and  the  land- 
frontier  4,400  miles.  A line  running  direct  n.  and  s.  would  give  a length  of  1474  m. ; and 
another  at  right  angles  to  this,  1355  m. ; but  one  drawn  diagonally  from  its  north- 
eastern extremity  through  Yun-nan  would  measure  1669  miles.  The  area  of  China 
proper  is  usually  given  as  1,297,999  sq.m. ; but  Dr.  Williams  considers  that  the  entire 
dimensions  of  the  18  provinces,  as  the  Chinese  define  them,  cannot  be  much  under 
2,000,000  sq.  miles.  All  these  measurements,  however,  must  be  taken  as  mere  approxi- 
mations. 

Phynical  Features. — China  has  a general  slope  from  the  mountains  of  Thibet  to  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific.  The  two  principal  mountain-chains  divide  it  into  three  longi- 
tudinal basins,  drained  by  those  great  rivers  for  which  China  is  famous.  Within  its 
provinces  are  found  alluvial  plains,  fertile  river-valleys,  large  populous  towns,  as  well  as 
thinly  inhabited,  hilly,  and  mountainous  regions.  To  describe  its  suface  more  particu- 
larly, it  may  be  viewed  under  its  natural  divisions  of  mountainous  country,  hilly  country, 
and  the  great  plain.  The  first  comprehends  more  than  half  the  region  between  the 
meridian  113°  and  Thibet.  East  of  this  meridian,  and  to  the  s.  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang 
river,  is  the  hilly  country,  which  includes  the  provinces  of  Fuh-keen,  Keang-se,  Kwang- 
tung,  and  a portion  of  Hu-nan  and  Hu-pih;  while  to  the  n.e.  stretches  the  great  plain. 
This  latter  extends  from  the  great  wall  to  30°  n.  lat. ; a line  drawn  from  King-chow  in 
Hu-pih  to  Hwae-king  on  the  Yellow  river,  may  be  considered  its  western  limit;  and  the 


791 


Chinchilla. 

Chinese. 


sea  forms  its  boundary  on  the  east.  This  vast  and  generally  fertile  tract  has  an  area 
of  210,000  sq.  miles,  and  supports  a population  of  177  millions. 

From  the  mountains  of  Thibet  two  grand  ranges  stretch  across  China,  having  a general 
•direction  from  s.w.  to  n.e.  The  more  northerly  of  these — the  Thsin-ling  or  Blue  moun- 
tains— are  included  between  the  parallels  of  31°  and  34°.  The  southern  or  Nan-ling  chain 
is  a spur  of  the  Himalayas.  Commencing  in  Yun-nan,  it  bounds  Kwang-se,  Kwang- 
tung,  and  Fuh-keen  on  the  n.,  and  passing  through  the  province  of  Che-keang — where 
some  of  its  peaks  reach  the  height  of  12,000  ft. — enters  the  sea  at  Ning-po ; thus  forming 
a continuous  barrier — penetrated  only  by  a few  steep  passes,  of  which  the  Mei-kwan, 
nr  Mei  Pass,  is  the  best  known — that  separates  the  coast-land  of  south-eastern  China 
from  the  rest  of  the  country.  This  great  chain  throws  off  numerous  spurs  to  the  s.  and 
€.,  which,  dipping  into  the  sea,  rise  above  it  as  a belt  of  rugged  islands  along  the 
southern  half  of  the  Chinese  sea-board.  Of  this  belt,  the  Chusan  archipelago  is  the 
most  northerly  portion. 

The  magnificent  river-system  of  China  is  represented  by  those  noble  twin  streams,  the 
Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  river,  and  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  which,  springing  from  the  same 
water-shed,  the  eastern  mountains  of  Thibet,  are  widely  separated  in  their  mid  course, 
but  enter  the  sea  within  2°  of  each  other.  The  former  has  its  source  in  35|^°  n.  lat,  and 
about  96°  e.  long. ; and  after  a very  tortuous  course,  empties  itself  into  the  ocean  in  lat. 
34°.*  It  is  a “mighty,  impracticable,  turbid,  furious  stream”  for  the  most  part,  and 
little  adapted  for  Chinese  navigation.  But  the  river  most  beloved  by  the  Chinese  is  the 
Yang-tse-kiang,  or  “son  of  the  ocean” — more  correctly  translated,  “ the  son  that  spreads  ” 
— which  name  is  only  applied  to  it  by  the  natives  below  the  commencement  of  the  delta; 
for  above  that  it  is  called  simply  Ta-kiang  or  Great  river.  The  basin  drained  by  it  is 
estimated  at  750,000  sq.  miles.  Of  the  other  rivers  that  water  the  country,  the  Peiho  in 
the  n.,  and  the  Choo-keang  in  the  s.,  are  the  most  noteworthy. 

The  principal  lakes  of  China  are  five  in  number — viz.,  the  Tung-ting-hu,  in  113° 
€.  long.,  with  a circumference  of  about  220  m. ; the  Poyang-hu,  in  116  e.  long,,  90  m. 
in  length  by  20  in  breadth;  the  Hung-tsin-hu,  in  Keang-su;  the  Tsau-hu,  between  Ngan- 
kin-fu  and  Nankin;  and  the  Tai-hu,  in  120°  e.  long.  On  these  lakes,  artificially  con- 
structed floating  islands,  with  houses,  fields,  and  inhabitants,  animals,  and  birds,  are 
sometimes  seen. 

The  Grand  Canal  has  very  greatly  facilitated  the  internal  navigation  of  the  country. 
Until  lately  the  great  annual  grain-fleet,  with  its  430,000  tons  of  rice  for  the  use  of  the 
capital,  passed  from  the  s.  to  the  neighborhood  of  Pekin  by  this  great  water-way; 
thus  avoiding  the  storms  and  pirates  of  the  coast,  but  the  alteration  already  mentioned 
in  tlie  course  of  the  Hoang-ho,  has  rendered  it  comparatively  useless.  It  connects  Tien- 
tsin in  Chih-le  with  Hang-chow  in  Che-keang;  though  the  canal  proper  commences  in 
Shan-tung,  and  its  total  length  is  about  650  miles. 

Another  world-famous  structure  is  the  Great  Wall — called  Wan-li-chang  (myriad-mile- 
wall)  by  the  Chinese — which  was  built  by  the  first  emperor  of  the  Tsin  dynasty  about 
220  B.C.,  as  a protection  against  the  Tartar  tribes.  It  traverses  the  northern  boundary 
of  China,  extending  from  3^°  e.  to  15°  w.  of  Pekin,  and  is  carried  over  the  highest  hills, 
through  the  deepest  valleys,  across  rivers  and  every  other  natural  obstacle.  The  length 
of  this  great  barrier  is,  according  to  McCulloch,  1250  m.  Including  a parapet  of  5 ft., 
the  total  height  of  the  wall  is  20  ft. ; thickness  at  the  base,  25  ft. ; and  at  the  top,  15  ft. 
Towers  or  bastions  occur  at  intervals  of  about  100  yds.  These  are  40  ft.  square  at  the 
base,  and  30  ft.  at  the  summit,  which  is  37  ft.,  and  in  some  instances  48  or  50  ft.,  from 
the  ground.  Earth  inclosed  in  brickwork  forms  the  mass  of  the  wall;  but  for  more 
than  half  its  length  it  is  little  else  than  a heap  of  gravel  and  rubbish. 

Geology. — The  high  lands,  where  are  the  sources  of  the  great  rivers  of  China,  consist 
of  granitic  and  metamorphic  rocks.  These  are  continued  round  the  s.  and  s.e.  of 
the  country,  until  they  leave  a huge  basin,  through  which  flow  the  Yang-tse-kiang  and 
Hoang-ho,  occupied  hj  fossiliferous  strata.  The  wild  and  rugged  scenery  of  the  larger 
portion  of  China  is  owing  to  the  predominance  of  those  crystalline  and  sub-crystalline 
rocks.  The  fossiliferous  strata  exhibit  representatives  of  the  various  formations.  The 
paleozoic  rocks  are  but  sparingly  developed  in  a narrow  stripe  which  runs  from  near 
Pekin  in  a south-westerly  curve,  to  nearly  the  center  of  the  empire.  Cretaceous  rocks 
occur  in  the  valley  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang.  Tertiary  beds  fill  up  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  immense  basin ; while  extensive  districts  to  the  w.  of  this  region,  extending  to  the 
crystalline  rocks  in  the  extreme  w.,  are  covered  with  modern  detritus. 

Though  no  active  volcanoes  are  known  to  exist  except  one  in  Formosa,  yet  indica- 
tions of  volcanic  action  are  not  wanting.  Salt  and  hot-water  springs  are  found  in  Yun- 
nan; sulphur  springs  near  Foochow;  and  wells  of  petroleum  in  Shen-se  and  Formosa. 
The  most  famous  amongst  the  minerals  of  China  is  jade  or  the  yu-stone,  obtained  chiefly 
in  Yun-nan.  Coal,  limestone,  and  porcelain  clays  are  abundant.  Precious  stones  are 
said  to  be  met  with  in  some  districts.  In  Yun-nan,  gold  is  washed  from  the  sands  of  the 


* The  Hoang-ho  has  recently  altered  its  course,  and  now  enters  the  sea  in  a sonaewhat  hig;her  latl 
tude.  Such  changes,  causing  losses,  and  entailing  expense,  are  not  unusual;  and  hence  this  river  has 
been  called  “ China’s  sorrow.” 


Chinese. 


792 


rivers,  and  in  tlie  same  province  silver-mines  are  worked;  here,  too,  is  obtained  the  cele- 
brated pe-tung  or  white  copper.  All  the  commoner  metals  are  likewise  found  in  China. 
Near  the  city  of  Ning-po  are  extensive  stone-quarries. 

Vegetable  Productions. — Our  knowledge  of  the  flora  of  China  has  been  much  advanced 
by  the  researches  of  Mr.  Fortune ; and  his  works  contain  valuable  notices  of  the  geog- 
raphy, culture,  and  varieties  of  the  tea-plant,  and  of  the  botany  of  the  country  generally. 
The  tea-plant  {thea  viridis  and  thea  bohea)  is  the  most  important  vegetable  production  of 
China.  See  Tea.  The  tallow-tree  {stillingia  sebifera),  the  dryandra  cardata  or  varnish - 
tree,  the  camphor-tree  (laurus  camphora),  the  Chinese  pine  {pinus  sinensis),  the  Chinese 
banyan  {ficus  nitida),  the  funereal  cypress — introduced  into  this  country  by  Mr.  Fortune 
— and  the  mulberry,  are  amongst  the  most  important  trees  of  China.  The  cocoa-nut 
and  other  palms  flourish  on  the  southern  coast.  Of  the  bamboo,  which  grows  as  far  n. 
as  lat.  38°,  there  are  63  principal  varieties;  and  it  is  said  that  the  bamboos  of  China  are 
more  valuable  than  her  mines,  and,  next  to  rice  and  silk,  yield  the  greatest  revenue. 
The  various  uses  to  which  they  are  applied  is  truly  astonishing;  and,  amongst  others, 
the  bamboo  is  famous  as  an  instrument  of  punishment.  The  fruits  of  both  the  tropical 
and  temperate  zones — apples,  grapes,  pomegranates,  mangoes,  pine-apples,  three  species 
of  orange,  the  lichi,  etc, — are  found  in  the  country;  and  camellias,  azaleas,  and  gardenias 
are  natives  of  the  “flowery  land.”  The  nympJum,  or  water-lily,  is  greatly  prized  by  the 
Chinese,  both  for  ornament  and  in  an  economical  point  of  view.  Agriculture  is  held  in 
higher  estimation  in  China  than,  perhaps,  any  other  country  in  the  world.  On  the  first 
day  of  each  year,  a grand  state- ceremony  is  performed  in  its  honor.  The  emperor,  accom- 
panied by  his  great  officers  of  state,  repairs  to  the  sacred  field,  and,  having  offered  sacri- 
fices on  an  altar  of  earth,  he  traces  a furrow  with  the  plough,  and  his  example  is  followed 
by  princes  and  ministers.  A like  solemnity  is  celebrated  by  the  governor  of  every 
province,  who  represents  the  emperor.  The  agricultural  system  of  the  Chinese  is  rude, 
but  effective;  and  every  inch  of  arable  land  is  carefully  cultivated.  Spade-husbandry 
and  irrigation  are  carried  on  to  a great  extent.  The  Chinese  have  a strong  perception 
of  the  value  of  night-soil  as  a manure;  for,  whilst  in  this  country  thousands  of  pounds’^ 
worth  are  annually  thrown  into  the  Thames,  in  China  it  is  everywhere  saved,  bears  a 
high  price,  and  is  collected  in  a manner  exceedingly  offensive  to  European  notions.  In 
the  northern  provinces,  the  cereals  are  principally  maize,  barley,  and  wheat;  but  in  the 
south,  rice  is  raised  in  vast  quantities,  and  forms  the  staple  food  of  the  people.  Tobacco 
and  the  poppy  are  also  raised  in  considerable  quantities. 

Animals. — Very  little  is  really  known  of  the  zoology  of  China.  Some  of  the  more 
ferocious  of  the  carniverous  animals  still  linger  in  the  jungles  of  Yun-nan,  and  are  occa- 
sionally found  along  the  whole  of  the  Nanling  range  of  mountains  as  far  as  Ning-po, 
where  there  is  a mart  for  their  skins.  Wild-cats  are  common  in  the  forests  of  the  south, 
and  bears  are  still  found  in  the  hills  of  Shan-se.  Of  the  ruminantia,  there  are  the  musk- 
deer  {moschus  moschiferus),  the  moose-deer,  and  a few  other  species.  The  gold  and  silver 
pheasant,  the  argus  pheasant,  and  other  gallinaceous  birds,  hold  a prominent  place  in 
the  ornithology  of  China.  Fly-catchers,  thrushes,  grackles,  and  goat-suckers  have  their 
representatives  in  China,  and  there  are  several  species  of  crows,  jays,  and  magpies. 
Water-fowl  inhabit  the  lakes,  rivers,  and  marshes.  The  larger  reptiles  are  unknown; 
but  tortoises  and  turtles  abound  on  the  coast,  and  lizards  are  plentiful  in  the  south. 
The  ichthyology  of  China  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.  Sharks, 
rays,  sturgeons,  and  other  cartilaginous  fishes,  are  common  on  the  coast;  and  the  carp 
formerly  was  very  plentiful  in  the  lakes  and  rivers.  The  goldfish  has  been  introduced 
into  Europe  from  China,  Of  insects,  the  arachnidse  are  large  and  numerous;  indeed,  a 
tree-spider  captures  and  kills  small  birds.  Locusts  often  commit  extensive  ravages. 
Silk-worms  are  highly  valued,  and  reared  in  large  numbers. 

In  a country  of  such  vast  extent — extending  from  18°  to  40'  n.  lat. — the  climate  must 
vary  greatly.  Indeed,  as  regards  both  climate  and  productions,  China  may  be  divided 
into  three  zones — the  northern,  the  central,  and  the  southern.  The  northern  zone 
extends  to  the  35th  parallel,  and  includes  the  fine  provinces  of  Shang-tung,  Chih-le, 
Shan-se,  Shen-se,  and  Kan-su.  It  produces  the  grains,  fruits,  and  animals  of  northern 
Europe.  Here  the  children  are  red-cheeked,  and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  great.  In  Chih-le,  the  winters  are  very  severe;  and  at  that  season  ice  a foot 
thick  renders  the  rivers  unnavigable.  The  natural  productions  of  this  and  the  con- 
tiguous northern  provinces  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  apples,  the  hazel-nut,  and  the 
potato;  they  are  also  rich  in  wood  and  minerals.  The  central  zone,  the  richest 
portion  of  China,  contains  eight  provinces — Sze-chuen,  Kwei-chow,  Hu-nan,  Hu-pih, 
Keang-se,  Gan-hwuy,  Ho-nan,  and  Keang-su — and  is  bounded  by  the  27th  or  28th 
parallel ; tea  and  silk  are  its  characteristic  products ; the  middle  portion  is  the  granary 
of  China,  and  the  eastern  part  is  celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton. 
The  southern  zone  embraces  five  provinces — Yun-nan,  Kwang-tung,  Kwang-se,  Fuh- 
keen,  and  Che-keang.  The  exchange  of  its  tropical  productions  for  those  of  the  northern 
zone  is  an  important  branch  of  the  internal  commerce  of  the  country.  Kwang-tung 
lies  partly  within  the  tropics;  and  the  whole  province  is  tropical,  both  in  climate  and 
productions.  The  following  table  (no  later  census  has  been  made)  exhibits  the  situation, 
area,  and  population  of  the  eighteen  provinces  into  which  China  is  divided  for  admin- 
istrative purposes: 


793 


Chinese. 


Provinces. 

Population, 
Census  of  1812. 

Sq.  miles 

Pop.  per 
sq.  mile. 

Northern  Provinces — 

Chih-le 

27,990,871 

58,949 

475 

Shang-tung 

28,958,764 

65,104 

444 

Shan-se 

14,004,210 

55,268 

252 

Ho-nan 

23,037,171 

65,104 

420 

Pastern  Provinces — 

Keang-su 

37,843,501 

44,500 

850 

Gan-hwuy 

34,168,059 

48,461 

705 

Keang-se 

23,046,999 

72,176 

320 

Che-keang 

26,256,784 

39,150 

671 

Fuh-keen . 

14,777,410 

53,480 

276 

Central  Provinces — 

Hu-pih 

27,370,098 

70,450 

389 

Hu-nan 

18,652,507 

74,320 

251 

Southern  Provinces — 

Kwang-tung 

19,174,030 

79,456 

241 

Kwang-se 

7,313,895 

78,250 

93 

Yun-nan 

5,561,320 

107,969 

51 

Kwei-chow 

5,288,219 

64,554 

82 

Western  Provinces — 

Shen-se 

10,207,256 

67,400 

153 

Kan-su 

15,193,125 

86,608 

175 

Sze-chuen 

21  435,678 

166,880 

128 

Totals 

360,279,897 

1,298,079 

277 

But,  according  to  the  Almanach  de  Gotha  for  1877,  the  population  of  China,  properly 
so  called,  was  estimated  at  405,000,000;  and  of  the  rest  of  the  empire,  including  Mant- 
churia,  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  Corea,  28,000,000 — in  all,  433,000,000.  After  Pekin,  the 
capital,  the  largest  cities  in  China  are  Canton,  Tien-Tsin,  Foochow,  Hankow,  Hang- 
chow-Foo,  Ning-po,  Amoy,  Shanghai,  etc. 

Inhabitants. — Ethnologically,  the  Chinese  belong  to  that  variety  of  the  human  species 
distinguished  by  a Mongolian  conformation  of  the  head  and  face,  and  a monosyllabic 
language.  See  Chinese  Language,  Writing,  and  Literature.  A tawny  or  parch- 
ment-colored skin,  black  hair,  lank  and  coarse,  a thin  beard,  oblique  eyes,  and  high 
cheek-bones,  are  the  principal  characteristics  of  the  race.  The  average  height  of  the 
Chinaman  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  European,  though  his  muscular  power  is  not  so 
great;  the  women  are  disproportionately  small,  and  have  a broad  upper  face,  low  nose, 
and  linear  eyes.  Of  the  general  character  of  the  Chinese,  it  is  not  easy  to  form  a fair 
and  impartial  judgment;  and  those  who  have  resided  long  in  the  country,  and  know 
them  well,  have  arrived  at  very  different  conclusions.  M.  Hue  asserts  that  they  are 
“destitute  of  religious  feelings  and  beliefs,”  “ skeptical  and  indifferent  to  everything 
that  concerns  the  moral  side  of  man,”  “their  whole  lives  but  materialism  put  in  action;” 
but  “all  this,”  says  Mr.  Meadows,  “is  baseless  calumny  of  the  higher  life  of  a great 
portion  of  the  human  race.”  He  admits,  indeed,  that  these  charges  are  true  of  the  mass 
of  the  Chinese,  just  as  they  are  true  of  the  English,  French,  and  Americans;  but  as 
amongst  these  there  is  a large  amount  of  generosity  and  right  feeling,  and  also  ‘ ‘ a 
minority  higher  in  nature,  actuated  by  higher  motives,  aiming  at  higher  aims,”  so  also, 
he  maintains,  is  there  amongst  the  Chinese  a similar  right  feeling,  and  a like  minority 
who  live  a higher  life  than  the  people  generally.  See  Hiouen-thsang.  As  regards 
valor,  their  annals  record  “deeds  akin  to  the  courage  of  antiquity;”  they  have  no  fear 
of  death,  commit  suicide  as  the  solution  of  a difficulty,  and  endure  the  most  cruel  tortures 
with  a passive  fortitude ; but  neither  their  arms  nor  discipline  enable  them  to  stand  before 
European  forces.  The  Chinese  are,  as  a race,  unwarlike,  fond  of  peace  and  domestic 
order,  capable  of  a high  degree  of  organization  and  local  self-government,  sober,  indus- 
trious, practical,  unimaginative,  literary,  and  deeply  imbued  with  the  mercantile  spirit. 
It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  inhabitants  of  China  Proper  are  essentially  one  people ; the 
differences,  except  in  dialect,  being  hardly  more  marked  than  between  the  Northumbrian 
peasant  and  the  Cornish  miner.  The  south-eastern  Chinese — the  people  of  Kwang-tung, 
Full-keen,  and  the  south  of  Che-keang — are  the  most  restless  and  enterprising  in  all  the 
eighteen  provinces,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  Asia.  In  the  moun- 
tainous districts  of  the  four  south-eastern  provinces  of  China,  but  principally  in  Kwang- 
se,  are  certain  tribes  who  maintain  a rude  independence,  wear  a peculiar  dress,  and  are 
descended  from  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  China.  Of  these,  the  Meaon-tze  are  the 
best  known. 

The  manners  and  customs  of  the  Chinese  can  only  here  be  glanced  at.  The  worship 
of  ancestors  is  a remarkable  and  prominent  feature  in  their  social  life,  and  is  dictated  by 
that  principle  of  filial  piety  which  forms  the  basis  of  Chinese  society.  The  rich  have 
in  their  houses  a chamber — a kind  of  domestic  sanctuary — dedicated  to  their  forefathers. 
Tablets,  representing  the  deceased  persons,  and  inscribed  with  their  names,  are  here 
carefully  preserved;  and  at  stated  seasons,  prostrations  and  ceremonies  are  performed 


Chinese. 


794 


before  them  according  to  the  book  of  rites.  All  Chinese  worship  from  time  to  time  at 
.the  tombs  of  their  parents.  In  everything  that  relates  to  death  and  sepulture,  the  cus- 
toms of  the  Chinese  are  no  less  singular.  They  meet  their  last  enemy  with  apparent 
unconcern ; but  whilst  their  future  state  troubles  them  little,  they  regard  the  quality  of 
their  coffins  as  of  vital  importance,  and  frequently  provide  them  during  their  lifetime; 
indeed,  a coffin  is  reckoned  a most  acceptable  present,  and  is  frequently  given  by  chil- 
dren to  their  parents.  “To  be  happy  on  earth,”  say  the  Chinese,  “one  must  be  born 
in  Su-chow-,  live  in  Canton,  and  die  in  Lianchau  ” — Su-chow  being  celebrated  for  the 
beauty  of  its  women.  Canton  for  its  luxury,  and  Lianchau  for  furnishing  the  best  wood 
for  coffins.  Yet  death  is  never  alluded  to  in  direct  terms,  but  indicated  rather  by  peri- 
phrases, such  as — the  person  “exists  no  more,”  “he  has  saluted  the  age,”  “ascended  to 
the  sky,”  etc.  Banquets  are  offered  to  the  dead,  and  pathetic  speeches  addressed  to 
them.  In  China,  marriage  is  universal,  and  within  the  reach  of  all;  but  there  is  a strict 
separation  of  the  sexes,  and  betrothal  is  undertaken  by  the  parents  or  by  professional 
match-makers.  Minute  ceremonial  observances  regulate  every  step,  and  frequently  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  see  each  other  on  the  wedding-day  for  the  first  time.  Women 
hold  a very  inferior  position,  and  are  little  better  than  slaves.  Polygamy  is  not  recog- 
nized by  law,  but  secondary  wives  are  common,  especially  when  the  first  proves  barren. 
Infanticide,  though  regarded  as  a crime,  is  undoubtedly  practiced  to  some  extent,  as  is 
proved  by  edicts  issued  against  it;  and  parents  possess  almost  unlimited  authority  over 
their  children.  The  intercourse  of  the  Chinese  with  each  other,  especially  of  the  upper 
classes,  is  regulated  by  a tedious  and  elaborate  etiquette;  indeed,  they  are  the  slaves  of 
custom,  and  everything  is  done  by  precedent.  Many  curious  instances  of  Chinese  polite- 
ness might  be  cited.  The  well-bred  host  presses  many  things  on  a visitor,  which  the 
latter  must  never  dream  of  accepting.  “A  Chinaman,”  says  Mr.  Oliphant,  “has  won- 
derful command  of  feature ; he  generally  looks  most  pleased  when  he  has  least  reason  to 
be  so,  and  maintains  an  expression  of  imperturbable  politeness  and  amiability,  when  he 
is  secretly  regretting  devoutly  that  he  cannot  bastinade  you  to  death.”  The  Le-king,  or 
book  of  rites,  regulates  Chinese  manners,  and  is  one  cause  of  their  unchangeableness; 
for  here  they  are  stereotyped,  and  handed  down  from  age  to  age.  The  ceremonial 
usages  of  China  have  been  estimated  at  3,000;  and  one  of  the  tribunals  at  Pekin— the 
board  of  rites — is  charged  with  their  interpretation.  Chinese  cookery,  in  the  use  of 
made  dishes,  more  nearly  resembles  the  French  than  the  English.  Birds’  nests  soup, 
sharks’  fins,  deer-sinews,  and  ducks’  tongues,  are  amongst  its  delicacies.  The  wine,  or 
weak  spirit  {tsew),  more  correctly  speaking,  used  by  the  Chinese  is  made  from  rice;  and 
from  this,  again,  they  distill  a stronger  spirit,  the  “samshoo”  of  Canton.  The  former 
is  drunk  warm  in  minute  cups  at  their  meals;  tea  never  appears  during  a repast,  though  it 
may  be  taken  before  or  after.  The  Chinese  have  numerous  festivals;  and  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  that  celebrated  at  the  commencement  of  the  new  year,  when 
unbounded  festivity  prevails.  Preparatory  to  this,  debts  are  settled,  and  the  devout 
repair  to  the  temples  to  gain  the  favor  of  the  gods.  The  first  daj>^  of  the  }'ear  may,  in 
one  sense,  be  reckoned  the  birthday  of  the  whole  people,  for  their  ages  are  dated  from 
it.  Visiting  is,  at  the  same  time,  carried  on  to  a great  extent,  whilcst  parents  and  teach- 
ers receive  the  prostrations  and  salutations  of  their  children  or  pupils.  The  festival  of 
the  dragon-boats  is  held  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month;  and  at  the  first  full  moon  of 
the  year,  the  feast  of  lanterns.  In  the  manufacture  of  these  the  Chinese  excel;  and  on 
the  night  of  the  festival,  lanterns  illuminate  each  door,  wonderful  in  their  variety  of 
form  and  material. 

In  the  matter  of  dress,  the  Chinaman  exhibits  his  usual  practical  sense,  and  varies 
the  material  according  to  the  season,  from  cotton- wadded  or  fur-lined  coats  to  the  light- 
est silk,  gauze,  or  grass-cloth.  On  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  he  lights  no  fire  in 
his  dwelling,  but  puts  on  additional  clothing  until  the  desired  temperature  is  attained. 
A tunic  or  kind  of  loose  jacket  fitting  close  round  the  neck,  and  a wide  short  trouser, 
are  his  principal  garments.  Shoes  are  made  of  silk  or  cotton,  with  thick  felt  soles. 
White  is  the  color  of  mourning.  The  Tartar  tonsure  and  braided  queue  became  gen- 
eral with  the  Mantchu  conquest  of  the  country,  since  which  180,000,000  of  men  have 
the  hair  removed  from  their  heads  at  short  intervals;  and  as  no  Chinaman  is  his  own 
barber,  a great  number  of  this  calling  find  employment.  The  Chinaman  is  very  sparing 
in  his  ablutions,  and  appears  to  be  afflicted  with  a strange  hydrophobia;  for  cold  water, 
either  as  a beverage  or  for  washing  his  person,  he  holds  in  abomination.  Long  nails 
are  fashionable.  The  custom  of  the  women  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  men,  and 
their  shoes  are  the  most  remarkable  part  of  their  toilet.  A lady’s  shoe  measures  about 
3|  in.  from  the  heel  to  the  toe.  The  feet  of  the  Tartar  women  are  left  as  nature  made 
them;  but  amongst  the  Chinese,  all  young  girls  of  the  better  classses  are  crippled  by  a 
tyrant  custom.  In  early  infancy  the  feet  are  tightly  bound,  the  four  small  toes  being 
tucked  under  the  sole,  of  which,  after  a time,  they  become  a part,  and  the  heel  is  brought 
forward.  The  process  is  at  length  complete;  stumps  have  been  substituted  for  the 
ordinary  pedal  extremities,  and  the  Chinese  lady  totters  on  her  goat’s  feet. 

The  principal  manufactures  of  the  Chinese  are  silk,  cotton,  linen,  and  pottery,  for 
which  latter  they  are  especially  celebrated.  The  finest  porcelain  is  made  in  the  province 
of  Keang-se.  The  Chinese  invented  printing  in  the  beginning  of  the  10th  c. , and  in 
932  A.D.  a printed  imperial  edition  of  the  sacred  books  was  published.  The  skill  of  the 


795 


Cliinese. 


Chinese  in  handicrait  i»  astonishing.  Their  rich  silks  and  satins,  light  gauzes,  beauti- 
ful embroidery,  elaborate  engraving  on  wood  and  stone,  delicate  filigree- work  in  gold 
and  silver,  carvings  on  ivory,  fine  lacquered  ware,  antique  vessels  in  bronze,  and  their 
brilliant  coloring  on  the  famous  pith  paper,  command  our  admiration. 

Of  the  grand  modern  discoveries  in  the  physical  sciences  the  Chinese  are  profoundly 
ignorant,  and  the  study  of  nature  is  altogether  neglected.  The  Chinaman  objects  to  be 
wiser  than  his  forefatliers,  but  spends  a life-time  in  studying  his  classical  literature  and 
the  sages  of  antiquity ; and  here  is  doubtless  one  ^reat  cause  of  the  homogeneity  of  the 
race,  and  the  stereotyped  nature  of  the  Chinese  mind. 

Of  animal  physiology  and  medicine  the  Chinese  have  very  crude  notions,  as  is  shown 
by  their  scheme  of  the  human  body,  in  which  the  heart  is  placed  in  the  center,  with  the 
other  organs  ranged  round  it,  and  their  unphilosophical  theory  of  the  pulse,  which 
plainly  demonstrates  that  they  are  ignorant  of  the  true  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  the 
vascular  system  in  man;  hence  their  practice  of  medicine  must  be  empirical.  Chinese 
physicians  believe  that  man  is  composed  of  five  elements;  that  so  long  as  each  maintains 
its  due  proportion,  health  is  preserved;  but  should  one  gain  the  ascendency,  illness  fol- 
lows, and  the  equilibrium  must  be  restored  by  proper  remedies.  Acupuncture  is  prac- 
ticed. The  Chinese  have  had  the  opportunity  of  practically  testing  the  superiority  of 
western  medical  science,  by  the  establishment  of  English  and  American  hospitals,  the 
introduction  of  vaccination,  and  by  the  publication  of  popular  treatises  on  physiology 
and  practical  surgery,  etc.,  by  Dr.  Hobson,  late  of  Canton.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  these  books  were  eagerly  sought  after,  and  excited  a deep  interest  among  their 
literati;  indeed,  the  physiology  has  been  twice  republished  by  persons  holding  high 
oflicial  situations  at  Canton,  and  in  a preface  to  the  Chinese  edition,  the  publisher 
observes:  “ Our  science,  indeed,  cannot  compete  with  that  of  the  philanthropic  author.” 

Government. — In  the  centralized  autocratic  government  of  China,  the  emperor  is 
absolute  in  the  empire,  the  governor  in  the  province,  the  magistrate  in  the  district.  The 
emperor  claims  no  hereditary  divine  right,  and  is  not  always  the  eldest  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding monarch ; the  ablest  son  is  nominated,  but  his  right  to  the  throne  as  the  Teen-tze, 
or  Tien-tze,  “son  of  heaven,”  W\q  Fung-tien,  “divinely  appointed,”  can  only  be  estab 
lished  by  good  government,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  national 
sacred  books.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  violates  these  principles,  the  people  firmly  believe 
that  heaven  signifies,  by  unmistakable  signs,  that  their  ruler  is  not  its  chosen  represent- 
ative. “The  rivers  rise  from  their  beds,  the  ground  sullenly  refuses  its  fruits,  the 
plains  tremble,  the  hills  reel,  and  the  typhoon  rages  over  seas  and  coasts,  all  alike  utter- 
ing a ‘Numbered,  numbered,  weighed  and  parted,’  that  requires  no  interpretation,  but 
is  read  in  anxiety  by  the  people,  in  dismay  and  terror  by  the  prince,”  who  seeks  by 
repentance,  and  a return  to  the  true  principles  of  the  government,  to  avert  his  doom. 
The  emperor  is  absolute  as  legislator  and  administrator;  but  he  must  legislate  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  principles  acknowledged  in  the  country.  He  also  constitutes,  in 
his  own  person,  the  highest  criminal  court.  The  Chinese  possess  a carefully  digested 
code  of  laws,  which  is  added  to  and  modified  from  time  to  time  by  imperial  edicts. 
Their  penal  code  commenced  3,000  years  ago,  and  copies  of  it  are  sold  at  so  cheap  a rate 
as  to  be  within  reach  of  people  of  the  humblest  means.  Death,  which  the  Chinaman 
prefers  to  long  confinement,  is  the  penalty  for  a large  number  of  offenses,  and  in  ordi- 
nary years  about  10,000  criminals  are  executed.  Several  modes  of  torture  are  legal. 
The  emperor  is  assisted  in  governing  by  two  councils — 1.  The  inner  or  privy  council, 
composed  of  six  high  officials,  three  of  whom  are  Chinese  and  three  Mantchus.  The 
four  senior  ministers  exercise  functions  corresponding  to  those  of  an  English  prime- 
minister.  3.  The  general  or  strategical  council,  which  closely  resembles  our  cabinet; 
being  composed  of  the  most  influential  officers  in  the  capital,  who  exercise  high  legisla- 
tive and  executive  duties.  Under  these  are  six  yamuns  or  colleges  of  government,  each 
charged  with  a distinct  department  of  government.  Over  all  is  the  court  of  general 
inspection,  or  the  censor  ate,  as  it  is  called  by  foreigners.  The  mandarins  composing  this 
number  from  40  to  50;  they  are  “the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  emperor;”  for  it  is  their  prov- 
ince to  see  that  all  officers  of  the  government,  provincial  or  metropolitan,  are  faithful  in 
the  discharge  of  their  respective  duties;  and  they  alone  have  the  right  to  make  represen- 
tations or  complaints  to  the  emperor. 

The  administrative  machinery  of  the  Chinese  is  very  perfect  in  its  organization,  and 
demands  an  attentive  consideration  for  the  right  understanding  of  the  people  and  gov- 
ernment. In  each  of  the  18  provinces  is  an  imperial  delegate  or  governor,  who,  besides 
being  at  the  head  of  the  civil  jurisdiction,  is  commander-in-chief,  and  possesses  the 
power  of  life  and  death  for  certain  capital  offenses.  He  is  privileged  to  correspond  with 
the  cabinet-council  and  the  emperor.  Under  the  governor  are  the  superintendent  of  ' 
provincial  finances,  the  provincial  criminal  judge,  and  the  provincial  educational  exam- 
iner; each  communicates  with  his  especial  board  in  Pekin.  The  governor  is  also  assisted 
by  many  other  judicial  and  administrative  officials.  The  governmental  organization  of 
each  province  is  complete  in  itself,  but  in  a few  instances  two  provinces — Kwang-tung 
and  Kwang-se,  for  instance — form  a viceroyalty,  over  which  a governor-general,  in 
addition  to  the  governors,  exercises  authority.  Every  province  is  again  subdivided  into 
districts,  departments,  and  circuits.  The  average  number  of  districts  in  a province  is 
eighty,  and  each  of  these  is  about  the  size  of  an  English  county.  A civil  functionary. 


Chinese. 


796 


called  sometimes  the  district-magistrate,  presides  over  this  division,  and  is  assisted  by 
several  subordinate  oflScers.  A group  of  districts — six  is  the  average  number  for  the 
whole  18  provinces — forms  a department,  and  is  ruled  by  a prefect,  who  resides  in  the 
fu  or  departmental  city.  Three  departments,  on  an  average,  constitute  a circuit,  oi 
which  an  intendant  (taoutae)  has  the  charge. 

The  several  grades  of  mandarians,  or  Chinese  government  officials  (Chinese  name, 
kwan-fu),  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  a different-colored  ball  or  button  on  the  top  of  the 
cap.  There  are  twelve  orders  of  nobility  confined  to  the  imperial  house  and  clan,  and 
also  five  ancient  orders  of  nobility  open  to  the  civil  and  military  servants  of  the  state. 
The  normal  government  of  China  is  less  a despotism  than  a morally  supported  autocracy, 
and  it  is  in  principle  paternal.  What  the  father  is  to  his  family,  that  the  governor,  the 
prefect,  and  the  magistrate  are  intended  to  be,  each  in  his  own  sphere,  to  the  people ; 
whilst  the  emperor  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  myriad  inhabitants  of  his  vast 
dominions.  In  ordinary  times,  the  Chinaman  enjoys  much  practical  freedom  and  can 
travel  through  the  country  without  passport,  or  follow  any  calling  he  likes. 

The  Chinese  executive  system  is  based  on  those  noteworthy  competitive  examinations^ 
which  are  intended  to  sift  out  from  the  millions  of  educated  Chinese  the  best  and 
ablest  for  the  public  service.  The  first  examination  takes  place  every  three  years  in 
the  capital  of  each  department,  when  the  lowest  degree — that  of  bachelor — is  conferred 
on  a certain  number  of  candidates  from  each  district.  Triennial  examinations  are  held 
in  the  provincial  capital,  presided  over  by  two  examiners  from  Pekin,  at  which  some- 
times as  many  as  10,000  bachelors  present  themselves,  and  compete  for  the  degree  of 
licentiate.  Some  1200  obtain  it,  and  these  may  attend  the  triennial  metropolitan 
examination  at  Pekin,  when  about  200  may  hope  for  the  coveted  degree  of  doctor, 
which  insures  immediate  preferment. 

Mr.  Meadows,  the  most  philosophical,  perhaps,  of  our  writers  on  China,  and  from 
whose  works  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  administrative  system  of  the  country  has 
been  chiefiy  derived,  has  entered  very  fully  into  what  may  be  termed  the  philosophy  oj 
Chinese  government,  which  he  sums  up  in  the  following  doctrines,  and  believes  them  to  be 
deducible  from  the  classic  literature  of  the  country,  and  the  true  causes  of  the  wonder- 
ful duration  of  the  Chinese  empire.  1.  That  the  nation  must  be  governed  by  moral  agency, 
in  preference  to  physical  force.  2.  That  the  services  of  the  wisest  and  ablest  men  in  the 
nation  are  indispensable  to  its  good  government.  3.  That  the  people  have  the  right  to 
depose  a sovereign  who,  either  from  active  wickedness  or  vicious  Indolence,  gives  cause 
to  oppressive  and  tyrannical  rule.  And  to  these  he  adds  an  institution — the  system  of 
public -service  competitive  examinations.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  these  examinations, 
by  directing  the  attention  of  students  solely  to  the  ancient  literature  of  the  country,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  physical  sciences  and  inductive  philosophy,  however  efficient  in  pro- 
ducing that  wonderful  homogeneity  for  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  central  kingdom  are 
famous,  stunt  and  stereotype  the  national  mind,  which,  like  the  dwarfed  tree  the  China- 
man delights  to  raise  in  a flower-pot,  or  the  feet  of  a Chinese  girl,  can  never  fully  expand. 

Education,  as  the  high  road  to  official  employment,  to  rank,  wealth,  and  influence, 
is  eagerly  sought  by  all  classes.  Literary  proficiency  commands  everywhere  respect 
and  consideration,  and  primary  instruction  penetrates  to  the  remotest  villages.  Self- 
supporting  day-schools  are  universal  throughout  the  country,  and  the  office  of  teacher 
is  followed  by  a great  number  of  the  literati.  Government  provides  state-examiners, 
but  does  not  otherwise  assist  in  the  education  of  the  people.  The  Chinese  have  a 
remarkable  reverence  for  the  written  character.  Waste  printed  paper  is  collected  from 
house  to  house  and  burned,  to  preserve  it  from  profanation. 

. Army. — According  to  the  Pekin  Gazette,  China  has  a prodigious  army,  but  in  reality 
the  greater  part  figures  only  on  paper.  Each  province  is  provided  with  a military  force 
varying  from  8,000  to  about  68,000  men.  According  to  Mr.  Meadows  the  average  for 
each  province  is  about  34,500  men,  and  640  officers.  The  governor  of  a province  is 
also  commander-in-chief,  and  is  assisted  by  a general-in-chief,  as  well  as  lieutenants  and 
majors  general.  The  Chinese  and  Tartar  troops  form  two  important  divisions  of  the 
army.  The  Tartar  garrisons  are  indeed  the  real  strength  of  the  Mantchu  emperor.  That 
at  Pekin  is  150,000  strong;  and  18  others,  averaging  each  about  3,000  men,  are  dotted 
about  the  provinces,  forming,  with  their  wives  and  children,  military  colonies.  These 
troops,  which  are  armed  wdth  good  two-edged  swords,  and  serviceable  matchlocks,  or 
the  national  bow,  have  alone  been  able  to  stand  against  the  victorious  Tae-ping  rebels, 
and  turn  them  from  the  capital.  According  to  the  most  recent  statistics  (see  Die  mirth- 
schaftlichen  Zustdnde  im  Suden  und  Osten  Asiens,  Stuttg.  1871),  the  army  is  composed  of 
678  companies  of  Mantchus  of  100  men  each,  of  211  companies  of  Mongols,  of  106,000 
Chinese  cavalry,  and  of  500,000  Chinese  infantry,  besides  a large  body  of  irregular 
militia — in  all  858,000  men.  The  Tartar  infantry  soldier  receives  four  taels  a month, 
and  the  trooper  four  and  a half.  The  marquis  de  Moges  (see  baron  Gros’  Embassy) 
thinks  that  “ two  regiments  of  chasseurs  and  two  regiments  of  zouaves  would  suffice 
to  conquer  China.”  ‘‘  There  is  not,”  he  says,  “a  corps  in  the  empire  that  could  stand 
fast  under  a bayonet  charge.  ” This,  however,  is  no  longer  the  case.  The  native  troops 
in  all  the  large  cities  of  the  empire  are  drilled  after  the  European  fashion,  and  arrned 
with  the  Snider  and  other  breech-loading  rifles;  and  in  the  opinion  of  intelligent  English 


Chinese* 

residents,  the  next  Chinese  war  will  be  a very  different  affair  from  anything  that  has 
preceded  it. 

Navy. — The  imperial  navy  is  divided  into  river  and  sea-going  vessels.  The  former 
amount,  it  is  said,  to  1900  ships;  the  latter  to  918 — with  an  aggregate  number  of  188,000 
sailors.  This  force,  however,  is  insufficient  to  extirpate  or  even  keep  in  check  the 
pirates  who  infest  the  whole  coast  of  China,  and  the  expedient  was  formerly  resorted  to 
of  promoting  a pirate  chief  to  some  high  civil  employment.  Even  yet  he  is  sometimes 
appointed  pilot.  The  Chinese  are  now  building  frigates  on  their  own  account — another 
evidence  of  the  stride  taken  under  the  regency  of  prince  Kung. 

Revenue. — The  estimates  of  the  public  revenue  of  China  vary  greatly,  and  while  they 
are  stated  by  some  to  exceed  100  millions  sterling,  are  held  by  others  not  to  come  up  to  half 
that  amount.  Official  returns  of  the  Chinese  government — intended  for  a special  use — 
were  published  in  1844,  according  to  which  the  revenue  amounted  to  £63,934,713„ 
derived  mainly  from  three  sources — customs  duties,  licenses,  and  a tax  upon  land. 

Religion. — The  Chinese,  remarkable  in  so  many  ways,  exhibit,  in  the  matter  of  relig- 
ion, their  usual  eccentricity.  Three  forms  of  belief — the  Confucian,  the  Buddhist,  and 
the  Taouist — may  be  considered  the  national  religions,  as  they  are  believed  in,  more  or 
less,  by  the  great  mass  of  the  people.  Of  these,  the  Confucian  and  the  Taouist  are  indig- 
enous, but  Buddhism  was  introduced  from  India.  A struggle  for  ascendency  was  long 
maintained  between  these  religions,  but  has  now  entirely  ceased ; indeed,  it  is  no  unusual 
thing  for  all  three  to  be  professed  by  the  same  person,  and  as  they  supplement  each 
other,  this  is  not  altogether  inconsistent.  Confucianism  is  the  basis  of  the  social  life 
and  political  system  of  the  Chinese.  It  has  been  professed  by  all  their  greatest  men,  and 
is  still  the  sole  belief  of  the  educated  classes.  It  is,  however,  less'  a religion  than  a phi- 
losophy, and  does  not  pretend  to  treat  of  spiritual  things;  hence  room  was  left  for  other 
creeds  to  supply  its  deficiencies  in  this  respect.  The  questions  to  which  Confucius- 
replied  were:  “How  shall  I do  my  duty  to  my  neighbor?  How  can  I best  discharge  the 
duty  of  a virtuous  citizen?”  Funereal  temples  are  erected  to  Confucius,  and  though  his 
in>age  is  not  used  as  an  idol,  his  tablet  is  worshiped,  and  sacrifices  of  oxen  and  sheep 
are  offered  before  it  at  the  vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes.  For  an  account  of  Confu- 
cius’s philosophy,  see  Confucius. 

Buddhism  in  China,  though  extending  over  the  whole  country,  and  infiuencing  more 
or  less  the  mass  of  the  people,  is  fast  losing  its  hold  on  them,  and  has  very  little  of  the 
power  and  authority  it  once  possessed.  Its  edifices  are  going  to  decay,  and  no  new 
ones  rise  upon  their  ruins.  Its  priests  are  illiterate,  and  together  with  their  religion,  are 
held  in  contempt  by  the  philosophic  Chinaman.  Aged  people  and  women  are  now  its 
chief  devotees.  The  begging-monk  is  characteristic.  He  wears  a loose  yellow  robe  and 
large  stockings;  at  his  back  is  a wallet  in  which  to  receive  the  contributions  of  the  faith- 
ful; and  he  gives  notice  of  his  approach  by  striking  his  mu7i-yu.  The  northern  form  of 
Buddhism,  which  differs  considerably  from  that  of  Ceylon  and  the  Indo-Chinese  penin- 
sula, prevails  in  China.  Its  sacred  books,  in  common  with  those  of  Nepaul  and  Tibet 
are  written  in  Sanscrit,  or  are  translations  from  that  language.  Amongst  other  addi- 
tions to  the  creed  are  the  western  paradise  and  the  goddess  of  mercy. 

Taouism  has  not  more  hold  than  Buddhism  on  the  literate  Chinese.  Its  priests  are 
generally  ignorant  men,  few  of  them  teaching  or  understanding  the  real  principles  of 
their  faith.  They  practise  a mystic  alchemy,  prepare  spells  and  incantations,  and  like 
modern  spiritualists,  hold  intercourse  with  the  dead.  When  all  other  remedies  have  failed 
with  a sick  person,  the  Taouist  priests  are  sometimes  sent  for  to  exercise  the  evil  spiiit 
that  is  supposed  to  afflict  the  patient;  and  they  chant  prayers  from  their  mystic  ritual, 
amid  the  din  of  gongs,  drums,  flutes,  etc.  These  mystics  worship  certain  stars,  which  are 
supposed  to  influence  human  life,  and  also  genii,  devils,  and  inferior  spirits.  They  live 
in  temples  with  their  families,  and  are  known  by  their  slate-colored  robes.  For  a fuller 
account  of  Taouism  and  its  doctrines  and  founder,  see  Lao-tse. 

Besides  these  three  religions,  which  alone  affect  the  bulk  of  the  people,  there  is  a 
ritual  state  worship,  which  regards  the  emperor  and  court  alone — a kind  of  philosophic 
pantheism,  an  adoration  of  certain  natural  objects;  but  it  is  a mere  ceremonial,  and  asso- 
ciated with  no  theological  doctrines.  Three  classes  of  objects  are  distinguisned,  to  which 
the  great,  medium,  and  lesser  sacrifices  are  offered.  The  first-class  includes  the  heaven 
and  earth.  Equal  to  these,  and  likewise  restricted  to  the  v^orship  of  the  emperor,  is  the 
great  temple  of  imperial  ancestors.  The  medium  sacrifices  are  offered  to  the  sun  and 
moon,  the. gods  of  the  land  and  grain,  genii,  and  sages.  In  the  third  class  are  reckoned 
certain  natural  phenomena,  as  well  as  deceased  statesmen  and  scholars.  The  emperor 
appears  to  acknowledge  a supreme  Being  as  king  of  kings,  the  rewarder  of  virtue  and 
the  punisher  of  vice;  but  still,  Chinese  philosophy,  as  fixed  by  Chu-tze,  is  atheistical, 
and  deduces  “ the  development  of  the  universe  from  one  unintelligent  and  will-less  prin- 
ciple.” Hence  all  educated  Chinese  are  atheists,  at  least  theoretically,  as  will  be  found 
by  arguing  with  them;  but  when  they  speak  of  human  affairs  generally,  and  their  own 
particular  lot  in  life,  they  exhibit  a belief  in  teen  as  a supreme,  intelligent,  rewarding,, 
and  punishing  power. 

Between  the  followers  of  the  three  national  religions  there  is  not  only  a total  absence 
of  persecution  and  bitter  feeling,  but  a very  great  indifference  as  to  which  of  them  a 
man  may  belong.  It  arises  probably  from  religious  apathy;  yet  still  it  is  preferable  to- 


Cliinefe. 


798 


the  fanatical  zeal  and  cut-throat  earnestness  of  the  Moslem.  Amongst  the  politer  classes, 
when  strangers  meet,  the  question  is  asked:  “ To  what  sublime  religion  do  you  belong?” 
and  each  one  pronounces  a eulogium,  not  on  his  own  religion,  but  on  that  professed  by 
the  others,  and  concludes, with  the  oft-repeated  formula:  “ Religions  are  many;  reason 
is  one;  we  are  all  brothers.”  The  government  is  equally  tolerant  of  religious  diversity, 
except  where  a political  design  is  suspected. 

Temples  belonging  to  the  three  religions  are  very  numerous.  Those  dedicated  to 
Confucius  are  funereal  in  character.  The  Buddhist  temples  are  crowded  with  images, 
and  Buddha  is  represented  expounding  his  doctrine  to  attentive  listeners.  The  many- 
storied  tower  takes  the  place  of  the  bell-shaped  dagoba  or  relic-shrine  of  other  Buddhist 
countries. 

History  and  British  Intercourse. — The  early  annals  of  China,  like  those  of  most  other 
countries,  belong  rather  to  mythology  than  to  history.  Beginning  with  Pan-ku,  the  first 
of  all  beings,  the  country  was  ruled  over  first  by  gods,  and  then  god-descended  person- 
ages, who  revealed  to  men  the  essential  arts  of  life.  Of  those  mythical  rulers  the  most 
famous  is  Po-hi.  The  historical  period  may  be  said  to  commence  with  the  Hia  period 
or  dynasty,  begun  by  Yu  the  great  about  2200  b.c.,  although  a great  infusion  of  the 
fabulous  still  continues.  Some  date  the  real  history  of  China  from  the  Tchow  or  Chow 
dynasty,  which  began  with  Wu-wang  about  1100  b.c.  It  was  during  the  reign  of  Ling- 
wang  (571-544),  one  of  this  dynasty,  that  Confucius  was  born.  China  would  seem  during 
this  period  to  have  been  divided  into  a number  of  independent  states.  The  kings  of 
Tsin  gradually  gained  the  ascendency,  and  at  last  one  of  them  reduced  the  other  states 
to  subjection  (247  b.c,),  and  assumed  the  title  of  Hoang,  or  emperor.  It  is  from  the 
Tsin  dynasty  that  the  country  has  taken  its  name,  Tsina  or  China.  This  first  emperor 
finished  the  great  wall  (see  above),  as  a protection  against  the  Tartars,  who  had  all  along, 
under  the  name  of  Hiong-nu  (Huns),  been  a source  of  danger  and  annoyance  to  the 
richer  and  more  pacific  Chinese.  We  cannot  enumerate  the  various  dynasties  that  fol- 
lowed, nor  the  frequent  divisions  and  reunions  of  the  empire,  varied  by  incursions  and 
partial  subjugations  by  the  troublesome  Tartars.  At  last,  the  Mongols  or  western  Tar- 
tars, being  called  in  to  aid  the  Chinese  (1209),  became  finally  (see  Kublai  Khan)  masters 
of  the  wiiole  country  (1279),  and  reigned  over  it  till  1368,  when  they  were  expelled  by 
the  Chinese,  and  the  Ming  native  dynasty  succeeded,  which  lasted  276  years,  and  fell  at 
length  through  its  own  misgovernment.  A general  of  the  last  Ming  emperor,  who  was 
employed  in  keeping  the  Mantchus  (q.v.)  in  check,  made  peace  with  them,  and  obtained 
their  assistance  against  the  native  usurper  who  had  deposed  his  sovereign.  The  Mantchus 
established  themselves  in  Pekin  (1644),  and  finally,  after  a seven.years’  struggle,  acquired 
the  sovereignty  of  the  whole  empire.  Many  of  the  conquering  race  now  filled  the  high- 
est offices  of  state,  and  owed  their  position  to  birth  alone.  More  than  one  powerful 
emperor  of  the  race  has  ably  conducted  the  government  of  the  country;  butHien  Fung, 
who  ruled  from  1850  to  1861,  was  reported  to  have  passed  his  time  in  a state  of  drunken 
imbecility.  C The  late  emperor,  Tung-chi,  succeeded  to  the  throne  when  only  a child  five 
years  old,  but  the  government  was  ably  carried  on  under  the  co-regency  of  the  empress- 
dowager,  Tze-an,  the  empress-mother,  Tze-sse,  and  the  enlightened  prince  Kung,  brother 
of  Hien  Fung.  Tsai-Tien,  cousin  of  Tung-chi,  ascended  the  throne  in  1875.  As  he  was 
then  only  about  four  years  old,  the  empresses  continued  to  act  as  regentg^ 

Of  recent  events  in  Chinese  history,  the  most  remarkable  is  the  rise,  progress,  and 
overthrow  of  the  Tae-ping  rebels.  Their  famous  leader,  Hung-sew-tseuen,  was  a man  of 
humble  origin,  and  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  government  employment.  Some 
Christian  tracts,  it  is  said,  led  him  to  renounce  idolatry,  and  he  founded  a society  of 
Ood-worshipers,  which,  in  the  autumn  of  1850,  was  brought  into  collision  with  the 
imperial  authorities,  and  immediately  assumed  a political  character.  Hung  persuaded 
himself  and  his  followers  that  he  had  received  a divine  commission  to  uproot  idolatry, 
extirpate  the  Tartar  intruders  in  the  country,  and  establish  the  new  native  dynasty  of 
Tae-ping,  or  universal  peace.  He  assumed  the  title  of  heavenly  or  divine  prince  (Tae- 
ping-wang,  sometimes  called  Tien-wang),  and  bestowed  the  titles  of  eastern  prince, 
western  prince,  southern  prince,  northern  prince,  and  assistant  prince  on  five  of  his 
chosen  leaders.  The  fanatical  principle  of  divine  revelations  and  other  extravagances 
followed.  They  spoke  of  Tien-na,  the  wife  of  the  Heavenly  Father;  they  held  that 
Tien-wang  was  the  son  of  God  as  really  as  Jesus,  and  worshiped  him  accordingly. 
Polygamy  was  a dark  feature  of  their  system,  the  Tien-wang  himself  having  married  30 
wives.  The  course  of  this  religio-political  rebellion,  the  victorious  march  of  the  Tae- 
ping  army  from  Kwang-se  to  Nankin  in  1850-53,  and  its  subsequent  career,  cannot  here  be 
traced.  We  can  only  afford  room  to  state,  that  after  a series  of  wasteful  and  revolting 
barbarities,  it  was  finally  suppressed  in  1865  by  the  imperial  troops,  led  by  British  and 
American  officers,  of  whom  the  most  conspicuous  and  able  was  col.  Gordon.  See  Tab- 
bings. 

In  early  times,  the  Chinese  do  not  appear  to  have  been  opposed  to  intercourse  with 
foreigners;  but  the  conduct  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  between  1520  and  1570 
excited  their  hostility.  The  Mantchu  government  restricted  British  trade  and  inter- 
course to  Canton,  where  it  was  carried  on  through  the  medium  of  the  hong  merchants 
on  the  one  side,  and  the  East  India  company  on  the  other.  Differences  arose,  however, 
from  time  to  time  between  these  two  commercial  bodies,  occasioned  chiefly  by  the  exac- 


799 


Chinese* 


tlons  of  the  mandarins  on  foreign  trade.  With  a view  to  a better  understanding,  the- 
British  government  despatched  to  Pekin  an  embassy  under  lord  Macartney  in  1792,  and 
another  under  lord  Amherst  in  1816.  On  the  22d  April,  1834,  the  monopoly  of  the  East 
India  company  ceased,  and  British  imperial  officers  were  appointed  to  carry  out  the  new 
judicial  and  fiscal  arrangements.  Constant  dissensions  between  these  and  the  manda- 
rins continued  till  the  end  of  the  year  1839,  when  the  latter,  under  pretense  of  stopping 
the  opium-trade,  committed  acts  of  open  hostility.  A war  broke  out  the  following  year, 
at  the  commencement  of  which  Chinese  officials  talked  of  invading  England  overland, 
by  way  of  Russia.  The  imperial  government  was,  however,  sufficiently  humbled  by  the 
middle  of  the  year  1842,  and  on  the  29tli  Aug.,  a treaty  of  peace  was  signed  before  Nan 
kin,  by  which  the  ports  of  Amoy,  Fu-chow,  Ning-po,  and  Shang-hae  were,  in  addition  to- 
Canton,  throwm  open  to  foreign  trade.  The  other  most  important  articles  of  the  treaty 
provided  that  the  island  of  Hong  kong  should  be  ceded  in  perpetuity  to  her  Britannic 
majesty,  her  heirs  and  successors,  and  that  the  emperor  of  China  should  pay  $21,000,009 
towards  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

With  five  free  ports,  British  trade  with  China  soon  assumed  gigantic  proportions; 
and  though  the  Chinese  evaded  the  treaty  whenever  practicable,  no  important  event 
occurred  to  interrupt  commercial  intercourse  till  8th  Oct.,  1856,  when  the  authorities  at 
Canton  seized  the  crew  of  the  lorcha  Arrow,  a vessel  registered  at  Hong-kong,  and 
entitled,  it  was  considered,  to  British  protection.  Under  pressure  from  the  British 
forces  at  hand,  the  imperial  commissioner,  Yeh,  delivered  up  the  men,  but  refused  all 
apology.  Yeh  continuing  obstinate.  Canton  was  stormed  (Dec.  28,  1857)  by  the  allied 
French  and  English  forces,  and  the  Chinese  imperial  commissioner  captured  (Jan.  5, 
1858).  The  government  of  the  city  was  still  carried  on  by  Chinese  officials,  but  under 
the  authority  of  the  plenipotentiaries  and  commander-in-chief.  The  former  now  pro- 
ceeded to  the  n.  of  China,  to  put  themselves  in  more  direct  corrmunication  with  the 
imperial  government,  which  still  continued  obstinate.  The  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho  were  taken  (May  20,  1858),  and  at  length  an  important  treaty  was  signed  at  Tien- 
tsin, June  26,  1858,  which  stipulates  that  the  queen  of  Great  Britain  may  (art.  ii.) 
appoint  diplomatic  agents  to  the  court  of  Pekin,  who  (art.  iii.)  shall  be  allowed  to  reside 
at  the  capital,  where  also  her  majesty  may  acquire  a building  site.  The  Christiau 
religion  (art.  viii.)  shall  be  protected  by  the  Chinese  authorities.  British  subjects  (art. 
ix.)  shall  be  allowed  to  travel  for  pleasure  or  business  to  all  parts  of  the  interior,  under 
passports  issued  by  their  consul.  British  merchant-ships  shall  trade  (art.  x.)  upon  tho 
Great  river  (Yang-tze);  but  as  its  lower  valley  is  disturbed  by  outlaws,  no  port  except 
Chin-keang  shall  be  opened  for  the  present.  Chin-keang  to  be  opened  in  a year  from 
the  date  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty. 

By  this  treaty,  the  vexed  question  of  transit-dues  is  settled,  it  being  agreed  that  tho 
British  merchant  may  purchase  at  the  rate  of  2i  per  cent  ad.  mlorem,  in  the  case  of 
imports  at  the  port  of  entry;  and  in  the  case  of  exports,  he  may  purchase  a certificate 
enabling  him  to  pass  his  goods,  duty-free,  to  the  port  of  shipment.  By  a separate 
clause,  the  Chinese  government  agreed  to  pay  two  million  taels  (about  £650,000),  as 
indemnity  for  losses  sustained  by  British  subjects  at  Canton,  and  a like  sum  towards 
the  expenses  of  the  rrar. 

The  repulse  on  the  Peiho  (June,  1859),  by  a Tartar  force  concealed  in  the  Taku  forts,  of 
the  expedition  forming  the  escort  of  the  British  and  French  ambassadors,  who  were  on  their 
way  to  Pekin,  to  ratify  with  the  emperor  of  China  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin,  entailed  another 
costly  demonstration  in  the  Chinese  waters.  The  Taku  forts  were  captured  by  the  allied 
English  and  French  forces,  Aug.  21,  1860,  and  Pekin  itself  in  Dec.,  1860.  The  treaty 
of  Tien-tsin  was  ratified,  two  additional  articles  being  inserted,  one  of  which  legalized 
coolie  emigration.  Since  1861,  a gradual  but  beneficial  change  has  come  over  the  spirit 
of  the  Chinese  government.  Prince  Rung  proved  a vigorous  and  successful  regent. 
The  army  has  been  reorganized,  and  is  now  subjected  to  European  drill  (see  par.  army)\. 
a respect  for  the  observance  of  treaties  has  sprung  up ; a national  flag  has  been  adopted, 
and  a desire  shown  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with 
international  law.  In  1866,  arrangements  were  begun  for  telegraphic  communication 
between  Pekin  and  the  rest  of  the  world;  and  emigration  to  all  other  countries  was 
allowed.  Shanghai  has  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe,  and  some  local  lines; 
but  the  first  Chinese  railway  opened  there  in  1876,  has  unluckily  been  closed  again. 
Chinese  are  now  found  on  almost  every  shore  of  the  Paciflc,  where  their  industry,  skill, 
and  sobriety  secure  them  abundant  employment.  They  are  especially  numerous  in  the 
Paciflc  states  of  the  American  Union,  where  harsh  measures,  including  a heavy  tax  ou 
arriving,  have  recently  been  adopted  in  order  to  repress  Chinese  immigration.  Between 
1855  and  1878,  upwards  of  200,000  Chinese  had,  for  a longer  or  shorter  time,  established 
themselves  in  the  United  States. 

Commerce. — The  rivers  and  numberless  canals  of  China  are  covered  with  vessels  of 
all  sizes,  employed  in  the  internal  commerce  of  the  country.  The  Chinese  are  devoted 
to  traffic,  and  the  Middle  Kingdom  is  throughout  its  length  and  breadth  a perpetual  fair. 
The  total  value  of  the  imports  into  China  in  1876  is  given  at  £23,423,190,  and  of  the 
exports,  £26,950,170,  Tea  and  silk  are  the  great  staple  exports  from  China.  The  table 
gives  some  recent  statistics  of  British  trade  with  C. : 


Chinese. 


800 


Year. 

1870. 

1873. 

1875. 

1877. 


Exports  from  China 
to  Great  Britain. 

...  £9,481,737 
...  12,454,234 
...  14,809,632 
....  15,323,342 


Imports  of  British  Home 
Produce  into  China. 

£6,139,633 

4,882,701 

8,528,311 

7,912,663 


There  is  no  coinage  in  China  except  the  copper  tchen,  or  “ cash,”  which  is  in  value 
nbout  the  tenth  of  a halfpenny ; and  all  but  the  most  trifling  payments  are  made  by  a 
certain  weight  of  silver,  or  in  Mexican  or  Spanish  dollars.  Chinese  accounts  are  kept  in 
taels,  mace,  candareens,  and  cash.  A tael  is  worth  6s.  8d. , British  currency. 

The  following  works  (which  have  been  used  as  authorities  in  the  preparation  of  this 
article)  may  be  consulted  for  further  information  on  China.  Meadows’s  Chinese  and 
their  Behellions  (Lond.  1856);  Davis’s  (sir  J.  F.)  China:  a General  Description  of  that 
Empire  (Londi.  1857);  Davis’s  uhina  during  the  War  and  since  the  Peace  (Lond.  1852); 
Williams’s  Middle  Kingdom  (New  York  and  Lond.  1848);  Oliphant’s  Narrative  of  the 
Earl  of  Elgin's  Mission  to  China  and  Japan,  in  the  years  1857,  1858,  and  1859  (Edin. 
1859);  Marquis  de  Moges’s  Recollections  of  Baron  Gros’s  Embassy  to  China  and  Japan  in 
1857  and  1858  (Lond.  1860);  Hue’s  Chinese  Empire  (Lond.  1858);  Cooke’s  China  in  1857 
1858;  Fortune’s  Three  Years'  Wanderings  in  China  (Lond.  1847);  Fortune’s  Visit  to 
the  Tea  Districts  of  China  (Lond.  1852);  Edkin's  Religious  Condition  of  the  Chinese  (1858); 
Cobbold’s  Pictures  of  the  Chinese  by  Themselves  (1859);  Twelve  Tears  in  China,  by  a 
British  Resident  Memoire^  sur  la  (1869);  Rev.  A.  Williamson’s  Journeys  in 

North  China,  etc.  (1870);  also  Dr.  Gray’s  China:  a History  of  the  Laws,  Manners,  and 
Opinions  of  the  People  (1878);  and  the  Freiherr  von  Richthofen’s  great  work,  China 
(1st  vol.  1877). 


CHINESE  EDIBLE  DOG.  The  kind  of  dog  used  as  an  article  of  food  in  China,  and 
reared  in  order  to  be  so  used,  being  esteemed  as  a delicacy,  is  a small  dog  of  greyhound- 
like form,  with  somewhat  terrier-like  head,  and  muzzle  more  elongated  than  in  terriers. 
It  is  fleet  and  active,  gentle  and  affectionate.  The  skin  is  almost  destitute  of  hair;  but 
there  is  a variety  having  a crest  of  long  hair  on  the  head,  and  a large  tuft  of  hair  at  the 
tip  of  the  slender  and  otherwise  naked  tail. 

CHINESE  HEMP.  See  Corchorus. 

CHINESE  INK.  See  Indian  Ink. 


CHINESE  LANGUAGE,  WEITING,  AND  LITEEATURE.  The  Chinese  language  belongs 
to  those  Asiatic  languages  commonly  called  monosyllabic,  because  each  word  is  uttered 
by  a single  movement  of  the  organs  of  speech,  and  expresses  in  itself  a complete  idea  or 
thing.  All  Chinese  words  end  either  in  a vowel,  a diphthong  (in  which,  however,  each 
vowel  sound  is  distinctly  pronounced,  making  the  word  often  to  appear  of  more  than  one 
syllable),  or  a nasal.  Of  such  simple  words  or  roots  there  are  about  450.  But  the  emphasis 
or  accent  of  many  of  these  words  may  be  varied  by  the  speaker  in  four  or  five  different 
ways,  so  as  to  produce  a corresponding  variety  in  their  meaning,  by  which  means  the 
number  of  simple  words  or  roots  amounts  to  about  1200.  There  is  no  distinction  of  parts  of 
speech  in  the  Chinese  language,  and  no  recognition  of  the  principle  of  inflection,  Chinese 
words  being  incapable  of  any  modification  oiform.  The  relations  of  words  are  ascertained 
by  their  position  in  a sentence.  Hence  Chinese  grammar  is  solely  syntax.  Thus  ta,  accord- 
ing to  its  position  in  a sentence,  at  one  time  serves  the  purpose  of  an  adjective,  meaning 
“great;”  at  another,  a substantive,  meaning  “ greatness;”  and  again  of  a verb,  meaning 
“ to  enlarge”  and  “to  be  great,”  or  of  the  adverb  “very.”  There  are  certain  words, 
however,  which  have  at  length  lapsed  into  so  vague  and  general  a signification,  that  in 
conversation  and  literature  they  are  now  used  in  some  cases  as  particles  to  determine 
the  relations  of  other  words;  but  in  the  older  literature  this  is  very  rare,  and  is  against 
the  genius  of  the  language.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  readily  be  inferred  that 
the  gender,  number,  and  case  of  words  are  not  determined  by  the  form  of  the  words 
themselves.  They  are,  in  fact,  denoted  by  the  addition  of  other  words.  Thus,  people 
in  Chinese  is  multitude  man,  son  is  man  child,  daughter  is  woman  child.  The  best  of  men 
is  in  Chinese  a hundred  man  good.  The  purest  Chinese  is  spoken  at  Nankin,  but  the 
same  idiom,  called  “the  language  of  the  mandarins,”  is  spoken  by  the  educated  in  all 
parts  of  the  empire.  For  a knowledge  of  Chinese  grammar,  see  Schott’s  Chine&ische 
Sprachlehre  (Berlin,  1857);  Summers's,  Handbook  of  the  Chinese  Language  Julien, 

Syntaxe  Nouvelle  de  la  Langue  Chinoise  (Paris,  1870);  Morrison’s  Dictionary  of  the  ijhinese 
Language  (Shanghai,  1865). 

In  Chinese  the  written  character,  generally  speaking,  does  not  indicate  the  sound  of 
the  word,  but  gives  a kind  of  hieroglyphic  or  pictorial  representation  of  the  idea  or 
thing  to  be  expressed.  Hence  there  are  required  as  many  of  these  characters  or  sjnnbols 
as  there  are  ideas  to  be  represented.  Since  many  words  similar  in  sound  are  different 
in  signification,  whilst  in  writing  each  'd-^ia  has  its  peculiar  symbol,  the  number  of 
words  represented  by  writing — without  reckoning  those  peculiar  to  certain  dialects — is 
perhaps  ten  times  greater  than  those  distinguished  by  the  ear.  The  number,  in  fact,  is 
reckoned  at  50,000,  but  these  are  far  from”  being  all  in  general  use.  In  writing  and 


801 


Chinece. 


printing,  the  characters  are  arranged  in  perpendicular  columns,  which  follow  one 
another  from  right  to  left. 

In  its  origin,  Chinese  writing  is  hieroglyphic  or  picture-writing,  with  the  addition  of 
a limited  number  of  symbolical  and  conventional  signs;  the  larger  number  of  Chinese 
characters  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  such  hieioglyphs  and  signs.  But  as  one 
such  character  by  itself  seldom  determines  the  sound,  an  additional  word  is  con- 
joined for  this  purpose;  so  that  the  great  mass  of  Chinese  written  words  consist  of  an 
ideographic  and  a phonetic  element.  Native  grammarians  divide  their  characters  into 
six  classes.  The  tirst  class  comprises  simple  i)ictorial  representations  of  sensible  objects, 
such  as  sun,  moon,  mountain,  etc.,  and  contains  608  characters.  The  second  class 
includes  such  characters  as  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  two  or  more  simple  hiero- 
glyphs. which  together  convey,  in  a more  or  less  intelligible  manner,  some  other  idea: 
for  example,  the  hieroglyph  for  sun,  combined  with  that  for  moon,  conveys  the  idea  of 
light;  mouth  and  bird,  that  of  song,  etc.;  of  these  there  are  740.  The  third  class 
embraces  those  characters  which  indicate  certain  relations  of  position,  as  above,  below, 
the  numerals,  etc. ; of  these  there  are  107.  The  fourth  class  consists  of  characters  which, 
by  being  inverted,  acquire  an  opposite  signification,  as  right,  left,  standing,  lying,  etc., 
and  contains  372.  The  characters  of  the  fifth  class  are  termed  derived  characters; 
the  meaning  of  the  simple  or  compound  characters  used  to  express  physical  objects,  is 
transferred  to  mental  objects,  or  to  other  physical  objects  with  which  they  are  asso- 
ciated, e.  g.,  the  hieroglyph  for  a heart  signifies  the  soul — that  for  a room,  signifies  the 
wife,  etc. ; of  these  there  are  598.  The  characters  of  the  sixth  class  include  those  which 
are  comp-osed,  as  above  mentioned,  of  sign  and  sound.  Almost  all  names  of  plants,  fishes, 
birds,  and  many  other  objects  which  it  w’ould  be  difficult  to  represent  hicrogiyphically,  are 
denoted  by  the  compound  characters  of  the  sixth  class,  which  amount  to  21,810  in  num- 
ber. As  this  class,  however,  consists  merely  of  repetitions  of  the  other  five  classes,  the 
immense  number  of  Chinese  characters  may  be  reduced  to  2,425;  and  whoever  learns 
these  may  be  said  to  know  them  all. 

The  hierogiyphical  characters  in  their  oldest  form  were  easily  recognizable  figures: 
thus,  the  hieroglyph  for  sun  was  as  in  the  fig.  at  a\  for  moon,  as  at  6;  for  light,  a combi- 
nation of  sun  and  moon,  as  at  c;  fortolisten, 
folding-doors  and  an  ear,  as  at  d\  for  white, 
a very  squint  e3’^e,  in  which  hardly  anything 
but  the  white  is  seen,  as  at  e;  for  friends,  the  (J 
two  valves  of  a bivalve  shell,  as  at/.  In  the  a 
course  of  time,  through  hasty  and  careless 
tracing,  the  objects  denoted  by  the  hiero-  a 
glyphs  have  almost  ceased  to  be  recognizable.  ^ 

The  modern  hieroglyphs  corresponding  to 
the  above  are  as  represented  at  a',  h\  c',  etc. 

See  Abel  Remusat’s  “Memoire  sur  I’Ecriture 
Chinoise,”  in  the  Memoires  de  V Academie  des  Inscriptions,  vol.  viii. ; and  for  a view  of 
the  Chiuese  characters,  both  ancient  and  modern,  Hager’s  Monument  de  Yu  (Par.  1802). 

The  Chinese  literature,  in  a geographical,  ethnographical,  and  historical  point  of 
view,  is  unquestionably  the  most  comprehensivi  and  important  of  the  whole  of  Asia. 
The  printed  catalogue  of  the  emperor  Kien-long’s  library  is  composed  of  122  volumes; 
and  a selection  of  the  Chinese  classics,  with  conr.mentaries  and  scholia,  which  was  begun 
by  the  order  of  the  same  emperor,  is  said  to  comprise  180,000  volumes,  of  which,  in 
the  year  1818,  78,731  volumes  had  already  appeared.  In  the  five  canonical  or  classical 
books,  called  King,  are  contained  the  oldest  monuments  of  Chinese  poetry,  history, 
philosophy,  and  jurisprudence,  some  portions  of  which  belong,  perhaps,  to  the  most 
ancient  writings  of  the  human  race.  Confucius  (q.v.),  in  the  6th  c.  b.c.,  collected 
them  from  various  sources,  and  in  this  collection  thej’’  have  been  pretty  faithfully 
handed  down  to  us.  Next  to  these  in  value  are  the  Sse-shu,  or  the  four  books.  These, 
as  they  were  WTitten  by  Confucius  and  his  disciples,  must  be  regarded  as  the  most 
trustworthy  source  of  insight  into  the  intellectual  and  political  life  of  the  Chinese. 
A complete  and  elaborate  edition  of  the  five  King  and  the  four  Shoo  has  been  under- 
taken by  our  great  English  Sinologue,  Dr.  Legge,  under  the  title  of  “The  Chinese 
Classics,  wilh  a translation,  critical  and  exegetical  notes,  prolegomena,  and  copious 
indexes.  In  seven  volumes;”  of  which  five  vols.  appeared  between  1861  and  1878. 
A popular  edition,  under  the  title  of  “The  Chinese  Classics  translated  into  English,” 
has  also  been  published,  of  which  vols.  i.  and  ii.  deal  respectively  with  the  “Life  and 
Teachings  of  Confucius”  and  the  “Works  of  Mencius.”  Almost  contemporary  with 
Confucius  lived  Lao-tse  (q.v,).  who  was  born  604  b.c.  He  was  the  founder  of  a school 
of  philosophy,  more  spiritual  in  its  character  than  that  of  Confucius,  but  which  has 
now  degenerated  into  the  lowest  and  must  vulgar  kind  of  demonology;  see  Le  Lime  de 
la  Voie  de  la  Vertu,  Chinese  and  French,  by  Julien  (Par.  1842).  In  mythology,  the 
Chinese  have  The  Book  of  the  Mountains  and  Seas,  2 he  History  of  the  Gods  and  Spirits, 
and  some  others.  In  jurisprudence  may  be  mentioned  the  universal  collection  of 
laws,  and  the  criminal  code  of  the  present  dynasty;  see  Ta- Tdng4u-li,  being  the  Fun- 
damental Laws  and  Supplementary  Statutes  of  the  Penal  Code  of  China,  by  Staunton 
(Lond,  1810).  The  Chinese  literature  is  also  very  rich  in  works  on  medicine,  natural 
U.  K.  III.-51 


J)  (|)  ©o  ■ 

Bed  0 f 

p <r  d'  ^ 

Chinese  Characters. 


Clilnese. 

Cliipman. 


802 


history,  astronomy,  agriculture,  military  science,  music,  and  all  branches  of  mechanics 
and  industry;  Retfume  des  'primi'paux  TraUea  Chirwis,  mr  la  Culture  des  Muriers  et 
VEducation  des  Vers-d-soie,  by  Julieu  (Pur.  1837).  lii  philology,  the  most  valuable 
works  are  the  dictionaries,  in  which  the  Chinese  characters  have  been  collected  and 
elucidated  by  examples  from  the  whole  treasury  of  Chinese  literature;  but  the  greatest 
of  all  works  of  this  kind  is  the  dictionary  of  the  emperor  Kang-hi,  which  is  now 
regarded  as  the  highest  authority  for  the  pronunciation  and  meaning  of  the  charac- 
ters. Of  the  encycloptedias  of  the  Chinese,  the  most  conspicuous  are  that  by  Ma-tuan- 
lin  (1300  A.D.),  called  Wen-hien-iltong-khao — i.e.,  an  accurate  investigation  of  the  ancient 
documents,  with  rich  supplements;  and  the  Koo-kindoo-Hhoodsei-chi/ig,  or  Complete  CoUec- 
tiou  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Books — of  which  latter  vast  work  a copy  was  secured  for  the 
British  museum  in  1877.  But  the  most  valuable  portions  of  the  Chinese  literature  are, 
undoubtedly,  their  historical  and  geographical  works,  which  are  indispensable  to  a 
knowledge  of  Upper  Asia.  Sse-ma-thsian  (100  b.c.)  compiled,  from  every  recognized 
authority,  a work  called or  historical  memorials,  which  embraces  the  history  of 
China  from  the  year  2637  b.c.  up  to  the  commencement  of  the  dynasty  of  Ilan  in  the 
2d  c.  B.c.  This  work  has  been  continued  by  the  different  dynasties,  and  forms  a 
complete  collection  of  the  annals  of  the  empire  up  to  the  termination  of  the  Ming 
dynasty  in  1643  a.d.  It  is  known  under  the  title  of  Nian-eul-sse,  or  the  22  histories. 
The  entire  collection  of  the  official  annals  from  2698  b.c.  to  1645  a.d.,  comprising  a 

Seriod  of  4343  years,  and  consisting  of  3706  books,  is  to  be  found  in  the  library  at 
[unich. 

Amid  all  their  scientific  labors,  the  Chinese  have  not  neglected  the  art  of  poetry, 
in  wdiicli  they  possess  voluminous  collections  that  have  yet  to  be  make  known  to  Europe. 
In  lyrical  poetry,  the  most  distinguished  names  are  Li-thai-pe  and  Tu-su,  both  of  whom 
flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  8th  c.  a.d.;  see  Davis  “On  the  I^oetry  of  the 
Chinese,”  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Boyal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  ii.  The  romantic  poetry 
of  the  Chinese,  although  void  of  poetic  beauty,  is  valuable  for  the  insight  it  gives  into 
their  domestic  life.  Their  dramatic  poetry  has  laws  peculiar  to  itself,  and  resembles 
partly  the  romantic  drama  of  the  Germans,  and  partly  the  comedia  delle  arte  of  the 
Italians.  They  have  also  a kind  of  novel  in  dialogues,  which  forms  a subordinate 
species  of  drama.  Besides  the  speaking  persons  or  actors,  there  is  what  they  call  a 
singing  person,  who  introduces  into  the  piece  songs  which  he  sings  to  popular  melodies, 
and  appears  to  correspond  in  a rude  way  to  the  Greek  chorus.  The  best  collection  of 
works  in  this  species  of  literature  is  the  Yuen-dschin-pe-tschong,  i.e.,  the  hundred  dramas 
from  the  Mongol  dynasty  (1260-1341),  from  which  all  the  Chinese  dramas  known  to 
Europeans  have  been  taken.  A Chinese  novel,  affording  a graphic  view  of  the  tastes 
and  literary  views  of  that  people,  was  some  time  ago  placed  within  the  reach  of 
European  readers  by  the  eminent  Chinese  scholar  Stanislas  Julien,  under  the  title  of 
Les  Deux  Jeunes  Fiiles  Lettrees  (Par.  1860).  English  readers  may  also  obtain  instructive 
pictures  of  Chinese  life  from  lu-kias-li,  or  the  Two  Fair  Cousins,  transl.ited  from  the 
French  version  of  Remusat  in  1827;  and  The  Flowery  Scroll,  translated,  with  numerous 
learned  notes,  by  sir  John  Bowring,  in  1868.  But  valuable  sketches  will  be  found  in 
Schott’s  Chinesische  Spi'achlehre  (1857),  Davis’s  Chinese  Miscellanies  (1865),  and  Wylie’s 
Fotes  on  Chinese  Literature  (Shanghai,  1867). 

CHINESE  SEA,  or  China  Sea,  that  portion  of  the  Pacific  ocean  which  has  China  and 
Siam  on  the  w.,  the  island  of  Formosa,  on  the  n..  the  Philippines  on  the  c.,  and  Borneo 
on  the  s.,  and  which  forms  the  great  gulfs  of  Tonquin  and  Siam. 

CHINESE  WHITE.  The  white  oxide  of  zinc  has  recently  been  introduced  into  the 
arts,  under  this  name,  as  a pigment  in  place  of  the  preparations  of  white-lead.  It 
changes  very  little  either  by  atmospheric  action,  or  by  mixing  with  other  pigments; 
but  it  has  not  the  body  of  white-lead. 

CHINGLEPUT'.— 1.  A fort,  with  a t.  adjacent,  in  lat.  12°  4V  n.,  and  long.  80°  2'e.,  36 
m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Madras.  It  is  accessible  to  an  enemy  only  from  the  s.,  having  a tank 
or  artificial  lake  on  the  e.  and  part  of  the  n.,  and  rice-fields,  irrigated  from  the  same,  on 
the  remainder  of  the  n.  and  on  the  west.  In  the  dry  season  the  tank  is  nearly  exhausted, 
the  weeds  and  slime  in  its  bed  causing  malaria.  Notwithstanding  this,  however,  the 
place  is  considered  to  be  more  than  ordinarily  healthy.  Pop.  of  town  (officially  spelt 
Chengalpaf)  in  1871,  7,979. — 2.  A district  taking  its  name  from  the  town  above  mentioned. 
It  stretches  in  n.  lat.  from  12°  14'  to  14°,  and  in  e.  long,  from  79°  35'  to  80°  25',  and  con- 
tains 2,753  sq,  miles.  Pop.  ’71,  938,184.  With  about  120  m.  of  coast,  it  has  not  a single 
harbor  or  anything  like  shelter  from  the  surf.  Nor  is  its  internal  navigation  of  any 
value.  The  only  considerable  river,  the  Palar,  is  in  most  parts  destitute  of  water  during 
the  dry  season.  Excepting  in  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec.,  comparatively  little  rain  falls. 
From  that  circumstance,  and  perhaps  also  from  an  inferiority  of  soil,  cultivation  is  said 
to  be  so  much  circumscribed  as  to  embrace  only  about  96,000  acres,  or  ^^^th  part  of  the 
entire  area. 

CHINI',  a village  of  the  Punjab,  about  a mile  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  the 
most  easterly  of  the  five  rivers  which  give  name  to  the  country.  It  is  in  lat.  31°  31’^  n-, 
and  long.  78°  19'  c.,  and  is  8,770ft.  above  the  sea.  Notwithstanding  this  elevation,  it  is 
a delightful  place  of  sojourn,  and  was  a favorite  residence  of  Lord  Dalhousie.  It  occu- 


803 


Chinese. 

Chipiuan. 


BuRMah,  Cochin  China,  ante. 

Bon  to  doubt  if  C.  will  ever  become  u place  of  iu.portancl  Idie  Soral  ,?e 

?onnf’^-,f"'^ 1®“^ ’’'“P*®  exportation  produced  in  tbe  neb’-hborimr 
possesses  no  adyaiitap  as  regards  the  introduction  of  foreio-?i  goodf 
i^oimerly,  however,  as  the  soutiiern  key  of  the  Grand  canal  it  wos  l.nfl.  nn  f.  ™ ; 

for°n  ^ traffic.  The  injury  which  the  Grand  canal  has  sustained  liL 

for  the  present  practically  extinguished  the  inland  trade,  and  the  four  years  G8'-)S  57VhnW 

rotor^  .0  iia^e  ^e^‘ut1^^r;o;f 

CHINN03,  a musical  iustrument  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  with  32  strings, 

the'^^mnf ’aVm"!  W ”'®  ?'^P'«'‘ment  of  Indre-et- Loire,  beautifully  situated  on 

16  V ienne,  2o  m.  s.w.  of  Tours.  It  has  the  remains  of  a huge  old  castle  formprlv  th« 
occasional  residence  of  the  Plantagenet  kings  of  England  and  also  of  some  of  tho  Snih 
Bovercugus  and  celebrated  as  the  place  wSere  Joan  of  Arc  coiZ^ccS  hm  histo^^ 

ColSm^Sin  otg^n';'  They'^arno^wTariy  m 

CHINQUAPIU.  See  Chestnut  and  Oak. 

22”  6™'Tnt’  ‘‘sr  the Hooghly,  about  20  m.  above  Calcutta,  in  lat. 

*’‘“cmNTZ  " fo?1he  En^fish  pos"  ef^olit in  IhefsUnd  oTSatrl' 

light  colored  croum^  P““?™  *“  >t  t^hite  or 

CHI  0.  See  Scio. 


r ‘he  »atural  order  cincJu>. 

trailing  herb, 'm^e  lS  a Sush^  nn?.?“<“T  ‘he  former  a 

small  doses  as  a diur:tl°rnd  " 

the  province  of^Ven^ce^shandVtm^anl^^^^  seaport  of  northern  Italy,  m 

connected  with  the  mainland  bv  a stnnp  the  same  name  in  the  Adriatic,  and  is 

in  the''coa^^t4t?ad;!l?-lac^^^^^^^^ 


by  slaying  the^t^ant^O^earclnis^  hnt^th*°f  ^e^ght  to  liberate  his  native  city 

.h^e  opVtsion  o7"e  peSeiam“srni  m conspirators  an5 

CHIOTIS  and  CHIO  NIDai.  See  Sheath  Bill. 

CHIP  HATS.  See  Brazilian  Grass. 

eoll™  a™hegk? faTplaaiceln^^^^^  of  Nathaniel;  educated  at  Dartmouth 

ture  and  of  congress  and  nrnfkfnr  „f  ? * a • ^ He  was  a member  of  the  legisla- 

1806  to  1816.  He  Was  the'^Sst  jurisprudence  in  Middlebury  college  from 

ihe  state,  and  the  aXr  of  An  S ‘'f  ®“P’'""'«  “'"'‘"f 

yific  Articles.  on  the  Law  of  Contracts  for  the  payment  of  Spe- 

STale,^e™(fMa^eurin  dm  ® °u‘‘™  Connecticut,  educated  at 

nouth.  He  was  admitted  to  thJ  W in  1770*™^’  present  at  the  battle  of  Mon- 

lecame  chiefdusdce  of  tlm  Vn  ^ In  170?’,“''  P™«ice  in  Vermont,  where  he 

°rrfn^:’?o7}«^ 


Chipmunk. 

Chironectes. 


804 


elected  chief -justice  of  the  state.  He  was  afterward  for  27  years  professor  of  law  ih 
Middlebury  college.  Among  his  published  works  are  The  bketches  of  the  Principles  of 
Government;  a volume  of  Reports  and  Dissertations;  and  Principles  of  Government — a 
Treatise  on  Free  Institutions,  including  the  Constitution  of  the  Unit^  States. 

CHIPMUNK,  the  common  name  of  the  ground  squirrel,  tamias  striatus,  especially 
in  the  New  England  and  northern  states.  See  Squirrel,  ante. 

CHIPPENHAM,  a parliamentary  and  muncipal  borough  in  Wiltshire,  in  a valley  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Bristol  Avon,  on  the  Great  Western  railway,  22 
m.  e.  of  Bristol.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a well-built  street  above  half  a mile  long.  A 
bridge  of  21  arches  crosses  the  Avon  here.  C.  is  famed  for  its  markets  of  cheese  and 
corn,  its  cheese  market  being  one  of  the  largest  in  Britain.  There  are  silk  and  woolen 
manufactures,  and  some  mineral  springs  in  the  vicinity.  Population  of  parliamentary 
borough  (1871),  6,875;  of  municipal.  1387.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament.  C. 
was  the  seat  of  the  Saxon  kings  of  Wessex.  Abont  880,  the  Danes  took  it  from  Alfred, 
and  kept  it  two  years. 

CHIPPEWA,  a CO.  in  n.c.  Michigan,  on  lakes  Huron  and  Superior  and  the  straits  of 
Ste.  Marie;  1500  sq.m.;  pop.  ’SO,  6243.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  mostly  covered  with 
pine  forests.  Co.  seat,  Sault  Sie.  Marie. 

CHIPPEWA,  a CO.  in  s.w.  Minnesota,  on  the  Minnesota,  Chippewa,  and  Chetomba 
rivers,  reached  by  the  St.  Paul  and  Pacific  railroad;  2,445  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  6408.  Pro- 
ductions, almost  entirely  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Chippewa  City. 

CHIPPEWA,  a co.  in  n.w.  Wisconsin,  on  the  head-waters  of  the  Chippewa  river; 
4,000  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80,  15,492.  The  surface  i.s  varied,  and  to  a great  extent  covered  with 
forests.  Lumbering  is  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat,  Chippewa  Falls. 

CHIPPEWA,  a village  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Chippewa  with  the  Niagara  river,  2 m.  above  the  great  falls.  It  was  here  that  gen. 
Scott  defeated  the  British.  July  5,  1814.  The  Americans  had  1900  men,  of  whom  68 
were  killed  and  267  wounded;  the  English  had  2,100  men,  of  whom  138  were  killed 
and  365  wounded. 

CHIPPEWA  RIVER,  in  Wisconsin,  rising  in  the  n.w.  part  of  the  state  and  emptying 
into  the  Mississippi  just  below  lake  Pepin.  Its  length  is  about  200  miles. 

CHIPPEWAYS.  See  Indians. 

CHIPPING  BIRD,  or  Chipping  Sparrow,  Spizella  sodalis,  a common  American 
bird,  5 or  6 in.  long,  white  underneath,  back  and  sides  ash  color,  with  stripes  of  black 
and  white.  Its  half-dozen  notes  of  song  are  repeated  with  great  rapidity. 

CHIQTJICHIQUI  PALM,  Leopoldinia  piassaba,  the  Piassaba  of  the  n.  of  Brazil,  and 
one  of  the  palms  which  yield  the  piassaba  (q.v.)  fiber,  now  so  much  used  for  making 
brushes.  The  piassaba  fiber  exported  from  Para  is  all  obtained  from  it.  It  grows  in 
swampy  or  occasionally  flooded  lands  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  other  rivers 
of  Venezuela  and  the  n.  of  Brazil;  and  has  a crown  of  very  large,  regularly  pinnate 
leaves,  with  smooth  slender  stalks.  The  leaves,  like  those  of  many  other  palms,  are 
much  used  for  thatching.  The  commercial  fiber  is  obtained  from  a remarkable  covering 
of  the  stem;  formed  of  marginal  processes  of  the  leaf-stalks,  elongated  into  ribbon- 
like strips,  and  interlaced,  finally  splitting  into  fine  fibers,  hanging  down  5 or  6 ft., 
and  entirely  concealing  the  stem,  so  as  to  give  the  tree  a very  extraordinary  appear- 
ance. It  twists  readily  into  cordage,  and  the  fiber  has  been  long  used  for  cables  of 
canoes  on  the  Amazon  and  other  rivers.  Before  the  independence  of  Brazil,  the 
Portuguese  government  had  a factory  on  the  Rio  Negro,  for  the  manufacture  of  cables 
of  this  fiber.  The  export  of  the  unmanufactured  fiber  from  Para  to  England  began 
about  the  middle  of  the  present  century. 

CHIQTJIMU'LA,  Isthmus  op,  in  Central  America,  to  the  s.e.  of  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan,  in  long.  89’  west.  Its  breadth  from  the  Caribbean  sea  to  the  Pacific  is  about 
150  m. — the  greatest  elevation  not  exceeding  2,000  feet. 

CHIQUIMU  LA,  a department  of  Guatemala,  running  from  the  Caribbean  sea  along 
the  Honduras  border;  4,000  sq.m. ; pop.  about  75,000.  The  river  Motaguaruns  through 
the  middle  of  C.  and  empties  into  the  gulf  of  Honduras  at  San  Tomas  de  Castillo,  one 
of  the  best  ports  in  Central  America. 

CHIQUI'TOS,  a nation  of  Indians  once  very  powerful  in  South  America,  inhabiting 
the  region  w.  of  Paraguay  river.  Early  explorers  described  them  as  an  intelligent,  war- 
like, and  independent  people,  living  in  families,  subsisting  by  agriculture  and  by  the 
chase,  very  numerous,  and  having  ample  material  resources.  The  Spaniards  first 
invaded  their  country  in  1525,  and  there  were  frequent  wars  with  little  advantage  to  the 
whites.  The  first  permanent  white  settlement  among  them  was  not  efl^ected  until  1691, 
when  a Jesuit  mission  was  established.  The  missionaries  soon  obtained  great  influence 
over  them,  and  agriculture  and  arts  prospered,  and  a considerable  trade  grew  up  with 
the  adjoining  Spanish  settlements.  The  missions  were  prosperous  until  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  in  1767.  Thereafter  the  Indians  rapidly  deteriorated,  and  within  a third 


805 


Chipmunk. 

Chironectes. 


©f  a century  following  the  abandonment  of  the  missions  two  thirds  of  the  C.  nation  had 
disappeared. 

CHIRA'TA,  Chiretta,  or  Chireeta  {agathotes  chirayta,  also  known  as  Ophelia 
chirata),  an  officinal  plant  belonging  to  the  natural  urder  gentianeoe,  and  possessing  prop- 
erties similar  to  tliose  of  the  common  gentian,  the  centaury,  and  other  plants  of  that 
order.  It  is  a native  of  the  mountains  of  the  n.  of  India.  The  whole  plant  is  intensely 
bitter,  and  has  been  long  used  in  its  native  country  as  a tonic  and  stomachic.  It  is  also 
in  high  estimation  with  European  practitioners  in  India  as  a febrifuge,  and  is  often  used 
by  them  as  a substitute  for  cinchona.  The  medicinal  virtues  reside  both  in  the  herb  and 
root.  The  whoie  plant  is  pulled  up  at  the  time  when  the  flowers  begin  to  fade,  and  is 
dried  for  use.  It  is  now  imported  to  some  extent  into  Britain. 

CHIBIQTJI',  a name  of  various  application  in  Central  America. — 1.  A province  on  the 
isthmus  and  in  the  slate  of  Panama,  Colombia;  area  500  sq.m. ; pop.  18.000. — 2.  A river 
flowing  towards  the  n. — the  lat.  and  long,  of  its  mouth  being  about  9°  n.,  and  82°  80' 
cast. — 3.  A spacious  lagoon  with  three  entrances,  and  with  a depth  of  water  for  the 
largest  ships,  which  receives  the  river.  It  measures  90  m.  along  the  coast,  and  40  or  50 
in  width. — 4.  An  archipelago  between  the  lagoon  and  the  Caribbean  sea. 

CHI'ROMANCY,  fortune-telling  by  a study  of  the  human  hand  (always  the  left 
hand),  once  widely  believed  in  and  still  practiced  to  some  extent.  The  points  to  be 
observed  are  the  lines,  the  projections,  the  joints,  the  nails,  and  the  contour  of  the  thumb 
and  fingers.  The  principal  line  the  line  of  life,  running  in  a curve  from  the  upper 
joint  of  the  forefinger  around  the  ball  of  the  thumb  to  the  joint  of  the  wrist.  If  this  line 
shows  four  distinct  and  equal  furrows  near  its  beginning  at  the  forefinger  joint,  the  per- 
son is  promised  an  easy  attainment  of  wealth  and  honor.  If  the  line  be  regular  and 
■deeply  colored,  a long  and  linppy  life  is  predicted;  if  it  be  freely  marked,  tortuous  and 
broken,  it  foretells  ill  health  and  short  life.  If  short  perpendicular  lines  run  from  ihe 
line  of  life  toward  the  palm  of  the  hand,  the  person  may  be  expected  to  go  on  a lon^ 
journey;  if  toward  the  wrist,  to  be  exiled.  If  the  line  of  life  be  narrowed  but  long  and 
strongly  colored,  it  indicates  ingenuity  and  wisdom;  a deep  line,  equally  colored,  denotes 
R malicious  disposition;  and  if  separated  near  the  center  by  sharply  defined  cross  lines, 
it  is  a sign  of  approaching  death.  The  next  important  line  is  the  line  of  health,  starting 
with  the  line  of  life  and  running  nearly  or  wholly  across  the  middle  of  the  hand.  If  the 
line  be  clear  and  unbroken,  it  indicates  excellence  of  body  and  mind ; if  it  be  broken  and 
feeble,  timidity  and  ill  health  are  indicated.  The  line  of  fortune,  or  happiness,  is  below 
the  line  of  health,  and  runs  from  the  base  of  the  fore  to  the  base  of  tlie  little  finger. 
When  this  line  is  distinct  and  straight  it  indicates  happiness  and  pleasant  temper;  if  it 
begins  close  to  the  upper  side  of  the  hand,  it  indicates  pride;  if  red  in  the  upper  section, 
-envy  is  foreshadowed ; a cross  line,  so  that  the  two  form  an  upright  cross,  indicates  gen- 
erosity; if  broken  and  crossed  by  small  lines  near  the  middle,  it  indicates  duplicity. 
Another  line  not  found  in  all  liands  is  the  line  of  the  joint,  or  line  of  the  tnangle,  extending 
from  the  base  of  the  little  finger  to  the  middle  of  the  joint  of  the  wrist.  When  this  line 
is  clear,  it  promises  great  success  after  much  difficulty.  The  mountain  of  Venus  is  the 
elevation  at  the  base  of  the  thumb,  and  when  smooth  and  unfurrowed  a happy  tempera- 
ment is  indicated.  T\\q  mountain  of  Jupiter  \s  the  fleshy  projection  at  the  base  of  the 
forefinger;  that  of  Saturn  at  the  base  of  the  middle  finger;  that  of  the  sun  at  the  base  of 
the  ring  finger;  that  of  Mercury  at  the  base  of  the  little  finger,  and  that  of  the  moon  is  the 
elevation  or  bunch  on  the  lower  side  of  the  hand.  When  these  mountains  are  clear  and 
smooth,  the  indications  are:  of  Jupiter,  a heart  inclined  to  virtue;  of  Saturn,  love  of 
labor,  and  simplicity  of  character;  of  the  sun,  eloquence  and  vivacious  temperament;  of 
Mercury,  firmness  in  men,  and  modesty  in  women;  of  Mars,  courage  and  heroism;  of 
the  moon,  a tranquil  disposition  inclined  to  melancholy.  The  lines  and  shades  on  the 
mountains  have  their  significance.  Small  lines  near  the  little  finger,  parallel  with  the 
line  of  fortune,  indicate  happy  wedded  life,  and  some  say  their  number  foretells  the 
number  of  children.  One  more  line  is  called  the  milky  way,  running  downward  on  the 
mountain  of  the  moon  from  the  wrist  joint  toward  the  little  finger;  if  it  belong  and 
clearly  defined,  it  foretells  success  in  studies  or  in  arts  or  fortune  in  a distant  land.  Small 
white  spots  under  the  nails  indicate  the  fulfillment  of  wishes,  at  near  or  remote  periods 
as  they  are  far  or  near  the  roots.  Aristotle  regarded  C.  as  a distinct  science;  the  Roman 
sootlisayers,  and  even  the  emperor  Augustus,  practiced  it;  in  the  middle  ages  it  was 
studied  with  alchemy  and  astrology  by  the  greatest  philosophers;  the  church  tolerated 
it  while  condemning  astrology,  or  its  interference  with  the  doctrine  of  human  liberty. 
No  longer  regarded  as  scientific,  it  presents  at  least  a curious  study. 

CHI'BON,  or  Cheiron,  the  most  famous  of  the  Centaurs  (q.  v.).  In  the  ancient  works 
of  art,  C.  of  course  appears  as  half-man,  half-animal;  but  his  features,  instead  of  express- 
ing mere  savage  and  sensual  strength,  as  those  of  the  Centaurs  generally  do,  are  marked 
b^  a mild  wisdom,  in  harmony  with  the  character  and  deep  knowledge  attributed  to 
him  by  the  Greek  mythologists. 

CHIRONEC  TES,  a genus  of  salt-water  fishes  remarkable  for  their  grotesque  forms. 
The  mouse-fish  may  be  taken  as  a specimen. 


^^liirra. 

Chiusi. 


806 


CHIE'BA  POOIT'JEE,  a t.  in  the  n.e.  of  India,  in  lat,  25°  14'  n.,  long.  91°  45'  east.  It 
stands  on  the  Cossya  hills,  at  the  height  of  4,200  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  has  a tempera- 
ture during  the  hot  months  20°  F.  lower  than  that  of  the  plains  of  Bengal.  Notwith- 
standing  this,  however,  the  place  has  proved  unsuccessful  as  a sanatorium.  The  vicin-  • 
ity  abounds  in  mines  of  coal  and  iron,  which  may  be  profitably  worked. 

CHI'RU,  Antilope  Hodgsoni,  a species  of  antelope,  inhabiting  the  pine-forests  and 
elevated  open  plains  of  Thibet,  in  regions  bordering  on  the  limits^of  perpetual  snow.  It 
is  much  larger  than  the  chamois,  being  about  5 ft.  in  length,  and  the  height  at  the  shoul- 
der about  3 ft.  The  C.  lives  in  great  herds,  and  seems  to  exceed  almost  all  the  other 
gregarious  ruminants  in  watchfulness  against  the  approach  of  danger.  Sentinels  are 
constantly  posted  to  prevent  surprise. 

CIIISA'GO,  a CO.  in  c.  Minnesota,  on  the  Wisconsin  border;  450  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80, 
7982.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Lake  Superior  and  Mississippi  railroad.  'I'he  principal 
productions  are  wheat,  corn,  oats,  hay,  and  butter.  Co.  seat,  Chisago  City. 

CHISELHURST,  a parish  in  Kent,  England,  11  m.  s.e.  of  London.  It  was  here 
that  Napoleon  III.  fixed  his  residence  in  1871,  and  died,  Jan.  9,  1873.  His  widow,  the 
empress  Eugenie,  dwells  in  Chiselhurst  (1880;. 

CHISHOLM,  Caroline  (Jones),  b.  England,  1810;  a noted  philanthropist  who  set- 
tled in  Australia  in  1838  and  founded  at  Sydney  schools  and  asylums  for  destitute  girls. 
In  1841-45  she  procured  employment  for  more  than  11,000  persons,  and  lent  in  small 
sums  about  $6,000,  of  which  all  but  $120  was  returned.  In  her  honor  the  people  of 
Sydney  founded  the  “Family  Colonization  Society." 

CHIS  WICK,  a village  in  the  center  of  Middlesex,  7^  m.  s.w.  of  St.  Paul’s,  London,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Thames.  Pop.  ’71,  8,508.  Around  C.  are  many  fine  villas,  exten- 
sive market-gardens,  to  supply  London,  and  the  gardens  of  the  London  horticultural 
society, 

CHI'TIN  forms  the  skeleton  of  all  insects  and  crustaceans.  In  insects,  it  constitutes 
not  merely  the  external  skeleton,  the  scales,  etc.,  but  also  forms  their  tracheae,  and  thus 
penetrates  into  the  most  remote  portions  of  their  organs;  indeed,  one  of  the  layers  of 
their  intestinal  canal  consists  of  chitin.  Hence,  we  can  make  good  preparations  of 
these  parts  by  treating  insects  with  a solution  of  potash,  which  dissolves  all  but  the  C.  .* 
in  this  way,  we  can  microscopically  examine  the  most  delicate  parts,  as,  for  instance, 
the  valves  of  the  tracheal  openings. 

In  a state  of  purity,  it  is  a white  amorphous  body,  which  usually  retains  the  form  of 
the  tissue  from  which  it  is  prepared.  It  has  been  analyzed  by  C.  Schmidt,  Lehmann, 
and  other  chemists.  Schmidt  considers  that  its  composition  is  represented  by  the  for- 
mula Ci7Hi4NOu.  The  best  method  of  obtaining  0.  is  by  boiling  the  elytra  of  the  cock- 
chafer with  water,  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  a.kalies.  The  substance  left  after 
these  respective  boilings  is  pure  chitin.  It  seems  to  be  identical  with  the  substance 
termed  by  Lassaigne  entomaderm. 

CHI'TON,  a Linnsean  genus  of  mollusks.  Linnaeus,  regarding  merely  the  shell, 
placed  them  in  the  class  of  multivalves,  a class  entirely  artificial.  They  are  now 
regarded  as  constituting  a family  {chitonidce)  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of  the  order 
cydobranchiata  of  Cuvier,  and  as  occupying  a place  in  systematic  arrangement  close  to 
limpets.  The  shell  is  composed  of  eight  narrow,  transverse,  calcareous  pieces,  overlap- 
ping each  other  in  a row  along  the  back,  and  strongly  attached  to  the  mantle,  which  is 
remarkably  fleshy  and  fibrous.  They  have  the  power  of  rolling  themselves  up  into  a 
ball.  The  organ  of  locomotion  is  an  oval  foot,  more  or  less  wide,  according  to  the  spe- 
cies, and  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  animal.  More  than  200  species  are  known; 
they  occur  in  all  climates,  most  abundantly  on  rocks  at  low  water,  but  some  of  them  at 
great  depths.  Some  of  them  creep  along  the  sand.  All  the  British  species  arc  small; 
but  some  foreign  ones  grow  to  3 or  4 in.  in  length.  The  fry  of  these  mollusks  swim 
about  by  means  of  long  vibratile  cilia. 

CHITTAGONG,  a maritime  district  in  Lower  Bengal,  taking  its  name  from  its  capital 
below  mentioned.  It  is  bounded  on  the  s.  by  Arracan,  and  on  the  w.  by  the  bay  of 
Bengal,  and  stretches  from  lat.  20°  45'  to  23°  25'  n.,  and  from  long.  91°  32'  to  93°  east. 

It  has  an  area  of  2,498  sq.m.,  with  a pop,  (1871)  of  1,127,402.  C.  (properly  ChattagrarriY 
also  gives  name  to  a division;  area,  13,592  sq.m.;  pop.  3,444,874.  In  the  forests  of  C., 
large  numbers  of  elephants  are  annually  caught. 

CHITTAGONG,  or  Islamabad  (the  second  name  having  been  conferred  by  Aurung- 
zebe,  who  captured  it  towards  the  close  of  the  17th  c.),  a city  of  India,  standing  on  the 
Kurrumfuli,  about  7 m.  from  its  mouth,  in  lat.  22°  20'  n.,  and  long.  91  54'  east.  It 
came  into  possession  of  the  British,  along  with  Bengal  proper,  in  1760-65.  But  hav- 
ing originally  formed  part  of  Arracan,  it  was  claimed,  after  a lapse  of  sixty  years,  by 
the  Burmese  emperor  as  a dependency  of  that  territorj' — a claim  which  formed  one  of 
the  grounds  of  the  war  of  1824.  Through  the  results  of  that  contest,  C.  diminished  in 
importance,  but  some  European  merchants  began  to  settle  there  in  1864,  and  its  pro^ 
perity  is  returning.  In  1873,  it  exported  104,565  tons  of  rice.  Its  ship-building  busi 
ness  IS  now  transferred  in  great  measure  to  Moulmein,  in  Tenasserim,  Pop.  ’71,  20,604. 


807 


Chirra. 

Chiusi. 


CHITTAGONG  HILL  TRACTS,  a district  on  the  e.  frontier  of  British  India, 
between  21°  13'  and  23°  47'  n.,  and  91°  46'  and  92°  49'  e. ; 6,882  sq.m. ; pop.  '72,  69,607; 
among  whom  were  only  31  Christians.  The  region  is  hilly,  with  deep  ravines  and 
prominent  cliffs,  covered  with  gigantic  creeping  plants.  The  crops  are  rice,  corn, 
tobacco,  and  cotton. 

CHITTAGONG-  WOOD,  the  wood  of  cJiickroftsia  tabularis,  a tree  of  tlie  natural  order 
cedrelaceo),  a native  of  the  mountainous  countries  to  the  e.  of  Bengal.  In  some  parts  of 
India,  it  is  called  cedar  or  bastard  cedar,  names,  however,  which  are  also  given  to  other 
kinds  of  wood.  C.  W.  is  much  valued  in  India,  and  is  used  for  all  purposes  for  which 
mahogany  is  used  in  Britain.  It  makes  beautiful  and  light  furniture,  but  is  apt  to  warp 
in  very  dry  weather.  Beautifully  veined  and  mottled  pieces  are  occasionally  met  with, 
And  are  highly  valued. 

CHITTELDROOG,  or  Chitradurg,  a t.  in  British  India,  in  the  province  of  Mysore, 
280  m.  w.n.w.  of  Madras.  It  is  in  a fertile  plain,  and  was  once  one  of  tlie  strongest 
places  in  India.  The  present  fortress  crowns  a high  rock  in  the  rear  of  the  town,  and 
IS  a formidable  defense.  Hyder  Ali  besieged  C.  in  1776,  getting  possession  eleven  years 
later,  but  then  only  through  treachery. 

CHITTENDEN,  a co.  in  n.w.  Vermont,  on  lake  Champlain;  517  sq.m.;  pop.  '80, 
32,798.  It  is  drained  by  the  Winooski  and  Lamoille  rivers,  and  traversed  by  the  Cen- 
tral Vennont,  the  Rutland  and  Burlington,  and  the  Burlington  and  Lamoille  railroads. 
The  productions  are  wheat,  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  hay,  cheese,  butter,  wool,  and  maple 
sugar.  Co.  seat,  Burlington. 

CHITTENDEN,  Martin,  1766-1840;  son  of  Thomas;  a graduate  of  Dartmouth  col- 
lege, and  for  many  years  in  judicial  offices  in  Vermont.  He  was  chosen  to  congress  in 
1803,  and  four  times  therealter;  and  was  governor  of  the  state  from  1813  to  1815. 

CHITTENDEN,  Thomas,  1730-97;  the  first  governor  of  the  state  of  Vermont,  b.  in 
Conn.,  where  he  was  a member  of  the  legislature.  In  1774,  he  settled  in  Vermont, 
and  participated  in  all  the  political  action  of  the  people  in  councils  and  conventions, 
until  the  territory  became  a state,  before  and  after  which  period  he  was  the  governor. 

CHITTOR',  the  name  of  two  fortified  towns  in  India. — 1.  C.  in  the  district  of  Arcot, 
abou^  80  m.  to  the  w.  of  Madras,  in  lat.  13°  12'  n.,  and  long.  79°  9'  east.  It  stands  on  the 
fi.  or  right  bank  of  the  Puni,  an  affluent  of  the  Palar,  and  is  about  1100  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Its  river  varies,  according  to  the  season,  from  a small  rivulet  to  an  expanse  of  400  yards 
in  width.  When  the  stream  is  at  its  lowest,  the  very  tanks,  as  well  as  the  deserted 
channel,  become  little  better  than  slime — the  result  being  fever,  ague,  dysentery,  and 
other  diseases.  The  thermometer  has  occasionally  reached  140°  in  the  sun ; but  the 
annual  range  in  the  shade  runs  from  56°  to  100°. — 2.  C.  in  Odeypoor,  or  Mewar,  about 
270  m.  to  the  s.w.  of  Agra,  in  lat.  24°  52'  n.,  and  long.  74°  41'  east.  The  fortress  occu- 
pies the  summit  of  an  isolated  rock  of  nearly  6.000  yards  in  length,  and  of  1200  in 
breadth,  which  is  scarped  all  round  to  a depth  of  80  or  100  feet,  about  a fourth  part  of 
its  entire  altitude.  Within  the  inclosure  are  several  antique  structures — such  as  temples, 
tanks,  a palace,  commemorative  pillars,  and  an  inner  citadel. 

CHITTY,  Joseph,  1776-1841;  a lawyer  of  England  whose  text-books  have  been  con- 
sidered almost  necessary  for  students  and  young  practitioners.  » The  chief  of  his  vsmrks 
are.  Treatise  an  the  Parties  to  Actions  and  to  Pleadings;  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Nations  rela- 
tive to  the  Legal  Effects  of  War  on  the  Commerce  of  Belligerents  and  Neutrals,  and  on  Orders 
in  Council  in  Licenses;  Political  Treatise  on  Criminal  Law;  and  Synopsis  of  Practice  in 
the  King's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas. 

OTITT'SA,  La,  a t.  of  n.  Italy,  province  of  Cuneo,  situated  on  the  left  ,bank  of  the 
Pesio,  8 m.  s.e.  of  Coni.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk  and  glass,  and  a pop.  of  3,000. 

CHITJ'SA,  La  (so  called  from  the  ground  having  been  originally  inclosed  as  pasture- 
land  for  horses),  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  and  30  m.  s.s.w.  of  Palermo,  on  the  slope 
of  some  hills.  The  t.  was  built  in  1320.  Agates  are  found  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.,  6,840, 

CHITJ'SI,  a t.  of  central  Italy,  province  of  Siena,  37  m.  s.e.  of  Siena,  with  a pop.  of 
S,000,  stands  on  an  eminence  in  the  Val  di  Chiana,  not  far  from  the  lake  of  the  same 
name.  In  ancient  times,  under  the  name  of  Clusium,  it  was  one  of  the  twelve  republics 
of  Etruria,  and  the  residence  of  Porsena  (q.v.).  When  Italy  was  overrun  by  the  barba- 
rians, C.  fell  into  decay,  the  whole  valley  was  depopulated,  and  became  the  pestilential 
pool  described  by  Dante.  Since  the  improvement  of  the  course  of  the  Chiana  (q.v.),  C. 
bas  begun  to  fiourish  again  along  with  the  whole  district.  But  it  is  in  connection  with 
the  discovery  of  Etruscan  antiquities  that  C.  is  chiefly  heard  of.  Within  the  last  quar- 
ter of  a century,  immense  quantities  of  these  remains  have  been  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood in  the  grottos  that  served  the  ancient  Etruscans  as  tombs.  There  are  three  muse- 
ums in  C.  filled  with  them,  and  a great  number  are  in  the  public  gallery  at  Florence. 
They  consist  chiefly  of  sun-dried  earthenware  vases,  black,  and  partly  covered  with 
mythological  figures.  Excavations  still  continue  to  be  made,  but  discoveries  have  become 
rarer  of  late  years. 


Chivalry. 

Chlaiuyphorus. 


808 


CHIVALRY  (Fr.  cTiemlerie,  from  chevalier,  a knight  or  horseman),  the  system  of 
knighthood,  together  with  the  privileges,  duties,  and  manners  of  knights.  The  social 
arrangement  to  which  this  term  is  applied  seems  first  to  have  assumed  the  character  of 
a positive  institution  during  the  lithe.;  but  so  far  from  being  an  invention  of  tliat 
period,  it  had  its  roots  in  the  manners  of  the  Germanic  races,  amongst  whom  it 
ultimately  arose,  at  the  earliest  period  at  which  they  are  historically  traceable.  In  the 
description  which  Tacitus  has  given  us  of  the  manners  of  the  Germans,  we  find  the 
most  unequivocal  indications  of  the  existence,  not  only  of  the  general  spirit,  but,  in  a 
partially  developed  form,  of  many  of  the  special  arrangements  of  chivalry.  But  it  was 
in  connection  with  feudality  that  G.  attained  to  its  full  proportions,  and  in  many  respects 
it  must  be  regarded  as  the  complement  of  that  institution.  See  Feudal  System. 
Whilst  feudality  exhibits  the  political,  in  C.  we  see  the  moral  and  social  side  of  the 
arrangements  of  mediaeval  life.  It  was  in  the  feudal  mansions  of  the  barons  that  the 
system  was  developed;  and  to  the  lay  portion  of  the  youth  of  the  higher  classes,  the 
instruction  which  they  there  received  in  the  usages  of  C.  formed  by  far  "the  most  impor- 
tant part  of  education.  In  addition  to  the  martial  accomplishments,  which  corresponded, 
to  those  of  a modern  cavalry-officer,  they  were  instructed  in  the  political  relations  wdiich 
subsisted  between  the  vas.sal  and  his  lord,  by  which  the  whole  body  of  society  was  then 
bound  together;  and  in  what  might  almost  be  called  a system  of  ethics,  strangely  enough 
exhibiting  unmistakable  traces  of  the  stoic  philosophy.  The  analogy  between  the 
severer  virtues  recommended  to  the  special  cultivation  of  their  disciples  by  the  followers 
of  Zeno,  and  those  inculcated  on  the  novice  in  C.,  and  practiced  by  the  knights  of  the 
middle  ages,  might  be  ascribed  to  other  than  historical  causes,  were  it  not  that  we  are 
able  to  trace  the  connection  between  them  with  something  approaching  to  certainty.  If 
any  one  wishes  to  convince  himself  of  the  truth  of  our  assertion,  let  him  compare  the 
last  production  of  the  intellectual  life  of  antiquity  with  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
important  of  our  own  literature,  the  Consolations  of  Philosophy  of  Boethius  with  Chaucer’s 
Testament  of  Love.  The  resemblance  is  so  close,  that  the  latter  work  has,  not  without 
reason,  been  regarded  as  an  imitation  of  the  former;  but  the  main  features  which  distin- 
guish them,  and  mark  Chaucer’s  work  us  belonging  to  the  modern  world,  are  more 
instructive  than  even  their  similarity.  The  place  wliich  Philosophy,  the  celestial  con- 
soler, occupies  in  the  work  of  Boethius,  in  that  of  Chaucer  is  supplied  by  Love — a being 
whom  we  must  in  nowise  confound  either  with  the  heathen  goddess,  or,  as  some  have 
done,  with  the  divine  love  of  the  Christian  religion.  She  is  neither  more  nor  less  than 
the  embodiment  of  an  abstract  idea  which  formed  the  central  point  of  the  whole  system 
of  C. ; and  her  substitution  for  the  philosophy  or  reason  of  Boethius  is  very  character- 
istic of  a state  of  society  in  which  the  affections  and  passions,  rather  than  the  intelli- 
gence, were  the  motive  principles.  The  ‘'Love”  of  Chaucer  is  a complete  generaliza- 
tion, altogether  independent  of  individual  object,  and  the  consolation  which  she  proffers 
to  her  votary  is  that  of  enlisting  in  his  favor  the  special  guardian,  the  “Margarite,”  who 
is  supposed  to  watch  over  his  individual  fortunes.  The  “ Margarite  ” seems  to  corre- 
spond to  the  chivalrous  idea  of  the  Lady-love,  in  its  purest  sense,  when  its  reference  to 
a person  was  by  no  means  indispensable,  but  when  it  signified  rather  “the  love  of 
woman,”  the  highest  object  of  the  knight’s  ambition.  IJuder  the  protection  of  this 
guardian  spirit,  the  lover  is  represented  as  altogether  sheltered  from  the  caprices  of 
fortune,  and  in  her  name  he  has  a dose  of  rather  frigid  comfort  administered  to  him,, 
greatly  resembling  that  which  Boethius  receives  at  the  hands  of  Philosophy.  Such  is 
the  general  idea  of  the  book,  and  it  is  a noble  idea,  embracing  the  very  essence  of 
society  as  it  existed  then,  and  presenting  a much  deeper  view  of  that  singular  institution 
C.  than  is  usually  to  be  met  with  in  writers  who  have  not  been  actually  brought  in  con- 
tact with  its  iufiuences.  But  to  the  two  elements  which  we  have  mentioned  as  ingredi- 
ents in  the  spiritual  life  of  C.,  the  Germanic  traditions  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of 
classical  antiquity  on  the  other,  a third  falls  to  be  mentioned,  which  was,  perhaps,  the 
most  important  of  all — that  of  Christianity  as  represented  by  the  church.  The  clergy 
ware  too  fully  aware  of  the  importance  of  early  impressions,  not  to  seize  on  the  imagina- 
tion of^he  aspirant  to  C.  at  the  all-important  moment  of  his  inauguration.  The  purifi- 
cations, prayers,  and  vigils,  the  sacrament  and  the  vows  by  which  this  solemn  rite  wa.s 
accompanied,  are  detailed  elsewhere  (see  Knight,  Banneret,  Bath,  etc.);  and  their 
influence  in  casting  a religious  character  over  the  whole  institution  of  C.,  and  occasion- 
ally in  directing  its  energies  specially  to  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  by  means  of 
the  various  religious  orders  of  knighthood  and  the  crusades,  is  well  known.  Nor  was- 
the  poet  behind  the  priest  in  availing  himself  of  the  influences  of  C.,  and  developing 
them  in  the  region  of  the  imagination.  What  Chaucer  has  exhibited  in  the  work  to 
wdiich  we  have  referred,  may  be  regarded  rather  as  the  philosophical  than  the  poetical 
3ide  of  the  institution.  Put  to  poets  of  a lighter  and  more  imaginative  cast  of  mind,  C. 
has  furnished,  from  the  days  of  the  troubadours  down  to  the  present  poet-laureate,  no 
insignificant  portion  of  their  subject-matter.  King  Arthur  and  his  knights  of  the  round 
table,  the  traditions  regarding  whom  had  been  taken  from  a period  altogether  mythical, 
and  long  anterior  to  the  existence  of  C.  as  an  institution,  became  to  the  poetry  of  the 
middle  ages  very  much  what  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war  were  to  tb  it  of  the  wdiole 
ancient  world.  Much  astonishment  has  often  been  expressed  at  the  contrast  between 
the  lofty  and  ideal  purity  of  the  code  of  morals  inculcated  by  C.,  and  the  gross- 


809 


Chivalry. 

Chlamyphonu, 


^ W * «.aAV 

S3  .-ss:“  S “5  ~ S“  s; 

I sXit"  rii  .r;"v."rs'ir>j  i*  ~ S’  = 

■;  »ndToVeeX^”!'e'di^t?n«S‘7fdyre^^^^^^ 

;si“S3SSi«M 

I the  ifffbankVthrpktrut  “re\7Turia  >“’  " P'“>" 

I ?^e“C‘'STarc^re^ 

1:  earthenware,  soap,  etc.,  and  a trade  in^the  asricultuTai  prodte  of  IhfS  X'’ 


onio” ^’aXm”);  fXnfaX;TToo“  “"<» 

bulbs,  increasinff  by  its  bulbs  sons  tn  ^ height,  -with  veiy  small,  flat,  clustered 

Jc-i^xaxSS^^ 

aeTnfdling'flXtskndafe'us^^^^^^^ 

iXs  in'jhh:L^‘r  “““•  ?h^younTieaT:^,"wSX!;t^ 

in  ttfSfo?  H ” f 

hors.  Tlieylive  in  the  arrond^ssemtn^f  despised  and  hated  hy  their  neigh- 

s;,S£”r.;s,:%t’ss  tSi  £ 
sr.%x*T.j;Eis;s?r"?K^^^ 

mmemorial,  the  C and  B have  bppn  finiri  ii^aiiy  among  themselves.  From  time 
>f  them  are  very  good  rooking  The  cattle-dealers,  butchers,  etc.  Many 

vith  large  black^  eves  See^  Michel  ^ handsome,  clear-complexioned, 

'Bspi^gne  (2  yo\8.,  Hr  1847)  ^ ^ Maudites  de  la  M'ance  et  de 


t Witten^^^g,^Nov!^30^1^^^^  He?tudie?Hw  science  of  acoustics,  was  b. 

^here,  in  1782,  he  was  made  do^or  o^^^^^^^^^  ^eipsic. 

Itogether,  devoted  his  mind  to  natural  scienee^nn  f ^ abandoned  judicial  studies 

.iSer^rSeV^nu^icr' hI  ZlilZXT 

"i,  traveled  for  fo  years  ^rfti^maT.h.':;!^,  ^ 

vinff  leetnrp«  rm  tiro  on 


md,  France,  Itair Bussirand  years  (after  1802)  through  Germany.  Hol- 

ery  successful.  He  died ’in  Breslau  AnrH  subject  which  were 


meeming  the  Theory  of  Sound  (1787)’  wrUings  include  Discoveiies 

817);  and  Contributions  to  Practical  Aeov •it) Contributions  to  Acoustics 

enU  (1822),  C.  also  wrote  s^:^uLay“on“^eTetif^^^^^ 

ant™of  plIi?ed®ftm'?o^vlredS^^  on  its  neck  a singular 

is  lizard  is  nearly  3 ft,  long.  edged  with  spines.  When  full  grown, 

|le  genu^If  mammalia  onhe™^^^^  soldier’s  cloak),  a very  remark- 

ith  the  armadillos,  but  differimr  in  imnnrtonf  naturalists  in  the  same  family 

iown  quadrupeds.  Only  one  Secies  knnVrf^pP^/^* 

the  interior  of  Chili,  living  un^derirround  like  the’ ® in  long,  a native 
hahits.  and  feeding  on  the’eanre  l^ndTf^ool ‘^^37or^ef:c'r:?e'L’"a^^i^ 


Chlainy.H. 

Chlorine. 


810 


altliougli  in  a different  manner  from  those  of  the  mole.  The  skull  is  destitute  of 
sutures;  there  are  resemblances  to  the  osteology  of  birds  in  the  ribs  and  their  union  ta 
the  sternum;  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  altogether  unlike  that  of  any  other  known 
animal,  in  its  terminating  quite  abruptly,  as  if  cut  off  almost  where  its  thickness  is 
greatest,  or  as  if  the  back  were  suddenly  bent  down  at  right  angles,  the  tail  not  spring- 
ing from  where  the  line  of  the  back  appears  to  terminate,  but  far  below.  The  whole 
upper  and  hinder  parts  of  the  body  are  covered  with  a coat  of  mail,  made  up  of  a series 
of  square  plates;  the  under  parts  and  legs  are  covered  with  long  silky  hair.  The  tail  is 
very  peculiar;  it  is  covered  with  small  scales,  is  expanded  at  the  tip,  and  is  usually 
incurved  along  the  belly,  but  is  furnished  with  such  muscles  as  to  suggest  the  proba- 
bility of  Its  being  employed  to  throw  back  the  earth  in  excavations. 

CHLA.iMYS,  an  outer  garment  worn  by  the  Greeks  and  some  other  people  of  the 
east.  It  was  of  wool,  smaller  than  the  more  common  blanket,  of  liner  material,  and 
often  of  brilliant  colors.  It  was  an  oblong  square,  twice  as  long  as  its  width.  The 
wearer  fastened  the  corners  of  the  shortest  side  to  the  middle  of  the  chest,  the  chlamys 
falling  down  over  the  back  to  the  knees;  or  when  fastened  on  the  right  shoulder  it  fell 
over  the  left  arm  and  side.  The  chlamys  for  women  often  had  a fringe  or  border  of 
rich  colors. 

CHLOPIGEI,  losEPH,  a Polish  general,  and  dictator  of  Poland  during  the  revolution 
of  1830.  was  b.  in  Galicia  in  1772.  He  entered  the  army  in  1787,  attracted  the  notice 
of  Kosciusko  during  the  first  insurrection  of  the  Poles,  and  after  tlie  storming  of  Praga, 
9th  Nov.,  1794,  when  the  hopes  of  the  patriots  were  extinguished  for  a while,  he  passed 
into  the  service  of  the  new  Cisalpine  republic,  and  distinguished  himself  in  viirious 
battles.  In  1806,  when  Bonaparte  called  the  Poles  to  arms,  C.,  among  others,  obeyed, 
and  fought  gallantly  at  Eylau  and  Friedland.  He  was  subsequently  sent  by  the  emperor 
into  Spain,  and  in  1813  followed  him  to  Russia,  taking  part  in  the  bloody  engagements 
at  Smolensk  and  Moskwa.  After  the  relics  of  the  invading  force  had  returned,  C.  left 
the  imperial  service,  on  account  of  receiving  certain  sliglits  in  the  way  of  his  profes- 
sional advancement.  After  the  taking  of  Paris  by  the  allies  in  1814,  he  led  back  to 
Poland  the  remains  of  the  Polish  troops  who  had  fought  under  Bonaparte,  and  waa 
well  received  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  made  him  a general  of  division.  When 
the  second  insurrection  of  the  Poles  broke  out  in  1830,  C.,  who  foresaw  the  hopelesa 
nature  of  the  attempt,  concealed  himself;  but  the  voice  of  the  nation  called  him  forth 
from  his  hiding-place,  and  on  the  5th  Dec.,  1830,  he  was  elected  dictator.  His  moderate 
views,  however,  involved  him  in  disputes  with  the  extreme  patriotic  party,  and  on  tho 
23d  Jan.,  1831,  he  resigned  his  office;  but,  to  prove  his  sincerity,  he  entered  the  Polish, 
army  as  a simple  soldier,  and  took  p irt  in  the  murderous  battles  at  Wavre  and  Grochow. 
After  the  suppression  of  the  insurrection,  C.  went  to  Cracow,  and  withdrew  altogether 
from  public  life.  He  died  at  Krzeschowitz,  30th  Sept.,  1854. 

CHLO'BAL  (C4CI3HO2)  is  a body  formed  when  anhydrous  alcohol  is  acted  upon  by 
dry  chlorine  gas.  It  is  an  oily  liquid  with  a peculiar  penetrating  odor. 

CHLORAL  {ante),  a liquid  prepared  from  absolute  alcohol  by  the  action  of  dry 
chlorine.  It  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  chlorine,  formula  C2HOCI3. 
Combined  with  water,  it  forms  chloral  hydrate,  a transparent  crystalline  substance, 
having  the  appearance  of  alum,  sometimes  administered  to  induce  sleep.  Its  effect  is 
attributed  to  chloroform  produced  in  the  system  from  the  chloral  hy  the  alkaline 
reaction  of  the  blood.  As  a rule  20  grains  causes  in  a healthy  adult  a light  and 
refreshing  sleep,  after  about  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  without  headache  or  other 
bad  results.  Repeated  use  blunts  the  good  effect,  and  causes  serious  nervous  demoral- 
ization; over  loses  have  caused  death.  Chloral  hydrate  has  special  value  where  the  use 
of  opium  is  i nadmissible;  also  in  delirium  tremens,  mania,  rheumatism,  gastralgia,  and 
as  antagonistic  to  tetanus  and  the  effects  of  strychnia. 

CHLORANTHA  CE.9:,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  closely  allied  to  the  pep- 
pers; herbaceous  and  half  shrubby  plants,  with  jointed  stems,  opposite  simple  leaves, 
and  minute  stipules  between  them.  The  flowers  are  in  terminal  spikes,  and  are  desti- 
tute of  calyx  and  corolla,  but  have  each  a small  scale  or  bract.  The  stamens  are 
lateral;  either  only  one  or  few,  and  partly  cohering.  The  ovary  is  one-celled,  imme- 
diately crowned  with  the  stigma;  the  ovule  is  pendulous;  the  fruit  a drupe  or  one-seeded 
berry;  the  embryo  naked,  not  in  a fleshy  sac  as  in  the  peppers. — The  number  of  known, 
species  is  small : all  of  them  are  tropical,  or  natives  of  China  and  Japan.  They  are 
generally  aromatic,  and  some  of  them,  as  species  of  chloranthus  in  the  East  Indies,  and 
of  hedyosmum  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America,  are  used  as  antispasmodics,  stimu- 
lants, stomachics,  and  tonics.  The  roots  of  chloranthus  officinalis  and  G.  hrachystachys 
have  been  ranked  among  the  most  efficacious  remedies  in  fevers  and  other  diseases 
requiring  continual  and  active  stimulants,  and  instances  have  occurred  of  great  benefit 
from  their  employment  during  the  prevalence  of  epidemics  in  Java.  C.  inconspicuu» 
is  the  Chu-Lan  of  the  Chinese;  its  leaves,  spikes  of  flowers,  and  berries  are  used  by 
them  for  imparting  a peculiar  fragrance  to  tea.  All  the  teas  which  have  what  is  called 
the  cowslip  flavor  owe  it  to  this  plant. 


811 


Chlamys.' 

Clxlorin** 


CHLO'BIC  ACID  (ClOa)  is  a compound  of  one  atom  of  chlorine  and  five  atoms  of 
oxygen,  and  is  generally  met  with  in  combination  with  potash,  as  the  white  crystalline 
salt,  chlorate  of  potash  (K0,C10s).  This  salt  is  mainly  interesting  from  the  readiness 
with  which  it  parts  with  its  oxygen  to  combustibles,  as  when  thrown  on  red-hot  char- 
coal, when  it  causes  violent  deflagration.  The  salt  is  employed  in  the  fabrication  of 
certain  kinds  of  lucifer-raatches,  which  give  a slight  explosion  when  struck.  If  a crys- 
tal of  cldorate  of  potash  b*e  placed  on  a piece  of  paper  saturated  with  turpentine,  and 
a drop  or  two  of  oil  of  vitriol  added,  it  causes  the  inflaming  of  the  turpentine  with 
explosive  rapidity.  The  chlorate  of  potash  is  also  used  in  medicine,  with  the  view 
of  imparting  oxygen  to  the  blood. 

CHLORIC  ETHER,  a name  formerly  given  to  a compound  of  chlorine  and  olefiant 
gas,  also  called  chloride  of  ethylene,  or  Dutch  liquid.  Now  applied  to  a mixture  con- 
taining one  part  of  chloroform  and  eight  or  nine  parts  of  strong  alcohol.  Dr.  John  C. 
Warren’s  “ chloric  ether,”  used  by  him  as  an  anaesthetic,  contained  one  part  of  chloro- 
form and  two  of  alcohol.  C.  E.  is  used  as  a means  of  administering  chloroform  inter- 
nally ; it  is  a mild  anodyne,  useful  to  allay  restlessness  and  spasmodic  disturbances,  as  of 
the  air-passages. 

CHLOBIM  ETBY,  or  Chlorom'etry,  is  the  process  of  estimating  the  proportion  of 
available  chlorine  in  bleaching  powder  (q.  v.),  which  may  vary  from  20  to  <36  per  cent. 
The  process  depends  upon  the  great  power  with  which  chlorine,  in  the  act  of  being 
liberated  from  its  compounds,  causes  the  oxidation  of  many  substances.  The  salt  gen- 
erally used  is  pure  crystallized  sulphateof  iron,  which,  in  its  ordinary  state,  gives  a deep 
blue  color,  with  a drop  of  ferrideyanide  of  potassium,  but  ceases  to  do  so  when  it  has 
been  fully  oxidized,  or  converted  from  a proto-salt  into  a per-salt,  through  the  influence 
of  chlorine.  It  being  known  that  78  grains  or  parts  of  sulphate  of  iron  are  oxidized  by 
10  grains  or  parts  of  chlorine,  the  mode  of  procedure  in  C.  is  as  follows:  78  grains  of 
fine  crystals  of  the  su  phatc  of  iron  arc  dissolved  in  water  slightly  acidulated  with 
hydrochloric  acid  in  a white  porcelain  basin.  A given  quantity  of  the  bleaching 
powder— say  50  grains — is  dissolved  in  a little  tepid  water,  and  introduced  into  a tall 
measure-glass  called  a chlorimeter  or  burette,  similar  to  an  alkalimeter,  which  is  divided 
into  100  parts,  and  water  added  till  the  solution  rises  to  the  top  mark.  After  subsidence 
of  the  insoluble  matter,  the  clear  solution  is  very  gradually  poured  into  the  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  in  the  basin,  the  whole  being  kept  constantly  stirred,  and  every  now 
and  again  a drop  of  the  iron  solution  is  taken  out  and  placed  on  a new  drop  of  ferrid- 
eyanide of  potassium  placed  on  a white  plate;  and  whenever  the  iron  solution  ceases  to 
produce  a deep  blue,  and  only  forms  a light  greenish-yellow  tint,  it  is  known  that  the 
iron  has  been  fully  oxidized  by  the  chlorine.  Suppose  that  at  this  stage  the  burette  has 
been  emptied  to  the  55th  division ; as  w'c  know  that  the  liquid  poured  out  must  have 
contained  10  grains  of  chlorine,  we  can  calculate  the  chlorine  contained  in  the  whole; 
for 

55:  10::  100: 18.18. 

Thus  50  grains  of  the  powder  contain  18.18  grains  of  chlorine,  or  86.86  per  cent. 
Protochloride  of  manganese,  subchloride  of  mercury  (calomel),  or  a solution  of  indigo 
of  known  strength,  may  be  employed  instead  of  the  sulphate  of  iron;  but  the  latter  is 
preferable,  and  is  generally  employed  by  chemists  and  manufacturers. 

CHLO'BINE  (Gr.  chloros,  pale  green)  is  a nou-metallic  element  discovered  by  Scheele 
in  1774,  and  named  by  him  dephlogisticated  marine  air.  Afterwards,  in  1810,  Davy 
proved  it  to  be  an  elementary  body,  and  gave  it  the  name  which  it  now  bears.  In 
nature  it  is  always  found  in  a state  of  combination.  United  with  sodium  (Na),  it 
occurs  very  largely  as  the  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl) — common  salt — in  the  ocean;  in 
large  beds,  as  rock-salt;  in  all  natural  waters,  including  even  rain-water;  in  clays,  soils, 
limestone;  in  volcanic  incrustations;  and  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms.  The 
preparation  of  gaseous  C.  by  its  liberation,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  common  salt, 
has  been  fully  described  under  Bleaching  Powder,  which  is  the  form  in  which  C.  is 
prepared  and  employed  commercially.  For  experimental  purposes,  the  gas  may  be 
received  in  jars  filled  with  water  at  the  pneumatic  trough,  when  the  C.  rises  into  the  jar, 
and  displaces  the  water.  When  thus  obtained,  it  is  a yellowish-green  gas  with  a 
peculiar  and  suffocating  odor,  is  not  combustible,,  and  a very  feeble  supporter  of 
ordinary  combustion.  A lighted  candle  placed  in  it  burns  with  a very  smoky  flame, 
owing  to  the  hydrogen  of  the  oil  alone  burning,  and  the  carbon  being  liberated.  Several 
of  the  metals,  such  as  antimony,  copper,  and  arsenic  in  a fine  state  of  division,  or  in  the 
condition  of  thin  leaves,  at  once  become  red  hot,  and  burn  when  introduced  into  the 
gas.  A piece  of  thin  paper  soaked  in  turpentine  likewise  bursts  into  flame.  C.  has  the 
symbol  Cl,  and  the  atomic  weight  or  equivalent  of  35.5.  It  is  a very  heavy  gas,  nearly 

times  heavier  than  air,  its  specific  gravity  being  2,470  (air=1000);  it  is  soluble  in  cold 
water  to  the  extent  of  two  volumes  of  C.  in  one  of  water,  and  yields  a solution  resem- 
bling the  gas  in  color,  odor,  and  other  properties.  The  principal  properties  of  C.  are 
those  of  a bleacher  of  cotton  and  linen  (see  Bleaching),  and  a most  powerful  disinfect- 
ant (q.v.).  The  gas  can  be  condensed  by  pressure  and  cold  info  a transparent  dark 
greenish-yellow  limpid  liquid,  with  a specific  gravity  of  1330  (H0=1000),  which  also 


Chlorite.  CIO 

. Chocolate.  0 1 ^ 

possesses  bleaching  properties,  and  a most  powerful  odor.  On  the  animal  system  C. 
acts,  in  very  minute  quantity,  by  producing  a sensation  of  warmth  in  the  respiratory 
.passages,  and  increasing  the  expectoration:  in  large  quantity,  by  causing  spasm  of  the 
glottis,  violent  cough,  and  a feeling  of  suffocation.  The  workmen  in  chemical  manu- 
factories, who  get  accustomed  to  the  C.  in  small  quantity,  are  generally  stout — at  least, 
lay  on  fat — but  complain  of  acidity  in  the  stomach,  which  they  correct  by  taking  chalk, 
and  also  suffer  from  the  corrosion  of  their  teeth,  which  are  eaten  away  to  stumps. 
The  antidotes  to  the  evil  effects  of  the  introduction  of  C.  into  the  lungs  are  the  inhala- 
tion of  the  vapor  of  water,  alcohol,  ether,  or  chloroform;  but  the  two  latter  should 
never  be  resorted  to  except  under  medical  supervision. 

C.  unites  with  the  metals  and  many  other  substances  to  form  an  extensive  class  of 
salts  known  as  chlorides. 

CHLO  KITE  (Gr.  chlvros,  green),  an  abundant  mineral,  consisting  of  silica,  alumina, 
magnesia,  and  protoxide  of  iron,  in  somewhat  variable  proportions.  It  is  of  a green 
color,  rarely  occurs  crystallized  in  hexagonal  crystals,  sometimes  foliated  like  talc.  It 
is  rather  soft,  and  is  easily  broken  or  scratched  with  a knife.  Before  the  blow-pipe,  it 
is  with  difficulty  fused  on  thin  edges.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  talc  by  yielding 
water  in  a closed  tube. 

CHLO'RITE-SCHIST,  or  Chlorite-slate,  a green  slaty  rock,  in  which  chlorite  is 
abundant  in  foliated  plates,  usually  blended  with  minute  grains  of  quartz,  and  some- 
times with  feldspar  or  mica. 

CHLO'EODYNE  is  a patent  or  quack  medicine  of  considerable  popularity,  invented 
by  a Dr.  Collis  Browne,  but  largely  imitated  by  various  chemists.  It  contains  opium, 
chloroform,  prussic  acid,  and  probably  Indian  hemp,  and  is  flavored  with  sugar  and 
peppermint.  As  it  is  apt  to  separate  into  two  liquids  on  standing,  it  should  never  be 
taken  unless  it  has  previously  been  well  shaken;  and  as,  in  taking  a dose  of  chlorodyne, 
the  patient  swallows  an  unknown  quantity  of  three  or  four  of  the  deadliest  poisons  with 
which  we  are  acquainted,  it  is  always  advisable  to  begin  with  small  doses.  It  is  unques- 
tionably a compound  which  sometimes  succeeds  in  allaying  pain  and  inducing  sleep, 
when  opiates  have  failed;  but  whether  a physician  is  justified  in  recommending  a rem- 
edy with  the  composition  of  which  he  is  unacquainted,  is  a doubtful  question.  Ten  or 
fifteen  drops  is  the  average  dose. 

CHLO'KOFORM,  or  the  Terchlo'ride  op  Formyle  (C2HCI3),  was  originally  discov- 
ered by  Soubeiran,  and  experimented  upon  by  Dumas,  and  was  long  known  only  to 
scientific  chemists  as  a rare  organic  body,  possessing  interest  from  being  one  of  a series 
of  organic  substances,  but  not  known  to  possess  any  properties  likely  to  call  it  into  use, 
or  even  likely  to  let  it  be  known  by  name  to  the  general  public.  The  remarkable  power, 
however,  which  it  possesses  of  producing  anaesthesia,  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  C. 
on  a very  extensive  scale.  The  materials  employed  are  alcohol,  water,  and  bleaching 
powder,  and  the  proportions  are  four  parts  of  bleaching  powder,  to  which  sufficient 
water  is  added  to  make  a thin  paste,  and  thereafter  one  part  of  spirits  of  wine;  the 
whole  is  introduced  into  a capacious  retort,  which  must  not  be  more  than  half  filled, 
and  heat  being  applied,  the  C.,  accompanied  by  water  and  a little  alcohol,  distills  over. 
As  the  C.  is  heavier  than  water,  and  is  not  readily  miscible  therewith,  two  layers  of 
liquid  are  obtained  in  the  receiver — the  upper  being  water  and  alcohol,  and  the  lower 
being  chloroform.  The  upper  liquid  being  cautiously  poured  off,  the  C.  is  agitated 
with  fused  carbonate  of  potash,  which  abstracts  the  remaining  traces  of  water,  and  on 
subsequent  redistillation  the  C.  is  obtained  pure  and  ready  for  use. 

C.  is  a highly  limpid,  mobile,  colorless  liquid,  which  is  very  volatile,  has  a charac- 
teristic and  pleasant  odor,  and  an  agreeable  sweetish  taste.  It* has  a specific  gravity  of 
nearly  1500  (water  = 1000),  being  thus  half  as  heavy  again  as  water,  and  boils  at  140°  F. 
It  is  not  inflammable  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  at?  it  will  not  take  fire  when  a 
light  is  brought  down  upon  it;  but  when  thrown  on  red-hot  coals,  it  burns  with  a green 
flame,  evolving  much  smoke.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  more  readily  mixes 
with  alcohol  and  ether.  It  dissolves  camphor,  amber,  copal,  and  other  resins,  wax, 
caoutchouc,  black  and  red  sealing  wax.  iodine  and  bromine,  as  well  as  strychnine  and 
other  alkaloids.  Its  purity  may  be  determined  by  placing  some  on  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  and  allowing  it  to  evaporate,  when  no  alcoholic  or  other  odorous  substance  should 
be  even  momentarily  recognized;  and  by  agitation  with  oil  of  vitriol,  when,  on  settling, 
the  C.  should  readily  swim  on  the  surface  of  the  vitriol,  and  the  two  layers  of  liquid 
remain  colorless.  The  employment  of  C.  as  an  anesthetic  has  already  been  considered 
under  Anesthesia;  but  it  may  be  here  repeated  that  C.  is  a substance  that  cannot  bv. 
too  cautiously  dealt  with,  and  "that  if  should  never  be  administered  except  in  the  pres- 
ence and  by  the  sanction  of  a medical  practitioner.  When  skillfully  given,  it  is  among 
the  safest  of  all  anaesthetics,  and  the  greatest  boon  that  chemistry  has  bestowed  on  suf 
fering  humanity. 

CHLORO  METH'YL,  or  Methylene  Bichloride,  CH5CI2;  a liquid— clear,  volatile, 
of  pleasant  odor;  when  inhaled,  producing  anaesthesia  more  quickly  than  chloroform, 
and  usually  free  from  disagreeable  consequences.  Like  chloroform,  not  absolutely 
safe. 


813 


Chlorite. 

Chocolate. 


(Gr  green,  and  phyllon,  a leaf),  the  substance  to  which  the 

leaves  and  other  parts  ot  plants  owe  tueir  green  color.  It  is  somewhat  analogous  to 
wax,  IS  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  but  insoluble  in  water,  and  floats  in  the  fluid  of 
minute  granules.  Light  is  indispensable  to  its  formation,  and 
nr  phenomenon  of  blanching  (q.v.),  either  from  accidental  causes 

the  gardener.  Young  leaves  do  not  exhibit  so  deep  a green  as  those 
which  have  been  longer  exposed  to  the  light;  and  the  green  of  a leaf  generally  deepens 
1 It  begins  to  change  into  the  tints  of  autumn.  Hydra  viridis,  and  other  minute  ani- 
mals, appear  to  owe  their  green  color  to  a substance  an^alogous  to  chlorophyll. 

CHLO  EOPS.  See  Corn-Fly  and  Wheat- Fly. 

^ peculiar  form  of  anemia  or  bloodlessness 
common  m young  women,  and  connected  with  the  disorders  incident  to  the  critical 
period  of  life  It  has  been  called  the  green  sickness,  from  the  peculiar  dingy  greenish- 
yellow  hue  of  the  complexion;  the  green  color,  however,  is  not  always  chImftSistic 
ti^^'n  ^ debility,  and  often  with  breathlessness,  palpi  t 

tion.  and  other  distressing  or  even  alarming  symptoms.  When  there  is  no  organic  dit 
ease  present,  however.  C.  may  be  pronounced  curable  in  a large  propo^tbn  o“^ 
The  principal  ineans  to  be  employed  are  air,  exercise,  often  salt-water  Lths  tlm  use  of 
^ nutiitious  and  rather  stimulating  diet,  and  purgatives  if  required;  together 
femedies  as  are  adapted  for  restoring  deficient  secretions  and  brino-- 
ing  the  entire  female  system  of  organs  into  a natural  condition.  * ^ 

CHLOSO'SIS,  a diseased  state  of  plants,  in  which  a sickly  green  or  greenish-vellow 
color  takes  the  p ace  of  the  natural  lively  hue.  Sometimes  only  a partfS  S k 
^ected  by  It,  but  very  generally  the  whole  plant;  and  it  seems  to  depend  upon  causes 
tomaH/Trnf  nof  P ^"J.^^^^oether  unhealthy,  the  pallid  appearance  bemg  merely  symp 
hi?’  not  only  the  formation  of  chlorophyll,  but  all  the  functions  of  vegetable 
life  being  languidly  and  imperfectly  carried  on.  Bad  seed,  damp  soil  and  c^d  w^et 

common  causes  of  chlorosis.  Plants  affected  by  this 
disease  are  often  to  be  seen  among  crops  generally  healthy;  but  whole  crops  of  Jrain 

diminished  in  va'lur'^FimifS 

moSXe  L7a  SIS 

Is 

fin  Dnn  0 renaoved  to  Boston.  In  1841,  he  was  chosen  U.%  senator  to 

Tn  Webster  s unexpired  term,  the  latter  having  been  appointed  secretary  of  state 

WeSr  H s Pilgrims,  and  a eulogy  on  Daniel 

weDster.  -tLf*  works  and  correspondence  liaye  been  published  ^ 

employed  on  ship-board  to  aid  in  the  support  of  Tarious 
chocks,-  and  chocf s to  Support  T enSs“e  boat-chocks,  stow-tvood 

in^®D^?t®o°f  Granada,  in  South  America.-!.  The  bay  form- 

f department  of  Caucus  to. v ) 

cinchona  etc  C is  used  as  a ^ Iceland  moss,  and  for  medicinal  purposes  with 
or  milk.  ’ Sometimes  thp  ^?nUr  t purpose  is  dissolyed  in  hot  water 

soup  or  wine  It  is  also  emnlnvpfi  it?  and  sometimes  it  is  dissolyed  in 

satisfies  ti  rappetite  a?d  n . .liqueurs.  In  a pure  state,  it  soon 

lating  Goo7c  fexternanv  sLolh^  ‘ eontains  spices,  it  is  also  stimu- 


Chocolate. 

Choking. 


814 


on  the  surface,  and  leaves  no  sediment  of  foreign  substances.  C.  is  adulterated  in 
many  ways,  by  mixing  it  with  rice-meal,  oat-meaT,  flour,  potato-starch,  roasted  hazel- 
nuts or  almonds,  and  with  benzoin,  storax,  etc.,  in  place  of  vanilla.  The  Mexicans, 
from  time  immemorial,  were  accustomed  to  prepare  a beverage  from  roasted  and  pounded 
cocoa,  dissolved  in  water,  and  mixed  with  maize-meal  and  spices.  This  they  called 
chocolatl  (c/wee,  cocoa,  and  latl,  water).  From  the  Americans,  the  Spaniards  derived 
an  acquaintance  with  C.,  and  by  them  it  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  1520.  C.  is 
■used  in  South  America,  Spain,  and  Italy,  more  than  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  although 
it  is  used  to  a considerable  extent  in  Germany.  Its  use  in  Britain  has  given  place  in 
a great  measure  to  that  of  the  simpler  cocoa. 

CHOCOLATE  ROOT.  See  Geum. 

CHOCTAW,  a co.  in  s.w.  Alabama,  on  the  Mississippi  border;  800  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80, 
15,731 — 8344  colored.  It  is  watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Tombigbee.  Productions 
chiefly  agricultural.  Co.  seat,  Butler. 

CHOCTAW,  a co.  in  central  Mississippi,  on  Big  Black  river;  900  sq.m. ; pop.  ’80. 
9036  -2500  colored.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  business.  Co.  seat,  Greeusborough. 

CHOCTAWS,  or  Chahtas,  a tribe  of  American  Indians  now  occupying  a portion 
of  the  Indian  territory  on  Red  river,  numbering  about  16,000,  and  possessing  10,450  sq  m. 
of  land.  When  flrst  known  to  Europeans  they  occupied  the  country  now  forming 
the  w.  part  of  Alabama  and  s.  part  of  Mississippi.  When  Louisiana  was  settled  they 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  French  against  the  Chickasaws  and  the  Natchez  By  degrees 
they  became  friendly  to  the  English,  ami  in  1786  they  recognized  the  supremacy  of  the 
federal  government.  About  1800,  they  began  to  emigrate  beyond  the  Mississippi.  In 
the  war  with  England  and  the  Creek  war  they  did  great  service  to  the  union.  Georgia 
gave  them  special  privileges,  even  making  them  citizens,  but  they  preferred  to  emigrate, 
and  were  all  gone  soon  after  1830.  In  1818,  missions  were  established  among  them.  In 
the  civil  war,  they  went  with  the  confederates,  but  after  it  was  over  new  treaties  were 
made  by  the  United  States,  slavery  was  abolished,  and  other  necessary  changes  made. 
They  have  a regular  constitution,  prefaced  by  a bill  of  rights.  Free  males  21  years  old 
and  six  months  citizens  of  the  nation  arc  voters.  There  is  a house  of  representatives 
of  17  to  35  members  chosen  for  two  years.  The  governor  is  elected  for  two  years  by 
the  people,  and  is  eligible  for  four  years  only  out  of  any  term  of  six.  There  are  courts, 
supreme,  civil,  and  probate;  and  justices  of  the  peace.  Books  are  printed  in  their  lan- 
guage, and  a newspaper  is  regularly  issued  every  week  at  their  chief  town. 

CHODOWIE'CKI.  Daniel  Nicolas,  1726-1801;  a Polish  painter  and  engraver 
who  designed  and  engraved  subjects  from  the  seven  j^ears’  war,  and  subsequently  the 
“ History  of  the  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,”  a series  of  miniature  paintings  that  made  him  at 
once  famous.  Thereafter  he  was  represented  by  his  work  in  almost  every  book  of 
importance  published  in  Prussia  in  which  engravings  could  be  used.  Still,  the  picture 
of  “ Calas  and  his  Family”  is  the  only  one  of  C.’s  that  has  wide  reputation. 

CHCENIX,  a Grecian  measure  of  capacity  variously  represmted  as  equal  to  0.186, 
0.248,  and  0.495  of  an  English  gallon.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  used  chiefly  for 
measuring  grain. 

CHQ5R'ILUS,  a Greek  tragic  writer  of  the  time  of  Thespes  and  .^schylus.  He  was 
a competitor  for  the  tragic  prize  in  529  b.c.  It  is  said  that  he  took  13  prizes,  and  was 
the  author  of  150  tragedies,  besides  other  works  that  have  been  lost. 

CIKER'ILUS,  OF  Samos,  a Greek  writer,  b.  about  470  b.c.  ; author  of  a poem  treat- 
ing of  the  wars  of  Greece  with  Darius  and  Xerxes.  Fragments  of  his  writings  have  been 
pre.served  in  the  works  of  Aristotle,  Josephus,  and  Ephorus. 

CHOIR  (Lat.  chorus).  In  its  literal  sense,  the  C.  is  the  portion  of  the  church  devoted 
to  the  singers;  and  in  all  descriptions  which  concern  the  ritual  it  is  so  limited,  including 
only  the  space  from  the  western  door  or  screen  to  the  end  of  the  stalls,  whilst  the  part 
from  the  stalls  eastward  to  the  high  altar  is  called  the  presbytery.  But  in  ordinary 
language,  and  even  as  used  by  architects,  it  denotes  the  entire  space  which  is  inclosed 
for  the  performance  of  the  principal  part  of  tlie  service.  In  this  sense,  it  includes  the 
C.  proper  and  the  presbytery,  and  corresponds  to  the  chancel  in  parish  churches. 
Where  the  church  is  cruciform,  and  the  term  is  confined  to  the  eastern  limb,  it  comes 
to  be  entirely  different  from  the  C.  in  the  ritual  sense,  or  the  stall-place,  which  in  such 
a building  is  commonly  situated  either  under  the  tower  or  in  the  nave.  In  large  churches, 
the  aisle  generally  runs  along  each  side  of  the  C;,  and  frequently  passes  across  the  e. 
end  of  it;  an  arrangement  which  is  very  common  in  the  larger  churches  of  the  continent 
which  have  polygonal  or  semicircular  terminations. — C.  is  also  the  name  given  to  the 
singers  of  the  choral  service. 

CHOIR-SCREEN,  or  Choib-Wall,  the  screen  or  wall  which  divides  the  choir  and 
presbytery  from  the  side  aisles.  It  is  often  very  richly  ornamented. 

CHOISEUL,  Claude  Antoine  Gabriel,  Due  de,  1760-1838;  a col.  of  dragoons 
during  the  French  revolution,  and  a warm  supporter  of  the  royal  cause.  He  made  an 
attempt  to  rescue  Louis  XIV.  from  the  revolutionists,  but  the  royal  party  was  recaptured, 
a price  was  set  upon  C.’s  head,  and  he  was  compelled  to  fly.  He  raised  a regiment  of 


815 


Chocolate. 

Choking. 


hussars  and  joined  the  royalist  army.  He  was  finally  taken  prisoner  and  confined  at 
1 Dunkirk,  lie  escaped,  and  sailed  for  India,  but  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  France, 
captured,  and  condemned  to  death.  Yet  he  escaped  deatli,  and  at  the  restoration  he 
1 was  called  to  the  house  of  peers  by  Louis  XVIII.  In  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  a 
: prominent  member  of  the  provisional  government,  and  afterwards  received  from  Louis 
Philippe  the  post  of  aide-de-camp  to  the  king  and  governor  of  the  Louvre. 

CHOISEUL-AMBOISE,  Etienne  Francois,  Due  de,  minister  of  Louis  XV.,  was  b. 
June  18,  1719,  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and  on  the  completion  of  his  studies,  entered  the 
army.  He  fought  lira vely  in  the  Austrian  wars  of  succession;  but  only  after  he  had 
attracted  the  fancy  of  the  king’s  mistress,  Madame  Pompadour,  did  fortune  also  really 
favor  him.  Through  the  influence  of  Madame  Pompadour,  he  was  made  licut.  gen.  in 
1748,  ambassador  to  the  courts  of  Rome  and  Vienna  in  1756,  and  due  de  Choiseulin  1758. 
C.  now  became  instrumental  in  bringing  about  a family  league  of  the  Bourbon  monarchs 
in  Europe;  and  in  1763,  at  the  close  of  the  war  so  disastrous  to  the  French  arms,  he 
obtained,  by  his  prudence  and  dexterity,  milder  terms  for  his  nation  than  had  been 
expected.  This  made  him  very  popular,  as  did  also  his  successful  attempt  to  overthrow 
the  Jesuits.  In  1764,  Madame  Pompadour  died,  but  the  power  of  C.  continued  unabated. 
He  conceived,  and  almost  carried  out,  a plan  for  the  formal  emancipation  of  theGallican 
church  from  papal  influence,  paid  great  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  army  and 
navy,  developed  the  trade  and  industry  both  of  the  nation  and  of  the  colonies,  and 
opened  up  anew  an  intercourse  with  India,  whose  native  princes  were  assisted  by  French 
officers  in  their  endeavors  to  expel  the  British  from  the  peninsula.  He  had  spies  in 
every  European  court,  and  so  ruled  all  diplomatic  and  political  cabals,  that  the  empress 
of  Ru&sia,  who  dreaded  him,  called  him  Le  Cocker  de  V Europe  (“the  driver  of  Europe”). 
But  the  rise  of  Madame  Dubarry,  who  succeeded  Madame  Pompadour  in  the  ro3"al 
affections,  gradually  alienated  Louis  from  his  able  minister,  and  in  1770  he  retired  to  his 
magnificent  estate  of  Chanteloup,  where  he  lived  in  princely  splendor.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  Louis  XVI.,  C.  received  permission  to  return  to  Paris.  He  was  often  consulted, 
but  never  recovered  his  official  position.  He  died  May  7, 1785. 

CHOISEUL-GOUFFIER,  Marie  Gabriel  Florent  Auguste,  Comte  de,  1752- 
1817;  a French  scholar  who  traveled  in  the  cast,  and  published  in  1782  the  first  volume 
of  his  Voyage  Pittoresque  en  Grdce.  During  the  revolution  he  adhered  to  the  royal 
cause,  and  afterwards  went  to  Russia,  where  he  was  made  director  of  the  imperial 
libraries,  and  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts.  Another  part  of  his  work  appeared  in  1809, 
and  the  concluding  portion  in  1824,  after  his  death. 

CHOEE-CHERET,  a name  given  to  certain  nearly  allied  species  of  cherry  (q.v.),  of  the 
bird-cherry  section  of  the  genus  or  sub-genus,  natives  of  North  America,  having  small 
fruit  in  racemes,  and  the  fruit  at  first  rather  agreeable,  but  afterwards  astringent  in  the 
mouth.  Some  confusion  has  long  existed  as  to  the  different  kinds,  and  their  botanical 
names  ( pi'unus  or  cerasus  virginiana,  serotina,  and  borealis)  are  not  more  determinate 
than  the  popular  ones.  Perhaps  they  ought  to  be  regarded  as  mere  varieties  rather  than 
distinct  specie.s.  They  have  a considerable  resemblance  to  the  Portugal  laurel,  although 
the  leaves  are  deciduous.  The  bark  is  used  as  a febrifuge  and  tonic7 under  the  name  of 
wild  ckeriy  hark;  and  by  distilling  it  with  water,  a volatile  oil  is  obtained  from  it  asso- 
ciated with  hydrocyanic  acid,  called  oil  of  wild  cheri'y.  This  bark  allays  nervous  irrita- 
tion, and  is  particularly  suitable  as  a first  tonic  in  cases  of  recovery  from  fever  or  inflam- 
mation. 

, CHOKE-DAMP.  See  Carbonic  Acid. 

CHOKING,  the  obstruction  of  the  gullet,  or  of  the  passage  leading  to  it,  by  morsels  of 
food  imperfectly  chewed,  or  other  substances  accidentally  swallowed.  The  consequences 
of  C.  in  the  human  subject  are  serious,  and  will  be  best  considered  in  connection  with 
the  parts  concerned.  See  Pharynx  and  CEsophagus.  What  follows  relates  to  the  C. 
of  cattle. 

' Causes. — These  may  be  classified  under  two  heads:  1.  Those  that  depend  on  the 

material  swallowed;^  and  2.  Those  that  depend  on  the  animal  swallowing.  Under  the 
^ first  head  we  find  sharp-pointed  objects  which  become  fixed  into  or  entangled  in  the 
membrane  lining  the  throat  and  gullet;  solid  masses  too  large  to  pass  on  to  the  stomach; 
dry  farinaceous  materials  which  clog  in  the  passage.  The  second  class  of  causes  consists 
j in  inflammation  of  the  throat,  or  irritation  of  the  organs  of  deglutition;  constrictions  of 
I the  passage,  as  in  crib-biting  horses;  ulceration  of  the  oesophagus,  which  is  apt  to  run 
i after  C.,  and  is  the  cause  of  a relapse;  lastly,  without  any  disease  of  the  deglutating 
organs,  an  animal  may  be  choked  by  eating  too  greedily,  and  imperfectly  masticating  or 
salivating  its  food. 

Symptoms. — These  vary  according  to  the  position  of  the  obstruction.  If  high  up  in 
the  pharynx,  the  animal  cannot  swallow,  evinces  great  distress,  and  attempts  to  cough 
up  the  object.  Saliva  drivels  from  the  mouth,  the  animal  chews,  and  makes  an  ocasional 
ineffectual  effort  to  swallow.  The  breathing  is  very  greatly  disturbed.  In  some  cases  a large 
lump  of  food  has  become  fixed  in  the  larynx  or  upper  part  of  the  windpipe,  and  has 
suddenly  suffocated  the  animal.  When  the  obstruction  is  in  the  course  of  the  gullet 
down  the  neck,  the  symptoms  are  very  similar,  though  less  urgent,  and  there  is  addition- 


Cbolera. 


816 


ally  the  local  sign  of  swelling,  with  the  peculiar  hardness  or  softness  of  the  substance 
indicating  its  nature.  When  an  animal  is  choked  by  a substance  lodging  in  the  gullet 
within  tlie  chest,  the  symptoms  are  more  mysterious,  and  likely  to  mislead.  The  animal 
swallows;  a considerable  quantity  of  liquid  may  enter  the  gullet,  but  it  is  suddenly 
regurgitated  or  thrown  up.  as  in  the  act  of  vomiiing.  The  distress  is  great;  and  in  the 
course  of  three  or  four  days,  unless  the  animal  is  relieved,  it  dies  of  prostration.  In  the 
ox,  sheep,  and  goat,  the  most  alarming  symptoms,  in  any  case  of  C.  arise  from  the 
paunch  becoming  distended  by  gas.  This  condition  will  be  treated  under  the  head 
Hoven. 

Treatment. — Remove  the  obstruction  with  the  hand,  when  you  can.  Cause  the  animal 
to  swallow  the  substance,  if  possible,  by  giving  it  water  or  oil.  Carefully  push  the 
offending  agent  down  by  a probang,  if  it  is  possible  to  effect  this,  and  if  withdrawal  by 
the  mouth  is  impracticable.  In  some  cases,  the  gullet  has  to  be  cut  into  by  a qualified 
surgeon.  After  a case  of  C.,  keep  the  animal  on  soft  food,  and  attend  to  ils  general 
health,  in  order  to  avoid  a relapse,  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  cattle. 

CHOL'EKA,  a Greek  term  used  in  the  Hippocratic  writings,  but  of  indeterminate 
etymology,  being  derived  perhaps  from  chole,  bile,  or  from  cholera,  a water-spout  or 
gutter.  It  is  now  universally  employed  in  medicine  as  indicating  one  of  two  or  three 
forms  of  disease,  characterized  by  vomiting  and  purging,  followed  by  great  prostration 
of  strength,  amounting  in  severe  cases  to  fatal  collapse.  The  variety  called  cholera  sicca 
(dryC.)  by  ancient  writers  (in  which  collapse  and  death  take  place  without  discharges) 
!s  comparatively  rarely  observed.  The  milder  forms  of  C.  occur  almost  every  summer 
and  autumn,  even  in  temperate  latitudes,  and  are  hence  termed  by  some — in  reference 
to  this  country,  and  by  way  of  contrast — British  or  summer  0.;  wliile  the  more  devas- 
tating and  fatal  forms  of  the  disease  are  generally  supposed  to  originate  only  in  tropical 
countries— especially  in  India— and  thence  to  be  propagated  epidemicjdly  over  vast  pop- 
ulations, and  in  a somewhat  regular  geographical  course,  reaching  this  country  usually 
through  Persia,  the  steppes  of  Tartary,  Russia,  and  the  Baltic,  at  the  same  lime  extend- 
ing to  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  the  south  of  Europe.  These  very  fatal  forms  of  the  disease 
are  commonly  called  Asiatic,  Oriental,  or  epidemic  C. ; sometimes  cholera  morbus,  or 
pestilential  cholera.  The  milder  forms  are  sometimes  also  called  bilious  C. ; and  the 
severer,  spasmodic  C.,  from  the  character  of  the  symptoms  in  each.  Some  writers  of 
great  authority  are  inclined  to  consider  the  tv\'o  forms  as  one  disease,  varying  in  indi- 
vidual cases  and  according  to  season.  It  is  certain  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  dis- 
tinguish the  one  form  from  the  other  in  particular  instances;  but  the  marked  difference 
between  the  mortality  of  groups  of  cases  of  British  C.  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  Oriental 
or  Asiatic  C.  on  the  other,  renders  it  probable  that  there  is  something  in  the  latter  dis- 
ease which  amounts  to  a distinction  in  kind.  Whether  in  the  milder  or  severer  form  C. 
is  usually  ushered  in  by  a period  of  premonitory  symptoms,  when  the  more  distinctive 
characters  of  the  disease  are  not  established ; the  case  resembling  one  of  common  diar- 
rhea (q.v.)  or  looseness  of  the  bowels.  At  this  stage  it  is  very  apt  to  be  neglected,  and 
unfortunately,  in  the  severer  epidemic  forms  of  the  disease  this  is  the  only  stage  much 
under  control.  Whenever,  therefore,  there  is  a reasonable  suspicion  that  epidemic  C.  is 
threatened,  every  person  attacked  with  diarrhea  should  make  a point  of  placing  himself 
under  medical  advice,  and,  if  possible,  of  escaping  from  any  situation  in  which  epidemic 
disease  is  known  to  be  prevalent.  He  should  also  be  particularly  attentive  to  diet,  and 
especially  to  the  purity  of  the  water  he  drinks,  and  to  its  absolute  freedom  from  con- 
tamination by  animal  matters  filtering  through  the  soil,  or  thrown  into  water-courses  by 
sewers,  etc.  If  water  absolutely  cannot  be  had  in  a pure  state,  it  should  be  boiled  before 
being  used  for  drink,  or  indeed  for  any  domestic  purpose.  Many  cases  of  C.,  and  several 
local  epidemics,  have  been  traced  in  the  most  positive  manner  to  organic  impurities  of 
the  drinking-water;  and  no  single  cause  of  the  disease  has  been  established  by  so  much 
evidence  as  this.  Hence,  in  all  probability,  arises  the  well  known  preference  of  C.  for 
low  .situations,  and  particularly  for  the  low-lying  flats  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  especially 
where  the  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  water  from  streams  polluted  by  sewerage,  and 
wells  into  which  the  contents  of  drains  are  permitted  to  filter  from  a superior  elevation. 
— See  Dr.  Snow’s  work  on  the  communication  of  cholera,  2d  edition.  1855;  also  the  report 
of  the  registrar-general  of  England  on  the  cholera  of  1848-49,  and  his  17th  annual  report, 
for  1854. 

It  is  hardly  within  the  scope  of  a work  such  as  this  to  present  a minute  description 
of  fully  developed  C.  in  its  severer  or  Asiatic  variety.  It  is  truly  an  appalling  pesti- 
lence* too  easily  recognized  by  a few  leading  features.  After  some  hours  or  days  of 
simple  relaxation  of  the  bowels,  vomiting  commences,  and  occurs  again  and  again, 
accompanied  by  frequent  and  extremely  copious  discharges  downwards,  at  first  of 
matters  colored  with  bile  as  usual,  but  in  the  end  of  colorless  and  turbid  fluid  resembling 
water  in  which  rice  has  been  boiled.  These  discharges  (often  to  the  extent  of  gallons  of 
liquid),  succeeding  each  other  with  the  most  alarming  rapidity,  act  as  a drain  upon  the 
fluids  of  the  body  generally;  and  by  the  changes  they  effect  upon  the  blood,  contribute 

* The  epidemic  of  1848-49  carried  oft  53,293  persons  In  England  and  Wales;  and  that  of  1854,  20,097 
persons.  See  the  Registrar-General’s  report  for  the  latter  year.  This  estimate  is  exclusive  of  cases  of 
ratal  diarrhea. 


817 


Cholera* 


to  bring  about  the  state  called  collapse.  In  this  condition,  the  patient  lies  motionless 
and  apathetic,  except  when  tormented  by  cramps,  which  are  of  frequent  occurrence;  the 
surface  is  cold;  the  finger-ends,  lips,  and  tip  of  the  nose  become  livid;  the  eyes  are 
deeply  sunk  in  the  sockets,  and  often  bloodshot;  the  tongue  is  clammy;  the  breath  with- 
out any  sensible  warmth  when  caught  on  the  hand;  the  pulse  is  suppressed  at  the  wrist, 
the  breathing  extremely  slow  and  feeble,  the  heart  just  audible  tiirough  the  stethoscope. 
Purging  and  vomiting  have  ceased ; even  the  urinary  secretion  has  dried  at  its  source. 
In  fact,  all  the  vital  processes  are  nearly  brought  to  a stand,  and  unless  reaction  comes, 
a few  minutes,  or  at  most  a few  hours,  suffice  to  bring  life  to  a close.  Reaction  in  the 
most  favorable  cases  is  gradual  and  without  accident;  it  is  not  unfrequently,  however, 
accompanied  by  fever,  closely  resembling  typhus,  and  constituting,  at  least  in  the  tem- 
perate zone,  one  of  the  chief  dangers  of  the  progress  of  cholera. 

Medicine  is  almost  powerless  against  C.,  except  in  the  earliest  stages,  in  which  the 
treatment  usually  pursued  in  diarrhea  (q.v.)  has  sometimes  been  found  useful.  Very 
remarkable  temporary  restorative  effects  have  been  found  to  follow  the  injection  into 
the  veins  of  dilute  solutions  of  saline  matter,  resembling  as  nearly  as  possible  the  salts 
of  the  blood  which  are  drained  away  in  the  discharges.  Unhappily,  these  experiments 
have  as  yet  only  very  imperfectly  succeeded.  The  patient  is  restored  to  life,  as  it  were, 
from  the  very  brink  of  the  grave;  but  he  revives  only  for  a few  hours,  to  fall  back  into 
his  former  condition. 

The  true  medicine  of  C.,  so  far  as  we  yet  know,  is  preventive  medicine.  The  meas- 
ures to  be  adopted  have  been  partly  pointed  out  above;  in  addition,  it  may  be  said  that 
personal  cleanliness  is  of  the  first  importance;  and  that  all  unnecessary  contact  with  the 
sick  should  be  avoided,  as  the  disease  is  probably  to  some  extent  contagious,  though  by 
no  means  in  the  highest  degree.  In  short,  all  the  precautions  are  to  be  taken  which  are 
recommended  in  the  case  of  epidemic  disease  (q.v.). 

CHOLERA  INFANTUM.  A disease  of  infants  characterized  by  intestinal  disturb- 
ance more  or  less  obstinate  and  dangerous.  Opinion  is  unsettled  in  regard  to  the  nature 
of  the  complaint,  and  it  passes  under  different  names  in  different  countries.  In  this 
country,  besides  C.  I.  a common  name  for  it  is  summer  complaint,  because  it  is  essen- 
tially a disease  of  hot  weather.  Most  British  authorities  describe  it  under  the  general 
head  of  diarrhea,  others  call  it  weaning  brash,  watery  gripes,  and  choleric  fever  of 
children.  In  France  it  has  various  names,  principally  alluding  to  its  location,  as  colo- 
enteritis,  follicular  enteritis,  and  gastro  intestinal  catarrh,  the  latter  name  being  also  the 
one  in  most  frequent  use  in  Germany.  But  the  disease  as  it  is  known  in  this  country, 
and  doubtless  elsewhere,  depends  upon  a variety  of  pathological  conditions,  which, 
however,  may  change  from  one  to  another  during  the  progress  of  the  case.  The  causes 
of  the  complaint  are  not  completely  settled,  although  all  the  authorities  agree  that  hot 
and  badly  ventilated  apartments  and  malaria  generally  are  highly  conducive  to  it.  The 
older  American  physicians  were,  with  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  accustomed  to  call  it  infan- 
tile bilious  remittent  fever,  and  many  of  the  cases  which  occur  in  those  rural  districts 
where  remittent  malarial  influences  prevail  have  much  of  the  character  of  remittent 
fever,  but  in  cities,  particularly  where  the  sewerage  is  bad,  and  the  streets  are  suffered 
to  be  choked  with  decaying  garbage,  the  diarrhea  has  more  the  character  of  that  of 
typhoid  fever,  and  many  of  the  symptoms  are  of  a general  typhoid,  that  is,  of  a weak 
nervous  character.  Too  high  a heat  maintained  in  the  nursery,  will,  if  continued, 
probably  so  alter  the  functions  of  secretion  as  to  bring  on  the  disease;  especially  if  the 
diet  is  defective,  as  from  poor  milk,  or  the  injudicious  giving  of  solid  articles  of  food. 
It  sometimes  comes  on  very  suddenly,  but  is  often  insidious  in  its  advances,  deluding 
the  mother  and  family  with  the  idea  that  it  is  merely  a temporary  diarrhea  that  will 
soon  pass  away,  or  can  easily  be  relieved.  The  attack,  however,  may  commence  with 
violent  symptoms,  and  there  will  be  much  excitement  of  the  circulation,  with  vomit- 
ing and  purging.  There  is  in  all  cases  great  weakness  of  the  digestive  and  assimi- 
lative powers.  Milk  which  has  been  given  but  a short  time  before  is  voided  by  the 
rectum  in  curds,  mixed  with  greenish  slime  of  various  depths  of  color,  and  contain- 
ing fibrinous  shreds  and  gelatinous  masses,  indicating  mucous  inflammation,  and  having 
a peculiar  and  diagnostic  odor.  The  evacuations  are  preceded  by  colic  pains,  often 
intense,  the  movement  usually  giving  temporary  relief.  The  abdomen  may  be  quite 
full  at  first,  but  gradually,  often  rapidly,  grows  gaunt,  with  more  or  less  rapid  emacia- 
tion of  the  whole  body.  The  child  becomes  peculiarly  fretful  and  impatient,  the 
expression  of  its  features  and  its  general  appearance  being  highly  diagnostic  to  the 
experienced  oliserver.  In  advanced  stages  there  is  a withered,  clammy  appearance  of 
the  hands,  arms  and  legs,  peculiar  to  the  disease.  Without  change  of  air  or  diet,  or 
under  bad  treatment,  the  disease  usually  runs  a rapid  and  fatal  course,  but  sometimes, 
under  fair  but  not  decided  treatment,  the  sufferer  lies  for  several  weeks,  when,  accord- 
ing to  statistics,  death  is  more  likely  than  recovery.  There  is  a considerable  differ- 
ence, according  to  the  testimony  of  practitioners,  in  the  mortality  which  occurs  in 
the  practice  of  different  individuals.  In  some  charitable  institutions  the  deaths  of 
cases  of  C.  I.  run  as  high  as  70  per  cent,  even  under  as  good  hygienic  regulations  as 
may  be  had  in  a city,  and  many  private  physicians,  from  the  result  of  their  practice, 
place  the  percentage  of  deaths  above  ^0  per  cent.  There  are  others;  and  they  form  a 
large  portion  of  the  profession,  who  maintain  that  under  their  method  of  treatment  tko 
U.  K.  III.— 53 


Cholesterine. 

Cbopiuo. 


818 


mortality  is  much  less,  ranging  on  an  average  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  and  even  below 
this  All  concur  as  to  the  importance  of  pure  air  and  proper  diet.  Often  the  simple 
removal  to  a mountainous  district  will,  alone,  result  in  recovery;  or  even  a change  from 
hot  to  cold  weather,  without  removal,  will  often  produce  decided  relief.  As  the  digest- 
ive functions  are  very  much  weakened,  the  food  should  be  the  most  digestible  which 
can  be  olitained,  also  nutritious.  If  the  case  be  one  in  which  the  child  is  suckled  by  the 
mother,  but  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  her  milk  disagrees  with  it,  weaning  may  be 
advisable;  but,  as  a rule,  the  mother’s  milk  is  the  best  food  for  a child  under  14  months 
of  age.  When  the  child  is  fed  from  a bottle,  beef  lea,  made  either  from  fresh  beef,  or 
from  beef  extract,  may  be  given  with  advantage.  Farinaceous  articles,  such  as  farina, 
tapioca,  corn  starch,  and  arrow  root,  are,  contrary  to  the  ill-advised  conclusions  of 
many,  not  proper  food  for  infants.  The  only  article  of  the  kind  that  ever  ought  to  be 
given  in  a case  of  cholera  infantum,  is  rice  water,  which,  from  its  slight  astringent  prop- 
erties, may  sometimes  be  given  in  moderate  quantities  together  with  good  milk  and 
beef  tea.  The  radical  difference  between  physicians,  in  the  medical  treatment  aside 
from  hygienic  measures,  and  aside  from  any  reference  to  the  different  “schools”  of 
medicine,  consists  in  the  degree  of  reliance  to  be  placed  upon  opiates  and  astringents, 
or  in  other  words,  upon  palliative  treatment,  as  distinguished  from  that  which  seeks 
to  produce  a decided  change  in  the  functions  of  the  various  secreting  organs,  a great 
majority  of  which  are  manifestly  much  deranged  in  the  disease  under  notice.  The 
bile  is  scanty  and  not  of  normal  character,  and  the  inflamed  and  highly  irritated  mucous 
membrane  of  many  parts  of  the  intestinal  tract  interferes  greatly  with  the  functions  of 
the  mucous  glands  of  these  parts.  There  has  long  been  a discussion  among  physi- 
cians as  to  the  therapeutical  value  of  mercurial  preparations,  particularly  as  to  calomel, 
and  its  power  of  influencing  the  secretion  of  the  liver,  and  diminishing  inflammation.  It 
seems  proper  therefore  to  say  that  in  the  experience  of  the  most  successful  physicians  it 
is  found  that  the  administration  of  small  and  oft  repeated  doses  of  calomel  in  cases  of 
C.  I.  is  attended,  as  a rule,  with  decidedly  beneficial  results;  so  that  in  the  course  of  two* 
or  three  days,  frequently  in  a few  hours,  a change  takes  place  for  the  better  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  fecal  evacuations  and  in  the  appearance  of  the  patient.  The  administration 
of  the  calomel  alone,  given  in  a little  pulverized  sugar,  slightly  moistened  and  placed  on 
the  child’s  tongue,  in  quantities  from  one  twelfth  to  one  quarter  of  a grain,  and  repeated 
every  two,  three,  or  four  hours,  will  often  produce  decided  relief;  but  it  is  generally  advis- 
able, or  necessary,  also  to  give  a slight  opiate,  such  as  paragoric  elixir,  and  perhaps  a 
few  drops  of  the  tincture  or  aromatic  syrup  of  rhubarb.  The  calomel  must  be  persisted 
in  for  several  days  after  the  evacuations  have  be(;ome  natural,  although  not  given  so 
often.  It  is  a rule  with  but  few  exceptions  among  physicians  of  experience,  that  an 
infant  cannot  be  salivated.  On  the  contrary,  the  child  grows  strong  and  hearty  under 
the  use  of  calomel  in  those  cases  when  the  secretions  are  much  deranged  and  the  system 
reduced.  In  doses  sufficiently  small  it  undoubtedly  possesses  the  power  of  improving 
assimilation.  Warm  baths,  or  rather  warm  sponging,  and  general  attention  to  cleanli- 
ness, and  the  preservation  of  an  equable  temperature,  should  not  be  neglected.  Patients 
who  cannot  be  removed  to  the  country,  may  be  taken  out  in  an  easy  carriage  and 
wheeled  on  the  shady  side  of  the  street,  or  in  a park  or  grove. 

CHOLES  TERINE  is  one  of  those  bodies  which  are  termed  by  chemists  lipoids,  or  non- 
saponifiable  fats.  It  was  originally  discovered  in  gall-stones,  but  is  now  recognized  as 
an  ordinary  constituent  (although  occurring  in  very  minute  quantity)  of  bile,  blood,  and 
the  tissue  of  the  brain.  It  likewise  occurs  in  pus,  the  contents  of  cysts,  and  other  mor- 
bid fluid  products. 

It  separates  from  its  solutions  in  glistening  nacreous  scales,  which,  when  examined 
under  the  microscope,  appear  as  very  thin  rhombic  tablets,  whose  obtuse  angles  are 
100"  30',  and  whose  acute  angles  arc  70°  80'.  Different  formulae  have  been  assigned  for 
its  composition,  the  one  genWally  accepted  being  C37H32O.  It  is  not  always  very  easy 
of  detection  in  animal  fluids,  but  if,  by  its  insolubility  in  water,  acids,  and  alkalies,  and 
its  solubility  in  hot  alcohol  and  ether,  it  has  been  recognized  as  a fatty  substance,  it 
may  be  readily  distinguished  from  all  similar  substances  by  the  measurement  of  the 
angles  of  its  rhombic  tablets.  The  best  method  of  preparing  C.  is  by  boiling  gall-stones 
containing  it  in  alcohol,  and  filtering  the  solution  while  hot.  From  this  hot  filtered 
solution  it  crystallizes  as  the  fluid  cools. 

Chemists  have  obtained  substances  known  as  cholesterilins  and  cholesterones  from 
the  decomposition  of  cholesterine. 

CHOLET,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Maine,  32  m.  s.w.  of  Angers.  Here,  during  the  Vendean  war,  two  actions  were 
fought  in  1793,  in  both  of  which  the  royalists  wore  defeated.  In  the  first,  they  lost 
their  brave  gen.  Bonchamps;  and  the  second  drove  them  across  the  Loire,  thus  vir- 
tually deciding  the  war  against  them.  It  has  manufactures  of  fine  woolen  and  mixed 
fabrics,  and  leather,  and  a trade  in  cattle.  Pop.  ’76,  12,335. 

CHOLTJ'LA,  a once  flourishing,  but  now  decayed,  t.  of  Mexico,  60  m.  to  the  e.s.e.  of 
the  capital,  and  15  to  the  w.n.w.  of  La  Puebla.  Cortes  found  in  it  20,000  houses,  and 
as  rrany  more  in  the  suburbs,  and  also  400  temples.  Now  the  place  contains  only  about 
10,000  inhabitants.  Its  most  remarkable  memorial  of  aboriginal  times  is  a pyramid  of 


819 


Cholesterine. 

Chopine. 


clay  and  brick,  surmounted  on  the  top  by  a chapel  of  Spanish  origin.  Its  height  is  177 
ft.,  while  the  side  of  its  base  measures  480  yards.  C.  stands  on  the  table-land  of 
Anahuac,  at  an  elevation  of  6,912  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

CHOMEL.  Auguste  Francois,  1788-1858;  a French^ physician  long  employed  in 
the  Paris  hospitals;  author  of  Esaai  sur  les  Rheumatismes;  Elements  de  Pathologie  generate; 
and  Traite  des  ji^vres  et  des  Maladies  pestilentielles.  He  was  made  professor  of  medicine 
at  the  faculty  of  Paris,  as  successor  to  Laennec.  He  had  a more  lucrative  practice  than 
any  other  physician  in  France. 

CHONDA,  a t.  of  Gwalior,  18  m.  to  the  n.w.  of  the  fort  of  the  latter  name,  in  lat.  26’ 
27'  n.,  and  long.  78’  east.  It  claims  notice  merely  as  the  scene  of  a decisive  victory 
gained  by  sir  Hugh,  afterwards  lord  Gough,  over  the  Mahrattas,  on  29th  Dec.,  1843. 

CHON  DRINE.  See  Gelatine. 

CHONDROPTERY'GII.  See  Cartilaginous  Fishes. 

CHO'NETES,  a genus  of  fossil  brachiopodous  mollusca,  nearly  allied  to  the  well-known 
genus  'prodticias.  It  is  characterized  by  its  transversely-oblong  shell,  and  by  having  the 
long  margin  of  the  ventral  valve  armed  with  a series  of  tubular  spines.  Twenty-nine 
Bjiccies  have  been  described  from  the  paleozoic  formations. 

CHO  NOS  ARCHIPELAGO,  a group  of  islands  off  the  w.  coast  cf  Patagonia,  lat  44°  to 
46°  s.,  long.  74°  to  75°  west.  With  the  exception  of  a few  of  the  most  westerly,  all  are 
bare  and  scantily  peopled,  though  several  are  of  considerable  extent. 

CHONS,  or  Khonsou,  an  Egyptian  deity  worshiped  at  Thebes  as  the  great  eldest 
eon  of  Amen-Ra  and  Mut,  and  identified  with  the  moon.  The  Greeks  thought  him 
to  be  a form  of  Hercules.  Like  Horus,  he  is  represented  as  a youthful  god,  his  form 
mummied,  wearing  the  lock  of  hair  at  the  right  side  of  his  head,  and  a skull-cap 
surmounted  by  the  full  and  dichotomized  lunar  disk;  or  hawk-headed,  wearing  the 
same.  He  holds  a crook  and  whip.  He  was  a celestial  deity,  and  at  a later  time 
connected  with  Thoth,  and  was  said  to  have  proceeded  from  Nu  or  Han,  the  celes- 
tial waters.  A tablet  found  in  a temple  at  Karnak  which  was  dedicated  to  this  god, 
records  the  departure  of  C.  in  his  ark  in  the  16th  year  of  the  reign  of  Rameses 
XII.  to  the  land  of  Baktan  to  expel  a demon  which  had  possessed  the  daughter  of 
a king  of  that  country  and  sister  of  the  queen  of  Egypt.  He  succeeded,  and  returned 
in  his  ark  17  years  later.  The  worship  of  C.  appears  to  have  been  common  in  the 
Ptolemaic  period,  and  figures  of  the  go(l  in  porcelain  and  bronze  are  not  uncommon. 
He  represents  the  youngest,  as  Ammon  did  the  oldest,  of  the  divinj  circle. 

CHONTA'LES,  a district  of  Nicaragua,  n.e.  of  lakes  Nicaiagaa  and  Managua,  tra- 
versed by  the  Cordilleras,  along  the  slopes  of  which  are  valuable  mines.  There  are  a 
number  of  small  towns  peopled  chiefiy  by  native  Indians.  Some  of  the  gold  mines  now 
worked  by  them  were  worked  by  the  early  Spanish  adventurers.  There  is  a bed  of 
coal  near  lake  Nicaragua.  The  grassy  plains  among  the  mountains  support  large 
herds  of  horses  and  cattle.  Tropical  fruits  grow  abundantly,  and  there  is  good  tim- 
ber in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mines. 

CHO  PIN  (Scotch,  chappin),  the  name  of  a Scotch  liquid  measure  equivalent  to  the 
English  quart. 

CHOPIN,  Frederic,  a distinguished  Polish  pianist  and  musical  composer.  He  was 
b.  at  Zelazowa-wola,  near  Warsaw,  in  1810,  and  studied  music  at  Warsaw  under  prof. 
Joseph  Eisner.  An  exile  after  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
Paris,  where  he  lived  admired  both  professionally  and  in  society.  His  health,  always 
delicate,  broke  down  in  1837,  when  he  went  fora  time  to  Majorca,  from  which  he  after- 
wards returned,  benefited  by  the  change.  After  again  suffering  much  from  illness  and 
depression  of  spirits,  he  visited  England  and  Scotland  in  1848,  and  in  London  was  wel- 
comed with  enthusiasm  in  public  and  private.  He  never  recovered  from  the  fatigues  of 
this  journey,  but  died  in  Paris,  17th  Oct.,  1849,  and  was  buried,  by  his  desire,  beside 
Bellini,  in  the  cemetery  of  P^re  la-Chaise.  His  compositions,  restricted  to  pianoforte 
music,  are  in  high  esteem  among  musicians,  and  consist  chiefiy  of  preludes,  nolturnos, 

Eolonaises,  mazurkas,  and  valses,  with  a few  concertos  and  sonatas.  They  are  pervaded 
y a sensitive,  restless,  and  highly  poetic  fancy,  and  abound  in  subtle  ideas,  graceful  and 
original  harmonic  effects,  and  rich  ornamentation.  The  so-called  polonaises,  mazurkas, 
and  valses  are  not  dance  music,  but  dreamy  compositions  suggestive  of  the  rhythm  and 
character  of  these  dances,  in  which  the  peculiarities  of  Polish  national  music  are  blended 
with  French  elegance  and  taste. 

CHOP  INE  (Spanish,  cliapin),  a high  clog,  or  slipper,  deriving  its  name,  as  is  sup- 
posed. from  the  sound  chap,  chop,  made  by  the  wearers  in  walking.  Chopines  were  of 
eastern  origin,  but  were  introduced  into  England  from  Venice  during  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth. They  were  worn  by  ladies  under  the  shoes,  and  were  usually  made  of  wood 
covered  with  leather,  often  of  various  colors,  and  frequently  painted  and  gilded.  Some 
of  them  were  as  much  as  half  a yard  high;  and  in  Venice,  where  they  were  usually 
worn,  their  height  distinguished  the  quality  of  the  lady.  The  C.  is  mentioned  by 
Shakespeare  in  Hamlet. 


Choptank. 

Chorus. 


820 


CHOPTANK  RIVER  rises  in  Delaware,  and  flows  s.w.  through  that  state  and 
Maryland,  forming  a wide  estuary  as  it  nears  Chesapeake  bay,  into  which  it  empties. 
It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  about  50  miles. 


CHOBA'GIC  MONUMENTS.  The  choragus,  or  person  at  Athens  who,  on  behalf  of  his 
tribe,  had  supported  the  chorus  (q.v.),  and  who,  in  competition  with  the  othej-  tribes, 
had  exhibited  the  best  musical  or  theatrical  performance,  received  a tripod  for  a prize; 
but  he  had  the  expense  of  consecrating  it,  and  of  building  the  monument  on  which  it 
was  placed.  There  was  at  Athens  a whole  street  formed  by  these  monuments,  called 
the  “street  of  the  tripods.”  The  figure  represents  the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  pop- 
ularly known  as  the  “lantern  of  Demosthenes.” 

CHOEALE',  a musical  term  adopted  from  the  German,  means  a melody  to  which 
sacred  hymns  or  psalms  are  sung  in  public  worship  by  the  whole  congregation  in  unison. 
The  melody  of  the  C.  moves  in  notes  of  a slow  and  strictly  measured  progression,  and  of 
a solemn  and  dignified  character  that  disposes  the  mind  to  devotion.  Although  the 
term  C.  is  now  always  applied  to  the  music  of  the  Protestant  church,  it  belonged  to  the 
Christian  church  at  all  times,  as  melodies  still  in  use  can  be  traced  with  certainty  to 
have  been  sung  by  the  congregations  in  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity.  Among  these 
is  the  song  of  praise  by  St.  Ambrose,  still  retained  in  the  Lutheran  church,  to  the 
words  “Herr,  Gott,  dich  loben  wir.”  The C.  is  intimately  connected  with  the  history  of 
music,  as  vocal  music  was  the  only  kind  used  in  worship  until  far  on  in  the  middle 
ages.  The  C.  is  precisely  what  our  psalm-tune  is,  or  rather  what  it  formerly  was,  and 
ought  again  to  become.  The  pure,  simple  C.  has,  in  a great  degree,  been  cast  aside  in 
the  British  isles,  and  its  place  occupied  by  tunes  of  a comparatively  puerile  style,  which 
are  frequently  only  adaptations  of  operatic  songs  and  other  profane  pieces. 

CHORAL  MUSIC,  the  ancient  music  of  the  church.  Music  in  parts  for  different 
voices.  See  Sacred  Music. 

CHORAL  SERVICE,  the  musical  service  of  the  English  church,  celebrated  by  a full 
complement  of  clergymen  and  choristers  in  a cathedral  church,  and  when  all  those  pai'ta- 
of  the  servic  are  sung  as  ordered  in  the  rubrics. 


CHORD.  The  C.  of  an  arc  of  a curve  is  a straight  line  joining  its  two  extremities.  A 
Scale  op  Chords  is  used  in  laying  off  angles.  It  is  thus  constructed:  Let  AB  be 
tlie  radius  o^  the  circle  to  which  the  scale  is  to  be  adapted.  With 
center  A and  radius  AB  describe  a quadrant  BEC.  Divide  the 
quadrantal  arc  BEC  into  nine  equal  parts  BD,  DE,  etc.  This  may 
be  done  by  taking  a radius  equal  to  AB,  and  from  the  centers  B 
and  C cutting  the  arc  in  G and  F.  As  the  radius  is  always  equal 
to  the  chord  of  60°  or  I of  a quadrant,  the  arc  CB  is  thus  divided 
into  three  equal  parts,  BF,  FG,  GC,  and  each  of  these  parts  may 
then  be  trisected  by  trial,  as  no  direct  method  is  known.  Drav/  the 
chord  of  the  quadrant  BC;  from  B as  a center,  and  the  chord  of  BD 
as  a radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  BC  at  10;  with  the  chord  of  BE 
as  a radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  BC  in  20;  with  the  chord  of  BF, 
describe  an  arc  cutting  BC  in  30;  and  in  a similar  manner,  find  the  divisions  40,  50,  60, 
70,  80.  Then  the  arcs  BD,  BE,  BF,  being  arcs  of  10°,  20°,  30°,  etc.,  respectively,  the 

distances  from  B to  10,  20,  30,  etc.,  are  the  chords  of  arcs  of  10°,  20°,  30°,  etc. ; so  that 

BC  is  a scale  of  chords  for  every  10°,  from  0°  to  90°.  To  lay  down  or  measure  angles- 
with  such  a scale,  the  arc  of  measurement  must  be  described  with  the  chord  of  60°. 


CHORD,  in  music,  is  the  simultaneous  and  harmonious  union  of  different  sounds,  at 
first  intuitively  recognized  by  the  ear,  and  afterwards  reduced  to  a science  by  the  inven- 
tion of  the  laws  or  rules  of  harmony.  See  Harmony.  Chords  may  consist  of  from  two 
to  five  parts.  Absolute  chords  of  two  parts  are  produced  only  by  thirds  or  sevenths. 
Chords  of  more  than  two  parts  are  either  fundamental  chords  or  inversions  of  them,  and 
are  divided  into  concords  and  discords.  The  union  of  sounds  in  all  chords  will  be 
found,  on  analyzing  their  component  parts,  to  be  an  admixture  of  major  and  minor  thirds. 
The  common  chord,  or  iria&  harmonica  perfecta,  is  the  basis  of  all  harmony,  and  con- 


These 


sists  of  a bass  note,  or  prime,  with  its  third  and  fifth  above,  thus 

three  sounds  are  at  the  distance  of  a third  from  each  other.  When  the  lowest  third  is  the 
greater  third,  as  above,  the  C.  is  a major  chord;  but  when  the  lowest  third  is  the  lesser, 


thus: 


— « — 4,  the  C.  is  called  a minor  chord.  A chord  of  two  minor  thirds  com- 


bined IS  called  diminished,  as  the  interval  from  the  lowest  note  to  the  highest  is  less  than 


a perfect  fifth,  thus: 


The  common  C.  admits  of  two  inversions,  accord- 


821 


Choptank* 

Cliorug. 


ing  as  one  or  other  of  its  notes  is  made  the  bass,  or  lowest  note  of  the  C.,  thus: 


Fundamental  Chord.  1st  inversion.  2d  inversion. 


By  adding  another  third  above  the  common  C.,  a C.  of  four  parts  is  produced,  which  is 
called  the  chord  of  the  seventh,  because  the  highest  note  is  a seventh  above  the  bass. 
When  the  C.  of  the  seventh  is  produced  on  the  fifth  of  the  scale,  it  is  then  called  the 
dominant  seventh,  which  is  the  most  perfect  species  of  the  C.  It  then  consists  of  a major 
third,  perfect  fifth,  and  seventh,  the  minor,  which  is  the  next  harmonic  produced  by 
nature  above  the  fifth.  The  C.  of  the  seventh  may  also  be  formed  on  any  of  the  notes 
of  the  major  or  minor  scale  taken  as  a bass  note,  which  produces  the  varieties  of  major,, 
minor,  and  diminished  sevenths,  thus: 


Dominant  7th.  Major  7th.  Minor  7th.  Diminished  7th, 


The  C.  of  the  seventh  admits  of  three  inversions,  according  as  the  notes  above  the  funda- 
mental note  are  used  as  bass  notes.  From  its  nature,  it  requires  a resolution,  and  is 
therefore  always  followed  by  a common  C,  who§e  fundamental  bass  is  a fifth  below  that 
of  the  seventh.  For  the  C.  of  the  ninth,  see  Harmony.  The  first  proper  arranged  sys- 
tem of  chords  is  by  Rameau,  in  1720,  which  has  from  time  to  time  been  extended  and 
improved  by  Marpurg,  Kirenberger,  G.  Weber,  F.  Schneider,  Marx,  and  the  late  pro- 
fessor S.  W.  Dehn  of  Berlin. 

CHOBE'A  {Gv.choreia,a  dancing  or  jumping),  a disease  popularly  called  St.  Vitus’s  dance, 
and  consisting  of  a tendency  to  involuntary  and  irregular  muscular  contractions  of  the 
limbs  and  face,  the  mind  and  the  functions  of  the  brain  generally  being  quite  unaffected. 
The  spasms  of  C.  differ  from  those  of  most  other  convulsive  affections  in  being  unac- 
companied either  by  pain  or  by  rigidity;  being,  in  fact,  momentary  jerking  movements, 
indicating  rather  a want  of  control  of  the  will  over  the  muscles,  than  any  real  excess  of 
their  contractions.  In  some  cases,  the  disease  resembles  merely  an  exaggeration  of  the 
restlessness  and  “fidgetiness”  common  among  children;  in  others,  it  goes  so  far  as  to  be 
a Very  serious  malady,  and  may  even  threaten  life.  Fatal  cases,  however,  are  fortu- 
nately very  rare,  and  in  the  large  majority  of  instances  the  disease  yields  readily  to 
treatment  carefully  pursued,  or  disappears  spontaneously  as  the  patient  grows  up.  C. 
is  a disease  much  more  common  among  children  of  6 years  old,  and  upwards,  than  at 
any  other  period  of  life;  it  is  also  more  common  among  female  children  than  among; 
males.  The  treatment  generally  pursued  is  the  use  of  metallic  tonics,  such  as  zinc, 
copper,  iron,  and  arsenic  (the  last,  perhaps,  the  best),  sometimes  preceded  or  accompa- 
nied by  purgatives.  Exercise  in  the  open  air  is  also  to  be  recommended;  and  gymnas- 
tics afford  material  aid  in  the  cure.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  name  St.  Vitus’s  dance 
(dance  of  St.  Weit)  was  applied  originally  in  Germany  to  a different  form  of  disease 
from  that  above  referred  to — one  closely  approaching  in  its  characters  the  epidemic 
“dancing  mania,”  which,  in  Italy,  was  called  tarantism  (q.v.). 

CHOREPIS'COPI,  an  order  of  ministers  of  ancient  origin,  whose  functions  were  to 
assist  city  bishops  in  rural  districts  or  remote  places.  They  acted  in  a subordinate  capa- 
city, and  possessed  limited  powers,  acting  as  colleagues  or  vicars  of  the  bishops.  They 
possessed  the  privilege  of  attending  councils  in  their  own  right,  and  not  merely  as  sub- 
stitutes for  bishops.  At  first  they  were  confined  to  the  eastern  church,  but  began  to 
multiply  in  the  western  church  in  the  5th  century.  They  were  succeeded  after  the  10th 
c.  by  archdeacons,  vicars-general,  and  rural  deans.  In  the  east  the  order  was  abolished 
by  the  council  of  Rodicea  about  365  A.D. 

CHOKLEY,  a t.  in  Lancashire,  on  a hill  on  the  Chor,  9 m.  s.s.e.  of  Preston.  It  has 
an  ancient  parish  church,  supposed  to  be  of  Norman  origin,  and  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton-yarn, jaconets,  muslins,  fancy  goods,  calicoes,  and  ginghams.  In  the  vicinity  are 
several  coal-mines,  a lead-mine,  besides  mines  and  quarries  of  iron,  alum,  slates,  mill- 
stones, etc.  Pop.  ’71,  16,864. 

CHORLEY,  Henry  Fothergill,  1808-72;  an  English  author  who  paid  much  atten- 
tion to  musical  criticism.  After  long  effort  he  got  a position  on  the  London  Athenmum, 
and  for  35  years  conducted  the  musical  department  of  that  journal.  He  wrote  on  other 
subjects  besides  music,  producing  the  librettos  of  the  Amber  Witch;  the  May  Qneen;  St,^ 
Cecilia,"  Kenilworth;  Ihe  Sapphire  Necklace;  and  Fand.  Other  of  his  works  are.  Conti 
the  Discarded,  and  Other  Tales;  Sketches  of  a Seaport  Town;  Memorials  of  Mrs.  Remans; 
Lion,  a Tale  of  the  Coteries;  Mvsic  and  Manners  in  France  and  Germany;  Fomfret; 
Criticisms  on  Modern  German  Music;  and  Thirty  Tears'  Musical  Recollections. 

CHOROID  COAT  See  Eye,  ante. 

CHO'BTJS,  among  tlie  ancients,  meant  a band  of  singers  and  dancers  employed  or 
festive  occasions  of  great  pomp,  and  also  in  the  performance  of  tragedy  and  comedy 


Chose. 

Chouteau. 


822 


on  the  stage.  In  the  time  of  the  Attic  tragedy,  the  C.  consisted  of  a group  of  persons, 
male  and  female,  who  remained  on  the  stage  during  the  whole  performance  as  specta- 
tors, or  rather  as  witnesses.  When  a pause  took  place  in  the  acting,  the  0,  either  sang 
or  spoke  verses  having  reference  to  the  subject  represented,  which  served  to  increase 
the  impression  or  sensation  produced  by  the  performers.  At  times,  the  C.  seemed  to 
take  part  with  or  against  the  persons  in  the  drama,  by  advice,  comfort,  exhortation,  or 
dissuasion.  In  early  times,  the  C.  was  very  large,  sometimes  consisting  of  upwards  of 
fifty  persons,  but  afterwards  it  was  much  reduced.  Its  leader  was  termed  the  cory- 
pheeus.  The  charge  of  organizing  it  was  considered  a great  honor  among  the  citizens 
of  Athens.  The  person  appointed  for  this  purpose  was  called  ih^choragm.  I'he  honor 
was  very  expensive,  as  the  choragus  had  to  pay  all  the  expenses  incurred  in  training 
the  members  of  the  0.  to  perform  their  parts  efficiently.  They  were,  besides,  fed  and 
lodged  by  him  during  training-time,  and  he  had  also  to  provide  for  them  masks  and 
dresses.  At  times,  the  C.  was  divided,  and  spoke  or  sang  antiphonally.  These  divisions 
moved  from  side  to  side  of  the  stage,  from  which  movement  originated  the  naming  of 
the  single  songs  or  stanzas,  such  as  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode.  How  the  musical 
element  of  the  ancient  C.  was  constituted  or  composed,  is  net  known  with  any  certainty. 
Possibly,  it  was  only  a kind  of  rhythmical  declamation,  and  doubtless  very  simple.  It 
was  accompanied  by  fiutes  in  unison.  With  the  decline  of  the  ancient  tragedy,  the  C. 
also  fell  into  disuse;  and  only  lately  has  there  been  an  attempt  to  produce  the  same  on 
tire  stage  in  the  manner  of  the  ancients,  as,  for  example,  in  Schiller’s  Bride  of  Memna. 
The  music  which  has  been  set  in  modern  limes  to  some  of  the  Greek  tragedies,  does  not 
give  the  least  idea  of  the  original  music. 

In  modern  times,  by  C.  i^understood  the  union  of  singers  or  musicians  for  the  joint 
pe  formance  of  a musical  work  C.  is  also  the  name  given  to  a musical  com- 
position for  numerous  voices,  either  with  or  without  accompaniment,  and  intended 
to  express  the  united  feelings  of  a multitude.  The  musical  C.  is  the  only  artistic 
means  by  which  a simultaneous  movement  or  sentiment  of  a multitude  can  be 
represented  in  the  drama,  the  language  or  ,text  being  always  of  a simple  rhythm, 
permitting  only  of  a limited  movement  suited  to  the  combination  of  a mul- 
titude. It  is,  however,  not  always  necessary  that  every  part  of  the  C.  should  mani- 
fest the  same  feeling  or  sentiment.  Two  or  more  parts  of  the  C.  may  act  against  each 
other,  as  suits  the  purport  of  the  drama.  Double,  triple,  and  quadruple  choruses  are 
found  in  the  old  Italian  compositions  for  the  church.  In  modern  times,  the  C.  is  much 
used,  and  with  great  eft’ect,  in  operas,  especially  those  of  Meyerbeer  and  Wagner. 
In  oratorio,  the  (J.  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  the  numbers  now  employed  to  sing 
the  C.  far  exceed  anything  attempted  a century  ago;  but  this  is  not  always  an  advan- 
tage, for  the  tempi  must  necessarily  be  taken  much  more  slowly,  which  has  a sluggish 
effect;  while  increase  in  the  number  of  voices  does  not  always  produce  a greater  power 
of  sound.  The  C.  of  35  well-trained  voices  from  the  pope’s  chapel,  whf)  sang  at  the 
coronation  of  Napoleon  I.,  in  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  produced  afar  greater 
and  more  wonderful  effect  when  they  entered  singing  the  Tu  es  Petrus,  than  another  C. 
of  hundreds  of  voices,  and  80  harps,  that  had  been  assembled  and  trained  for  the  same 
occasion,  in  expectation  of  surpassing  all  that  man  could  imagine.  The  greater 
the  number,  the  greater  is  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  unity. — C.,  in  organ-building,  is  the 
name  given  to  stops  of  the  mixture  species,  some  of  which  contain  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  or  more 
pipes  to  each  note,  tuned  at  consonant  intervals  in  relation  to  the  fundamental  stops. 

CHOSE  IN  ACTION,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  that  kind  of  property  which  consists 
not  in  possession,  but  in  the  legal  right  to  possess.  As  this  right  can,  in  general,  be 
vindicated  and  made  aviiilable  only  by  means  of  an  action,  the  property  to  which  it 
relates,  whether  real  or  personal,  is  called  a thing  (res  or  chose)  in  action,  to  distinguish 
it  from  a thing  already  in  possession.  Money  due  upon  bonds  and  bills,  goods  bought 
and  not  yet  delivered,  are  examples  of  choses  in  action,  as  is  also  the  right  to  compen- 
sation for  damage  occasioned  by  breach  of  contract.  “By  the  strict  rule  of  the  ancient 
common  law,  no  chose  of  action  could  be  assigned  or  granted  over,  because  it  was 
thought  to  be  a great  encouragement  to  litigiousness,  if  a man  were  allowed  to  make 
over  to  a stranger  his  right  of  going  to  law.  [See  Champerty.]  But  this  nicety  is  now 
not  so  far  regarded  as  to  render  such  a transaction  really  ineffectual.  It  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, in  substance,  a valid  and  constant  practice;  though,  in  compliance  with  the  ancient 
principle,  the  form  of  assigning  a chose  in  action  is  in  the  nature  of  a declaration  of 
trust,  and  an  agreement  to  permit  the  assignee  to  make  use  of  the  name  of  the  assigner, 
in  order  to  recover  possession.  . . . The  king  is  an  exception  to  this  general  rule,  for 
he  might  always  eitlier  grant  or  receive  a chose  in  action  by  assignment;  and  our  courts 
of  equity,  making  the  rule  itself  give  way  to  the  expediency,  in  a commercial  point  of 
view,  of  facilitating  the  transfer  of  property,  allow  the  assignment  of  a chose  in  action 
as  freely  and  directly  as  the  law  does  that  of  a chose  in  possession.” — Stephen’s  Commen- 
taries, ii.  p.  45.  One  would  imagine  that  the  more  convenient  and  philosophical  arrange- 
ment would  be,  by  the  interposition  of  the  legislature,  to  make  law  conform  at  once  tc 
equity  and  expediency. 

CHOSROES.  See  Khosru,  aixie. 


823 


Chose. 

Chouteau* 


CHO'TA  NAGPOEE',  or  Nagpore  the  Less,  one  of  the  lower  provinces  of  Bengal, 
containing  5 Britisli  collectorates,  besides  7 tributary  minor  states.  The  area  of  the 
British  divisions  is  28,482  sq.m.,  and  in  1871  the  pop.  was  3,419,591,  consisting  chiefly 
of  aboriginal  tribes  who  are  little  removed  from  barbarians.  The  country  is  for  the 
most  part  wild  and  hilly,  consisting  of  an  undulating  plateau  3,000  ft.  above  the  sea. 
Its  chief  products  are  coal,  jute,  tea,  and  indigo;  iron  is  also  found.  From  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  tract,  the  temperature  varies  considerably,  ranging  in  winter  from  32**  to  02", 
and  in  summer  from  78“  to  98“. 

CHOTEAU,  a co.  in  Montana,  on  the  Canadian  border,  near  the  head  waters  of  the 
Missouri  river,  drained  by  the  Missouri,  the  Dog,  Milk,  Arrow,  Teton,  Judith,  Bear,  and 
other  rivers;  about  12,500  sq.m. ; pop. ’80,  3058,  besides  Indians.  Co.  seat.  Fort  Benton. 

CHOTYN,  Khotin,  or  Choczin,  a t.  in  Bessarabia,  on  the  river  Dneister,  45  m. 
s.w.  of  Kamieniec;  pop.  ’67,  20,917.  It  is  a fortified  military  post,  and  once  belonged 
to  the  Turks,  but  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  1739. 

CHOTJANS  were  bands  of  insurgent  royalists,  who,  during  the  French  revolution, 
organized  a reactionary  movement  in  Brittany.  They  obtained  their  name  from  their 
leader,  Jean  Cottereau.  This  person,  who  had  been  a smuggler,  went  by  the  name  of 
Chouan — a corruption,  it  is  said,  of  cJiat-huant  (“screech-owl  ”) — because,  while  he  and 
his  accomplices  were  engaged  in  their  nocturnal  work,  they  were  wont  to  be  warned  of 
their  d inger  by  some  one  on  the  watch  imitating  the  cry  of  this  bird.  At  the  period  of 
the  revolt,  however,  he  followed  the  humble  occupation  of  a clog-maker.  The  first  indi- 
cations of  an  anti-revolutionary  spirit  in  Brittany  manifested  themselves  in  tiie  begin- 
ning of  1791,  when  several  trees  of  liberty  were  destroyed  at  night,  and  other  more 
serious  outrages  committed.  These  disturbances  ivere  fomented  by  seditious  priests. 
In  1792,  and  insurrection  was  planned  by  the  marquis  de  la  Rouarie,  with  the  sanction 
and  approval  of  the  two  brothers  of  Louis  XVI.  The  agents  of  the  marquis  entered 
into  communications  with  Jean  Cottereau — well  knowm  for  the  reckless  audacity  of  his 
character — and  other  smugglers;  but  having  the  misfortune  to  be  arrested,  the  carrying 
out  of  the  insurrection  devolved  upon  the  latter.  The  Chouanerie,  as  the  insurrection 
was  called,  at  first  digraced  itself,  both  by  the  drunken  license  and  the  cruelty  which 
marked  it.  After  several  successful  exploits  of  the  guerrilla  sort,  Jean  Cottereau  perished 
in  ah  engagement  which  took  place  on  the  28th  July,  1794,  near  the  wood  of  Misdon,  the 
theater  of  his  first  efforts.  Before  this,  however,  other  and  more  illustrious  leaders  had 
appeared  in  Brittany  to  direct  the  movement,  the  chief  of  whom  were  Georges  Cadou- 
dal  (q.v.)  and  Charelte.  Through  their  endeavors  it  was  more  widely  extended,  and  for 
a time  seemed  likely  to  imperil  the  security  of  France,  but  was  suppressed  towards  the 
close  of  1799.  Petty  spurts  of  insurrection,  however,  broke  out  till  about  1803,  when 
the  Chouanerie  ceased  for  awhile.  In  1814-15,  it  again  made  its  appearance  on  both 
sides  of  the  Loire;  and  after  the  July  revolution,  was  once  more  excited  by  the  duchess 
of  Berry  on  behalf  of  the  duke  of  Bordeaux,  but  crushed  by  the  energetic  measures 
taken  by  M.  Thiers. 

CHOUGH,  Fregilus,  a genus  of  birds  of  the  crow  family  {coruidm),  but  approaching  to 
the  characters  and  appearance  of  the  starlings  {sturnidm).  The  length  of  the  bill  has 
induced  some  naturalists,  among  whom  was  Cuvier,  to  place  them  beside  the  hoopoes* 
but  this  is  now  generally  regarded  as  an  error ; they  agree  with  crows  in  having  their  nos- 
trils covered  with  stiff  bristles  directed  forward,  and  in  their  habits.  The  beak  is  longer 
than  the  head,  strong,  arched,  and  pointed.  The  tail  is  slightly  rounded.  The  only 
European  species  is  the  common  C.,  sometimes  called  the  Cornish  C.,  or  red-legged  crow 
(F.  graculus),  a widely  distributed  but  very  local  bird,  inhabiting  the  Swiss  Alps,  the 
high  mountains  of  Spain,  of  Greece,  of  India,  and  of  Persia,  the  s.  of  Siberia,  the  n.  of 
Africa,  and  some  parts  of  the  British  sea-coasts;  but  almost  exclusively  confined  to  .sit- 
uations where  there  are  high  cliffs.  In  these  it  generally  makes  its  nest;  sometimes,  how- 
ever, in  ruined  tow'ers.  Its  long  hooked  claw^s  enable  it  to  cling  easily  to  a rough  rock, 
but  it  seems  unwilling  even  to  set  its  feet  on  turf.  It  lives  in  societies  like  the  rook.  It 
feeds  on  insects,  berries,  grubs,  and  grain.  It  is  easily  tamed,  becomes  very  familiar  and 
forw'ard.  and  exhibits  in  the  highest  degree  the  curiosity,  the  pilfering  disposition,  and 
the  delight  in  brilliant  or  glittering  objects,  which  also  characterize  others  of  the  crow 
family. — Other  species  of  C.  are  known,  natives  of  Australia,  Java,  etc.  Some  natural- 
ists unite  the  chocards  and  the  choughs  into  one  genu.s. 

CHOULES,  John  Overton,  d.d.,  1801-56;  a native  of  England,  who  emigrated  to 
the  United  States  in  1824.  In  1827,  he  became  minister  of  the  Second  Baptist  church  in 
Newport,  R.  I.  Six  years  later,  he  went  to  New  Bedford;  in  1837,  to  Buffalo;  in  1841,  to 
the  Sixth  street  Baptist  church  in  New  York:  and  in  1843,  to  the  church  at  Jamaica 
Plain,  near  Boston.  In  1847,  he  returned  to  his  Newport  church;  and  in  1854,  accompa- 
nied commodore  Vanderbilt  in  his  yacht  voyage  to  Europe.  Among  his  publications 
are  Young  Americans  Abroad,  and  '^he  Cruise  of  the  North  Star  (the  commodore’s  yacht). 
He  also  contributed  to  and  edited  several  historical  works. 

CHOUTEAU.  Auguste,  1739-1829;  a native  of  New  Orleans,  and  a pioneer  in 
north-western  settlements.  With  his  brother  Pierre  he  was  the  founder  of  the  present 
city  of  St.  Louis. 


Chouteau. 

Christ. 


824 


CHOUTEAU,  PifeiiRE,  1749-1849;  brother  of  Auguste,  and  with  him  the  founder  of 
St.  Louis,  where  they  settled  in  1764.  The  two  were  members  of  an  expedition  under 
Laclede,  sent  by  the  French  government  of  Louisiana  to  open  trade  in  the  Yegion  of 
the  Missouri  and  upper  Mississippi.  The  brothers  remained  in  St.  Louis  all  their  lives, 
Auguste  reaching  90  and  Pierre  100  years  of  age.  They  were  the  heads  of  large  fami- 
lies of  high  standing  and  great  wealth  and  intiuence  in  Missouri  and  adjoining  states. 

CHOUTEAU,  Pierre,  1789-1865;  son  of  Pi6rre  the  founder  of  St.  Louis.  He  was 
all  his  life  engaged  in  the  fur  trade,  following  the  Indian  tribes  as  they  retired  before 
white  encroachment,  and  establishing  trading-posts  in  many  remote  points.  In  1834, 
he  and  his  associates  bought  the  fur-trade  interests  of  John  Jacob  Astor,  and  extended 
their  operations  over  all  the  regions  e.  of  the  Rocky  mountains  down  to  Mexico. 
Chouteau  was  a member  of  the  convention  that  framed  the  first  constitution  of 
Missouri. 

CHOWAN,  a co.  in  n.e.  North  Carolina,  on  Albemarle  sound,  and  bounded  w.  by 
Chowan  river;  240  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  7900 — 4267  colored.  The  surface  is  uneven,  and 
the  soil  fertile,  producing  corn,  cotton,  etc.  Co.  seat,  Edenton. 

CHOYA.  See  Chay  Root. 

CHRESTIEN,  or  CHRETIEN,  DE  TROYES,  an  early  writer  of  French  romance, 
of  whose  life  little  is  known,  except  that  he  was  b.  at  Troyes  in  the  11th  century.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  was  attached  to  the  court  of  Philip  of  Alsace,  count  of  Flanders. 
The  six  romances  that  critics  concede  to  be  of  his  composition  are:  Irec  et  Enide,  from 
which  Tennyson  took  one  of  his  Arthurian  legends;  Cliges  ov  Cliget,  second  round- 
table romance;  Le  Chexalier  au  Lion;  GuilUtume  d' Angleterre;  Le  Chetalier  de  la  Gharette; 
and  Perceval  le^Oallois.  He  also  wrote  THatan,  ou  le  Boi  Marc  et  leBeine  Yseult,  and 
Chevalier  de  VEgee,  but  these  two  works  are  lost. 

CHRESTIEN,  Florent,  1541-96;  a Latin  poet,  at  an  early  age  tutor  to  Henry  of 
Navarre,  afterwards  Henry  IV.,  who  made  him  his  librarian.  Chrestien  was  the  author 
of  many  translations  from  Greek  into  Latin  verse,  and  also  of  translations  into  French. 
He  wrote  in  verse  against  Pibrach,  the  apologist  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew; 
but  his  claim  to  a place  among  satirical  writers  rests  upon  his  share  in  the  SatyreMenip- 
pee,  a pasquinade  in  the  interest  of  Henry  IV. 

CHRESTOM'ATHY,  a collection  of  extracts,  or  text  books,  useful  in  learning  a Ian 
guage,  or  in  gaining  special  information. 

CHRISM  (Gr.  chrisma,  ointment)  is  the  name  given  to  the  oil  consecrated  on  holy 
Thursday,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  churches,  by  the  bishop,  and  used  in  bap- 
tism, confirmation,  orders,  and  extreme  unction.  There  are  two  kinds  of  C. — the  one, 
a mixture  of  oil  and  balsam,  is  u.sed  in  baptism,  confirmation,  and  orders;  the  other, 
which  is  merely  plain  oil,  is  used  in  extreme  unction. 

CHRI'SOME,  the  name  of  the  white  vesture  laid  by  the  priest  on  the  child  in  former 
times  at  baptism,  to  signify  its  innocence.  It  was  generally  presented  by  the  mother  as 
an  offering  to  the  church,  but  if  the  child  died  before  the  mother  was  “ churched”  again, 
it  was  used  as  a shroud.  By  a common  abuse  of  words,  C.  came  to  be  applied  to  the 
child  itself.  A C.  child  is  a child  in  a C.  cloth.  As  late  as  Jeremy  Taylor  (Holy  Dying, 
c.  i.,  s.  2),  we  have  the  following:  “Every  morning  creeps  out  of  a dark  cloud,  leaving 
behind  it  an  ignorance  and  silence  deep  as  midnight,  and  undiscerned  as  are  the  phan- 
tasms that  make  a chrisome  child  to  smile.” 

CHRIST,  a title  of  our  Saviour  (see  Jesus),  now  in  general  use  almost  as  a name  or  p 
part  of  his  name.  It  is  originally  Greek,  signifies  anointed,  and  corresponds  exactly  in 
meaning  and  use  with  the  Hebrew  word  Messiah  (q.y.);  so  that  this  title  given  to  Jesus 
of  Nazareth,  is  an  acknowledgment  of  him  as  the  Saviour  long  promised  to  the  house  of 
Jacob  and  to  the  human  race.  As  prophets,  priests,  and  kings  were  anointed  on  being 
called  to  their  several  offices  (I  Kings  i.  34,  39;  I Sam.  xvi.  13;  Exod.  xxix.  7),  so  the 
Saviour  was  anointed  as  at  once  prophet,  priest,  and  king;  the  Holy  Spirit,  often  rep- 
resented under  this  figure,  being  given  to  him  to  qualify  his  human  nature  for  all  that 
belonged  to  his  mediatorial  office  and  work.  * 

The  whole  system  of  Christianity  depends  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Person  op  Christ. 
An  essential  difference  necessarily  exists  on  almost  every  point  between  the  systems  of 
doctrine  maintained  by  those  who  do  and  by  those  wdio  do  not  acknowledge  a union  of 
the  divine  and  human  natures  in  his  person.  Some  of  the  early  heretics  maintained  an 
opinion,  which  has  long  ceased  to  have  any  supporters,  that  the  body  of  C.  was  not  a 
real  body,  but  a mere  visionary  appearance.  See  Docet.®  and  Gnostics.  The  opposite 
extreme  is  that  of  Socinians,  by  whom  C.  is  regarded  as  a mere  man;  whilst  Arians 
(q.v.)  regard  him  as  in  his  pre-existence — i.e.,  before  his  incarnation — the  highest  of  all 
created  beings;  and  according  to  the  generally  received  doctrine  of  Christians,  he  is 
“God  and  man  in  two  distinct  natures  and  one  person.”  This  doctrine,  of  course,  bears 
a most  intimate  relation  to  that  of  the  Trinity  (q.v.);  and  all  who  hold  the  divinity  of 
Jesus  Christ,  regard  him  as  the  incarnate  second  person  of  the  godhead.  The  proof  of 
the  whole  doctrine  may  almost  be  said  to  consist  simply  in  a proof  of  the  divinity  of 
C.;  his  real  humanity,  although  equally  important,  being  ho  longer  disputed.  And  this 


825 


Chouteau. 

Christ. 


proof  is  found,  not  so  much  in  particular  texts  which  directly  assert  the  divinity  of  C. — 
although  such  texts  are  important — as  in  the  multitude  of  texts  which  imply  it,  and 
admit  of  no  reasonable  or  natural  explanation  apart  from  it;  and  in  showing  that  cer- 
tain doctrines  are  taught  in  Scripture  which  cannot  be  maintained  without  this. 

The  ancient  Apollinarians,  Eutychians,  Monophysites,  etc.,  regarded  C.  as  having 
only  one  nature — a comupound  of  the  divine  and  human;  but  such  a notion  as  that  C.  had 
only  a human  body,  the  divine  nature  supplying  the  place  of  a .soul,  is  held  to  be  subver- 
sive of  the  whole  L'liristian  system;  and  his  human  nature,  to  be  real,  must  be  viewed 
as  consisting  both  of  a true  body  and  a true  soul.  His  human  nature  never  existed, 
however,  apart  from  his  divine  nature,  and  was  “conceived  by  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.” 

Closely  connected  with  this  subject  is  that  of  the  humiliation  and  consequent  exalta- 
tion of  C.,  in  his  character  of  mediator  between  God  and  man;  a subject,  to  the  former 
branch  of  which  belongs  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  work  of  C.  for  the  redemption  of 
sinners,  including  the  great  doctrine  of  atonement  (q.v.).  To  the  latter  belongs  the 
doctrine  of  the  reward  of  his  work,  in  his  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  God,  and  having 
all  thiugs  put  under  his  feet;  not  only  exercising  dominion  as  king  in  his  church, 
but  over  all  things  for  the  advancement  of  the  salvation  of  his  church,  and  of  every 
member  of  it;  while  also  he  sends  forth  the  Holy  Spirit  to  apply  to  men  the  blessings 
which,  as  the  reward  of  his  work,  he  has  mediatorially  obtained  for  them;  and  still 
continuing  to  act  as  a priest,  makes  continual  intercession  (q.v,),  founded  upon  his 
work  and  sacrifice. 

CHBIST,  Order  of,  in  Portugal.  When  the  Templars  were  expelled  from  France, 
and  their  property  confiscated  by  Philippe  le  bel,  with  the  sanction  of  pope  Clement  V., 
they  were  received  into  Portugal,  and  their  order  revived  in  1317,  under  the  title  of 
“ The  Order  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,”  With  some  difficulty,  pope  John  XXII.  was 
induced  to  sanction  the  new  order.  The  knights  of  the  order  of  Christ  joined  the  Portu- 
guese in  all  their  crusades  against  the  infidel,  and  also  in  their  African  and  Indian 
expeditions,  receiving  in  compensation  continual  additions  to  their  own  possessions. 
The  grand  prior  of  the  order  was  invested  by  pope  Calixtus  III,  with  power  equal  to 
that  of  a bishop;  and  as  an  encouragement  to  adventure,  the  knights  were  promised  all 
the  countries  which  they  might  discover,  to  be  held  under  the  protection  of  Portugal.  At 
length,  their  wealth  and  power  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  kings  of  Portugal;  their  future 
acquisitions,  and,  subsequently,  even  their  actual  possessions,  were  declared  to  be  crown 
possessions,  and  the  offices  of  administrator  and  grand-master  were  transferred  to  the 
crown.  A fine  cloister  belonging  to  the  older  is  still  to  be  seen  at  Tomar,  to  which  place 
the  seat  of  the  order  was  transferred  from  Castro-Marino  in  1366.  Noble  descent,  and 
three  years’  military  service  against  the  infidel,  were  required  for  admission.  The  mem- 
bers took  the  three  monkish  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience,  till  the  pope 
released  them  from  the  first  two,  on  condition  of  their  applying  the  third  part  of  their 
revenues  to  the  support  of  Tomar  cloister,  the  priests  of  which  were  bound  by  the  three 
vows.  This  cloister  is  now  a theological  institution  for  the  instruction  of  the  priests 
of  the  order. 

It  is  said  that  the  order  still  possesses  26  villages  and  farms,  and  434  prebends.  It  is 
very  numerous — consisting  of  6 knights  of  the  grand  cross,  450  commanders,  and  an 
unlimited  number  of  knights.  Catholics  of  noble  descent  alone  are  admitted,  and  for- 
eigners are  excluded  from  participation  in  the  revenues,  being  exempted  in  return  from 
its  rules. 

CHBIST,  Papal  Order  op.  This  is  a branch  of  the  Portuguese  order,  created  by 
pope  John  XXII.  It  has  only  one  class. 

CHBIST,  Pictures  op.  To  represent  the  form  and  countenance  of  C.  in  a manner 
that  shall  even  approximate  to  the  latent  ideal  in  the  minds  of  men,  is  unquestionably 
the  most  sublime  and  the  most  difficult  work  which  an  artist  can  undertake.  It  is  the 
highest  pictorial  effort  of  the  creative  faculty.  From  a very  early  period  in  the  history 
of  the  church,  we  can  trace  the  growth  of  the  endeavor.  At  first,  indeed,  the  horror 
entertained  for  the  idols  of  the  pagans,  must  have  inspired  Christians  with  an  aversion 
to  images  or  pictures  of  the  Savior.  Gradually,  however,  as  paganism  disappeared,  and 
time  removed  C.  further  from  his  .people,  this  feeling  would  subside,  and  the  longing 
would  arise  to  possess  some  representation  of  him  on  which  the  eye  might  rest  with 
pious  delight.  When  Christian  art  originated  we  cannot  precisely  say;  it  is  usually 
dated  from  the  time  of  Constantine.  Nevertheless — as  lord  Lindsay  remarks,  in  his 
Sketches  of  the  History  of  Christian  Art  (hond.  1847) — “ it  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that  it  then  first  emerged  above  ground;  its  earliest  efforts  must  be  sought  for  in  the 
catacombs.”  In  these  subterranean  excavations,  forming  amaze  of  unknown  extent  and 
labyrinthine  intricacy,  to  which  the  Roman  Christians  had  recourse  in  the  days  of  per- 
secution, are  to  be  found  the  first  traces  of  Christian  sculpture  and  painting.  The 
sarcophagi  of  the  martyrs  and  confessors,  of  the  heroes  and  heroines,  of  the  bishops, 
and,  in  general,  of  those  of  higher  mark  and  renown,  were  painted  over  with  the  sym- 
bols and  devices  of  Christianity.  The  parables  were  the  chief  source  from  which  these 
sepulchral  artists  drew  their  symbols.  C.  is  painted  as  the  good  shepherd  in  the  midst 
of  his  flock,  or,  with  “ pastoral  pipe,”  seeking  the  lost  sheep,  or  returning  with  it  on  his 


Christ. 

Christian. 


826 


ehouiders.  Sometimes  he  figures  as  an  ideal  youth  in  the  bloom  of  his  years,  sometimeg 
as  a bearded  man  in  the  prime  of  life,  sometimes  as  Orpheus  surrounded  by  wild  beasts 
enrapt  by  the  melody  of  his  lyre.  Such  pictures,  however,  were  only  nymbollcol,  and 
did  not  satisfy  the  religious  craving  for  a The  age  of  Constantine  marks  the 

transition  from  the  symbolical  to  the  pseudo-hiiftorical  picture.  We  now  find  C.  repre- 
sented in  the  midst  of  his  disciples,  or  in  the  act  of  performing  a miracle;  but  it  is  not 
till  about  the  close  of  the  4th  c.  that  we  actually  encounter  that  type  of  countenance 
which,  which  certain  modifications,  continued  to  rule  the  conceptions  of  artists  during 
the  whole  of  the  middle  ages.  To  vindicate  this  type,  myths,  at  a later  period,  sprang 
into  existence;  and  we  read  of  a portrait  of  0.  possessed  by  king  Abgaius  of  Edessa, 
and  imprinted  on  a handkerchief,  and  of  another  miraculously  obtained  by  St.  Veronica 
at  the  crucifixion;  but  there  is  as  little  foundation  for  these  legends  as  for  that  which 
attributes  to  the  evangelist  Luke  such  a picture.  Tlie  emperor  Alexander  Severus  (230 
A.D.)  is  said  to  have  pos.sessed  in  his  palace  an  image  of  Christ.  An  antique  mosaic, 
probably  of  the  3d  c.,  which  exists  in  the  Maseo  Chrktiano  of  the  Vatican — where  are 
to  be  found  also  some  specimens  of  the  frescos  of  the  catacombs — gives  an  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  heathen  artists  expressed  their  notion  of  Christ.  He  is  depicted  as 
a bearded  philosopher  in  profile.  A letter  which  Lentulus,  the  predece>sor  of  Pilate,  is 
declared  to  have  written  to  the  Roman  senate,  but  which  is  evidently  apocryphal, 
attributes  to  C.  a figure  and  countenance  of  manly  beauty.  Towanls  the  middle  of  the 
8th  c.,  John  of  Damascus  gives  a description  which  he  pretends  to  have  gathered  from 
more  ancient  authors.  According  to  him,  C.  was  tall,  had  beautiful  eyes,  but  the  eye- 
brows meeting;  a regular  nose,  flowing  locks,  a black  beard,  and  a sandy  or  straw-col- 
ored complexion,  like  his  mother.  Among  the  most  ancient  representations  of  C.  which 
profess  to  be  portraits,  are  the  two  paintings  in  the  Calixtine  and  Pontine  catacombs 
near  Rome,  and  which  are  given  in  Arighi’s  lioma  Subterranea  JVova.  J'he  Savior  is 
there  represented  with  an  oval  visage,  a straight  nose,  arched  eyebrows,  and  high  fore- 
head. The  expression  is  earnest  and  mild;  the  hair  is  parted  on  the  forehead,  and  falls 
over  the  shoulders  in  waving  locks;  the  beard  is  short  and  scattered.  These  two  busts 
agree  with  the  apocryphal  letter  of  Lentulus,  and  the  artist  or  artists  wdio  executed 
them,  may  possibly  have  employed  it  as  a model.  The  majority  of  the  Byzantine  and 
Italian  painters,  down  to  the  age  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Raphael,  adhered  to  this  type. 

CHBIST  or  Ckis  Cross  ROW,  the  alphabet  arranged  in  the  form  of  a cross,  for  the 
use  of  children;  and  so  printed,  in  old  “ horn”  books,  or  primers.  The  letter  A was  at 
the  top,  and  Z at  the  foot  of  the  cross. 

CHRISTADEL'PHIANS,  a recently  organized  religious  sect  in  America,  whose 
principles  are  thus  stated:  The  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  equally  important;  Uod 
will  restore  to  immortal  life  all  who  love  him  in  this  life,  but  those  who  have  not 
accepted  this  immortal  principle  cease  to  exist  at  death;  there  is  no  personal  devil; 
Christ  is  the  son  of  God,  deriving  from  the  Deity  moral  perfection,  but  from  his  mother 
a human  nature;  he  has  the  three-fold  character  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king;  the  first 
office  he  fulfilled  by  his  life  and  death  on  earth,  and  now  as  priest  he  mediates  before 
the  deity;  as  king  he  will  return  to  earth  and  reign  over  all  the  world  from  the  throne 
of  David.  The  adherents  of  this  sect  are  few. 

CHRISTCHURCH,  a parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  and  seaport  on  the  English 
channel,  in  Hampshire,  at  the  head  of  the  estuary  formed  by  the  Avon  and  Stour,  24 
m.  s.w.  of  Southamptom.  It  has  manufactures  of  fusee  chains  for  clocks  and  watches, 
and  of  hosiery.  It  has  also  a salmon-fishery.  The  priory  church,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  magnificent  of  English  ecclesiastical  structures,  dates  from  the  reign  of 
William  Rufus,  and  was  restored  in  1861.  A battery  of  artillery  is  generally  stationed 
in  the  commodious  barracks.  The  borough  comprises  two  favorite  watering-places, 
Mudeford  and  Bournemouth.  There  are  traces  here  of  a Roman  temple  to  Mars.  Pop. 
'71,  15,415.  It  returns  one  member  to  parliament. — C.  bay  has  a double  tide  every  12 
hours. 

CHRISTCHURCH,  capital  of  the  province  of  Canterbury,  in  New  Zealand,  situated 
on  the  river  Avon,  about  8 m.  from  the  sea.  Its  port  is  Littleton,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a railway,  and  it  is  in  railway  communication  with  the  n.  and  south.  It  is 
the  center  of  a great  grazing  district,  and  has  also  flourishing  manufactories.  There  is 
a large  export  trade,  chiefly  in  timber  and  wool.  The  city  possesses  numerous  fine 
public  buildings,  churches,  theater,  etc.  Pop.  ’75,  10,294;  of  electoral  district,  13,000. 

CHRIST-CHURCH,  The  Cathedral  op  (Oxford).  This  great  society  has  had  three 
distinct  foundations.  In  1526,  cardinal  Wolsey  obtained  from  Clement  VII.  a bull  for 
the  suppression  of  22  monasteries,  the  site  of  one  of  which  he  selected  as  the  site  of  a 
new  college,  to  be  called  cardinal  college,  and  which  he  intended  to  endow  on  a scale  of 
magnificence  beyond  that  of  any  other  foundation  in  Oxford.  On  the  fall  of  Wolsey  in 
1529,  the  whole  establishment  came  into  the  hands  of  king  Henry  VIII.  In  1532,  that 
prince  refounded  it  under  the  name  of  king  Henry  VIII. ’s  college,  and  in  1546,  he  once 
more  re-established  the  college,  under  the  name  of  “ Christ-church  cathedral  in  Oxford, 
or  the.  foundation  of  king  Henry  VIII.,  with  a dean  and  8 canons,  60  students.  40  school- 
boys, clerks,  choristers,”  etc.  This  foundation  is  now  subsisting,  though  it  has  under- 


827 


Christ. 

Christian. 


gone  considerable  modifications.  To  none  of  the  canonries  were  any  duties  assigned 
by  king  Henry  VIII.  From  time  to  time,  however,  the  canonries  have  been  annexed 
to  various  university  professorships,  more  particularly  one  to  the  professorship  of 
divinity,  by  king  James  I. ; one  to  the  professorship  of  Hebrew,  by  king  Charles  I. , 
and  one  to  the  professorships  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  pastoral  theology  respectively, 
by  queen  Victoria. 

Several  changes  were  introduced  by  the  commissioners  appointed  under  17  and  18 
Viet.  c.  81.  There  is  now  only  one  sineciire-enjoying  canon.  When  he  is  off  the  list, 
no  crie  may  hold  a canonry  save  a professor,  the  archdeacon,  or  the  sub-dean.  The 
studentships  are  now  80  in  number,  and  are,  as  before,  divided  into  junior  and  senior 
studentships,  differing  considerable  as  to  emolument.  All  these  are  now  open,  the  old 
system  of  appointment  by  nomination  having  been  abolished.  About  three  junior 
students  are  elected  every  year  in  Lent  term,  one  in  every  three  for  excellence  in  math- 
ematics or  physical  science;  and  besides  these,  three  are  sent  up  yearly  from  Westmin- 
ster. The  senior  studentships  are  also  open,  with  thq  usual  limitation  of  independent 
income.  Of  these,  however,  only  a third  can  be  held  by  laymen.  The  studentships 
were  very  poor;  but  an  improvement  in  this  respect  has  been  included  among  the  recent 
changes.  Some  valuable  exhibitions,  however,  and  90  benefices,  are  in  the  gift  of  the 
society.  In  1875,  there  were  about  1150  names  on  the  college  books.  No  statutes  were 
given  to  C.,  owing  to  the  death  of  the  king  having  taken  place  shortly  after  the  final 
foundation  of  the  college.  It  was,  in  consequence,  entirely  governed  by  the  orders  of 
the  dean  and  chapter,  to  the  total  exclusion  of  the  tutors.  To  this  separation  of  the 
governing  from  the  teaching  body,  as  well  as  to  the  small  value  of  the  studentships, 
may  be  ascribed,  in  great  measure,  the  inconsiderable  degree  of  success  in  the  schools, 
which,  for  many  years  past,  brought  no  small  discredit  on  this  magnificent  society. 

CHBISTENING,  a term  often  used  as  equivalent  to  baptism  (q.v.).  It  is  disliked  by 
some,  and  of  course  liked  by  others,  as  favoring  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration; 
being,  indeed,  according  to  its  derivation,  expressive  of  the  notion  that  a person  is  made 
a ChiiAtian  in  baptism.  But,  like  many  other  terms,  it  is  frequently  employed  without 
reference  to  its  origin,  and  without  any  intention  of  conveying  the  opinion  which  it 
might  be  strictly  held  to  imply. 

CHRISTIAN,  a co.  in  central  Illinois,  traversed  by  the  Illinois  Central,  the  Indian- 
apolis and  St.  Louis,  the  Springfield  and  Illinois  South-eastern,  and  the  St.  Louis 
division  of  the  Toledo,  Wabash,  and  Western  railroads;  675  sq.m.  ; pop.  ’80,28,232. 
It  is  generally  level  timber-land  and  prairie;  productions  agricultural.  Co.  seat, 
Taylorsville. 

CHRISTIAN,  a co.  in  s.w.  Kentucky,  on  the  Tennessee  border,  intersected  by  the 
Evansville,  Henderson  and  Nashville  railroad;  704  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,81.861 — 14,639 
colored.  It  is  hilly  in  the  n.,  but  level  in  the  s.,  with  productive  soil;  the  products  are 
wheat,  corn,  hay,  butter,  wool,  and  tobacco.  Co.  seat,  Hopkinsville, 

CHRISTIAN,  a co.  in  s.w.  Missouri,  drained  by  James  river,  and  intersected  by  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  railroad;  500  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,  9649 — 197  colored.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  and  the  soil  in  the  valleys  is  rich,  producing  wheat,  corn,  tobacco,  etc.  Timber 
abounds.  Co.  seat,  Ozark. 

CHBISTIAN  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  b.  at  Vyborg,  in  the  island 
of  Funen,  2d  July,  1481.  He  ascended  the  throne  of  Denmark  in  1513.  Shortly  after 
his  marriage  in  1515,  with  a sister  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  a young  Norwegian 
peasant-girl,  with  whom  C.  was  in  love,  died,  or,  as  it  was  believed,  was  murdered. 
That  natural  ferocity,  for  which  C.  was  surnamed  the  Angry,  burst  forth  most  furiously 
on  this  occasion.  He  caused  the  governor  of  the  castle,  Torben  Oxe  (see  Dyveke),  to 
be  beheaded.  He  afterwards  declared  open  war  against  Sweden,  took  Stockholm 
through  fraud,  and  had  himself  crowned  king.  But  the  cruel  vengeance  and  treachery 
of  C.  after  this  event  excited  the  indignation  of  that  country,  which,  headed  by  Gustavus 
Wa.sa  (q.v.).  succeeded  in  driving  out  the  Danes,  liberating  itself  from  the  yoke  of  the 
house  of  Kalmar,  and  finally  electing  Gustavus  Wasa  (in  1523)  to  the  throne.  In  Den- 
mark, too,  the  aristocracy  had  risen,  and  an  insurrection  in  Jutland  following,  C.  found 
himself  forced  to  flee  for  refuge  to  the  Netherlands,  and  his  uncle  Frederick  1.  (q.v,), 
the  introducer  of  the  reformation  into  Denmark,  elected  king  in  his  place.  Encouraged, 
however,  by  the  Catholic  party  in  the  Netherlands,  and  assisted  by  Charles  V.,  C.  landed 
successfully  in  Norway  in  1531;  but  at  the  battle  of  Aggerhuus  in  1532,  he  was  totally 
defeated,  and  made  prisoner  in  the  castle  at  Sonderburg,  from  which  he  was  liberated 
after  12  years  of  confinement.  He  died  28th  Jan.,  1559. 

CHBISTIAN  IV.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  and  duke  of  Schleswig  Holstein,  b. 
in  Zealand,  12th  April,  1577,  and  elected  successor  to  the  throne  in  1580.  He  assumed 
the  scepter  in  1593.  From  1610  he  carried  on  a successful  war,  known  as  the  Kalmarian 
war,  against  Charles  IX.  of  Sweden,  and  his  successor,  Gustavus  Adolphus,  which 
ended  in  an  advantageous  peace  in  1613.  As  leader  of  the  Protestants  in  the  thirty 
years’  war,  C.  was  not  successful.  His  labors  for  the  improvement  of  his  country,  in 
which  he  was  indefatigable,  were,  however,  most  beneficial.  He  strengthened  its 
maritime  power;  extended  its  commerce  as  far  as  the  East  Indies,  where  he  obtained 


Christian. 


828 


inland  trade  of  the  country.  His  legislative  and  financial  reforms,  together  with  his 
love  and  patronage  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  gained  for  him  the  esteem  of  liis  people, 
especially  of  the  learned.  He  died  in  1648. 

CHBISTIAN  VII.,  King  of  Denmark,  son  of  Frederick  V.  and  Louisa  of  England,  b. 
29th  Jan.,  1749.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  his  father  14th  Jan.,  1766,  and  in  the 
same  year  married  Caroline  Matilda,  sister  of  George  HI.  of  England.  The  dissipations 
of  his  early  life  had  enfeebled  his  energies,  and  rendered  him  unfit  for  government. 
The  management  of  the  state  was,  in  consequence,  seized  by  his  ministers,  with  count 
Bernstorff,  who  had  possessed  the  entire  confidence  of  the  king’s  lath<;r,  at  their  head. 
Bernstorff,  however,  was  soon  forced  to  retreat  before  Struensee  (q.v.),  who  exercised 
unbounded  influence  over  the  king  and  his  imprudent  young  queen.  But  innovations 
of  a despotic  tendency,  and  insults  offered  to  the  national  feeling,  soon  drew  upon  this 
minister  the  hatred  of  the  nation.  The  queen-dowager  seeing  this,  made  it  an  occasion 
for  satisfying  her  ambitious  nature,  by  attaching  herself  to  the  malcontents;  and  in  1772 
she  succeeded,  with  the  assistance  of  her  son,  Frederick  (b.  1754,  d.  1805),  in  persuad- 
ing the  vacillating  king  to  draw  up  an  order  of  arrest  for  Struensee  and  the  young  queen. 
Bernstorff  was  recalled  from  Hamburg.  The  king,  who  was  now  incapacitated  by 
mental  disease,  governed  only  nominally.  In  1784,  his  son,  Frederick  VI.  (q.v.), 
came  to  the  head  of  the  government,  as  joint  regent  with  the  queen-mother.  C.  died 
13th  Mar.,  1808. 

CHRISTIAN  VIII.,  1786-1848;  king  of  Denmark,  nephew  of  Christian  VII.  When 
Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  the  people  of  tlu*  former  country 
repudiated  the  transfer,  and  C.  was  then  made  governor,  raised  an  army  and  convened 
a diet,  at  which  a constitution  was  framed,  and  he  was  elected.  May  29,  1814,  king  of 
Norway  under  the  title  of  Christian  L,  but  the  allied  powers  compelled  him  to  relin- 
quish the  throne  on  the  10th  of  Oct.  On  the  death  of  Frederick  VI.,  Dee.  3,  1839,  he 
became  king  of  Denmark.  He  tried  to  unite  Schleswig  and  a part  of  Holstein  to  Den- 
aark,  but  did  not  succeed.  He  died  just  before  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  of 
848. 

CHBISTIAN  BTJBIAL.  See  Burial  and  Felo  de  se. 

CHBISTIAN  CHABITY,  Knights  of  the  Order  op,  in  France.  King  Henry  III. 
aaving  instituted  the  order  of  the  Hoi}"  Ghost  for  princes  and  persons  of  distinction, 
founded  the  order  of  C.  C.  for  the  support  of  maimed  officers  and  soldiers,  who  had 
done  good  service  in  the  wars.  He  assigned  revenues  to  the  order,  drawn  from  all  the 
hospitals  in  the  kingdom.  The  knights  wore  on  the  left  breast  an  anchored  cross 
embroidered  on  white  taffety  or  satin,  with  a border  of  blue  silk,  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  cross  a lozenge  of  sky  blue  charged  with  a Jieur  de  Us  or.  The  completion  of  the 
institution  was  reserved  for  Henry  IV.,  who  placed  it  under  the  charge  of  the  marshals 
and  colonels  of  France;  and  by  means  of  it,  many  of  those  who  had  served  their  coun- 
try faithfully  were  enabled  to  spend  the  latter  portion  of  their  lives  in  peace,  and  above 
want.  The  order  formed  the  germ  of  that  noble  hospital  the  Invalides,  which  was 
founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  which  served  as  a model  for  our  own  hospitals  of  Chelsea 
and  Greenwich.  When  the  Invalides  was  founded,  the  order  of  C.  C.  was  superseded. 

CHRISTIAN  COMMISSION,  The  United  States,  an  important  organization  in 
the  loyal  states  during  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  to  aid  and  co-operate  with  the  sanitary 
commission,  and  generally  to  assist  in  the  cause  of  the  union.  Its  purpose  was  to  sup- 
ply material  wants  and  comforts  for  the  army,  especially  to  the  sick  or  wounded.  It 
gave  also  an  unsectarian  religious  help.  Like  the  sanitary  commission,  it  accomplished 
a vast  amount  of  valuable  work.  The  C.  C.  was  originated  by  a call  from  the  Young 
Men’s  Christian  association  of  New  York.  It  is  noticeable  as  one  of  the  earliest  signs, 
as  well  as  causes,  of  the  growing  charity  among  different  denominations  so  marked  in 
recent  years. 

CHBISTIAN  CONNECTION,  a denomination  of  Christians  which  originated  about  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  c.  in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  is  diffused  over  all  the 
states.  The  name  was  assumed  in  avowed  dislike  to  the  acknowledgment  of  any  human 
authority  and  to  sectarian  distinctions,  and  all  doctrinal  terms  of  communion  were 
rejected,  the  Bible  being  adopted  as  the  only  rule  of  faith,  and  personal  piety  made  the 
test  of  qualification  for  membership.  The  connection  soon  came  to  consist,  however, 
almost  exclusively  of  persons  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

CHRISTIAN  CONNECTION  {ante),  an  organization  of  American  Christians  drawn 
mostly  from  the  Baptist,  Methodist,  and  Presbyterian  churches  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  earliest  organizations  were  “Republican  Methodists,”  seceders 
from  the  Methodist  church  in  1793,  who  too|i  the  name  of  “ Christians.”  In  1800,  there 
was  a secession  from  the  Baptist  churches  in  Vermont,  which  soon  grew  to  considerable 
importance.  Nearly  at  the  same  period  there  w'as  a secession  from  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  a separate  synod  was  formed.  These  three 
organizations  finally  merged  in  one  body,  and  adopted  the  common  name  of  “ Chris- 
tians.” Each  congregation  is  independent,  and  they  take  the  Bible  as  their  standard  of 
doctrine.  They  hold  that  the  Scriptures  are  inspired,  and  are  of  divine  authority;  that 


829 


Christian* 


every  man  has  the  right  to  interpret  the  Bible  for  himself,  and  that  therefore  differences 
of  theological  views  are  no  bar  to  church  fellowship;  that  there  is  one  God,  but  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  not  generally  received;  that  Christ  is  a divine  being,  that  he 
pre-existed,  and  is  the  mediator  between  God  and  man;  that  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
atone  for  the  sins  of  all  men,  who,  by  repentance  and  faith,  may  be  saved;  that  immer- 
sion is  the  only  proper  form  of  baptism,  and  believers  the  only  proper  subjects  for  that 
ordinance;  that  communion  at  the  Lord’s  table  is  open  to  believers  of  all  denomina- 
tions. In  government  and  usage  they  are  congregational,  each  church  being  indepen- 
dent, although  there  are  annual  or  state  conferences  which  receive  and  ordain  pastors, 
but  can  pass  no  laws  that  will  be  actually  binding  on  the  several  churches.  They  have 
an  American  Christian  convention,  which  has  a regular  constitution,  officers,  and 
departments.  Among  their  institutions  of  learning  are  Hesperia  and  Pierce  Christian 
colleges  in  California;  Eureka  college  in  Illinois;  Bedford  college,  Butler  university, 
^nd  Union  Christian  college  in  Indiana;  Oskaloosa  college  in  Iowa;  Eminence  college 
and  Kentucky  university  in  Kentucky;  Christian  university  in  Missouri;  Christian  col- 
lege in  Oregon;  and  Bethany  college  in  West  Virginia,  besides  a number  of  theological 
seminaries  and  academies.  Antioch  college  in  Ohio,  though  not  officially  known  as 
belonging  to  this  connection,  has  had  much  favor  in  the  denomination. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA,  sometimes  called  the  era  of  the  incarnation,  is  now  almost  uni- 
versally employed  in  Christian  countries,  and  is  used  by  some  eastern  nations.  Its 
epoch,  or  commencement,  is  the  1st  of  Jan.  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th  olympiad, 
the  753d  year  from  the  foundation  of  Rome,  and  the  4,714th  of  the  Julian  period.  It 
is  usually  supposed  to  begin  with  the  year  of  the  birth  of  Christ,  but  there  are  various 
opinions  with  regard  to  the  year  in  which  that  event  took  place.  The  general  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  Christ  was  born  four  years  earlier  than  the  dates  now  used  imply. 
The  C.  E.  was  introduced  into  Italy  in  the  6th  c.,  and  began  to  be  used  in  Gaul  in  the 
^th  c.,  though  not  generally  used  in  England  before  the  close  of  the  8th  century. 
Before  its  introduction  the  usual  practice  in  Latin  countries  was  to  distinguish  the 
years  by  their  number  in  the  indiction.  In  the  C.  E.  the  years  are  distinguished  by 
Arabic  numerals,  those  before  the  birth  of  Christ  being  marked  b.c.  (before  Christ), 
or  A.c.  {ante  Christum)-,  and  those  after  Christ  a.d.  {anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord).  There  is  difficulty  in  determining  the  years  before  Christ,  since  astronomers 
reckon  the  year  preceding  our  era  as  the  year  0 b.c.,  while  chronologers  call  it  1 b.c. 
The  latter  seems  to  be  correct,  and  by  that  method  the  leap  years  before  Christ  fall 
on  the  years  1,  5,  9,  13,  etc.,  while  those  after  Christ  fall  upon  4,  8,  12,  etc.  Dates  of 
the  C.  E.  are  greatly  confused  by  variations  of  time  for  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
Dionysius,  who  was  the  author  of  the  C.  E.,  began  the  first  year  on  the  25th  of  Mar.,  or 
on  the  day  of  the  Annunciation  to  the  virgin  Mary,  9 months  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
By  this  calculation  the  C.  E.  began  9 months  and  7 days  before  our  year  1,  which 
began  on  the  1st  of  January.  This  beginning  the  year  on  the  25th  of  Mar.  was  the  prac- 
tice in  most  Italian  states  as  late  (in  Pisa)  as  1745.  It  was  adopted  in  some  papal  docu- 
ments, and  it  was  employed  in  France  about  the  middle  of  the  11th  century.  In  some 
instances  the  year  was  counted  from  the  25th  of  Mar.  following  our  epoch,  which 
would  be  2 months  and  24  days  after  our  beginning  of  the  era.  A few  writers  of  the 
6th  and  7th  centuries  began  the  year  on  the  1st  of  January.  In  France,  the  practice  as 
late  as  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.  was  to  begin  the  year  with  Easter;  but  in  1663 
Charles  IX.  directed  that  thereafter  the  year  should  commence  on  the  1st  of  January. 
In  Germany,  about  the  11th  c.,  it  was  usual  to  begin  the  year  with  Christmas,  and  this 
practice  prevailed  at  Milan,  Rome,  and  other  Italian  cities  in  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th 
<)enturies.  In  England,  the  practice  of  beginning  the  year  at  Christmas  was  intro- 
duced in  the  7th  c.,  and  traces  of  it  are  found  down  to  the  13th  century.  Gervase 
of  Canterbury  mentions  that  most  writers  of  his  country  agreed  in  regarding  Christmas 
as  the  first  day  of  the  year,  because  it  formed  the  term  at  which  the  sun  finished  and 
recommenced  his  annual  course.  This  is  a remnant  of  the  old  Norse  religion.  In  the 
severely  cold  regions  of  Scandinavia  the  return  of  the  sun  from  its  extreme  southern 
declination  was  hailed  with  great  rejoicing;  the  great  yule  festival  was  held,  and  offer- 
ings and  thanksgiving  marked  the  period.  This  was,  of  course,  at  the  winter  solstice, 
in  early  ages  very  nearly  on  the  day  of  Christmas.  When  Anschar  and  other  Roman 
Catholic  mi.ssionaries  penetrated  to  Denmark,  they  engrafted  upon  the  heathen  yule  the 
Christian  Christmas,  and  for  the  ret\irn  of  the  material  sun  they  taught  the  rising  of  the 
son  of  God.  Thus,  the  church  Christmas  may  be  the  successor  not  only  of  the  Roman 
saturnalia,  but  of  the  Odinic  yule.  The  memory  of  the  latter  is  still  strong  among  the 
rural  population  of  England.  In  England,  in  the  12th  c.,  the  practice  prevailed  of 
beginning  the  year  on  the  Annunciation,  the  25th  of  Mar.,  and  that  was  the  general 
practice  until  the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  in  1751,  by  a parliamentary  law,  which 
directed  that  the  year  1752  should  be  reckoned  from  the  1st  of  Jan.,  thus  leaving  1751 
nearly  three  months  short.  English  authors,  however,  have  endeavored  to  make  the 
beginning  of  the  historical  year  on  the  1st  of  January.  The  liturgic  year  of  the  church 
of  England  began  with  the  first  Sunday  in  Advent,  the  Lord’s  day  before  Christmas, 
These  variations  in  the  commencement  of  the  year  lead  to  much  confusion  in  dates. 
The  English  revolution  as  popularly  called  the  revolution  of  1688;.  but  if  we  reckon 


Clirlstlania. 

Christianity. 


830 


from  the  1st  of  Jan.,  it  began  in  1689.  In  the  tables  of  modern  works  on  chronology,, 
the  Urth  of  Christ  is  placed  in  the  year  4 before  Christ.  Some  recent  chronologers  of 
eminence  place  the  Nativity  nearer  the  Christian  era.  Eusebius  dates  the  crucilixion  iu 
the  year  38  A.D. ; but  Augustine,  Origen,  and  others,  place  it  in  the  year  29a.d.  In 
either  case,  the  long-established  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  C.  E.  is  not  altered. 
See  Chkonology. 

CHHISTIAN'IA,  a province  in  s.  Norway;  about  10,000  sq.m. ; pop.  ’76,  489,915, 
is  a rough,  mountainous  region  containing  many  lakes,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Glommer» 
the  Drammen,  and  other  rivers.  The  mineral  products  are  copper,  silver,  and  iron- 
Agriculture  is  scarcely  profitable,  though  cattle  and  horses  are  raised  in  large  numbers- 
The  chief  article  of  export  is  lumber. 

CHRISTIAN  IA,  capital  of  Norway,  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Aggerhuus,  in  a 
beautiful  open  valley  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Christiana  fiord.  Pop.  ’75,  77,041.  C. 
is  the  seat  of  the  Norwegian  government,  the  superior  courts,  and  the  storthing.  Besides 
the  suburbs  of  Pipervigen,  Hammarsborg,  Vaterland,  and  Greenland,  the  town  consists 
of  C.  properly  so  called  (which  was  laid  out  by  Christian  IV.  in  1614,  in  the  form  of  a 
regular  parallelogram  of  1000  paces  in  length  and  breadth);  the  Old  Town  or  Opslo, 
wliere  the  bishop  resides;  and  the  citadel  Aggerhuus,  from  which  the  broad  straight 
streets  of  the  town  can  be  fired  upon.  The  most  important  public  buildings  are  the  royal 
palace,  the  bank  and  exchange,  the  house  of  representatives  or  storthing,  the  governor’s 
palace,  and  the  cathedral.  To  these  may  be  added  the  university,  the  only  one  in  Nor- 
way, which  was  opened  in  1813,  and  possesses  a staff  of  41  ordinary  and  6 extraordinary 
professors.  About  800  students  attend  it  annually.  This  institution  contains,  besides 
various  scientific  collections,  a library  of  about  150,000  books,  a botanical  garden,  and 
an  observatory  (in  59°  54'  42"  n.  lat,,  and  10°  50'  e.  long.).  The  latter  was  opened  in  1833. 
C.  has  also^ome  good  schools  and  learned  societies,  of  which  the  “ society  for  northern 
antiquities”  is  famous.  The  manufactures  of  C.  are  cotton,  oil,  paper,  soap,  and  bricks. 
There  are  also  numerous  distilleries  and  corn-mills.  It  exports  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties wood,  iron,  anchovies,  and  glasswares.  In  1871, 1894  vessels  of  262,853  tons  entered 
the  port  (which,  however,  is  covered  with  ice  for  four  months).  It  has  a regular  steam- 
boat communication  with  Gottenburg,  Copenhagen,  Kiel,  Hull,  and  Leith.  C.,  by 
means  of  its  bay,  is  connected  with  Drammen  (pop.  18,838),  famous  for  its  extensive 
trade  in  timber,  etc.  The  scenery  of  the  whole  bay  is  unsurpassed  in  beauty. 

CHRISTIAN  ITY.  It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article  to  give  a very  brief  outline  of 
the  system  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  of  the  evidences  by  which  its  truth  is  established. 
The  principal  parts,  both  of  the  system  and  evidences  of  C.,  will  be  found  noticed  under 
separate  heads. 

C.  comes  to  us  with  a claim  to  be  received  as  of  divine  origin.  It  is  no  product  of 
the  human  mind,  but  has  for  its  author  the  Being  whom  it  sets  before  us  as  the  object  of 
worship.  It  is  consequently  altogether  exclusive;  it  claims  to  be  deemed  the  only  true 
religion — “ the  truth” — and  admits  of  no  compromise  or  alliance  with  any  other  system. 

C.  cannot  be  view^ed  as  distinct  from  the  religion  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  patriarchs; 
it  is  the  same  religion  accommodated  to  new  circumstances;  there  has  been  a change  of 
dispensation  only.  In  studying  either  the  system  or  the  evidences  of  C.,  we  are  com- 
pelled continually  to  revert  from  the  New  Testament  to  the  Old,  and  must  in  some 
measure  trace  the  history  of  the  true  or  revealed  religion  through  the  previous  and  pre- 
paratory dispensations. 

The  whole  system  of  C.  may  be  regarded  as  having  its  foundation  in  the  doctrine  - 
of  the  existence  of  one  God.  See  God.  Next  to  this  may  be  placed  the  doctrine  of  the 
fall  (q.v.)  of  man.  Man  is  represented  as  involved  in  misery  by  sin  (q.v.) — original  and 
actual — and  every  individual  of  the  human  race  as  incapacitated  for  the  service  and  fel- 
lowship of  God,  obnoxious  to  the  displeasure  of  God,  and  liable  to  punishment  in  a future 
and  eternal  state  of  being.  See  Punishment.  Future.  And  here  we  may  regard  the 
doctrine  of  the  atonement  (q.v.)  as  next  claiming  our  attention — a doctrine  taught  in 
all  the  sacrifices  (see  Sacrifice)  of  the  patriarchal  and  Jewish  dispensations,  as  well  as 
by  the  words  of  inspired  teachers.  Man  being  utterly  incapable  of  effecting  his  own 
deliverance  from  sin  and  misery,  God  sent  his  Son  to  save  sinners,  to  deliver  them  from 
hell.,  to  make  them  holy,  and  partakers  of  the  eternal  joy  and  glory  of  heaven. 

By  those  who  regard  Christ  as  a mere  creature,  atonement  or  reconciliation  with  God 
is  made  to  depend  on  the  repentance  of  man  as  its  immediate  cause;  whilst  the  life  and 
death  of  Christ  are  represented  as  merely  an  exara|)le  to  us  of  obedience,  virtue,  and. 
piety  in  the  most  trying  circumstances;  the  doctrines  of  a propitiatory  sacrifice,  a sub- 
stitutionary obedience,  and  an  imputed  righteousness,  with  all  that  form  part  of  the 
same  system,  falling  completely  and  even  necessarily  to  the  ground.  These  doctrines, 
however,  are  all  consistently  maintained  in  connection  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
and  the  generally  received  doctrine  as  to  the  person  of  Christ.  See  Christ  and  Trinity. 
The  very  incarnation  (q.v.)  of  the  Son  of  God  is  regarded  as  a glorious  display  of  the 
divine  condescension,  and  a wonderful  exaltation  of  human  nature;  whilst  a personal 
enjoyment  of  the  highest  dignity  and  bliss  of  which  humanity  is  capable  in  the  favor 
and  fellowship  of  God  for  ever,  is  to  be  attained  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  See  Faith 
and  Justification. 


831 


Christiania. 

Christianity. 


The  indissoluble  connection  between  faith  and  salvation  arises  from  the  divine 
.appointment,  but  secures  a moral  harmony,  as  it  provides  for  bringing  into  operation — 
in  accordance  with  the  intellectual  and  moral  nature  of  man — of  most  powerful  and 
-axcelleut  motives  for  all  that  is  morally  good,  the  partakers  of  salvation  being  thus  fitted 
for  the  fellowship  of  him  into  whose  favor  they  are  received;  and  as  it  prevents  the 
possibility  of  any  of  them  taking  to  themselves,  or  giving  to  others,  the  glory  of  that 
salvation  which  they  really  owe  to  Christ,  and  which  they  must  therefore  ascribe  to 
Christ,  as  God  is  a God  of  truth,  and  truth  must  reign  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

Salvation  is  ascribed  by  all  Christians  to  the  grace  of  God.  The  mission  of  Christ 
was  an  act  of  supreme  grace;  and  all  must  be  ascribed  to  grace  for  which  we  are 
indebted  to  Christ.  The  doctrine  of  grace,  however,  is  part  of  the  system  of  C.  on  which 
important  differences  subsist,  especially  as  to  the  relation  of  tlie  grace  of  God  to  indi- 
vidual men.  Such  are  the  differences  concerning  election  (q.v.),  and  concerning  the 
•^origin  of  faith,  and  man’s  ability  or  inability  to  believe  of  himself.  But  by  Christians 
^generally,  the  personal  relation  of  the  believer  to  Christ,  and  his  faith  in  Chiist,  are 
ascribed  to  the  Holy  Ghost  or  Spirit  of  God,  the  third  person  of  the  Godhead,  and  so  to 
the  grace  of  God.  See  Arminius,  Calvinism,  and  Pelagius. 

In  the  view  of  all  who  hold  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  the  doctrines  concerning 
the  Spirit  of  God  form  a very  important  part  of  the  Christian  system.  ’I'o  the  agency 
^of  this  person  of  the  Godhead,  besides  all  that  is  ascribed  to  Him  concerning  the 
human  nature  of  Christ,  we  are  indebted  for  all  that  is  spiritually  good  in  man;  He,  in 
the  economy  of  grace,  being  sent  by  God,  on  the  intercession  of  Christ,  to  communicate 
“ the  blessings  purchased  by  Christ  in  his  obedience  and  death.  See  Holy  Guost. 

Salvation  begins  on  earth;  and  whenever  a man  believes  in  Christ,  he  is  a partaker 
■ of  it — is  in  a stale  of  salvation.  It  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  Calvinistic  system, 
that  he  who  is  in  a state  of  salvation  always  remains  so,  and  that  the  salvation  "begun 
on  earth  is  in  every  case  made  perfect  in  heaven.  See  Perseverance  of  Saints. 
'Thus  salvation  is  viewed  as  beginning  in  regeneration  (q.v.),  and  as  carried  on  in  sanc- 
tification (q.v.),  and  all  its  joys  as  connected  with  the  progress  of  sanctification.  Faith 
in  Jesus  Christ  cannot  be  unaccompanied  with  repentance,  and  repentance  is  always 
renewed  when  the  exercise  of  faith  is  renewed.  For  although  all  believers  are  mmU  or 
holy,  as  set  apart  to  God,  and  in  contrast  to  what  they  previously  were,  yet  there  is  none 
in  this  life  free  from  temptation  and  sin;  the  successful  tempter  of  our  first  parents, 
who  assailed  our  Saviour  with  temptation  and  was  defeated,  being  still  the  active 
e^iemy  of  man,  against  whom  believers  in  Jesus  Christ  are  called  to  contend,  to  watch, 
.and  to  pray.  See  Devil.  The  sense  of  responsibility  belongs  to  human  nature;  and 
the  doctrine  of  a judgment  (q.v.)  to  come  may  be  considered  as  to  a certain  extent  a 
doctrine  of  natural  religion,  as  may  also  that  of  the  immortality  (q.v.)  of  the  soul;  but 
the  clear  and  distinct  enunciation  of  these  doctrines  belongs  to  the  Christian  revelation, 
to  which  belongs  entirely  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  (q.v.)  of  the  dead. 

Of  the  moral  part  of  C.,  which  has  already  been  referred  to,  it  may  be  sufficient  here 
to  state,  that  it  is  as  harmonious  with  the  doctrinal  as  it  is  inseparable  from  it;  that  it 
is  founded  upon  the  attributes  of  God,  and  is  perfectly  illustrated  in  the  character  of 
• Jesus  Christ;  and  that  it  is  divisible  into  two  great  parts — one,  of  the  love  of  God, 
■and  the  other,  of  the  love  of  man,  or  of  ourselves  and  our  neighbors.  See  Law,  Mor\l. 

The  means  of  grace,  or  of  the  attainment  or  the  blessings  of  salvation,  form  an 
important  part  of  the  Christian  system.  Of  these  the  Word  of  God — or  divine  revela* 
‘tion  contained  in  the  Bible  (q.v.) — first  claims  attention  as  the  means  of  conversion  to 
Christ,  and  of  edification  in  Christ,  the  instrument  by  which  salvation  is  both  begun  and 
carried  on  in  men.  The  ordinances  of  God’s  worship  are  among  the  means  of  grace. 
Thus  prayer  (q.v  ) is  one  of  the  chief  means  of  grace.  The  sacraments  (q  v.)  are  means 
of  grace,  concerning  the  precise  use  of  which,  and  their  relative  importance  as  compared 
with  the  other  means,  considerable  difference  of  opinion  prevails  among  Christians.  The 
•same  remark  applies  also  to  the  combination  of  Christians  into  an  organized  body  or 
community,  the  church  (q.v.)  with  its  own  laws  or  system  of  church  government  (q.v.) 
:and  church  discipline  (q.v.). 

We  have  endeavored  to  sketch  the  outline  of  the  system  of  C.,  as  much  as  possible 
according  to  the  general  belief  of  Christians,  merely  indicating  the  points  on  which 
the  chief  differences  of  opinion  exist.  Some  of  the  principal  controversies  will  be  found 
noticed  under  separate  heads. 

The  truth  of  C.  is  established  by  many  different  evidences,  distinct  and  independent, 
but  rnutually  corroborative.  It  appeals  to  reason,  and  demands  to  have  its  claims 
-examined  and  admitted.  Nor  is  there  any  faith  where  there  is  not  a mental  conviction 
arrived  at  by  a process  of  sound  reasoning. 

The  evidences  of  C.  are  very  generally  divided  into  two  great  classes,  intenml  and 
external— t\\n  former  consisting  of  those  which  are  found  in  the  nature  of  the  Christian 
system  itself,  and  in  its  adaptation  to  the  nature  and  wants  of  man;  the  latter,  of  those 
which  are  derived  from  other  sources.  The  boundary  between  the  two  classes,  liowever, 
is  by  no  means  so  distinct  in  reality  as  it  appears  in  the  definition  of  the  terms.  Of  the 
multitude  of  books  which  have  been  written  on  the  subject  of  the  evidences  of  C.,  some 
.•are  devoted  mainly  to  one  of  these  classes,  and  some  to  the  other;  whilst  some  are 
occupied  with  the  development  of  particular  evidences  or  arguments,  and  some  with 


Christian. 

Christison. 


832 


the  refutation  of  objections,  and  in  particular  of  what  may  be  called  a p>reliminarr 
objection — that  a divine  revelation  can  never  be  established  by  sufficient  evidence  at  all 
See  Rkvelation. 

The  evidence  of  miracles  (q.v.)  and  the  evidence  of  prophecy  (q.  v.),  two  of  the  principal 
branches  of  the  external  evidences  of  C.,will  be  found  noticed  in  separate  articles.  Another 
argument,  which  has  been  much  elaborated — for  example,  inPaley’s  Emdences — is  derived 
from  the  character  and  sufferings  of  the  apostles  and  other  first  preachers  of  C. ; their  high 
moral  worth,  considered  along  with  their  great  earnestness  and  devotedness;  the  absence 
of  all  possibility  of  selfish  or  base  motives;  and  at  the  same  time,  their  perfect  oppor- 
tunity of  knowing  the  truth  or  the  facts  which  they  proclaimed.  A subsidiary  argument 
is  found  in  the  admission  of  the  great  facts  regarding  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  by  the  early 
opponents  of  Christianity.  A most  important  and  valuable  argument  is  found  in  the 
perfect  coherence  of  all  the  parts  of  the  Christian  system,  and  in  the  agrecmeni,  as  to  the 
religion  which  they  teach,  of  all  the  books  of  Scripture,  notwithstanding  the  widely 
different  dates  of  their  composition,  and  their  very  different  nature  in  other  respects. 
See  Bible.  The  relation  of  the  Jewish  ceremonies  to  the  doctrines  of  C.  supplies 
another  argument  of  this  kind,  capable  of  being  developed  in  a multitude  of  particulars. 
The  minor  coincidences  between  the  different  books  of  Scripture  have  been  pointed  out 
with  happy  effect  in  the  Horce  Paulines  of  Paley,  and  in  other  works.  Tffe  character  of 
our  Savior  supplies  an  argument  of  great  power;  the  impossibility  of  the  invention  of 
such  a character,  and  of  the  history  in  which  it  is  exhibited,  by  any  effort  of  human 
genius,  is  also  urged  as  corroborative ; and  the  inconsistency  of  the  morality  displayed, 
with  the  supposition  of  imposture,  has  been  dwelt  upon  with  the  same  view.  The 
excellency,  both  of  the  doctrinal  and  moral  part  of  the  system  of  C.,  its  elevating  and 
purifying  tendency,  the  agreement  of  its  doctrine  with  the  facts  of  man’s  sinfulness  and 
misery,  and  the  suitable  provision  which  it  makes  for  his  most  deeply  felt  wants,  are 
principal  branches  of  the  internal  evidence  of  its  truth.  The  effects  of  C.,  where  it  has 
prevailed,  supply  a confirmatory  argument  in  its  favor,  which  has  formed  the  subject 
of  works  of  great  learning  and  interest. 

CHEISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE,  Society  for  Promoting,  one  of  the  great  religious 
associations  connected  with  the  church  of  England,  and  the  oldest  of  them  all.  It 
was  founded  in  1698,  although  it  did  not  receive  its  present  name  till  1701 ; and  bad 
for  its  object:  “1.  To  promote  and  encourage  the  erecting  of  charity  schools  in  all 
parts  of  England  and  Wales.  2.  To  disperse,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  Bibles  and 
tracts  of  religion;  and,  in  general,  to  advance  the  honor  of  God,  and  the  good  of 
mankind,  by  promoting  Christian  knowledge,  both  at  home  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  by  the  best  methods  that  should  offer.”  These  objects  it  has  never  ceased  to 
pursue,  chiefly  directing  its  efforts  to  the  British  dominions;  partaking  at  once  of  the 
nature  of  an  educational  association,  a missionary  society,  a Bible  society,  and  a relig- 
ious tract  society;  and  notwithstanding  the  operations  of  other  great  societies  in 
these  several  departments  of  Christian  benevolence,  its  revenue  amounts  to  about 
£100,000  a year.  The  Protestant  missionaries  who  labored  in  the  s.  of  India  m last 
century,  were  supported  chiefly  by  this  society,  which  has  also  contributed  largely  of 
its  funds  for  the  establishment  of  Christian  schools  in  that  country. 

CHRISTIAN  NAME.  See  Name. 

CHRISTIANSAND',  the  principal  t.  of  the  province  or  stifi  of  that  name  in  Norway, 
is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Torridalself,  in  the  bay  of  Christiansand.  Pop.  ’75, 
12,137.  C.  is  the  residence  of  a bishop  and  high-bailiff  or  stift-amtmand,  and  pos- 
sesses a branch  of  the  Norwegian  bank,  a gymnasium,  and  several  charitable  founda- 
tions. The  manufactures  are  leather,  tobacco,  cotton,  etc.  Ship-building  forms  also  a 
considerable  branch  of  its  industry.  The  town,  which  was  built  in  1641  by  Christian 
IV.,  has  an  excellent  harbor,  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  island  of  Oddern,  upon 
which  are  situated  the  quarantine  hospital  and  custom  house.  C.  exports  wood,  lob- 
sters. and  salmon  in  large  quantities.  The  town  and  harbor  are  protected  by  several 
fortifications.  To  the  Tvest  of  C.  lies  the  harbor  of  Ny-Hollesund. 

CHRIS'TIANSFELD,  a settlement  of  Moravian  brothers,  in  the  northern  part  of 
Schleswig,  was  founded  in  1772.  It  consists  of  64  houses  and  about  700  inhabitants. 
The  houses,  which  are  well  built,  and  cheerful  in  appearance,  are  arranged  in  two 
parallel  streets,  with  the  church  upon  a green  plot  in  the  middle.  The  settlement 
is  represented  by  the  inspectors  or  chiefs  appointed  by  the  directors  of  the  fraternity, 
and  the  representatives  elected  by  the  members  of  the  sect.  The  manufactures  are 
linen,  soap,  cotton,  leather,  etc. 

CHRISTIANS  OP  ST.  JOHN,  or  Nazareans,  a sect  in  Persia,  in  the  country 
around  Bassorah.  They  seemingly  deify  John  the  Baptist  and  consider  Jesus  an  impos- 
tor. They  say  that  they  dwelt  on  the  Jordan  in  the  time  of  Jesus,  but  were  driven 
from  Palestine  by  the  Mohammedans.  Their  name  “ Christians”  is  wholly  a misnomer. 
They  consider  the  Jehovah  of  the  Jews  a spurious  divinity,  and  Christ  a false  teacher; 
that  the  world  was  created  by  seven  angels  of  darkness  who  inhabit  the  seven  planets, 
and  there  is  also  a kingdom  of  light  superintended  by  good  angels.  Behind  these  king- 
doms is  a region  of  splendor,  and  there  is  the  supreme  original  being,  Ferha,  and  the 


833 


Christian. 

Christison. 


female  principle,  Ajar.  There  are  conflicts  between  the  worlds  of  darkness  and  of  light, 
but  light  is  to  triumph.  The  Mosaic  and  Christian  systems  of  religion  came  from  the 
region  of  darkness;  but  that  of  John  the  Baptist  from  the  region  of  light.  Baptism  is 
the  means  of  introducing  men  to  the  kingdom  of  light.  John  was  married,  but  his 
children  sprang  from  the  Jordan.  These  people  practice  polygamy,  and  forbid  mourning 
for  the  dead.  , They  have  five  sacred  books,  of  which  four  are  doctrinal,  and  one  treats 
of  astrology.  It  is  supposed  that,  200  years  ago,  they  numbered  about  100,000. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS,  the  name  of  a branch  of  an  old  Persian  church 
still  existing  on  the  Malabar  coast,  formed  originally  by  excommunicated  Nestorians. 
Their  liturgy  is  in  the  Syriac  language.  They  still  celebrate  the  early  agape  or  love 
feast,  use  bread,  salt,  and  oil  in  the  communion  of  the  supper,  and  anoint  infants  in 
baptism.  Their  priests  are  allowed  to  marry.  While  the  Portuguese  held  Malabar  they 
were  submissive  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  but  as  soon  as  the  Dutch  took  control 
the  Nestorian  system  was  resumed. 

CHRISTIANSTAD',  the  strongly  fortified  capital  of  a province  of  the  same  name  in 
the  s.  of  Sweden.  It  is  situated  on  the  Helge,  about  9 m.  from  the  Baltic,  and  265  s.w. 
of  Stockholm.  C.  is  the  residence  of  a governor,  and  the  seat  of  a court  of  justice. 
It  is  a beautifully  built  town,  and  possesses  an  arsenal,  a school,  a magnificent  church, 
and  a senate-house.  Pop.  6,422,  employed  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods, 
leather,  gloves,  etc.  There  is  also  some  trade  in  wood,  pitch,  potash,  etc.  The  town, 
which  was  founded  by  Christian  IV.,  has  suffered  many  sieges  during  the  wars  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden.  The  province  of  Christianstad  has  an  area  of  2,400  m. ; pop. 
75,  229,176. 

CHRIS' TIANSTED,  the  chief  t.  of  the  Danish  island  of  St.  Croix,  in  the  West. Indies. 
It  stands  on  the  n.e.  coast  of  the  island,  and  has  an  excellent  harbor,  which  is  defended 
by  a fort  and  a battery.  Here  resides  the  governor-general  of  the  Danish  West  Indies 
The  number  of  its  inhabitants  is  5, 700.  . 

CHRISTIANSUND',  a seaport  on  the  w.  coast  of  Norway,  85  m.  w.s.w.  of  Trondh- 
yem,  in  63°  3'  n.,  and  7°  40'  e. ; pop.  5,709.  The  town  is  built  on  three  small  islands  by 
which  its  harbor  is  inclosed.  The  chief  exports  are  fish  and  fish  products. 

CHRISTIAN  UNION  CHURCHES,  an  organization  projected  at  Columbus,  Ohio, 
in  1865,  and  supposed  to  have  30,000  to  40,000  members,  principally  in  the  western  and 
south-western  states.  Their  leading  doctrines,  as  stated  in  their  publications,  are:  the 
oneness  of  the  church,  with  Christ  the  only  head,  and  the  Bible  the  only  rule  of  faith 
and  practice ; the  good  works  of  a Christian  life  the  only  condition  of  fellowship ; the 
suppression  of  controversy ; local  or  congregational  church  government ; no  preaching 
of  party  politics.  They  adopt  the  motto,  “In  things  essential,  unity;  in  non-essentials, 
liberty ; in  all  things,  charity.  ” Baptism  is  a condition  of  membership,  but  in  commu- 
nion they  are  practically  unrestricted. 

CHRISTI'NA,  Queen  of  Spain.  See  Maria  Christina. 

CHRISTI'NA,  Queen  of  Sweden,  only  child  of  the  great  Gustavus  Adolphus,  wash.  Dec., 
1626,  and  succeeded  her  father  in  1632,  when  only  six  years  old.  Distinguished  equally 
by  beauty  and  the  possession  of  a lively  imagination,  a good  memory,  and  uncommon  in- 
telligence, she  received  the  education  rather  of  a man  than  of  a woman;  and  to  this  may 
in  part  be  attributed  the  many  eccentricities  of  her  life.  During  her  minority,  the  king 
dom  was  governed  by  the  five  highest  officers  of  the  state,  the  principal  being  chancellor 
Oxenstiern.  In  1644,  she  assumed  the  reins  of  power,  and,  in  1650,  was  crowned  with 
the  title  of  king.  She  had  previously  declared  her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavus,  her  suc- 
cessor. For  four  years  thereafter,  she  ruled  the  kingdom  with  vigor,  and  was  remark- 
able for  her  patronage  of  learned  and  scientific  men.  In  1654,  however,  at  the  age  of 
28,  weary  of  the  personal  restraint  which  royalty  imposed  on  her,  she  abdicated  in  favor 
of  her  cousin,  reserving  to  herself  sufficient  revenues,  entire  independence,  and  supreme 
authority  over  her  suite  and  household.  Leaving  Sweden,  she  proceeded  to  Brussels, 
where  she  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  She  afterwards  went  to  Rome,  which 
ishe  entered  on  horseback,  in  the  costume  of  an  amazon,  with  great  pomp.  Confirmed 
by  pope  Alexander  VII.,  she  adopted  the  surname  of  Alessandra.  In  1656,  she  visited 
Paris ; and  the  following  year,  on  a second  residence  there,  she  caused  her  grand  equerry, 
Monaldeschi,  who  had  enjoyed  her  entire  confidence,  to  be  executed  in  her  own  house- 
hold for  treason.  In  1658,  she  returned  to  Rome,  and,  in  1660,  the  death  of  the  king, 
her  cousin,  caused  her  to  hasten  to  Sweden;  but,  failing  in  her  attempt  to  be  reinstated 
on  the  throne,  she  again  left  the  country.  In  1666,  she  aspired  to  the  crown  of  Poland, 
but  was  unnoticed  by  the  Poles.  The  remainder  of  her  life  was  spent  in  Rome  in  artis 
tic  and  scientific  pursuits.  Besides  founding  an  academy,  she  collected  valuable  MSS., 
medals,  and  paintings,  and  died  April  19,  1689.  Much  of  her  conduct  favors  the  idea 
that  at  times  she  was  scarcely  sane. 

CHRISTI'NOS,  a political  party  in  Spain  during  the  regency  of  queen  Christina, 
who  were  opposed  to  the  Carlists. 

CHRIS'TISON,  Sir  Robert,  d.c.l.,  an  eminent  physician,  son  of  Alexander  Chris* 
tisoki,  professor  of  humanity  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  was  b.  at  Edinburgh,  July 
U K.  HI  -53 


Christlieb. 

Christology. 


834 


18,  1797;  was  educated  at  the  high  school  of  his  native  place,  and,  in  1811,  became  a 
student  at  the  university  there.  After  graduating  in  1819,  he  proceeded  to  London  and 
Paris;  and,  in  the  French  capital,  studied  toxicology  under  the  celebrated  Orfila,  a 
department  of  medical  science  in  which  in  Britain  his  name  has  become  eminent.  Com- 
mencing the  practice  of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  he  was,  in  1822,  appointed  professor 
of  medical  jurisprudence  in  the  university  of  that  city,  and,  in  1832,  was  promoted  to 
the  chair  of  materia  medica.  Besides  contributing  papers  on  various  subjects  to  medi- 
cal journals,  C.  is  author  of  a Treatise  on  Poisons,  published  in  1829,  recognized  as  a 
standard  work  on  the  subject;  Biographical  Sketch  of  Edward  Turner,  M.D.,  1837,  being 
an  address  delivered  before  the  Harveian  society  of  Edinburgh;  a treatise  On  Granular 
Degeneration  of  the  Kidneys,  1839;  and  The  Dispensatory,  a Commentary  on  the  Phar- 
macopoeias of  Great  Britain,  1842.  Twice  president  of  the  royal  college  of  physicians,. 
Edinburgh,  and  ordinary  physician  to  the  queen  in  Scotland,  in  1871  he  was  created  a 
baronet.  In  1877,  sir  Robert  retired  from  professorial  and  other  public  work. 

CHRISTLIEB,  Theodor,  d.d.,  b.  1833;  a native  of  Wurtemberg;  educated  at 
Tubingen,  a teacher  in  France,  a preacher  in  London,  and  an  author  of  lectures  on 
Modern  Doubt  and  Christian  Belief.  He  returned  to  Germany  in  1865,  and  was  made 
professor  of  theology  at  Bonn.  In  1873,  he  was  a delegate  to  the  evangelical  alliance, 
meeting  that  year  in  New  York.  At  its  sessions  his  addresses  excited  great  interest. 

CHRISTMAS,  the  day  on  which  the  nativity  of  the  Savior  is  observed.  The  institution 
of  this  festival  is  attributed  by  the  spurious  Decretals  to  Telesphorus,  who  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  (138-61  a.d.),  but  the  first  certain  traces  of  it  are  found 
about  the  time  of  the  emperor  Commodus  (180-92  a.d.).  In  the  reign  of  Diocletian 
(284-305  A.D.),  while  that  ruler  was  keeping  court  at  Nicomedia,  he  learned  that  a mul- 
titude of  Christians  were  assembled  in  the  city  to  celebrate  the  birthday  of  Jesus,  and 
having  ordered  the  church  doors  to  be  closed,  he  set  fire  to  the  building,  and  all  the 
worshipers  perished  in  the  flames.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  there  was  any 
uniformity  in  the  period  of  observing  the  nativity  among  the  early  churches;  some  held 
the  festival  in  the  month  of  May  or  April,  others  in  Jan.  It  is,  nevertheless,  almost 
certain  that  the  25th  of  Dec.  cannot  be  the  nativity  of  the  Savior,  for  it  is  then  the 
height  of  the  rainy  season  in  Judea,  and  shepherds  could  hardly  be  watching  their  flocka 
by  night  in  the  plains. 

C.  not  only  became  the  parent  of  many  later  festivals,  such  as  those  of  the  Virgin, 
but  especially  from  the  5th  to  the  8th  c.,  gathered  round  it,  as  it  were,  several  other  festi- 
vals, partly  old  and  partly  new,  so  that  what  may  be  termed  a Christmas  cycle  sprang 
up,  which  surpassed  all  other  groups  of  Christian  holidays  in  the  manifold  richness  of  its 
festal  usages,  and  furthered,  more  than  any  other,  the  completion  of  the  orderly  and 
systematic  distribution  of  church  festivals  over  the  whole  year.  Not  casually  or 
arbitrarily  was  the  festival  of  the  nativity  celebrated  on  the  25th  of  Dec.  Among 
the  causes  that  co-operated  in  fixing  this  period  as  the  proper  one,  perhaps  the  most 
powerful  was,  that  almost  all  the  heathen  nations  regarded  the  winter-solstice  as  a most 
important  point  of  the  year,  as  the  beginning  of  the  renewed  life  and  activity  of  the 
powers  of  nature,  and  of  the  gods,  who  were  originally  merely  the  symbolical  personi- 
fications of  these.  In  more  northerly  countries,  this  fact  must  have  made  itself  pecu- 
liarly palpable — hence  the  Celts  and  Germans,  from  the  oldest  times,  celebrated  the 
season  with  the  greatest  festivities.  At  the  winter-solstice,  the  Germans  held  their 
great  yule-feast  (see  Yule),  in  commemoration  of  the  return  of  the  fiery  sun-wheel ; 
and  believed  that,  during  the  twelve  nights  reaching  from  the  25th  Dec.  to  the  6th 
Jan.,  they  could  trace  the  personal  movements  and  interferences  on  earth  of  their  great 
deities,  Odin,  Berchta,  etc.  Many  of  the  beliefs  and  usages  of  the  old  Germans,  and  also 
of  the  Romans,  relating  to  this  matter,  passed  over  from  heathenism  to  Christianity, 
and  have  partly  survived  to  the  present  day.  But  the  church  also  sought  to  combat  and 
banish — and  it  was  to  a large  extent  successful — the  deep-rooted  heathen  feeling,  by 
adding — for  the  purification  of  the  heathen  customs  and  feasts  which  it  retained — its 
grandly  devised  liturgy,  besides  dramatic  representations  of  the  birth  of  Christ  and  the 
first  events  of  his  life.  Hence  sprang  the  so-called  “ manger-songs,”  and  a multitude  of  C. 
carols,  as  well  as  C.  dramas,  which,  at  certain  times  and  places,  degenerated  into  farces  or 
fools’  feasts  (q.v.).  Hence  also  originated,  at  a later  period,  the  Christ-trees,  or  Christmas- 
trees,  adorned  with  lights  and  gifts,  the  custom  of  reciprocal  presents,  and  of  special  C. 
meats  and  dishes,  such  as  (^!.  rolls,  cakes,  currant-loaves,  dumplings,  etc.  Thus,  C. 
became  a universal  social  festival  for  young  and  old,  high  and  low,  as  no  other 
Christian  festival  could  have  become. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  three  masses  are  performed  at  C. — one  at  midnight, 
one  at  daybreak,  and  one  in  the  morning.  The  day  is  also  celebrated  by  the  Anglo- 
Catholic  church — special  psalms  are  sung,  a special  preface  is  made  in  the  communion 
service,  and  the  Athanasian  creed  is  said  or  sung.  The  Lutheran  church,  on  the  conti- 
nent, likewise  observes  C. ; but  the  Presbyterian  churches  in  Scotland,  and  the  whole 
of  the  English  dissenters,  reject  it,  in  its  religious  aspect,  as  a “human  invention,”  and 
as  “savoring  of  papistical  will-worship,”  although,  in  England,  dissenters  as  v/ell  as 
churchmen  keep  it  as  a social  holiday,  on  which  there  is  a complete  cessation  from  all 
business.  But  within  the  last  hundred  years,  the  festivities  once  appropriate  to  C.  have 


835 


Christlieb. 

Cliristulos^. 


much  fallen  off.  These  at  one  time  lasted  with  more  or  less  brilliancy  till  Candlemas, 
and  with  great  spirit  till  twelfth-day;  but  now  a meeting  in  the  evening,  composed,  when 
possible,  of  the  various  branches  and  members  of  a family,  is  all  that  distinguishes  the 
day  above  others. 

CHBISTMAS-BOX,  a small  money -gift  to  persons  in  an  inferior  condition  on  the  day 
after  Christmas,  which  is  hence  popularly  called  hoxing-day.  The  term,  and  also  the 
custom,  are  essentially  English,  though  the  making  of  presents  at  this  season  and  at  the 
new  year  is  of  great  antiquity.  A number  of  interesting  particulars  concerning  the 
Christmas-box  will  be  found  in  Brand’s  Popular  Antiquities.  Here,  we  need  refer  only 
to  the  usage  in  its  later  aspect.  Within  the  memory  of  middle-aged  persons,  the 
practice  of  giving  Christmas-boxes,  or  petty  presents,  to  apprentices,  domestic  servants, 
and  tradesmen,  had  become  a serious  social  nuisance,  more  particularly  in  London, 
where  every  old  custom  seems  to  linger,  and  is  most  difficult  to  be  got  rid  of.  Householders 
felt  under  an  obligation  to  give  money  to  the  apprentices  in  the  shops  where  they  dealt, 
also  to  various  inferior  parish  officers,  including  scavengers  and  lamplighters;  while 
shopkeepers,  on  the  other  hand,  were  equally  impelled  to  make  presents  to  the  male  and 
female  servants  of  their  customers.  Thus,  as  referred  to  in  Ghristmas,  a poem: 

“ Gladly,  the  boy,  with  Christmas-box  in  hand, 

Throughout  the  town  his  devious  route  pursues; 

And,  of  his  master’s  customers,  implores 
The  yearly  mite:  often  his  cash  he  shakes; 

The  which,  perchance,  of  coppers  few  consists. 

Whose  dulcet  jingle  fills  his  little  soul 
With  joy.” 

At  length  the  Christmas-box  system  became  such  an  intolerable  grievance,  that  trades- 
men stuck  up  notices  in  their  windows  that  no  Christmas-boxes  would  be  given;  and  at 
the  same  time,  the  public  authorities  issued  remonstrances  to  the  same  effect.  At 
Christmas,  1836,  the  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  issued  a circular  to  the  different 
^embassies,  requesting  a discontinuance  of  the  customary  gifts  to  the  messengers  of  the 
foreign  department,  and  other  government  servants.  Since  this  period,  the  practice 
has  greatly  decreased,  doubtless  to  the  improvement  of  the  self-respect  of  the  parties 
interested.  « 

CHRISTMAS  CAROLS.  The  word  carol  (Ital.  carola,  and  Fr.  carole,  a round  dance — 
probably  from  Lat.  corolla;  Welsh,  coroli,  to  reel,  to  dance;  the  name  is  thence  applied 
to  the  music  or  song  accompanying  such  a dance:  carillon  is  probably  allied)  signifies  a 
song  of  joy.  The  practice  of  singing  carols,  or,  at  all  events,  sacred  music,  in  celebra- 
tion of  the  nativity  of  Christ  as  early  as  the  2d  c.,  is  considered  as  proved  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  a large  sarcophagus  belonging  to  that  period  has  sculptured  upon  it  a 
representation  of  a Christian  family  joining  in  choral  praise  for  this  purpose.  A century 
or  two  after  this,  however,  th'e  C.  C.  seem  to  have  sadly  degenerated,  and  become,  in 
fact,  so  indecent,  that  the  clergy  found  it  necessary  to  forbid  them.  Under  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  kings,  merriment  and  piety  were  pleasantly  combined  in  English  life,  a peculiar- 
ity that  affected  the  C.  C.  of  that  period  not  a little;  but  by  the  13lh  c.  the  jocosity  had 
unhappily  lapsed  into  what  would  now  be  considered  profanity.  The  oldest  printed  collec- 
tion of  English  C.  C.  bears  the  date  of  1521.  The  majority  of  these,  though  written  by 
men  of  learning — priests  and  teachers — exhibit  a lamentable  ignorance  of  the  character 
of  the  two  most  prominent  persons  in  the  carols — Mary  and  Jesus.  In  1525  was  kept 
the  “ still  Christmas,”  on  account  of  the  illness  of  king  Henry;  but  with  this  exception, 
the  sacred  season  appears  to  have  been  regularly  celebrated  with  joyous  music  and  songs 
during  the  Tudor  period.  In  1562,  C.  C.  of  a more  solemn  nature  were  introduced.  By 
the  Puritan  parliament,  Christmas  was  abolished  altogether,  and  holly  and  ivy  were 
made  seditious  badges;  and  in  1630  the  Psalms,  arranged  as  carols,  were  advertised.  After 
the  restoration,  theC.  C.  again  exhibited  a hearty,  cheerful,  and  even  a jovial  character. 
Those  with  which  the  dawn  of  Christmas  is  now  announced  in  England  arc  generally 
religious,  though  not  universally  so.  In  France,  the  carols  at  this  season  used  to  be  much 
less  sacred  than  gay.  Often,  indeed,  they  were  grossly  Bacchanalian. 

See  an  interesting  paper  in  the  Athenmum  for  Dec.  *20, 1856;  also  Sandys’s  Ghristmaa 
Carols,  8vo,  1833 ; Sylvester’s  Ghristmas  Garols  and  Ballads. 

CHRISTMAS  ROSE.  See  Hellebore. 

CHRISTOL'OGY  is  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ.  The  word  itself  is  to  be 
found,  once  or  so,  in  the  divines  of  the  17th  c.  (see  Dean  Trench  on  Vs\q  Study  of  Words), 
but  the  department  of  scientific  theology  which  it  now  represents  is  almost  entirely  the 
growth  of  modern,  and  particularly  of  German  inquiry.  As  yet,  it  can  hardly  be  said 
that  the  word  C.  is  accredited  in  Great  Britain,  but  the  same  differences  of  opinion  which 
led  to  its  adoption  in  Germany,  are  beginning  to  manifest  themselves  here  also.  There 
are  only  three  methods  of  apprehending  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ.  First, 
there  is  the  rationalistic  method.  This  consists  in  representing  the  development  of  the 
Messianic  idea  in  Jewish  history  as  purely  natural,  and  conditioned  by  purely  human 
and  historical  influences — in  short,  as  a subjective  or  self-originated  notion,  to  which 
there  was  no  corre.spondent  divine  reality.  Second,  there  is,  what,  for  want  of  a better 
word,  we  may  call  the  spiritualistic  method  (that  of  theologians  like  Neander,  Rothe, 
etc.).  This  consists  in  representing  the  development  of  the  Messianic  idea  in  Jewish 


Christophe. 
Christ’s  hospital. 


836 


history  as  both  natural  and  supernatural;  that  is  to  say,  it  asserts  the  existence  of  a' 
divine  objective  reality  (“  the  eternal  Son  of  God  ”)  as  the  basis  of  the  subjective  idea  in 
the  minds  of  the  Jews,  and  regards  the  growth  of  that  idea,  and  the  influence  of  histor- 
ical circumstances,  as  the  result  of  a supernatural  providence,  which  culminated  in  tho 
revelation  “of  the  mystery  of  godliness,  God  manifest  in  the  flesh.”  Third,  there  is  the 
dogmatic  method,  which  is  the  one  accepted  by  the  common  order  of  theologians.  This, 
consists  in  representing  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ  as  symbolically  known  to  the 
spiritually-minded  among  God’s  people  from  the  earliest  ages.  “Abraham  saw  his 
(Christ’s)  day  afar  off.”  This  is  interpreted  to  signify  that,  by  the  grace  of  prophetic 
illumination,  the  righteous  men  of  old  were  enabled  to  foresee  in  a mysterious  and  inex- 
plicable manner  the  atonement  of  Christ,  as  it  happened  in  history.  Admitting  with 
the  spiritualistic  theologians,  that  the  Messianic  idea  among  the  Jews  underwent,  in  some 
sense,  a historical  development,  the  dogmatic  Christologists  differ,  in  general,  from  the 
former  by  attributing  to  the  higher  minds  such  a knowledge  of  the  work  of  Christ,  aa 
logically  involves  a knowledge  of  his  person  and  character.  The  entire  absence,  how- 
ever, of  2iny  personal  traits  of  Christ  in  the  Old  Testament,  such  as  might  be  expectedL 
of  those  who  had  seen  him  even  with  the  eye  of  faith,  has  induced  many  orthodox  theolo- 
gians to  shrink  from  making  any  statement  in  regard  to  what  may  have  been  the  doc- 
trine of  the  person  of  Christ  among  the  ancient  Jews. 

CHBISTOFHE,  Hejsri,  king  of  Hayti,  b.  Oct.  6,  1767,  was  at  one  period  a slave  and 
tavern-cook  in  Cape  Town,  St.  Domingo,  and  afterwards  overseer  of  a plantation.  In 
1790,  he  joined  the  black  insurgents  against  the  French,  and,  from  his  gigantic  stature, 
energy,  and  courage,  soon  became  a leader  among  them.  By  ToussainCLouverture,  he 
was  appointed  brig. gen.,  and  employed  to  suppress  an  insurrection  headed  by  Moyse- 
or  Moses,  his  nephew.  C.  captured  the  latter,  and  on  his  execution,  succeeded  him  as- 
governor  of  the  northern  province  of  French  St.  Domingo.  In  1802,  he  gallantly 
defended  Cape  Town  when  gen.  Leclerc  arrived  there  with  a French  army  destined  for 
the  reduction  of  the  blacks,  and  effected  his  retreat  with  3,000  men,  after  having  burned 
the  greater  part  of  the  town.  The  perfidious  seizure  of  Toussaint  he  amply  revenged, 
and  during  the  short-lived  government  of  Dessalines,  who  was  slain  by  a military  con- 
spiracy in  Oct.,  1806,  C.  ^as  gen. -in-chief  of  the  Haytian  army.  In  Feb.,  1807,  he  was^ 
appointed  president  of  Hayti  for  life.  A republic  being,  about  the  same  time,  organized 
at  Port  au-Prince,  with  Petion  at  its  head,  civil  war  commenced  between  them.  On 
Mar.  28,  1811,  C.  was  proclaimed  king  of  Hayti,  by  the  name  of  Henri  I.,  and  solemnly 
crowned,  June  2,  1812.  In  1814,  he  and  Petion  suspended  hostilities,  and  by  his  power 
and  skill,  C.  was  enabled  to  counteract  the  attempts  made  by  France  to  regain  its 
authority  in  the  island.  His  avarice  and  cruelty  led  to  an  insurrection,  which  was  aided 
by  gen.  Boyer,  who  had  succeeded  Petion  in  1818;  and  the  rebellion  having  spread  to 
Cape  Town,  C.’s  deposition  was  proclaimed,  at  the  head  of  the  troops,  by  the  duke  of 
Marmalade,  one  of  the  first  dignitaries  in  the  kingdom.  Deserted  by  his  body-guard 
and  all  his  nobles,  he  shot  himself,  Oct.  8,  1820.  He  left  a code  of  laws,  which  he 
called  the  “Code  Henri,”  in  imitation  of  the  Code  Napoleon. 

CHRISTOPHER,  Herb.  See  Act^a. 

CHRISTOPHER,  Saint,  a saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  churches.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  about  the  middle  of  the  3d  century.  According 
to  vulgar  legend,  C.,  whose  name  was  originally  (the  unrighteous),  was  a native 

of  Palestine,  Syria,  orLycia,  and  a person  of  prodigious  bulk  and  strength.  His  height 
was  12  feet.  So  proud  was  he  of  his  gigantic  frame,  that  he  would  serve  only  the  migh- 
tiest princes.  Having  attached  himself  to  one,  who  went  for  the  greatest  of  his  day, 
C.  stayed  with  him  for  a short  time,  but  soon  discovered  that  his  master  was  terribly 
afraid  of  the  devil,  in  consequence  of  which,  C.,  with  fearless  consistency,  passed  into 
the  service  of  the  latter.  One  day,  however,  when  the  devil  and  he  chanced  to  be 
walking  through  a wood,  they  came  across  an  image  of  Christ.  His  new  master  exhib- 
ited such  perturbation  and  alarm  at  the  sight,  that  C.  entirely  lost  confidence  in  him, 
and  resolved  to  find  out  the  Savior,  and  follow  him.  For  a long  while  he  searched  in 
vain,  but  finally  he  fell  in  with  a hermit,  who  showed  him  Christ,  and  baptized  him. 
C.  despised  the  customary  penances,  and  in  consequence,  it  was  imposed  on  him  to 
carry  Christian  pilgrims  on  his  shoulders  over  a stream  which  had  no  bridge.  One 
day,  a little  child  came  to  the  stream;  C.  took  it  on  his  shoulders,  but  soon  began  to 
sink  under  the  weight  of  his  burden.  The  child  was  Christ  himself,  and  to  prove  it, 
he  commanded  C.  to  stick  his  staff  into  the  ground.  He  did  so,  and  next  morning  it 
had  blossomed  into  a palm-tree  bearing  fruit.  This  miracle  converted  thousands  to 
Christianity.  C.’s  success  excited  the  enmity  of  Dagnus,  the  prefect  of  that  region, 
who  put  him  in  prison,  scourged  him  with  red-hot  rods,  put  a burning  helmet  on  his 
head,  and  clapped  him  on  a b^irning  stool.  C.  still  remained  uninjured.  Multitudes  of 
poisoned  arrows  were  now  discharged  against  him,  but  they  rebounded  from  his  charmed 
body,  and  one  even  wounded  the  prefect  himself  in  the  eye.  C.  pitied  his  tormentor, 
and  freely  offered  his  head  to  the  executioner,  that  the  prefect  might  be  healed  by  the 
blood  which  should  flow  from  it.  This  was  done,  and,  as  a matter  of  course,  Dagnus 
and  his  family  became  Christians.  The  Greek  church  celebrates  his  festival  on  the  9th 
of  May;  the  Roman  Catholics,  on  the  25ih  of  July. 


837 


Christ’s  hospital. 
Christophe. 


St.  C.  was  greatly  invoked  in  times  of  pestilence,  or  when  people  were  digging  for 
treasures,  to  frighten  away  the  spirits  who  watched  over  them.  The  formula  used  was 
called  a Christopher's  prayer.  He  was  also  the  patron  of  an  order  of  moderation,  founded 
in  Austria  in  1517,  for  the  purpose  of  checking  excessive  drinking  and  swearing,  and 
which  was  called  the  order  of  St.  Christopher. 

CHRISTOPHER’S,  St.,  or,  popularly,  8t.  Kitts,  an  island  near  the  n.e.  bend  of  the 
great  arch  of  the  Antilles,  46  m.  to  the  w.  of  Antigua,  and  3 m.  to  the  n.  of  Nevis.  With 
a very  unequal  breadth,  it  is  20  m.  long  from  s.e.  to  n.w.,  containing  about  44,000  acres, 
and  (1871)  28,169  inhabitants.  It  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  and  has  a legislature  of  its 
own,  with  an  executive  immediately  subordinate  to  the  governor-in-chief  of  the  Leeward 
group, 'residing  in  Antigua.  In  1876,  the  revenue  of  the  colony  was  £32,000,  having 
been  only  £3,638  in  1834;  so  that,  under  the  system  of  free  labor,  it  had  increased  nearly 
nine-fold  in  42  years.  During  the  same  interval,  the  imports  had  risen  in  value  from 
£63,018  to  £139,000,  and  the  exports  from  £105,267  to  £156,000.  The  staple  exports 
are  sugar,  rum,  and  molasses.  The  debt  of  the  island  in  the  year  1876  amounted  to 
£6,000.  Education  is  in  a promising  condition.  In  the  year  1865,  there  were  27  schools 
receiving  government  aid,  attended  by  1367  pupils  in  all — 11  of  the  establishments 
belonging  to  the  church  of  England,  8 to  the  Moravians,  and  8 to  the  Wesleyans. 

The  chief  towns,  both  of  them  seaports  with  open  roadsteads,  are  Basse-Terre, 
defended  by  fort  Smith,  and  Sandy  Point,  protected  by  fort  Charles  and  Brimstone  Hill. 
Of  fort  Smith,  the  exact  lat.  and  long,  are  17°  17'  7"  n.,  and  62°  48'  west.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  these  places,  and  of  the  coast  generally,  is  about  80°  F. ; but  the 
mornings  and  evenings,  even  of  the  hottest  days,  are  agreeably  cool.  The  length  of  the 
island  is  traversed  by  a well- wooded  ridge  of  volcanic  origin,  which  has  in  its  center  a 
crater;  and  towards  the  w.  extremity  of  the  range,  rises  the  nearly  perpendicular  crag  of 
Mt.  Misery,  with  an  altitude  of  3,711  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Over  the  adjacent 
slopes,  which  gradually  descend  to  the  water’s  edge,  this  central  range  sends  down  sev- 
eral streams — almost  every  plantation,  in  fact,  receiving  its  rivulet  in  the  rainy  season. 
The  springs,  though  numerous,  are  yet  mostly  brackish;  and  indeed  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  island  presents  a number  of  salt  ponds. 

St.  Kitts,  appropriately  named  by  the  natives  “the  fertile  isle,”  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  1493,  and  colonized  by  the  English  in  1623,  who  were  almost  immediately 
mined  by  some  French  adventurers.  After  treacherously  exterminating  the  Caribs,  the 
French  and  English,  often  quarreling,  occupied  the  island,  till,  in  1713,  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  gave  the  whole  to  England.  In  1782,  during  the  war  of  American  independ- 
ence, St.  Kitts  was  captured  by  the  French,  but  restored.  On  July  31,  1865,  a terrific 
fire  took  place  at  Basse-Terre. 

CHRISTOP'ULUS,  Athanasios,  1772-1847;  a Greek  poet,  the  son  of  a Wallachian 
^iest.  He  studied  at  Buda  and  Padua,  and  became  teacher  in  the  family  of  the 
Wallachian  prince  Mourousi,  and,  after  the  fall  of  that  prince,  he  assisted  the  hospodar 
Caradja  in  drawing  up  a code  of  laws  for  the  nation.  He  wrote  love  ditties  and 
drinking  songs,  which  are  very  popular  among  the'  Greeks.  He  is  also  the  author  of  a 
tragedy,  and  some  philological  works. 

CHRIST’S  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  was  originally  founded  by  Henry  YI.,  under  the 
name  of  God’s  house,  and  was  intended  by  him  to  consist  of  a master,  12  fellows, 
and  47  scholars.  In  1505,  however,  there  were  only  three  fellows  besides  the  master, 
when  lady  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmond  and  Derby,  mother  of  Henry  VII.,  “count- 
ing herself,  as  of  the  Lancaster  line,  heir  to  all  Henry  YI.’s  godly  intentions,”  made 
up  the  full  number,  and  endowed  the  college  liberally,  changing  its  name  to  Christ’s 
college.  Edward  VI.  added  one  fellow,  and  three  scholars;  and  sir  John  Finch  and 
sir  Thomas  Baines  increased  the  number  of  fellows  to  fifteen.  C.  C.  possesses  many 
rich  benefactions  for  the  encouragement  of  students,  amongst  which  are  specially  to  be 
noticed  four  studentships  founded  by  Christopher  Tancred,  worth  £107  per  annum, 
and  tenable  for  three  years  after  taking  the  degree  of  b.a.  A student  is  elected  annu- 
ally before  coming  into  residence.  Amongst  the  illustrious  men  connected  with  this 
college  may  be  noted  bishop  Latimer,  John  Milton,  and  Ralph  Cudworth,  author  of  the 
Intellectual  System. 

CHRIST’S  HOSPITAL,  Newgate  street,  London,  was  founded  on  the  site  of  the 
Greyfriars'  monastery,  by  Edward  VI.,  June  26,  1553,  as  a hospital  for  orphans  and 
foundlings.  It  is  usually  called  the  “ blue-coat  school,”  on  account  of  the  dress  worn 
by  the  boj’^s.  This  consists  of  a blue  woolen  gown  or  coat  with  a narrow  red-leather 
girdle  round  the  waist,  yellow  breeches,  and  yellow  stockings,  a clergyman’s  bands  at 
the  neck,  and  a small  blue  worsted  cap,  but  this  last  they  seldom  wear,  and  are  gen- 
erally seen  going  about  bareheaded — such  has  been  the  costume  of  the  boys  since  the 
foundation  of  the  school  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ; the  persistency  in  it  through  suc- 
cessive generations,  affording  a curious  instance  of  the  unchangeableness  in  some  of  the 
English  usages.  No  boy  is  admitted  before  seven  years  of  age,  or  after  10,  and  none  can 
remain  after  15,  with  the  exception  of  “king’s  boys”  (i.e.,  those  who  attend  the  mathe- 
matical school  founded  by  Charles  II.  in  1672)  and  “Grecians”  (i.e.,  the  highest  class 
of  scholars  in  the  hospital),  of  whom  eight  are  sent  on  various  scholarships  to  the  uni- 
versities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Altogether,  about  800  boys  can  be  admitted.  The 


Clirist’s  thorn. 
Chronicles. 


838 


right  of  presentation  is  vested  in  the  managing  governors.  These  are  the  lord  mayor  of 
London,  the  aldermen,  and  12  common  councilmen.  Besides  these,  all  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  who  benefit  the  hospital  to  the  extent  of  £400  are  governors.  The  manag- 
ing governors  are  the  patrons  of  several  churches,  chiefly  in  Surrey  and  Essex.  Tin 
most  of  the  income  of  C.  H.,  which  amounts  to  about  £50,000,  is  derived  from  legap 
cies  subsequent  to  its  original  charter.  King  Charles’  foundation  enriched  it  by 
£7,000,  with  an  additional  annuity  of  £370  10s.,  for  the  purpose  of  educating  yearly 
10  boys  for  the  sea-service.  Most  of  the  building  perished  in  the  great  fire  of  1666;  but, 
through  the  generosity  of  the  corporation  of  London,  and  the  liberal  help  of  wealthy 
Englishmen,  it  was  soon  rebuilt,  under  the  superintendence  of  sir  Christopher  Wren. 
In  the  course  of  time,  the  new  hospital  fell  into  decay,  and  in  1825,  a third  structure 
was  erected  by  Mr.  Shaw.  The  great  hall  of  the  hospital  is  a magnificent  room,  second 
only  to  that  of  Westminster.  C.  H.  is  essentially  a classical  institution,  Latin  and  Greek 
being  the  basis  of  education;  but,  to  satisfy  the  wants  arising  from  the  changed  condi- 
tion of  society,  the  modern  languages,  drawing,  etc.,  are  also  taught.  In  1683,  the  gov- 
ernors built  a preparatory  school  at  Hertford,  where  the  children  are  trained  till  they 
are  old  enough  to  enter  the  hospital.  The  girls,  however,  remain  permanently  here. 
It  can  receive  about  400  of  both  sexes.  Dependent  schools  in  Newgate  street  accommo- 
date 1200  children.  Several  eminent  persons  have  been  educated  at  C.  H.,  such  as 
Camden,  Stillingfleet,  Coleridge,  and  Lamb. 

CHKIST’S  THOEN.  See  Jujube  and  Paliurus. 

GHEOMAT'IG,  in  music,  is  a term  applied  to  a series  of  notes  at  the  distance  of  a 
semitone  from  each  other.  Such  a series  is  produced  by  dividing  the  whole  tones  of 
the  diatonic  scale  into  semitones,  so  that  with  the  two  diatonic  semitones,  already  in  the 
natural  scale,  the  octave  is  divided  into  12  semitones.  The  word  C.  is  from  the  Greek, 
and  means  colored.  Ascending  C.  passages  are  formed  by  the  whole  tones  of  the  dia- 
tonic scale  being  raised  or  elevated  by  a sharp  or  a natural,  according  to  key,  and 
descending  passages  by  their  being  lowered  by  a flat  or  a natural,  thus: 


It  IS  usual  to  speak  of  the  C.  scale,  but  that  is  wrong,  as  it  is  only  a melodious  pro- 
gression of  semitones,  certain  notes  of  which  belong  to,  and  form  the  diatonic  scale, 
showing  that  the  foundation  of  the  system  of  music  does  not  rest  on  a C.  basis,  but  on 
the  natural  diatonic  progression  of  sounds. 

GHROMATIG,  in  optics.  See  Achromatic. 

GHROMATIGS  is  that  part  of  the  science  of  optics  (q.v.)  which  explains  the  properties 
of  the  colors  of  light  and  of  natural  bodies.  Before  1666,  when  sir  Isaac  Newton  began 
to  investigate  this  subject,  the  notions  which  prevailed  respecting  the  nature  of  colors 
were  purely  fanciful.  Till  Descartes’  time,  indeed,  it  seems  not  to  have  been  conceived 
that  color  had  anything  to  do  wdth  light.  As  examples  of  the  notions  prevalent  at  very 
early  times,  we  may  cite  those  propounded  by  Pythagoras  and  Zeno.  According  to  the 
former,  color  was  the  superficies  of  bodies;  according  to  the  latter,  it  was  “ the  first  con- 
figuration of  matter” — whatever  that  may  be.  It  is  now  settled  that  wdiite  light  is  not 
homogeneous,  but  consists  of  rays  of  different  colors,  endued  with  different  degrees  of 
refrangibility,  and  that  the  different  colors  of  bodies  arise  from  their  reflecting  this  or 
that  kind  of  rays  most  copiously.  According  to  this,  a body  that  appears  red  reflects 
red  rays  in  greater  abundance  than  the  others;  and  one  that  appears  black  reflects  none 
of  the  rays— in  other  words,  absorbs  all  the  light  that  falls  upon  it.  The  analysis  of  a 
beam  of  the  sun’s  light  by  a prism  was  the  experiment  by  which  Newton  demonstrated 
his  great  optical  discovery  of  the  unequal  refrangibility  of  the  variously  colored  rays, 
and  laid  the  foundations  for  the  above  theory  of  color.  The  reader  will  find  an  account 
of  this  experiment,  and  of  the  most  interesting  phenomena  presented  by  the  spectrum, 
under  the  article  Spectrum.  Newton  concluded  from  his  experiments  that  white  light 
is  composed  of  seven  colors,  which  he  called  the  primary  colors — viz.,  red,  orange,  yel- 
low, green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet,  and  that  all  other  shades  of  color  arise  from  the 
admixture  of  these  in  different  proportions.  Sir  David  Brewster,  on  the  other  hand, 
conceives  that  he  has  established  that  the  primary  colors  are  only  three  in  number — red, 
yellow,  and  blue.  This  result  he  obtained  by  examining  the  rays  of  the  spectrum 
through  different  absorbing  media — a mode  of  experiment  now  admitted  to  be  fallacious 
in  principle.  Professor  Maxwell,  by  oirect  examination  of  the  rays,  concludes  that  the 
three  primary  colors  are  red,  green,  and  blue.  Recently,  a theory  has  been  propounded, 
that  all  the  colors  are  the  results  of  the  admixture  of  white  light  and  of  shade,  or  dark- 
ness; but  as  yet  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  support  this  theory  by  direct  experiment 
on  the  sun’s  rays.  It  is  rested  on  results  obtained  by  combining  by  motion  certain  pro- 


839 


Christ’s  thonu 
Chronicles. 


portions  of  white  and  black  pigments  on  a revolving  card.  See  the  articles  Light,  Dis- 
persion, and  Newton’s  Kings. 

CHRO'MATYPE  (Gr.  chrome,  color;  typoe,  impression),  a photographic  process,  thus 
described  by  its  discoverer,  Mr.  K.  Hunt.  One  dram  of  sulphate  of  copper  is  dis- 
solved in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water,  to  which  is  added  half  an  ounce  of  a saturated 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash;  this  solution  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  paper, 
and  when  dry,  it  is  tit  for  use,  and  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  without  spoiling. 
When  exposed  to  sunshine,  the  first  change  is  to  a dull  brown,  and  if  checked  in  this 
stage  of  the  process,  we  get  a negative  picture;  but  if  the  action  of  light  is  continued, 
the  browning  gives  way,  and  a positive  yellow  picture  on  a white  ground  is  obtained. 
In  either  case,  if  the  paper,  when  removed  from  sunshine,  is  washed  over  with  a solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  a very  beautiful  positive  picture  results.  In  practice,  it  will  be 
found  advantageous  to  allow  the  bleaching  action  to  go  on  to  some  extent;  the  picture 
resulting  from  this  will  be  clearer  and  more  defined  than  that  obtained  when  the  action 
is  checked  at  the  brown  stage.  To  fix  these  pictures,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
nitrate  of  silver,  which  is  done  by  washing  them  in  pure  water.  If  the  water  contains 
any  chlorides,  the  picture  suffers,  and  long  soaking  in  such  water  obliterates  it — or,  if  a 
few  grains  of  common  salt  be  added,  the  apparent  destruction  is  rapid.  The  picture  is, 
however,  capable  of  restoration,  all  that  is  necessary  being  to  expose  it  to  sunshine  for 
a quarter  of  an  hour,  when  it  revives;  but  instead  of  being  of  a red  color,  it  assumes  a 
lilac  tint,  the  shades  of  color  depending  upon  the  quantity  of  salt  used  to  decompose 
the  chromate  of  silver  which  forms  the  shadow  parts  of  the  picture.  Mr.  Bingham  sug- 
gested the  substitution  of  sulphate  of  nickel  for  sulphate  of  copper,  as  yielding  a higher 
degree  of  sensitiveness  and  greater  definition.  Neither  process  has  been  much  used. 

CHROMIC  ACID,  composed  of  trioxide  of  chromium  and  water;  formula,  Cr04Ha. 
It  forms  coloring  pigments,  such  as  chromate  of  lead,  and  chromate  and  bichromate  of 
potash ; and  is  used  as  a caustic  in  surgery. 

CHROMIC  IRON,  or  Chromite,  ore  of  chromium,  found  in  Maryland,  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Shetland  islands,  Scotland,  France,  and  other  places.  It  usually  occurs  in 
mass,  but  is  sometimes  crystallized  in  octahedrons.  Oxides  of  chromium  and  iron  are 
its  ingredients. 

CHBO'MIUM  {chrome,  color)  is  a metal,  so  called  from  the  many-colored  compounds 
it  produces.  It  was  discovered  by  Vauquelin  in  1797.  C,  occurs  naturally  as  the  chro- 
mate of  lead  (PbO,CrOs),  and  the  chromite  of  iron,  chrome  iron  (Fe0,Cr203),  at  Unst 
and  Fetlar  in  the  Shetlands,  and  Portsoy  in  Banffshire,  etc.  The  metai  has  been  obtained 
in  powder  and  in  scales,  but  as  a metal  it  possesses  no  interest.  The  principal  com- 
pound of  C.  is  the  bichromate  of  potash,  obtained  by  heating  chrome  iron  ore  in  powder 
with  one  fourth  of  its  weight  of  niter,  and  then  digesting  in  water,  which  dissolves  out 
the  chromate  of  potash  (K0,Cr03),  a yellow  salt,  and  when  this  is  acted  upon  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  it  is  converted  into  bichromate  of  potash  (K0,2Cr03),  readily  crystallizes  in 
orange-red  crystals,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  largely  used  by  the  dyer  and  calico- 
printer.  If  this  salt  be  added  to  a solution  of  lead,  an  abundant  yellow  precipitate 
occurs  of  chromate  of  lead  (Pb0,Cr03),  or  chrome  yellow,  which  is  used  largely  by  the 
painter  as  a yellow  pigment.  A sesquioxide  of  C.  (Cr203),  chrome  green,  possessing  a 
bright  green  color,  which  renders  it  useful  in  enamel-painting,  and  being  innocuous,  it 
is  now  introduced  into  paper-hangings  instead  of  the  highly  dangerous  arsenical  green 
pigment.  The  bichromate  of  potash  is  employed  in  conjunction  with  sulphuric  acid  as 
an  agent  in  bleaching  palm-oil  and  other  oils  and  fats. 

CHRONICLE  (from  chronos,  time),  denotes  a history  in  which  events  are  treated  in 
the  order  of  time.  A C.  is  understood  to  differ  from  annals  in  being  more  connected 
and  full,  the  latter  merely  recording  individual  occcurences  under  the  successive  years 
or  other  dates.  Most  of  our  older  histories  were  called  chronicles,  such  as  the  Saxon 
ijhronicle,  Holinshed's  Chronicle.  The  term  is  seldom  applied  to  a modern  book,  but  fre- 
quently to  a newspaper — as,  for  instance.  The  Morning  Chronicle. 

CHRONICLES,  the  name  of  two  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  found  in  the 
common  English  Bible.  In  the  Hebrew  canon  the  C.  form  but  one  book,  which  is 
entitled  Events  of  the  Times — and  this  appears  to  have  been  a designation  commonly 
applied  to  special  histories — in  more  definite  shape.  Events  of  the  Times  of  King  David,  or 
the  like.  The  Greek  translators  divided  the  long  Hebrew  book  into  two,  and  adopted 
the  title  Ihings  Omitted,  that  is,  not  recorded  in  the  other  historical  books.  Jerome 
suggested  the  title  Chronicon,  whence  comes  the  English  name.  The  book  of  C.  begins 
with  Adam  and  ends  abruptly  in  the  middle  of  Cyrus’s  decree  of  restoration.  The  con- 
tinuation of  the  narrative  is  found  in  the  book  of  Ezra,  which  fills  up  the  fragment  of 
the  decree  of  the  Persian  king.  Of  the  authorship  of  C.  nothing  is  known  except  what 
can  be  determined  by  internal  evidence.  The  language  implies  that  the  book  is  one 
of  the  latest  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  Hebrew  Bible  it  is  placed  last.  As  to  the 
time  of  the  writing  of  C.,  it  is  argued  that  the  chronicler  wrote  after  the  fall  of  the 
Persian  monarchy.  What  seems  to  be  certain  and  important  for  a right  estimate  of 
the  book  is  that  the  author  lived  a considerable  time  after  Ezra,  and  stood  entirely 
under  the  influence  of  the  religious  institutions  of  the  new  theocracy.  This  point  of 
view  determined  the  nature  of  his  interest  in  the  early  history  of  his  people.  The  true 


Chronogram. 

Chronology. 


840 


importance  of  Hebrew  history  had  always  centered  in  the  fact  that  this  petty  nation  was 
the  people  of  Jehovah,  the  spiritual  God.  The  tragic  interest  which  distinguishes  the 
annals  of  Israel  from  the  forgotten  history  of  Moab  or  Damascus  lies  wholly  in  that 
long  contest  which  finally  vindicated  the  reality  of  spiritual  things  and  the  supremacy 
of  Jehovah’s  purpose,  in  the  political  ruin  of  the  nation  which  was  the  faithless 
depositary  of  these  sacred  truths.  After  the  captivity,  it  was  impossible  to  write  the 
history  of  Israel’s  fortunes  otherwise  than  in  a spirit  of  religious  pragmatism.  But 
within  the  limits  of  the  religious  conception  of  the  plan  and  purpose  of  the  Hebrew 
history  more  than  one  point  of  view  might  be  taken.  The  book  of  Kings  looks  upon 
liistory  in  the  spirit  of  the  prophets.  But  before  the  chronicler  wrote,  the  last  spark 
of  prophecy  had  become  extinct.  The  Jerusalem  of  Ezra  was  organized  no  longer  as 
a nation,  but  as  a municipality  and  a church.  The  center  of  religious  life  was  no 
longer  the  prophetic  word,  but  the  ordinances  of  the  Pentateuch  and  the  liturgical 
service  of  the  sanctuary.  The  religious  vocation  of  Israel  was  no  longer  national,  but 
ecclesiastical  and  municipal;  and  the  historical  continuity  of  the  nation  was  vividly 
realized  only  within  the  Myalls  of  Jerusalem  and  the  courts  of  the  temple,  in  the  solemn 
assembly  and  stately  ceremonial  of  a feast  day.  These  influences  naturally  operated 
most  strongly  on  those  who  were  officially  attached  to  the  sanctuary.  To  a Levite,  even 
more  than  to  other  Jews,  the  history  of  Israel  meant  above  all  things  the  history  of 
Jerusalem,  of  the  temple,  and  of  the  temple  ordinances.  The  author  of  C.  betrays 
in  every  page  his  essentially  Levitical  habit  of  mind.  To  such  a mind,  in  the  fallen 
condition  of  the  Jews  as  a political  nation,  there  seemed  to  be  room  for  a new  history, 
which  should  confine  itself  to  matters  still  interesting  to  the  theocraey  of  Zion,  keep- 
ing Jerusalem  and  the  temple  in  the  foreground,  and  developing  the  divine  signifi- 
cance of  the  history  in  its  causes  and  results,  not  so  much  with  reference  to  the 
prophetic  word  as  to  the  fixed  legislation  of  the  Pentateuch,  so  that  the  whole  narra- 
tive might  be  made  to  teach  that  the  glory  of  Israel  lies  in  the  observance  of  the 
divine  law  and  ritual.  For  the  sake  of  systematic  completeness,  the  author  of  the 
C.  begins  with  Adam;  but  he  had  nothing  to  add  to  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  period 
from  Moses  to  David  contained  little  that  served  his  purpose.  He  therefore  contracted 
the  early  history  into  a series  of  genealogies,  which  were  by  no  means  the  least  inter- 
esting part  of  his  work  at  a time  when  every  Israelite  was  concerned  to  prove  the 
purity  of  his  Hebrew  descent.  From  the  death  of  Saul  the  history  becomes  fuller, 
and  runs  parallel  with  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.  The  limitations  of  the  author’s 
interest  in  past  times  appear  in  the  omission,  among  other  particulars,  of  David’s 
reign  in  Hebron,  of  the  disorders  in  his  family  and  the  revolt  of  Absalom,  of  the  circum- 
stances of  Solomon’s  accession,  and  of  many  details  as  to  the  wisdom  and  splendor  of 
that  sovereign,  as  well  as  of  his  fall  into  idolatry  In  the  latter  history  the  ten 
tribes  are  quite  neglected,  and  political  affairs  in  Judah  receive  attention,  not  in  pro- 
portion to  their  intrinsic  importance,  but  according  as  they  serve  to  exemplify  God’s 
help  to  the  obedient  and  his  chastisement  of  the  rebellious.  That  the  author  is  always 
unwilling  to  speak  of  the  misfortunes  of  good  rulers,  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  a desire 
to  suppress  the  truth,  but  shows  that  the  book  was  throughout  composed  not  in  purely 
historical  interest,  but  with  a view  to  inculcate  a practical  lesson.  The  more  important 
additions  which  the  chronicler  makes  to  the  old  narrative  consist  partly  of  full  details 
of  points  connected  with  the  history  of  the  sanctuary  and  the  great  feasts,  or  the 
archaeology  of  the  Levitical  ministry,  and  partly  of  narratives  of  victories  and  defeats, 
of  sins  and  punishments,  of  obedience  and  its  reward,  which  could  be  made  to  point 
a plain  religious  lesson  in  favor  of  faithful  observance  of  the  law.  The  minor  variations 
of  C.  from  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  are  analogous  to  the  larger  additions  and 
omissions,  so  that  the  whole  work  has  a consistent  and  well-marked  character,  pre- 
senting the  history  in  quite  a different  perspective  from  that  of  the  old  narrative.  An 
immense  amount  of  criticism  has  been  expended  upon  C. ; but  after  all  it  is  safe  to  con- 
clude, with  Ewald  and  other  careful  critics,  that  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  charge 
that  the  chronicler  invented  history  in  the  interest  of  his  practical  purpose  of  exhor- 
tation and  encouragement.  But  it  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  in  shaping  his  narrative  he 
allowed  himself  the  same  freedom  taken  by  other  ancient  historians,  and  even  by  copy- 
ists. [Portions  of  this  article  are,  with  modifications,  from  EncyclopoBdia  Britannica, 
ninth  edition.] 

CHEO'NOGRAM,  or  Chro'nograph  (Gr.  chronos,  time,  and  gramma,  a letter,  or 
gragho,  I write),  a whimsical  device  of  the  later  Romans,  resuscitated  during  the  renais- 
sance period,  by  which  a date  is  given  by  selecting  certain  letters  amongst  those  which 
form  an  inscription,  and  printing  them  larger  than  the  others.  The  principle  will  be 
understood  from  the  following  C.,  made  from  the  name  of  George  Villiers,  first  duke 
of  Buckingham.  t 

georgIVs,  DYX.  bVCkIngaMLe. 

The  date  MDCXVVVHI  (1628)  is  that  of  the  year  in  which  the  duke  was  murdered  by 
Felton,  at  Portsmouth. 

CHRO  NOGRAPH.  Different  forms  of  time-measures,  or  time-recorders,  under  this 
designation,  have  been  invented  within  a recent  period. 

Benson's  chronograph  is  intended  to  measure  intervals  of  time  down  to  tenths  of  a 


841 


Chronog^ram* 

Chronology. 


second,  for  use  at  horse-races  and  other  occasions  where  a seconds  watch  is  not  exactly 
suited.  It  has  an  ordinary  quick  train-lever  movement,  carrying  hands  which  move 
over  a dial.  One  of  these  is  a seconds  hand,  very  peculiarly  made.  The  seconds  hand 
is  double,  consisting  of  two  distinct  hands,  one  superposed  on  the  other.  The  outer  end 
of  the  lowermost  hand  has  a small  cup  v/ith  a minute  hole  at  the  bottom ; while  the 
corresponding  end  of  the  uppermost  hand  is  bent  over  so  as  exactly  to  reach  this  punc- 
ture. The  little  cup  is  filled  with  ink,  having  a consistency  between  that  of  writing- 
fluid  and  printers’  ink.  Suppose  that  a horse-race  is  about  to  take  place.  The  observer 
keeps  a steady  look-out  for  the  fall  of  the  starter’s  flag,  or  whatever  the  signal  may  be: 
he  gives  a pull  to  a cord  or  string  connected  with  the  mechanism  peculiar  to  the  instru- 
ment; by  this  movement,  the  outer  and  bent  end  of  the  upper  seconds  hand  dips  down 
through  the  ink-cup  in  the  lower  hand,  and  through  the  puncture  to  the  dial.  A small 
black  spot  or  mark  is  thus  made  upon  the  dial-plate;  and  this  is  repeated  as  each  horse 
passes  the  winning-post.  If  the  eye  and  hand  of  the  operator  are  quick  and  accurate, 
there  is  a reliable  record  thus  presented  by  the  instrument  of  the  duration  of  the  race, 
sometimes  as  close  as  one  tenth  of  a second.  The  instrument  is  now  adopted  at  the 
principal  races  as  a suitable  one  for  the  purpose;  thus  it  is  used  for  races  such  as  the 
Derby,  the  Oaks,  the  Goodwood,  the  St.  Leger,  etc.  It  is  also  available  for  many  other 
purposes. 

Strange's  chronograph  is  designed  for  a more  scientific  purpose,  and  constructed 
with  more  careful  details.  The  object  is  to  measure  extremely  short  intervals  of  time, 
for  the  determination  of  longitudes  in  great  trigonometrical  surveys.  The  observer, 
when  a particular  star  traverses  the  field  of  his  telescope,  touches  a small  ivory  key; 
and  on  the  instant,  a dot  or  mark  appears  on  a sheet  of  paper  coiled  round  a barrel. 
The  instrument  being  connected  with  an  astronomical  clock,  there  is  a dot  made  for 
every  beat  of  the  pendulum ; and  as  these  dots  are  a considerable  space  apart  (consider- 
able, that  is,  for  the  refined  instruments  of  the  present  day),  it  is  possible  to  determine 
so  wonderfully  minute  an  interval  as  one  hundredth  of  a second. 

Other  forms  of  chronograph  have  been  adopted  by  astronomers.  One  was  sug- 
gested by  prof.  C.  A.  Young  in  1866  to  assume  the  functions  of  a recording  chrono- 
graph, by  marking  the  instant  of  observation  in  hours,  minutes,  seconds,  and  hundredths 
of  a second,  in  printed  characters,  and  in  a form  suitable  for  preservation  and  reduction. 

Chronographs  connected  with  electric  and  magnetic  apparatus  are  used  for  determin- 
ing the  velocity  of  projectiles.  Many  forms  have  been  devised  by  Noble,  Bashforth, 
Navez,  Le  Bouleuge,  and  other  inventors.  The  most  general  arrangement  consists  in 
causing  the  bullet  to  pass  through  a series  of  screens ; the  rupture  of  each  screen  breaks 
for  a moment  the  continuity  of  an  electric  current,  sets  in  action  an  electro-  magnetic 
apparatus,  and  makes  a permanent  mark  or  record. 

CHRONOL'OGY  is  the  science  of  the  divisions  of  time.  It  has  two  main  branches — 
mathematical  C.,  and  historical  chronology.  Mathematical  C.  is  engaged  with  such  of 
the  units  for  the  measurement  of  time  as  begin  and  end  with  the  period  of  complete 
evolution  of  recurring  celestial  phenomena.  See  articles  Calendar,  Year,  Month, 
Day,  and  Cycle,  where  the  chief  points  in  mathematical  C.  are  explained.  Historical 
C.  uses  these  units  among  others  to  measure  the  distance  in  point  of  time  between  events, 
and  to  fix  their  dates.  As  in  geography  and  navigation,  longitude  is  measured  from  some 
arbitrary  line,  such  as  the  meridian  through  Greenwich,  so  in  historical  C.,  dates  are 
fixed  by  giving  their  distance  from  some  arbitrary  point  of  time,  usually  chosen  because 
of  some  remarkable  occurrence  which  signalized  it.  Such  a fixed  point,  or  epoch,  forms 
the  beginning  of  an  era.  It  is  thus  that  dates  have  been  aptly  said  to  be  to  events  in 
history  what  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  places  are  to  the  places  in  geography  and 
navigation.  The  mathematical,  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  the  astronomical  units  of 
time  above  referred  to  have  not  been,  as  has  been  already  hinted,  the  only  units  used  in 
historical  chronology.  In  early  times,  the  more  accurate  methods  of  mathematics  were 
unknown,  and  such  vague  periods  as  “a  generation,”  or  the  lifetime  of  leading  persons 
in  a nation,  such  as  the  priestesses  of  Juno,  or  of  the  kings,  were  assumed  as  units  in 
historical  chronology.  The  great  variety  of  eras,  too,  in  ancient  times  confuses  the 
student  of  chronology.  Thus  the  era  of  the  Greeks  began  with  the  year  of  the  first  olym- 
piad, or  that  in  which  Coroebus  was  victor;  being  the  first  celebration  of  the  games  at 
which  the  victor’s  name  was  recorded,  and  which  is  calculated  to  correspond  to  the  year 
776  B.c.  From  this  epoch,  the  Greeks  measured  time  by  olympiads  or  periods  of  four 
years.  Thus,  the  3d  year  of  the  12th  olympiad  would  be  the  year  729  b.c.  The  Koman 
era  was  reckoned  from  the  founding  of  the  city,  being  either  752  or  753  b.c.  The  Roman 
practice  of  dating  events  from  the  building  of  the  city,  seems  to  be  the  first  instance  of 
the  method  of  reckoning  time  from  a fixed  point  by  single  years.  It  thus  forms  one  of 
the  great  stages  in  chronology.  Of  other  eras  we  shall  merely  mention  the  Mohamme- 
dan, which  commences  with  the  flight  of  Mohammed,  622  a.d.,  and  which  is  called  the 
Hedgrah{(\.v .).  The  Roman  and  Greek  methods  of  measuring  time  continued  to  be  in  use 
long  after  the  birth  of  Christ;  the  olympiads,  indeed,  appear  to  have  been  employed  in 
Europe  down  to  the  304th  olympiad,  or  440  a.d.  Prom  312  a.d.,  however,  the  public 
mode  of  computation  throughout  the  Roman  empire  was  by  indictions,  which  were  periods 
of  15  years,  beginning  with  that  year  (see  Indiction);  and  this  mode  was  at  one  time 


Cbronology. 

Cliryselephantine. 


842 


almost  universally  followed  in  the  west.  In  France,  it  was  not  altogether  discontinued 
till  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  The  Christian  era  is  said  to  have  been  first  proposed 
in  the  year  527  a.d,,  and  is  now  universally  used  in  Christendom.  Part  of  the  business 
of  C.  is  to  determine  the  relationships  of  the  different  eras,  so  as  to  enable  one  to  express, 
in  the  language  appropriate  to  one  mode  of  computation,  the  date  of  an  event  recorded 
in  another.  Owing  to  the  birth  of  Christ  being  a comparatively  recent  event,  the  Chris- 
tian era  is  attended  by  this  inconvenience,  that  we  must  count  backwards  from  it  for 
the  dates  of  occurrences  prior  to  it.  To  obviate  this,  various  comprehensive  periods, 
such  as  the  Julian  and  Louisian  periods  have  been  invented,  which  have  the  merit  of 
being  applicable  to  most  events  lying  within  the  limits  of  history. 

"Various  systems  of  C.,  such  as  the  Chinese,  Babylonian,  Egyptian,  Indian,  and 
Chaldean,  are  worthy  of  attention.  Accounts  of  the  periods  "which  these  nations 
respectively  assign  to  their  histories,  will  be  found  under  the  heads  Ciiikese  Empire, 
Babylon,  etc.  Of  sacred  C.  there  have  been  various  systems.  In  these  the  epochs  are 
the  creation  of  the  world,  and  the  flood;  but  the  chief  copies  of  the  Bible  do  not  agree 
as  to  the  dates  of  these  events.  While  the  Hebrew  text  reckons  4,000  years  from  the 
creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  to  the  flood  1656  years,  the  Samaritan  makes  tlve 
former  much  longer,  though  it  counts  from  the  creation  to  the  flood  only  1307  years. 
The  Septuagint  version  ditters  from  both.  It  removes  the  creation  of  the  world  to  6,000 
years  before  Christ,  and  2,250  years  before  the  flood.  These  differences  have  never 
been  reconciled.  It  is,  now,  however,  universally  admitted,  that  the  creation  of  the 
world  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  having  occurred  even  so  recently  as  6,000b.c.  The  mod- 
ern understanding  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  leaves  the  period  of  the  creation  quite 
indefinite,  and  one  scheme  of  interpretation  stretches  out  the  days  of  creation  into 
periods  of  indefinite  length.  Of  the  Newtonian  C.,  all  that  can  be  said  here  is,  that  it 
was  an  attempt,  now  generally  admitted  not  to  have  been  very  successful,  to  rectify 
the  obvious  blunders  of  ancient  chronologers,  by  determining  certain  epochs  by  means 
partly  of  astronomical  calculations,  and  partly  of  the  critical  examination  of  such  chron- 
icles as  measured  time  by  reigns  and  generations.  By  a very  fine  argument,  the  sound- 
ness of  which  has  since  been  doubted,  Newton  set  down  the  date  of  the  Argonautic 
expedition  as  being  43  years  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  or  937  b.c. 

CHRONOL'OGY  {ante),  a fixed  period  from  which  dates  are  reckoned.  The  Chris- 
tian era  (q.v.)  starts  at  the  birth  of  Christ.  The  years  before  are  marked  b.c.  and  those 
after,  a.d.  (Anno  Domini).  This  era  is  now  almost  universally  accepted.  The 
olympiad  was  a Greek  era  in  periods  of  five  years;  the  birth  of  Christ  occurred  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  (some  say  in  the  second  or  third)  year  of  the  194th  Olympiad. 
The  era  of  the  foundation  of  Rome  is  usually  assigned  to  753  b.c.  The  era  of  the 
creation  is  fixed  at  many  widely  varying  points.  The  reckoning  of  Constantinople, 
which  is  still  used  by  the  Greek  church,  makes  it  5509  b.c.  ; the  Aby.ssinian  church, 
5492;  the  Alexandrian  church,  5502,  and  later  5492;  the  Jews,  3761.  One  writer  on  the 
C.  of  sacred  history  collected  more  than  200  different  estimates  of  the  era  of  the 
creation,  the  shortest  being  3483,  and  the  longest  6984  b.c.  If  such  or  such  a date 
from  the  creation  means  anything,  it  is  probably  to  be  read  by  the  period  fixed  by  Dr. 
Usher,  which  was  4004  b.c.  Yet  it  must  be  understood  that,  on  this  point,  we  are  with- 
out the  data  for  an  accurate  and  positive  chronology.  There  is  an  era  of  the  creation 
used  in  India,  which  is  only  3102  b.c.  The  era  of  Vicramyditya  in  common  use  in 
India  begins  56  b.c.  The  Spanish  era,  dating  from  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustus, 
38  B.C.,  was  in  use  in  Spain,  Portugal,  North  Africa,  and  Southern  France.  The  era 
of  Diocletian,  or  of  the  martyrs,  is  dated  284  a.d.  The  Mohammedan  era,  beginning  at 
the  time  of  the  prophet’s  flight  to  Medina,  is  622  a.d.  As  reckoned  by  our  ordinary 
C.,  the  precise  dates  of  commencing  the  above  and  other  eras  are: 


Grecian,  Mundane 

Constantinop.e,  Civil. . . 

Alexandrian 

Antioch,  Mundane 

Julian  I'eiiod 

Mundane,  Usher 

Mundane,  Jewish 

Abraham 

Olympiads 

Rome,  foundation  of. . . 

Nabonassar 

Metonic  Cycle 

Macedonian,  or  Grecian 

Tyrian 

Sidonian 

Caesarian,  of  Antioch. . . 

Julian  Year 

Spanish  Era 

Actian 

Augustan  


1. 

5598 

B.C. 

1, 

5508 

4< 

.Aug. 

29, 

5502 

it 

1, 

5492 

it 

1, 

4713 

ti 

4004 

it 

3761 

it 

.Oct. 

1, 

2015 

tt 

.July 

1, 

776 

it 

. April 

24, 

753 

ft 

.Feb. 

26, 

747 

it 

July 

15, 

432 

tt 

. Sept. 

1, 

312 

ft 

.Oct. 

19, 

126 

it 

.Oct. 

no 

it 

1, 

48 

it 

1, 

45 

it 

Jan. 

1, 

38 

tt 

1, 

80 

.Feb. 

14, 

27 

ti 

843 


Chronolog^y. 

ChryselephantlnOb 


TTsual  Christian  (ours) . . . 
Destruction  of  Jerusalem 

Era  of  Maccabees 

Era  of  Diocletian 

Era  of  Ascension 

Armenian 

Mohammedan,  Hegira  . . , 
Persian  of  Yezdegird 


.Jan.  1, 

1 

B.C. 

.Sept.  1, 

69 

A.D. 

.Nov.  24, 

166 

.Aug.  29, 

284 

a 

.Nov.  12, 

295 

it 

July  9, 

552 

a 

.July  16, 

622 

a 

.June  16, 

632 

** 

CHRONOM'ETEB,  or  time-measurer,  is  the  name  given  principally  to  such  time-keep- 
ers as  are  used  for  determining  the  longitude  at  sea.  The  mechanism  is  essentially  the 
same  as  that  of  a common  watch ; only  the  size  is  generally  greater,  and  additional  pre- 
cautions are  taken  to  secure  regularity  under  changes  of  temperature  and  other  derang- 
ing influences.  See  Horology. 


CHRON'OSCOPE,  an  instrument  contrived  by  sir  Charles  Wheatstone  to  measure  the 
duration  of  certain  short-lived  luminous  phenomena,  such  as  the  electric  spark,  of  which 
the  eye  itself  can  be  no  judge,  owing  to  the  persistence  of  impressions  of  light  on  the 
eye  after  the  cause  of  sensation  has  ceased.  The  phenomenon  is  observed  by  reflection 
in  a mirror,  in  such  rapid  motion  that  the  image  of  the  luminous  object  would  appear 
to  describe  a circle,  supposing  the  luminosity  to  endure  long  enough.  Should  the 
phenomenon  be  instantaneous,  the  image  will  appear  as  a mere  point;  should  it  last  for 
an  appreciable  time,  the  image  will  form  an  arc,  greater  or  less,  of  the  circle.  The 
electric  spark  is  found  by  this  test  to  have  no  duration. 

CHRTT'DIM,  a t.  of  Bohemia,  beautifully  situated  on  a small  river,  about  62  m.  s.e.  of 
Prague.  It  is  walled,  has  a noble  collegiate  church,  a high  school  and  Capuchin 
convent,  manufactures  of  cloth,  and  very  important  horse-markets.  Pop.  ’69,  11,218. 

CHRYSALIS,  or  Chrys'alid,  a name  originally  Greek,  and  strictly  belonging  to 
those  pupmoi  butterflies  which  are  adorned  with  golden  spots,  but  extended  to  the  pupae 
of  lepidopterous  insects  generally,  and  even  of  other  orders  of  insects.  The  chrysalids 
of  lepidopterous  insects  are  inclosed  in  a somewhat  horny  membranous  case;  sometimes 
very  angular,  sometimes  nearly  round;  generally  pointed  at  the  abdominal  end,  some- 
times at  both  ends;  and  before  the  caterpillar  undergoes  its  transformation  into  this 
state,  it  often  spins  for  itself  a silken  cocoon,  with  which  earth  and  other  foreign  sub- 
stances are  sometimes  mixed,  so  as  to  increase  its  size,  and  within  which  the  chrysalid 
is  concealed.  Chrysalids  are  often  suspended  by  cords,  and  generally  remain  nearly  at 
rest;  some  have  the  power  of  burying  themselves  in  the  earth;  others  are  bound 
by  a single  silken  thread  which  passes  round  their  middle  some  twirl  themselves 
round  when  touched,  or  when  the  stalk  or  leaf  to  which  they  are  suspended  is  touched; 
and  in  general,  they  give  signs  of  life,  when  disturbed,  by  violent  contortions  of  the 
abdominal  part.  See  Insects;  Pupa;  Lepidoptera;  Butterfly,  Hawk-moth,  Moth, 
and  Silkworm. 


CHRYSAN'THEMUM  (Gr.  gold-flower),  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  compo^ 
siUB,  sub-order  corymbifercB;  having  a hemispherical  or  nearly  flat  involucre,  with  imbri- 
cated scales,  which  are  membranous  at  the  margin,  a naked  receptacle,  the  florets  of 
the  disk  tubular  and  hermaphrodite,  those  of  the  ray  strap-shaped  and  female,  the  fruit 
destitute  of  pappus.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  annuals,  perennials,  or  shrubby;  and 
all  have  leafy  stems.  They  are  natives  chiefly  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  old  world. 
G.  leucanthemum,  the  Ox-eye,  or  Ox-eye  Daisy,  is  abundant  in  fields,  meadows,  and  grassy 
places  of  woods,  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  It  has  large  flowers,  with  white  ray  and 
yellow  disk.  It  is  often  a troublesome  weed  among  hay  and  in  pastures ; being  peren- 
nial, and  having  a creeping  brittle  root-stock,  it  is  not  easily  extirpated.  It  is  common 
in  Britain,  which  has  only  one  other  native  species,  C.  segetum,  Corn  Marigold,  a fre- 
quent weed  in  cornfields — although  rare  in  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburgh — an  annual, 
with  large  deep  yellow  flowers.  It  is  dealt  with  like  annual  weeds  in  general,  by  pull- 
ing it  up  when  young. — (7.  carinatum,  an  annual  species  with  white  ray  and  dark-red 
disk,  the  scales  of  the  involucre  keeled,  a native  of  Barbary,  is  frequently  cultivated  in 
green-houses  or — where  the  climate  permits — in  flower-gardens.  The  favorite  species 
of  the  gardener  is,  however,  G.  Indicum,  the  Chinese  or  Indian  C.,  a native  of  China, 
Cochin-China,  and  Japan;  which  has  long  been  cultivated  in  its  native  countries  as  an 
ornamental  plant,  and  of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  Its  colors  are  also  very 
various — red,  lilac,  rose-color,  white,  yellow,  orange,  or  two  colors  combined.  It  flowers 
in  autumn  and  winter.  It  is  easy  of  cultivation,  succeeds  best  in  a light  rich  soil,  is 
easily  propagated  by  cuttings,  suckers,  or  parting  the  roots,  but  requires  the  green- 
house in  Britain.  It  was  introduced  in  1789.  It  is  reckoned  among  florists’  flowers. 

CHRYSELEPHANTINE  (Gr.,  from  chrysos,  gold,  and  elephas  ivory),  the  art  of  making 
images  of  gold  and  ivory,  was  extensively  practiced  amongst  the  Greeks.  Winckelmann 
has  calculated  that  about  100  statues  of  this  kind  are  mentioned  by  the  ancients.  The 
colossal  works  executed  by  Phidias  at  Athens,  in  the  time  of  Pericles,  are  the  most 
famous  of  this  class,  the  greatest  being  the  Pallas  of  the  Parthenon.  It  was  26  cubits 
high,  and  represented  the  goddess  in  armor,  covered  with  a long  robe.  The  famous 
Olympian  Jupiter  of  Phidias,  executed  in  the  same  materials,  was  also  a world-wide 


Chryslppus. 

Cbrysostom. 


844 


wonder.  The  combination  of  gold  and  ivory  was  chiefly  used  in  temple  statues;  and 
though  the  execution  of  the  more  famous  works  of  this  class  belongs  to  an  advanced 
period  of  art,  the  use  of  various  materials  in  the  same  statue  was  very  ancient,  and 
probably  borrowed  from  the  custom  of  adorning  the  wooden  images  of  the  earliest  time 
with  the  precious  metals.  Sometimes,  too,  the  head,  the  arms  and  hands,  and  the  feet 
were  of  marble,  whilst  the  rest  was  of  wood,  covered  with  thin  plates  of  gold.  These 
were  called  aerolites  {akrolithoi).  See  Statuary. 

CHEYSIP'PUS,  an  eminent  Stoic  philosopher,  was  b.  about  280  b.c.,  at  Soli  in  Cilicia. 
He  came  to  Athens  when  still  a youth,  and  eagerly  addicted  himself  to  philosophical 
pursuits.  His  principal  master  was  Cleanthes,  although  he  is  said  to  have  also  studied 
under  the  academic  teachers,  Arcesilaus  and  Lacydes,  and  learned  from  them  what 
were  the  objections  urged  by  skeptics  against  the  doctrines  of  the  Stoics.  He  had  the 
reputation  of  being  the  keenest  disputant  of  his  age,  and  was  happily  described  as 
“the  knife  for  the  academic  knots.”  In  fact,  his  logic  was  held  to  be  so  convincing, 
that  people  were  wont  to  say:  “ If  the  gods  make  use  of  dialectic,  it  can  only  be  that  of 
Chrysippus.”  It  is  also  related  of  him,  that  he  told  Cleanthes  he  merely  wanted  to  know 
the  principles  of  his  system,  as  he  intended  to  find  arguments  for  them  himself;  and  this 
story  appears  to  indicate  his  true  position  in  philosophy.  He  was  not  the  creator  of  a 
new  system,  but  the  expounder  of  an  old.  C.’s  industry  was  very  great.  He  seldom 
wrote  less  than  500  lines  a day,  and  is  said  to  have  composed  more  than  700  works. 
Many  of  these,  however,  were  compilations,  and  were  not  characterized  by.  great  beauty 
of  style.  Only  a variety  of  fragments  remain,  which  have  been  edited  by  Petersen 
(PhilosophuB  ChrysippecB  Fundamenta,  Altona  and  Hamburg,  1827). 

CHRYS'IS,  a Linnsean  genus  of  hymenopterous  insects,  now  constituting  a family 
chrysidoBy  allied  to  the  ichneumonidee,  and  forming  a connecting-link  between  them  and 
bees,  wasps,  etc.  The  French  call  them  Ouepes  dorees  (gilded  wasps),  and  they  some- 
times receive  the  English  names  of  golden-tailed  and  ruby-tailed  flies.  They  delight 
in  sunshine,  and  may  be  seen  poised  in  the  air — the  motion  of  their  wings  being  so  rapid 
as  to  render  the  body  alone  of  the  insect  visible. 

CHRYSOBALANA'CEJS,  or  Chrysobalane^e,  according  to  some  botanists,  a distinct 
natural  order  of  plants;  according  to  others,  a sub-order  of  rosaceae  (q. v.).  They  are 
distinguished  from  the  other  plants  usually  included  in  the  order  rosaceae  by  their  irreg- 
ular petals,  and  by  having  the  stamens  also  irregular,  either  in  size  or  position;  the 
ovary  stalked,  its  stalk  adhering  on  one  side  to  the  calyx,  the  style  proceeding  from  its 
base.  The  fruit  is  a drupe  of  one  or  two  cells.  The  species  are  trees  or  shrubs,  natives 
generally  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions.  About  50  species  are  known.  The  fruit 
of  many  is  eatable,  as  the  cocoa  plums  (q.v.)of  the  West  Indies  {chrysobalanus),  the  fruit 
of  parinarium  excelsum  in  Sierra  Leone,  and  that  of  'inoquilea  grandijiora  in  Brazil.  The 
kernels  of  some  resemble  sweet  almonds,  as  those  of  parinarium  campestre  and^.  mon- 
tanum.  A useful  oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds  of  prinsepia  utilis,  a spiny  plant,  com- 
mon in  some  parts  of  the  Himala5'a  mountains,  and  which  is  also  planted  for  hedges  in 
the  Khasia  hills,  at  an  elevation  of  5,725  ft,  above  the  sea;  whilst  in  Sikkim  it  is  only 
found  where  the  elevation  is  above  8,000  feet.  This  plant  would  in  all  probability  suc- 
ceed well  in  Britain,  and  an  attempt  should  certainly  be  made  to  introduce  it. 

CHRYSOBERYL,  a gem  almost  as  hard  as  sapphire,  and  the  finer  specimens  of  which 
are  very  beautiful,  particularly  those  which  exhibit  an  opalescent  play  of  light.  Lapi 
daries  sometimes  call  it  oriental  or  opalescent  chrysolite.  It  is  of  a green  color,  inclining 
to  yellow,  semi-transparent,  or  almost  transparent,  and  has  double  refraction.  It  occurs 
crystallized  in  six-sided  prisms;  often  in  macles,  or  twin  crystals.  It  is  found  in  granite, 
in  sandstone,  and  in  alluvial  soil;  in  Ceylon,  Pegu,  Siberia,  Brazil,  and  Connecticut.  It 
is  composed  of  alumina,  glucina,  and  a little  protoxide  of  iron;  the  alumina  being  about 
80  per  cent  of  the  whole. 

CHRYS'OeOLLA,  or  Copper-Green  (Gr.  gold-glue),  an  ore  of  copper,  found  in  Corn 
wall  and  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  but  particularly  in  Wisconsin  and  Missouri,  where* 
it  is  so  abundant  as  to  be  worked  for  copper.  As  a pigment,  it  was  much  used  by  the 
ancients. 

CHRYS'OLITE  (Gr.  golden-stone),  a mineral  composed  of  silica,  magnesia,  and  protox- 
ide of  iron;  of  a fine  green  color,  with  vitreous  luster;  transparent,  and  having  double 
refraction;  in  hardness,  about  equal  to  quartz;  and  with  conchoidal  fracture.  It  often 
crystallizes  in  four-sided  or  six-sided  prisms,  variously  modified.  Very  fine  specimens 
are  brought  from  Egypt  and  from  some  parts  of  the  east,  also  from  Brazil.  C.  is  used 
by  jewelers  as  an  ornamental  stone,  but  is  not  highly  valued.  Olivine,  which  occurs 
generally  massive,  in  grains  and  roundish  pieces,  and  is  frequent  in  volcanic  countries, 
and  found  in  the  igneous  rocks  of  some  parts  of  Scotland — as  on  Arthur’s  seat — is 
regarded  as  a coarse  variety  of  chrysolite. — The  chrysoberyl  (q.v.)is  sometimes  called  C. 
by  jewelers. 

CHRYSOLO'RAS,  Manuel,  a learned  Greek  of  Constantinople,  was  b.  in  the  middle 
of  the  14th  century.  He  is  regarded  as  the  first  who  transplanted  Greek  literature  into 
Italy.  About  the  year  1391,  the  Byzantine  emperor,  John  Palseologus,  sent  C.  to  Eng- 
land and  Italy  to  entreat  assistance  against  the  Turks.  This  mission  made  C.  known 


845 


Cliiysippas. 

Chrysostom* 


Italy,  and,  in  1397,  he  left  his  native  land  and  went  to  Florence,  where,  as  teacher  of 
Greek  literature,  he  was  highly  esteemed  and  admired.  Leonardo  Bruno,  Poggius, 
Philelphus,  Guarinus  of  Verona,  and  other  eminent  scholars,  were  pupils  of  his.  He 
was  afterwards  employed  in  public  services — especially  in  mediating  a union  of  the 
Greek  with  the  Roman  church — by  pope  Gregory  XII.  In  1413,  C.  went  with  John  XXII. 
to  the  council  of  Constance,  where  he  died  1415.  Besides  theological  works,  his 
Brotemata,  or  “Accidence  of  the  Greek  Language”  (Venice,  1484),  has  been  preserved. 
Manuel  C.  must  be  distinguished  from  his  nephew,  John  Chrysoloras,  who  also  went 
■to  Italy  and  gave  lessons  in  Greek. 

CHRYSOMELA  and  Chrysomelin^.  See  Godlen  Beetle. 

CHRYSOPHYLLUM.  See  Sapotace^,  Monesia  Bark,  and  Star  Apple. 

CHRYS'OPRASE  is  merely  a variety  of  chalcedony,  but  is  valued  far  above  common 
•chalcedony  as  an  ornamental  stone;  so  that  a stone  of  this  kind,  fit  for  mounting  in  a 
ring,  is  worth  from  £10  to  £20.  It  is  of  a fine  apple-green  color  in  choice  specimens,  but 
inferior  ones  exhibit  other  shades  of  green,  and  it  is  sometimes  spotted  with  yellowish- 
brown.  It  is  often  set  in  a circlet  of  diamonds  or  pearls.  Unfortunately,  it.  is  apt  to 
lose  its  color  through  time,  particularly  if  kept  in  a warm  place;  but  dampness  is 
favorable  to  its  preservation,  and  it  is  therefore  sometimes  kept  in  damp  cotton.  It  is 
found  in  lower  Silesia — where  'the  search  for  it  was  particularly  encouraged  by  Fred- 
■crick  the  great — and  in  Vermont.  The  inferior  specimens  are  made  into  brooches, 
necklaces,  etc. ; and  those  still  coarser,  into  snuff-boxes,  seals,  cups,  etc. — The  C.  of 
the  ancients  was  a stone  of  yellowish-green  color,  but  it  is  not  certain  what  it  was. 

CHRYS'OPS.  See  Cleg. 

CHRYS'OSTOM,  John  (Gr.  Chrysosiomos,  golden-mouth;  so  named  from  the  splendor 
of  his  eloquence),  was  b.  at  Antioch  in  347  a.  d.  His  mother  Anthusa  was  a pious 
woman,  wholly  devoted  to  her  son,  who  grew  up  under  her  loving  instructions  into  an 
earnest,  gentle,  and  serious  youth,  passing  through,  as  Neander  significantly  observes, 
none  of  those  wild,  dark  struggles  with  sinful  passions  which  left  an  ineffaceable  impress 
on  the  soul  of  Augustine,  and  gave  a somber  coloring  to  his  whole  theology.  He 
studied  oratory  under  Libanius,  a heathen  rhetorician;  soon  excelled  his  teacher;  and, 
after  deyoting  some  time  to  the  study  of  philosophy,  retired  to  a solitary  place  in  Syria, 
and  there  read  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  ascetic  severity  of  his  life  and  studies  brought 
on  an  illness  which  forced  him  to  return  to  Antioch,  where  he  was  ordained  deacon  by 
"bishop  Meletius  in  381,  and  presbyter  by  bishop  Flavianus  in  386.  The  eloquence,  ear- 
nestness, and  practical  tone  of  his  preaching  excited  the  attention  of  Jews,  heathens,  and 
heretics,  and  secured  for  him  the  reputation  of  the  chief  orator  of  the  eastern  church. 
In  397,  the  eunuch  Eutropius,  minister  of  the  emperor  Arcadius,  who  had  been  struck 
by  the  bold  and  brilliant  preaching  of  C.,  elevated  him  to  the  episcopate  of  Constanti- 
nople. C.  immediately  began  to  restrict  the  episcopal  expenditure  in  which  his  prede- 
cessors had  indulged,  and  bestowed  so  large  a portion  of  his  revenues  on  hospitals  and 
other  charities,  that  he  gained  the  surname  of  “John  the  Almoner.”  He  also  endeav- 
ored to  reform  the  lives  of  the  clergy,  and  sent  missionaries  into  Scythia,  Persia,  Pales- 
tine, and  other  lands.  His  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties,  especially  in  reproof  of 
vices,  excited  the  enmity  of  the  patriarch  Theophilus  and  of  the  empress  Eudoxia,  who 
succeeded  in  deposing  and  banishing  him  from  the  capital.  He  was  soon  recalled,  to  be 
banished  again  shortly  afterwards.  He  now  went  to  Nicsea,  in  Bithynia;  but  was  from 
thence  removed  to  the  little  town  of  Cucusus,  in  the  desert  parts  of  the  Taurus  moun- 
tains. Even  here  his  zeal  was  not  abated.  He  labored  for  the  conversion  of  the  Persians 
and  Goths  in  the  neighborhood,  and  wrote  the  seventeen  letters  (or  rather  moral  essays) 
to  Olympias,  to  whom  he  also  addressed  a treatise  on  the  proposition — “None  can  hurt 
the  man  who  will  not  hurt  himself.”  The  emperor,  enraged  by  the  general  sympathy 
expressed  towards  C.  by  all  true  Christians,  gave  orders  that  he  should  be  more  remotely 
banished  to  a desolate  tract  on  the  Euxine,  at  the  very  verge  of  the  eastern  Roman 
empire.  Accordingly,  the  old  man  was  made  to  travel  on  foot,  and  with  his  bare  head 
exposed  to  a burning  sun.  This  cruelty  proved  fatal.  C.  died  on  the  way  at  Comanum, 
in  Pontus,  Sept.  14,  407  a.d.,  blessing  (Jod  with  his  dying  lips.  The  news  of  his  death 
excited  much  sorrow  among  all  pious  Christians,  for  C.  was  a man  who  drew  the  hearts 
of  his  fellows  after  him;  a lovable,  manly  Christian,  haling  lies,  worldliness,  hypocrisy, 
and  all  manner  of  untruth  fulness,  with  that  honest  w^armth  of  temper  which  all  vigorous 
people  relish.  A sect  sprang  up  after  his  death,  or  martyrdom  as  they  conceived  it, 
called  Johannists,  wJio  refused  to  acknowledge  his  successors;  nor  did  they  return  to  the 
general  communion  till  438,  when  the  archbishop  Proclus  prevailed  on  the  emperor 
Theodosius  II.  to  bring  back  the  body  of  the  saint  to  Constantinople,  where  it  was  sol- 
ernnly  interred,  the  emperor  himself  publicly  imploring  the  pardon  of  heaven  for  the 
crime  of  his  parents,  Arcadius  and  Eudoxia.  The  Greek  church  celebrates  the  festival 
of  C.  on  the  13th  of  Nov.;  the  Roman,  on  the  27th  of  January.  In  \\\s Homilies  (Thomas 
Aquinas  said  he  would  not  give  in  exchange  those  on  St.  Matthew  for  the  whole  city 
of  Paris)  C.  displays  superior  powers  of  exegesis.  In  general,  he  rejects  the  allegorical 
system  of  interpretation,  and  adheres  to  the  grammatical,  basing  his  doctrines  and  sen- 
timents on  a rational  apprehension  of  the  letter  of  Scripture.  He  is,  however,  far  from 
being  a bibliolater.  He  recognized  the  presence  of  a human  element  in  the  Bible  as 


Chrysotype. 

Cliuquisaca. 


846 


well  as  a divine;  and  instead  of  attempting,  by  forced  and  artificial  hypotheses,  to 
reconcile  what  he  thought  irreconcilable  in  Scripture  statements,  he  frankly  admitted 
the  existence  of  contradictions,  and  shaped  his  theory  of  inspiration  accordingly.  But 
his  greatest  and  noblest  excellence  lay  in  that  power,  springing  from  the  fervor  and 
holiness  of  his  heart,  by  which  the  consciences  of  the  proud,  the  worldly,  and  the  prof- 
ligate were  awakened,  and  all  were  made  to  feel  the  reality  of  the  gospel  message.  The 
surname  C.  was  first  applied  some  time  after  his  death,  and,  as  it  is  supposed,  by  the 
sixth  oecumenical  council  in  680.  C.’s  works  are  very  numerous,  and  consist  of,  1st, 
Homilies,  on  parts  of  Scripture  and  points  of  doctrine;  2d,  CommentaHes,  on  the  whole 
Bible  (part  of  which  has  perished);  3d.  Epistles,  addressed  to  various  people;  4th,  Trea- 
tises, on  dilferent  subjects  (such  as  Providence,  the  Priesthood,  etc.);  and  5th,  Liturgies. 
Of  these  the  most  valuable,  as  well  as  the  most  studied,  are  the  Homilies,  which  are 
held  to  be  superior  to  everything  of  the  kind  in  ancient  Christian  literature. 

The  most  correct  Greek  edition  of  C.’s  works  is  that  by  Henry  Savil  (8  vols.,  Eton, 
1613);  and  the  most  complete  Greek  and  Latin  edition  is  that  by  Montfaucon  (13  vols.. 
Par.  1718-38;  republished  in  1834-40).  The  best  authority  in  regard  to  C.  is  Nean- 
der,  who,  besides  treating  of  his  life  and  labors  in  his  Kirchengeschichte,  published  a life 
of  this  eminent  father. 

CHRYS  OTYPE  (Gr.  chrysos,  gold;  typos,  impression),  a photographic  process  invented 
by  sir  John  Herschel,  and  depending  for  its  success  on  the  reduction  of  a persalt  of  iron 
to  the  state  of  protosalt  by  the  action  of  light,  and  the  subsequent  precipitation  of 
metallic  gold  upon  this  protosalt  of  iron.  The  process  is  conducted  as  follows:  Good 
paper  is  immersed  in  a solution  of  ammonio-citrate  of  iron  of  such  a strength  as  to 
dry  into  a good  yellow  color,  without  any  tinge  of  brown  in  it.  It  is  then  exposed  to 
light  under  a negative  until  a faint  impression  is  obtained.  A neutral  solution  of 
chloride  of  gold  is  then  brushed  over  the  paper,  when  the  picture  immediately  appears, 
and  is  rapidly  developed  to  a purple  tint.  It  should  then  be  freely  washed  in  several 
changes  of  water,  fixed  with  a weak  solution  of  iodide  of  potassium,  again  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried.  The  action  of  the  iodide  of  potassium  is  to  convert  any  unaltered 
chloride  of  gold  into  a soluble  double  iodide  of  gold  and  potassium,  thus  rendering  the 
picture  permanent. 

CHRZANOW'SKI,  Adalbert,  1788-1861;  a native  of  Poland,  who  participated  in 
Napoleon’s  Russian  campaign,  in  the  engagements  at  Leipsic,  Paris,  and  Waterloo. 
After  Napoleon’s  final  defeat  he  served  in  the  Russo-Polish  army,  and  was  under  Die- 
bitsch  in  Turkey  in  1829.  In  the  Polish  revolution  of  1830  he  served  with  distinction, 
rose  to  the  rank  of  gen.  of  division,  and  was  made  governor  of  Warsaw.  He  fell  under 
suspicion  of  friendliness  to  the  Russians,  and  was  from  time  to  time  under  a sort  of 
ostracism.  In  1849,  he  was  chosen  by  Charles  Albert  commander-in-chief  of  the  Sar- 
dinian forces  in  the  short-lived  revolution  of  that  period.  Ramorino  and  C.  were 
charged  with  treachery,  and  the  former  was  put  to  death.  Some  years  later  C.  emi- 
grated to  the  United  States,  and  died  in  Louisiana. 

CHUB,  Leuciscus  cephalus,  a fish  of  the  family  cyprinidoe,  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
roach,  dace,  bleak,  minnow,  etc.  See  Leuciscus.  The  color  is  bluish-black  on  the 
upper  parts,  passing  into  silvery  white  on  the  belly;  the  cheeks  and  gill-covers  rich 
golden  yellow.  The  C.  rarely  attains  a weight  exceeding  5 lbs.  It  is  plentiful  in  many 
of  the  rivers  of  England,  and  occurs  in  some  of  those  of  the  s.w.  of  Scotland.  In  the 
rivers  of  Cumberland  it  bears  the  name  of  shelly,  supposed  to  have  reference  to  the  size 
of  its  scales;  but  the  schelly  of  Ullswater  lake  is  the  gwyniad,  and  the  C.  is  there  called 
\\iQ  cheviu.  It  is  found  in  many  rivers  of  the  continent  of  Europe ; being  i\\e  jentling 
or  hratfisch  of  the  Danube,  and  the  jese  of  the  Oder.  It  spawns  in  April  apd  May.  It 
is  not  in  great  esteem  for  the  table. 

The  C.  rises  well  at  a fly,  and  takes  freely  a variety  of  baits.  The  same  baits  and 
the  same  means  of  fishing  may  be  employed  as  for  the  barbel  and  bream.  The  C.  is 
very  fond,  moreover,  of  slugs,  grasshoppers,  cockchafers,  and  humble-bees.  The  latter 
two  are  to  be  used  either  naturally,  by  means  ofdibbing  or  dapping,  or,  being  imitated, 
may  be  used  artificially,  and  cast  as  a fly.  The  best  flies  for  the  C.  are  large  red,  black, 
and  brown  palmers,  with  the  hackles  laid  on  thickly.  The  best  places  to  fly -fish  for  C. 
are  close  under  overhanging  boughs  at  the  sides  of  streams,  or  against  piles,  or  other 
places  where  they  can  get  some  shelter,  for  the  C.  is  somewhat  shy  and  easily  alarmed. 
He  is  a bold  riser,  and  when  he  comes  at  a fly  seldom  fails  to  hook  himself.  Of  all  the 
baits  for  bottom-fishing,  he  prefers  greaves,  cheese,  and  worms ; and  the  fatter  the  bait 
the  better  he  likes  it.  He  will  occasionally  run  at  a minnow,  and  is  often  taken  on  a 
spinning  bait.  The  C.  spawns  in  May  and  comes  into  condition  again  by  the  end  of 
June  or  early  in  July;  bites  best,  and  is  in  the  best  condition  for  bottom-fishing,  in 
Oct.  and  Nov.  When  first  hooked,  he  makes  a great  dash,  but  he  very  soon  gives  in. 
Some  years  ago,  the  scales  of  the  C.  were  in  much  at  repuest,  in  common  with  those  of 
the  bleak,  for  artificial  pearl-makers. 

CHUBB,  Thomas,  an  English  rationalist,  who  wrote  on  religious  questions  during  the 
first  half  of  the  last  century,  was  b.  at  East  Harnham,  in  Wiltshire,  in  1679.  He  received 
but  a meager  education  in  youth,  and,  after  an  apprenticeship  to  a leather  glove  and 
breeches  maker  in  Salisbury,  he  became  a tallow-chandler,  in  which  business  he  con- 


847 


Chrysotyp©. 

Cliuquisaoa. 


tinned  to  the  end  of  his  life.  His  first  work,  published  in  1715,  was  entitled  Supremacy 
of  Ood  the  Father  Vindicated.  Besides  this,  he  wrote  a multitude  of  treatises  on  other 
religious  subjects.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned:  A Discourse  on  Reason,  as  a suf- 
ficient Guide  in  Tnatters  of  Religion;  On  Sincerity;  On  Future  Judgment  and  Eternal  Pun- 
ishment; Inquiry  about  Inspiration  of  the  Neio  Testament;  and  Doctrine  of  Vicarious 
Suffering  and  Intercession  Refuted.  C.  died  in  1746. 

CHUCK-WILL’S-'WIDO'W,  Antrostomus  Carolinensis,  a bird  of  the  goatsucker  family 
icaprimulgidce),  a native  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  has  received  its 
singular  name  from  its  note,  which  resembles  these  words  or  syllables  articulated  with 
great  distinctness,  and  is  repeated  like  that  of  the  cuckoo,  or  of  its  own  congener,  the 
whip-poor-will  (q.v.). 

CHUCUI'TO,  or  Chuquito,  a t.  of  Bolivia,  in  the  department  of  Puno,  and  100  m. 
€.n.e.  of  Arequipa,  on  the  w.  shore  of  lake  Titicaca,  at  the  mouth  of  a stream  flowing 
from  the  Andes.  It  was  formerly  of  much  greater  size  and  importance  than  it  is  at 
present,  having  had,  it  is  said,  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c.,  the  incredible  number  of 
800,000  inhabitants.  Its  present- pop.  is  only  about  5,000.  In  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  of  which  it  is  the  capital,  there  are  mines  of  silver  and  gold,  and  interesting  anti- 
quarian remains. 

CHU-LAN.  See  ChlokaKthack®. 

CHUMBTJL',  a river  rising  in  the  Vindhyan  mountains,  which  form  the  southern  limit 
of  the  basin  of  the  Ganges.  Its  source,  at  a height  of  2,019  ft.  above  the  sea,  is  in  lat.  22* 
26'  n.,  and  long.  75°  45'  east.  During  a generally  n.e.  course  of  570  m.,  it  receives  many 
tributaries  on  both  sides,  till,  in  lat.  26°  30'  n.,  and  long.  79°  19'  e.,  it  enters  the  Jumna 
from  the  right,  with  such  a volume  of  water,  that,  when  itself  flooded,  it  has  been  known 
to  raise  the  united  stream  7 or  8 ft.  in  twelve  hours.  The  C.  is  remarkable,  here  and 
there,  for  the  wildness  of  its  current  and  the  picturesque  character  of  its  banks. 

CHTJNAM',  the  Indian  name  for  a very  fine  kind  of  quicklime  made  from  calcined 
shells  or  from  very  pure  limestone,  and  used  for  chewing  with  betel  (q.v.),  and  for 
plaster.  Both  recent  and  fossil  shells  are  used  for  making  chunam.  Extensive  beds  of 
fossil  shells  employed  for  this  purpose  occur  in  the  s.  of  India,  particularly  in  low 
marshy  situations  near  the  sea-coast.  The  shells  used  are  in  the  first  place  very  care- 
fully cleaned;  they  are  then  calcined  in  kilns,  with  wood  charcoal.  When  chunam  is  to 
be  used  for  plaster,  it  is  mixed  with  fine  river-sand,  and  thoroughly  beaten  up  with 
water.  A Yi\X\q  jaggery  (coarse  sugar)  is  also  added.  When  very  beautiful  work  is  desired, 
three  coats  of  chunam  are  given  to  the  wall,  and  the  result  is  a plaster  almost  equal  to 
marble  in  its  polish  and  beauty.  The  third  coat  is  applied  in  the  form  of  a very  fine 
paste,  consisting  of  four  parts  of  lime  and  one  of  fine  white  sand,  beaten  up  with  whites 
of  eggs,  sour-milk,  and  ghee  (butter).  After  it  has  been  rubbed  on  with  a wooden  rub- 
ber, the  surface  is  washed  with  a cream  of  pure  lime,  and  is  rubbed  with  a polished 
piece  of  quartz  or  rock  crystal.  During  this  process,  the  wall  is  sprinkled  with  powder 
of  pot-stone,  and  the  rubbing  is  continued  until  the  wall  is  quite  dry,  every  trace  of 
moisture  being  finally  removed  by  a cloth.  Chunam  is  an  important  article  of  trade  in 
India. 

CHUNAB6UEH',  or  Chunar,  a fortified  t.  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  16  m, 
to  the  s.w.  of  Benares,  and  in  the  division  of  that  name.  It  is  in  the  district  of  Mirza- 
pore,  and  lieutenant-governorship  of  the  north-west  provinces.  The  population  of  the 
town  in  1871  amounted  to  10,154.  The  fortress,  which  occupies  the  summit  of  a sand- 
stone rock,  contains  the  commandant's  house,  the  hospital,  the  prison,  and  an  ancient 
palace,  with  a deeply  excavated  well  of  indifferent  water.  The  river  in  front  is  navi- 
gable at  all  seasons  for  vessels  of  from  50  to  60  tons. 

CHUND,  or  Chand,  a Hindu  writer  of  the  12th  c.,  court  poet  to  the  last  of  the 
Hindu  sovereigns  of  Delhi.  He  wrote  in  verse  an  immense  encyclopsedic  work,  includ- 
ing a history,  and  especially  an  account  of  the  exploits  of  the  author  and  of  his  master. 

CHUPRA,  a t,  in  India,  in  the  province  of  Behar,  Bengal,  on  the  n.  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  35  m.  n.w.  of  Patna.  It  extends  nearly  a mile  along  the  river,  and  has  several 
pagodas,  mosques,  and  churches.  There  is  trade  in  cotton,  sugar,  and  saltpeter.  Pop. 
about  30,000. 

CHUQUISA'CA,  or  Su'cre,  the  capital  of  Bolivia  or  Upper  Peru,  in  lat.  19°  20' s. , 
and  long.  65°  30'  west.  It  is  situated  on  a table-land  about  9,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and 
has  a pleasant  climate.  The  town  is  well  built,  has  a cathedral  of  great  magnificence, 
n university,  a college  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  a mining-school.  C.  was  founded  in 
1538  by  Pedro  Auzures,  an  officer  of  Pizarro’s,  on  the  site  of  an  old  Peruvian  town 
called  “Choque  Chaka,”  or  “bridge  of  gold,”  “the  treasures  of  the  Incas  having  passed 
through  it  on  their  way  to  Cuzco.”  At  one  time,  C.  bore  the  name  of  La-Plata,  on 
account  of  the  rich  silver  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.  23,979.  C.  gives  name  to  a 
territory  containing  223,668  whites,  besides  many  native  Indians.  It  has  five  silver 
mines  in  operation ; and  in  it  are  magnificent  ruins  of  unknown  origin.  The  second 
name  is  derived  from  the  general  who,  in  Dec.,  1824,  fought  and  won  the  last  great 
battle  for  colonial  independence  at  Ayacucho. 


Chnr. 

Cburclu 


848 


CHTTE  (Ft.  Coire,  anct.  Chiria  RhcBtorum),  a t.  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  the  Grisons, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  in  a fertile  plain  about  2000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  sur- 
rounded by  high  mountains,  60  m,  s.e.  of  Zurich,  on  the  Plessur,  about  a mile  from  its 
junction  with  the  Rhine.  It  is  of  importance  as  standing  on  the  great  road  to  Italy  by 
the  Splilgen  and  Bernardin  passes,  and  thus  possessing  a considerable  transit  trade.  C. 
stands  on  uneven  ground,  has  narrow  streets,  and  is  divided  into  a high  and  low  town.. 
The  bishop’s  palace,  and  the  quarter  around  it,  inhabited  by  the  Roman  Catholics, 
occupy  the  summit  of  an  eminence,  and  are  separated  from  the  rest  by  walls  and  battle- 
ments, closed  by  double  gates.  In  the  same  quarter  stand  the  old  cathedral,  a round, 
arched,  or  Byzantine  edifice,  founded  in  the  8th  c. ; the  church  of  St.  Lucius  or  the 
Dom,  a curious  example  of  early  pointed  Gothic,  including  fragments  of  earlier  build- 
ings. It  contains  singular  old  carving,  paintings,  and  statues,  and  also,  it  is  said,  the 
bones  of  St.  Lucius,  who  was  a British  king.  Behind  the  episcopal  palace  is  a kind  of 
ravine  lined  with  vineyards.  In  the  lower  town  there  are  also  some  very  ancient  build- 
ings. Romanscli  is  still  spoken  in  the  vicinity;  a newspaper  in  this  dialect  is  published 
in  the  town;  and  a considerable  collection  of  Romansch  literature  is  to  be  found  in  the 
library  of  the  cantonal  schools.  There  are  several  new*  roads  leading  in  different  direc- 
tions through  the  Grisons;  and  a railway  connects  the  town  with  Zurich  and  other 
places.  There  are  manufactures  of  zinc  wares  and  cutting  tools.  Pop.  70,  7,652,  of 
whom  about  2000  are  Catholics. 

CHTTRCH,  a word  which  signifies  either  a place  of  Christian  worship  or  a collective 
body  of  Christian  people.  It  is,  in  all  probability,  derived  from  the  Greek  adjective 
kyriakos  (from  kyrios,  lord),  the  place  of  worship  having  been  called  the  Lord’s  house,  and 
the  worshipers  the  Lord's  people.  The  Scottish  kirk,  the  German  kirche,  etc.,  are  merely 
different  forms  of  it. 

Under  the  terms  apse  and  basilica  (q.v.),  we  have  already  explained  that  the  ear- 
liest ecclesiastical  structures  of  the  Christians  were  copied  or  adapted  not  from  the 
heathen  or  Jewish  temple,  as  might  have  been  anticipated,  but  from  that  peculiar  com- 
bination of  a hall  of  justice  and  a market-place  to  which  the  name  basilica  was  given 
by  the  ancients.  The  reason  of  this  selection  is  probably  to  be  found,  not  so  much  in 
the  spirit  of  opposition  which  no  doubt  existed  between  Christians  and  heathens,  as  in 
the  essentially  different  conceptions  which  they  formed  of  the  character  and  objects  of 
public  worship.  The  rites  of  heathendom  were  performed  exclusively  by  the  priest,  the 
people  remaining  without  the  temple;  and  the  temple  itself,  which  was  lighted  only 
from  the  door,  or  by  the  few  lamps  which  burned  around  the  image  of  the  god,  waa 
regarded  not  as  a receptacle  for  worshipers,  but  as  the  abode  of  the  deity.  The  dark, 
mysterious  character  which  thus  belonged  to  it,  rendered  it  equally  unsuitable  for  the 
performance  of  liturgical  services  in  which  the  people  were  to  participate,  and  for  the 
delivery  of  those  public  addresses  which  from  the  beginning  were  employed  as  a means 
of  Christian  teaching  and  exhortation.  To  such  purposes,  the  prcetor’s  court-room, 
with  its  surroundings,  were  readily  adapted,  by  the  few  simple  alterations  which  we 
have  described  in  the  articles  referred  to.  But  the  basilica,  as  thus  altered,  was  a mere 
utilitarian  structure.  It  served  the  purposes  of  Christian  worship,  but  there  was  noth- 
ing in  its  form  which  responded  to  the  feelings  of  Christian  worshipers,  or  tended  to 
awaken  Christian  sentiments.  Now,  the  cross  (q.v.)  had  been  used  % Christians  from 
a very  early  period  to  indicate  their  allegiance  to  the  author  of  their  salvation  and  the 
object  of  their  faith;  and  gradually  it  had  become  the  distinctive  emblem  of  Christian- 
ity. Nothing,  then,  could  be  more  natural  than  that  when  it  became  desirable  to  give 
distinctively  Christian  characteristics  to  what  hitherto  had  been  a heathen  structure, 
this  should  be  effected  by  such  a modification  of  its  form  as  should  convert  it  into  a 
representation  of  this  sacred  emblem.  Nor  did  this  alteration  lead  to  any  very  extensive 
change  on  the  form  of  the  C.,  as  it  had  hitherto  existed.  The  basilica,  as  we  have 
already  explained,  not  unfrequently  had  side  entrances,  either  in  place  of,  or  in  addi- 
tion to,  that  from  the  end.  All  that  was  requisite,  then,  to  convert  the  simple  parallelo- 
gram of  which  it  consisted  into  a cross,  was,  that  at  each  side  of  the  building  these 
entrances,  in  place  of  direct  communications  with  the  exterior,  should  be  converted  into 
passages,  or  arms  running  out  at  right  angles,  and  more  or  less  prolonged,  according  as 
the  object  was  to  attain  the  form  of  a Greek  or  of  a Latin  cross  (see  Cross).  If  the  C. 
was  to  be  in  the  form  of  a Greek  cross,  the  arms  were  made  of  the  same  length  with  the 
other  two  portions  into  which  they  divided  the  building;  whereas  if  the  cross  was  to  be 
a Latin  one,  the  portion  of  the  building  which  ran  towards  the  w.  was  made  consider- 
ably longer  than  either  of  the  others.  In  either  case,  the  arms  running  at  right  angles 
to  the  C.,  and  directly  opposite  to  each  other,  cut  it  across,  and  thus  obtained  the  name 
of  transepts. 

■ The  external  form  of  the  C.  being  thus  indicated,  we  now  proceed  to  explain  its 
internal  arrangements,  and  to  enumerate  the  various  adjuncts  which  in  cathedrals  and 
others  of  the  larger  churches  frequently  sprang  up  around  it. 

Over  the  point  at  which  the  arms  hr  transepts  intersect  the  body  of  the  cross,  a cen- 
tral tower  or  spire  is  very  frequently  erected.  From  this  central  tower,  or,  if  the  tower 
or  towers  are  situated  elsewhere,  from  this  central  point,  the  portion  of  the  building 
which  runs  westward,  to  where  the  Galilee  or  entrance  chapel,  or,  in  other  instances,  the 


849 


Chur. 

Churoh* 


,i»^reat  entrance-door  is  situated,  is  called  the  nave  (from  navis,  a ship),  whilst  the  portion 
which  runs  eastward  to  where  the  altar,  or  high-altar,  if  there  be  several,  is  placed,  is 
called  the  choir.  In  the  larger  and  more  complete  churches,  the  nave,  and  frequently 
also  the  choir,  are  divided  longitudinally  by  two  rows  of  pillars  into  three  portions,  the 
portion  at  each  side  being  generally  somewhat  narrower  and  less  lofty  than  that  in  the 
center.  These  side  portions  are  called  the  aisles  of  the  nave,  or  of  the  choir,  as  the  case 
may  be.  In  some  churches,  the  aisles  are  continued  along  the  transepts,  thus  running 
round  the  whole  C. ; in  others,  there  are  double  aisles  to  the  nave,  or  to  both  nave  and 
choir,  or  even  to  nave,  choir,  and  transept.  Behind,  or  to  the  e.  of  the  choir,  is  situ- 
ated the  Ladye’s  chapel,  or  chapel  of  the  Virgin,  with  sometimes  a number  of  altars;  and 
it  is  not  unusual  for  side  chapels  to  be  placed  at  different  places  along  the  aisles.  These 
usually  contain  the  tombs  of  the  founder,  and  of  other  benefactors  to,  or  dignitaries 
connected  with,  the  church.  The  extent  to  which  these  adjuncts  exist  depends  on  the 
size  and  importance  of  the  C.,  and  they  are  scarcely  ever  alike  in  two  churches,  either 
in  number,  form,  or  position.  Vestries  for  the  use  of  the  priests  and  choristers  generally 
exist  in  connection  with  the  choir.  Along  the  sides  of  the  choir  are  ranged  richly  orna- 
mented seats  or  stalls,  usually  of  carved  oak,  surmounted  with  tracery,  arches,  and  pin- 
nacles; and  amongst  these  seats,  in  the  case  of  a bishop’s  church,  the  highest  and  most 
conspicuous  is  the  so-called  cathedra,  or  seat  for  the  bishop,  from  which  the  cathedral 
takes  its  name.  The  larger  English  cathedral  and  abbey-churches  have  usually  a chap- 
ter-house attached  to  them,  which  is  of  various  forms,  most  commonly  octagonal,  and  is 
often  one  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  portions  of  the  whole  edifice.  On  the  conti- 
nent, chapter-houses  are  not  so  common,  the  chapter  (q.v.)  being  usually  held  in  the 
cathedral  itself,  or  in  one  of  the  chapels  attached  to  it.  Cloisters  (q.v.)  are  also  frequent, 
and  not  unusually  the  sides  of  those  which  are  furthest  removed  from  the  C.  or  chapter- 
house,  are  inclosed  by  other  buildings  connected  with  the  establishment,  such  as  a 
library,  and  places  of  residence  for  some  of  the  oflicials  of  the  cathedral.  It  is  here  that, 
in  Roman  Catholic  churches,  the  hall,  dormitories,  and  kitchens  for  the  monks  are  com 
monly  placed.  Beneath  the  C.  there  is  frequently  a crypt  (q.v.).  In  some  cathedral 
churches,  the  crypt  is  in  reality  a second  underground  C.  of  great  size  and  beauty.  The 
baptistery  (q.v.)  is  another  adjunct  to  the  C.,  though  frequently  forming  a building  alto- 
gether detached.  Most  of  the  parts  of  the  C.  which  we  have  mentioned  may  be  traced ; 
but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  their  position  is  always  that  which  is  there  represented. 
The  position  of  the  nave,  choir,  or  chancel,  aisles,  and  transepts  are  nearly  invariable, 
but  the  other  portions  vary,  and  are  scarcely  alike  in  two  churches. 

Churches  are  of  five  classes — metropolitan,  cathedral,  collegiate,  conventual,  and  par- 
ish churches — and  of  these  the  first  are,  generally  speaking,  the  most,  and  the  last  the 
least  elaborate.  In  ordinary  language,  any  building  set  apart  for  religious  ordinances  is 
called  a church,  though  when  of  a minor  kind  it  is  more  usually  designated  a chapel. 
After  a long  period  of  neglect  and  poverty  of  taste,  the  building  of  churches  in  a supe- 
rior style,  emulative  of  the  older  styles  of  architecture,  has  greatly  revived,  not  only  as 
regards  the  church  of  England,  but  the  church  of  Scotland  and  nearly  all  dissenting 
bodies. 

As  applied  to  a collective  body  of  Christian  people,  the  word  C.  is  the  translation  and 
equivalent  of  the  Greek  word  ecclesia  (Lat.  ecclesia,  Fr.  eglise),  used  in  the  New  Testament. 
It  is  common  among  Protestants  to  distinguish  between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  C. — 
the  invisible  C.  consisting  of  all  those  who  are  savingly  or  spiritually  united  to  Christ, 
that  is,  of  all  true  believers;  the  visible  C.  consisting  of  all  who  profess  the  religion  of 
Jesus  Christ.  Roman  Catholics  do  not  in  the  same  manner  acknowledge  the  distinction 
between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  C.,  but  regard  a connection  with  the  hierarchy,  and 
consequent  participation  of  ordinances,  as  establishing  a connection  with  the  true  C. 
and  with  Christ.  Protestants  regard  the  C.  as  subsisting  from  age  to  age,  in  virtue  of 
the  authority  of  Christ,  and  through  the  faith  of  individual  believers  and  their  confession 
of  him;  Roman  Catholics  regard  the  apostolical  succession  of  the  hierarchy,  and  the  regu- 
lar administration  of  the  sacraments,  as  essential  to  the  continued  existence  of  that 
Catholic  ov  universal  C.  which  Christ  planted  on  the  earth,  and  the  existence  of  which  he 
has  promised  to  maintain  throughout  all  ages.  Protestants,  in  general,  regard  the  C.  of 
Rome  and  the  Greek  C.  as  forming  part  of  the  visible  C.  of  Christ;  but  Roman  Catholics 
are  not  accustomed  to  make  a corresponding  admission  with  respect  to  the  Protestant 
churches.  From  the  hierarchical  principle  of  the  C.  of  Rome  and  of  the  Greek  C.,  results 
an  ernployment  of  the  term  C.  to  designate  the  hierarchy  alone,  which  is  contrary  to  the 
principles  of  the  reformation,  although  a tendency  to  it  may  be  observed  in  some  Prot- 
estant churches.  It  has  been  usual  for  Protestants  to  designate  by  the  term  C.  the 
collective  body  of  Christians  in  a particular  country,  distinguished  by  "the  name  of  that 
country ; the  greater  number  of  Protestants  (Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians)  believing 
that  such  a portion  of  the  universal  C.  may  warrantably  be  associated  under  a common 
government;  and  in  countries  where  religious  liberty  exists,  diversities  of  opinion  on 
points  of  doctrine  and  C.  government  have  given  rise  to  the  existence  of  separate  Christian 
associations,  distinguished  by  names  generally  indicative  of  some  of  the  peculiarities 
which  characterize  them;  but  these,  however'much  they  may  differ  on  many  points,  do 
not  in  general  hesitate  to  recognize  each  other  as  belonging  to  the  universal  visible  C.  of 
U.  K.  ni.— 54 


Cliurch. 


850 


Christ,  whilst  they  retain  in  common  the  same  great  first  principles  of  the  Christian  faith, 
and  particularly  the  belief  in  one  God  and  in  the  three  persons  of  the  Godhead,  the 
incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  atonement  by  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  Tho  term  C.,  however,  is  regarded  by  Independents  (q.v.)  or  Congregationalists, 
as  more  strictly  applicable  to  those  who  are  united  as  worshipers  in  a particular  place 
of  worship,  partaking  of  the  Lord’s  supper  together,  and  exercising  discipline  and  C. 
government  among  themselves. 

CHURCH,  Albert  E.,  ll.d.,  1807-78;  b.  Cohn.;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1828.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  U.  S.  military  academy  in  1838,  and 
published  Elements  of  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus;  Elements  of  Analytical  Geome- 
try; Elements  of  Analyticcd  Trigonometry  ; and  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  with  its 
application  to  ^herical  Projections,  Shades  and  Shadows,  Perspective  and  Geometric  Pro- 
jections. 

CHURCH,  Benjamin,  1639-1718;  a New  England  soldier  who  served  with  distinc- 
tion in  king  Philip’s  wars,  and  was  commander  in  the  fight  in  which  Philip  was  killed. 
He  commanded  a number  of  expeditions  against  the  Indians  of  New  Hampshire  and 
Maine.  From  his  dictation  and  memoranda  his  son  wrote  a history  of  king  Philip’s 
war. 

CHURCH,  Frederick  Edwin,  b.  Conn.,  1826;  a pupil  of  Thomas  Cole,  and 
a painter  of  eminence.  The  works  which  gave  him  prominence  are  a “View  of  East 
Rock,  near  New  Haven.”  and  “Scenes  in  the  Catskill  Mountains.”  He  visited  South 
America  in  1853  and  1857;  and  in  Ecuador  and  New  Granada  made  sketches  for  a num- 
ber of  paintings,  some  of  which  have  attained  great  celebrity,  such  as  the  “ Heart  of  the 
Andes,”  “On  the  Cordilleras,”  and  “Cotopaxi.”  Another  celebrated  work  is  the 
“ Horse-shoe  Fall,  Niagara.”  He  visited  Jamaica,  and  afterwards  Europe  and  the  Holy 
Land.  Some  of  his  other  works  are  “Damascus,”  “Jerusalem,”  “The  Parthenon,^’ 
and  “Tropical  Scenery.” 

CHURCH,  John  Hubbard,  d.d.,  177^1840;  a graduate  of  Harvard  in  1797,  and  for 
nearly  40  years  pastor  of  a Congregational  church  in  Pelham,  N.  H.  He  held  various 
offices  in  Dartmouth  college,  Andover  theological  seminary,  and  Phillips  academy,  and 
was  prominent  in  Bible,  tract,  and  missionary  societies. 

CHURCH,  sir  Richard,  1780-1873;  an  Englishman,  who  held  the  principal  com- 
mand in  the  Greek  war  of  independence.  On  the  final  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of 
Greece  he  was  made  a councilor  of  state,  and  afterwards  a member  of  the  senate ; and 
was  for  many  years  at  the  head  of  the  army  and  navy. 

CHURCH,  Sandford  E.,  ll.d.,  1815-80;  b.  N.  Y. ; bred  to  the  law,  in  which  he 
speedily  rose  to  a prominent  position.  In  1850,  he  was  elected  lieut.gov.  of  New 
York,  and  was  re-elected  in  1852;  in  1857,  he  was  elected  comptroller,  but  twice  after- 
wards defeated  for  the  same  oflSce.  In  1870,  he  was  elected  chief  justice  of  the  court  of 
appeals,  which  position  he  held  until  his  death. 

CHURCH,  States  op  the.  See  Papal  States. 

CHURCH  CALENDAR,  a table  of  the  order  and  series  of  days,  weeks,  months,  and 
holy  days  in  the  year.  The  name  is  derived  from  calendce,  or  first  days  of  the  Roman 
month.  The  earliest  now  existing  which  contains  the  Christian  festivals  is  that  of 
Silvius,  448  a.d.  A fragment  of  a Gothic  calendar  remains,  which  probably  belongs  to 
the  4th  century.  The  name  is  applied  also  to  the  fasti  or  catalogues  for  particular 
churches,  of  the  saints  most  honored  by  them,  such  as  bishops,  martyrs,  etc.  At  the 
reformation  the  German  Lutheran  church  retained  the  Roman  calendar.  In  1850,  a 
calendar  was  published  for  the  evangelical  church  of  Germany.  It  has  been  continued 
annually,  and  contains  much  interesting  information,  in  addition  to  the  table  of  feasts, 
fasts,  etc.  The  full  calendar  of  the  church  of  England  contains  9 columns,  giving  the 
golden  number,  days  of  the  month,  the  dominical  or  Sunday  letter,  the  calends,  nodes 
and  ides,  the  daily  Scripture  lessons,  and  the  holy  days  of  the  church,  together  with 
some  of  the  Roman  festivals  which  have  been  retained,  not  as  having  any  religious  value, 
but  because  the  practice  of  the  courts,  the  habits  of  tradesmen,  and  the  times  of  popular 
amusements  had  become  interwoven  with  them.  The  calendar  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church  in  the  United  States  retains  only  the  festivals  which  are  referable  to  a 
Scriptural  origin. 

CHURCH  CONGRESS,  the  name  of  free  gatherings  of  ministers  and  laymen  of  the 
established  church  of  England,  annually  convened  for  the  discussion  of  ecclesiastical  and 
religious  questions.  The  first  church  congress  was  held  in  1861  in  Canterbury, 
and  in  the  following  years  successively  in  Oxford,  Manchester,  Bristol,  York,  etc.  The 
attendance  is  usually  very  large,  and  comprises  many  bishops  and  lower  dignitaries. 
Full  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  each  session  are  published.  Such  meetings,  having 
the  advantage  of  free  interchange  of  views,  but  with  no  claim  to  ecclesiastical  authority, 
have  been  found  very  profitable  in  this  country;  and  though  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  the  sentiment  in  their  favor  has  not  been  unanimous,  they  are  winning  for  them- 
selves an  established  position  through  either  enthusiastic  advocacy  or  silent  consent. 


851 


Oburch. 


CHURCH  DIET,  the  free  gathering  of  ministers  and  lay  members  of  German 
Protestant  churches.  Such  meetings  arose  in  consequence  of  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments of  1848,  which  threatened  to  endanger  the  influence  of  the  evangelical  church 
upon  society.  Members  of  the  Lutheran,  Reformed,  the  United  Evangelical,  with  the 
high  church  “ confessionals”  participated  in  the  earlier  meetings;  but  after  1860  only  the 
evangelical  parties  were  represented.  Annual  reports  are  published. 

CHUBCH  DISCIPLINE,  DisnpUna  ecclesiastica,  includes  all  the  means  employed  by 
the  Christian  church,  besides  the  ministration  of  word  and  sacraments,  to  secure  on  the 
part  of  its  office-bearers  and  members  a faithful  adherence  to  their  profession  and  a cor- 
responding blamelessness  of  life.  It  rests  upon  the  authority  of  Christ,  and  at  the  same 
time  necessarily  arises,  in  some  fo?m  of  it,  out  of  the  very  constitution  of  the  church  as 
a society.  Among  the  early  Christians,  it  soon  assumed  forms  of  great  severity 
towards  offenders,  especially  towards  the  lapsed  (q.v.).  At  a later  period,  the  disci- 
pline of  the  church  was  chiefly  exercised  with  respect  to  persons  accused  of  heresy  and 
schism.  The  penances  of  the  church  of  Rome  have  long  formed  an  important  part  of 
its  discipline,  and  therewith  its  indulgences  (q.v.)  are  closely  connected,  as  well  as  its 
doctrine  and  rule  of  auricular  confession  (see  Confession),  In  the  Protestant  churches, 
public  confession  of  sins  by  which  public  scandal  has  been  given,  and  submission 
to  public  rebuke,  are  sometimes  required.  Practices  more  analogous  to  those  of  the 
primitive  church  were  established  in  many  churches  after  the  reformation,  but  in  gen- 
eral have  fallen  greatly,  or  entirely,  into  disuse.  The  power  of  exclusion  from  the 
Lord’s  Supper,  and  from  the  rights  and  privileges  of  church  membership,  is,  however, 
generally  retained  and  exercised,  until,  by  profession  of  repentance,  and  by  reformation 
of  life,  the  cause  of  such  exclusion  is  removed;  and  ministers  or  other  office-bearers  are, 
upon  offense  given  in  their  doctrine  or  conduct,  suspended  from  their  functions,  or 
altogether  deposed  from  their  office.  The  exercise  of  C,  D.  belongs  more  or  less  exclu- 
sively to  a hierarchy,  or  to  the  office-bearers  assembled  in  church-courts,  or  to  the  mem- 
bers  of  each  congregation,  according  as  the  church  is  Episcopalian,  Presbyterian,  or 
independent  in  its  church  government.  There  is  an  increasing  tendency  among  Chris- 
tians in  general  to  scrutinize  closely  the  claim  of  right  to  exercise  C.  D.,  and  the  limits 
within  which  it  may  be  exercised. 

CHUBCH  GOVEBNMENT.  The  Christian  church,  like  every  other  society,  must  have 
a certain  constitution  and  rules  according  to  which  its  affairs  are  administered.  It  is 
disputed,  however,  among  Christians,  how  far  this  constitution  has  been  defined,  or 
these  rules  prescribed  by  divine  authority,  and  how  far  they  have  been  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  men.  The  form  of  C.  G.  depends  primarily  on  the  idea  entertained  of  the 
constitution  of  the  church.  Congregationalists,  or  independents  (q.v.),  accordingly 
place  all  C.  G.  in  the  hands  of  the  members  of  the  congregation  and  the  office-bearers 
whom  they  have  elected.  This  theory  of  C.  G.  is  maintained  by  many  Baptists  and 
others,  who,  for  various  reasons,  assume  different  denominations. — Episcopalians  and 
Presbyterians  agree  that  many  congregations  are  to  be  united  under  a common  govern- 
ment; but  this,  according  to  Presbyterians,  is  properly  carried  on  by  ministers  and 
elders  of  these  congregations  meeting  for  this  purpose  on  a footing  of  equality;  whilst, 
according  to  Episcopalians,  it  is  more  or  less  absolutely  in  the  hands  of  bishops,  who 
are  superior  to  the  mere  pastors  of  congregations.  See  Episcopacy  and  Presbyteri- 
anism. 

CHUBCH  HISTOBY  or  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTOBY.  The  history  of  the  Christian 
religion  and  church  forms  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  general  history  of  man- 
kind, and  is  intimately  connected  not  only  with  the  political  history  of  the  world,  but 
with  the  history  of  philosophy,  of  literature,*  and  of  civilization.  The  sources  and  author- 
ities are  extremely  various,  and  their  due  appreciation  often  requires  as  much  judgment 
as  their  exploration  requires  toil.  Church  history  is  either  general — embracing  a view 
of  the  affairs  of  the  church  in  the  whole  world  from  the  beginning  to  the  present  day — 
or  particular,  relating  to  some  particular  country,  or  time,  or  portion  of  the  church.  By 
some  authors,  it  has  been  treated  chiefly  with  regard  to  the  outward  affairs  of  the  church; 
and  by  others,  with  reference  to  doctrine,  morals,  and  the  evid^ces  of  spiritual  life; 
whilst  others  still  have  devoted  their  attention  chiefly  to  the  forfffs  of  worship,  the  con- 
stitution of  the  church,  and  other  things  generally  comprehended  under  the  name  of 
ecclesiastical  antiquities.  All  these,  of  course,  have  important  relations  to  each  other. 
The  earliest  writers  of  church  history  were  in  general  mere  chroniclers,  following  the 
order  of  time;  in  the  great  work  of  the  Magdeburg  centuriators,  a method  was  adopted, 
of  which  there  had  been  previous  examples,  and  which  afterwards  became  frequent,  of 
treating  each  century  separately,  the  centuries  being  subdivided  according  to  convenience 
of  subjects;  but  arrangements  less  mechanical  and  arbitrary  have  been  adopted  by  the 
most  eminent  modern  authors.  With  much  diversity  on  minor  points,  there  is  a gen- 
eral agreement  in  dividing  the  whole  history  of  the  church  into  three  great  periods:  the 
first,  from  our  Saviour  to  the  time  of  Constantine;  the  secqnd,  from  that  time  to  the 
reformation;  and  the  third,  from  the  reformation  to  the  present  day. 

The  earliest  facts  of  C.  H.  are  to  be  learned  only  from  the  New  Testament,  after 
which,  however,  the  epistles  and  other  writings  of  the  apostolic  and  other  primitive 
fathers  afford  sources  of  information,  unfortunately  very  scanty;  Hegesippus,  who 


Churchill. 

Church. 


852 


wrote  about  tbe  middle  of  the  2d  c.,  has  transmitted  to  us  some  very  imperfect  memo- 
rials of  these  early  times;  but  the  first  proper  ecclesiastical  history  is  that  of  Eusebius 
of  Caesarea  (324).  This  work  was  continued  to  the  5th  c.  by  Socrates  Scholasticus, 
Hermias  Sozomenus,  and  Theodoret.  Similar  compilations  were  executed  by 
Lactantius,  Epiphauius,  Hieronymus,  Theodoret  of  Cyrus,  Philostorgius,  and  Zosimus. 
In  the  6th  c. , the  chief  ecclesiasticai  historians  are — Theodorus  Lector,  Evagrius,  and 
Nicephorus  Callistius;  in  the  8th,  the  venerable  Bede  and  Paul  Warnefried;  in  the  9th, 
Theophanes  Confessor,  Claudius  of  Turin,  Haymo  of  Halberstadt,  Scotus  Erigena,  and 
Hinkmar  of  Rheims;  in  the  12th  and  13th,  Photius,  Simeon  Metaphrastes,  Theophy- 
lact,  Matthew  Paris,  Albert  of  Strasburg,  and  Ptolemy  of  Lucca;  in  the  15th,  Lauren- 
tius  Valla  is  the  most  conspicuous  name.  Protestant  writers  were  the  first  to  treat  C. 
H.  in  a critical  and  scientific  manner.  This  was  natural,  for  their  position  as  apparent 
schismatics  compelled  them  to  vindicate  historically  the  changes  which  they  had 
wrought  in  the  character  of  the  church.  Hence  their  writings  were  of  an  apologetic 
and  polemical  cast.  The  first  work  of  this  kind  was  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.v.), 
published  by  Matthias  Flacius.  Special  histories  of  the  reformation  were  composed  by 
Sleidan  and  Seckendorf.  In  the  17th  c. , Calixtus  distinguished  himself  in  this  depart- 
ment, and  after  him  Thom.  Illig,  Adam  Rechenberg,  and  Thomasius.  The  new  life 
that  awoke  in  Germany  towards  the  middle  of  the  18th  c.,  produced  a multitude  of 
church  historians,  of  whom  we  can  only  afford  to  mention  Arnold,  C.  M.  Pfaff, 
Mosheirn,  Semler,  and  J.  Matth.  SchrSckh ; while  in  still  more  recent  times,  Marheineke, 
Danz,  Neander,  Gieseler,  and  Hagenbach  have  achieved  the  highest  distinction  in  the 
same  sphere  of  labor.  But  others  besides  the  Lutheran  divines  have  rendered  valuable 
services  to  church  history.  The  reformed  church  boasts  the  eminent  names  of  Du 
Moulin,  Joh.  Dallaus,  Blondel,  Hottinger,  Spanheim,  Turretin,  Venema,  Jablonski, 
and  recently,  D’Aubigne;  while  among  Englishmen,  Usher,  Pearson,  Bingham,  Lard- 
ner,  and  recently,  Milman  and  Maurice,  have  won  a distinguished  place.  Scotland  has 
few  names,  the  chief  being  Calderwood,  Wodrow,  M'Orie,  and  recently  Cunningham. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  since  the  period  of  the  reformation,  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rians have  rarely  manifested  a dispassionate  and  philosophic  spirit.  They  have 
appeared  mainly  in  the  character  of  defenders  of  the  papacy.  The  greatest  names  in 
C.  H.  in  Catholic  France  are  Tillemont,  Bossuet,  Bayle,  Du  Pin,  Thomassin,  and 
Fleury.  Among  the  Italians  may  be  mentioned  Orsi,  Saccharelli,  Pallavicini,  Guic- 
ciardini, and  Muratori;  and  among  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Germany,  Dannenmayr, 
count  Stolberg,  Ritter,  Hortig,  Dollinger,  etc. 

For  the  benefit  of  the  English  reader,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  extensive,  profound, 
and  philosophic  work  of  Dr.  Augustus  Neander  has  been  translated  from  the  original 
German  into  English,  and  is  published  in  10  vols.  by  Bohn. 

CHURCHILL,  a co.  in  w.  central  Nevada,  intersected  in  the  n.  part  by  the  Central 
Pacific  railroad;  5,800  sq.m.;  pop.  ’80,479.  It  is  watered  by  the  Humboldt,  Carson, 
Walker,  and  other  rivers.  Among  the  minerals  are  gold,  silver,  salt,  soda,  etc.  Co. 
seat,  Stillwater. 

CHUR'CHILL,  Charles,  an  English  poet,  now  remembered  almost  as  much  for  his 
profligacy  as  his  poetry,  was  b.  at  Westminster,  where  his  father  was  a curate,  in  1731. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  school,  and  in  his  17th  year  made  a clandestine  mar- 
riage. In  1756,  he  was  ordained,  and,  two  years  afterwards,  succeeded  his  father  as 
curate  of  St.  John’s,  Westminster.  Soon  after  his  transference  here,  he  fell  into  habits 
very  ill-becoming  his  clerical  character.  In  1761,  he  published  (at  his  own  risk,  the 
booksellers  having  refused  him  five  guineas  for  it)  The  Rosciad,  a satire  on  theatrical 
managers  and  performers,  which  displayed  much  critical  acumen,  clever  sarcasm,  and 
no  little  humor,  and  enjoyed  such  an  immense  success  that  C.,  who  on  its  publication 
had  withheld  his  name,  was  soon  delighted  to  avow  himself  author.  In  the  same  year 
appeared  The  Apology,  a bitter  satire  on  some  of  his  critics,  which  added  alike  to  his 
purse  and  his  notoriety.  He  now  totally  neglected  the  duties  of  his  oflEice,  was  a 
constant  attender  at  theaters,  and  altogether  led  a most  dissolute  life.  His  parish- 
ioners were  scandalized,  and  his  dean  remonstrated,  whereupon  C.,  to  show  his  utter 
contempt  for  the  ministerial  profession,  appeared  in  a blue  coat,  gold-laced  hat  and 
waistcoat,  and  large  rutfles.  He  was  obliged,  however,  to  resign  his  preferment,  which 
pecuniary  sacrifice  was  little,  as  his  works  brought  him  considerable  sums.  He  further 
displayed  the  complete  licentiousness  of  his  nature  by  separating  from  his  wife,  and 
seducing  the  daughter  of  a tradesman  in  Westminster,  and  by  endeavoring  to  excuse 
his  vices  in  a poem  called  Night,  on  the  ground  that  avowed  profligacy  was  more  harm- 
less than  profligacy  practiced  in  concealment.  The  boon-companion  of  as  great  a 
debauchee  as  Inmself — Wilkes — he  contributed  to  the  pages  of  the  North  Briton,  among 
other  things.  The  Prophecy  of  Famine — A Scots  Pastoral,  one  of  the  best  of  his  satires. 
Among  his  other  works,  all  more  or  less  satirical,  are  the  Epistle  to  Hogarth;  The  Author; 
The  Candidate;  The  Ohost;  Gotham;  T7ie  Duellist,  etc.,  of  which  The  Author  is  the 
best.  He  died  Nov.  4,  1764,  while  on  a visit  to  Wilkes  at  Boulogne.  C.’s  thorough 
reprobacy  has  naturally  led  to  an  unjust  depreciation  of  his  poetical  abilities.  See 
Poetical  Works  by  Took  (1867),  with  Life  by  Hannay. 

CHURCHILL,  John.  See  Marlborough,  ante. 


853 


Charchlll. 

Chureh. 


CHURCHILL,  Missinnippi,  or  English  RIVER,  in  British  North  America,  rising 
in  Methy  lake,  and  running  s.e.  through  Buffalo  and  La  Crosse  lakes,  to  Hudson’s  bay; 
length  about  700  miles. 

CHTJECHING  of  WOMEN,  a religious  usage  prevailing  in  the  Christian  church  from 
an  early  period,  of  women,  on  their  recovery  after  child-bearing,  going  to  church  to 
give  thanks.  It  appears  to  have  been  boiTowed  from  the  Jewish  law  (Lev.  xii.  6).  In 
the  church  of  the  early  ages,  it  was  accompanied  with  various  rites;  and  in  the  church 
of  Rome  and  Greek  church,  it  is  imperative.  In  the  church  of  England,  also,  a service 
for  the  Q of  W.  finds  a place  in  the  liturgy.  By  the  Presbyterian  and  independent 
churches  of  Britain  it  is  rejected,  as  having  no  Scripture  warrant. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.  See  England,  Church  op,  ante. 

CHURCH  OF  GOD.  See  Winebrennerians. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  See  Scotland,  Church  op,  ante. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  FREE.  See  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  ante. 

CHURCH  RATES,  in  England,  a tax  or  assessment  laid  on  the  parishioners  and  occu- 
piers of  land  within  a parish,  by  a majority  of  their  own  body  in  vestry  assembled, 
for  the  purpose  of  upholding  and  repairing  the  fabric  of  the  church  and  the  belfry,  the 
bells,  seats,  and  ornaments,  the  churchyard  fence,  and  the  expenses  (other  than  those 
of  maintaining  the  minister)  incident  to  the  celebration  of  divine  service.  The  par- 
ishioners are  convened  for  this  purpose  by  the  church- wardens  (q.v.).  The  chancel 
(q.v.)  being  regarded  as  belonging  peculiarly  to  the  clergy,  the  expense  of  maintaining 
it  is  laid  on  the  rector  or  vicar,  though  custom  frequently  lays  this  burden  also  on  the 
parishioners,  as  in  London  and  elsewhere. 

The  C.  R.  -were  anciently  a charge  on  the  tithes  of  the  parish,  which  were  divided 
into  three  portions:  one  for  the  structure  of  the  church,  one  for  the  poor,  and  the  third 
for  the  ministers  of  the  church.  This  distribution  is  said  to  have  originated  with  pope 
Gregory,  who  enjoined  St.  Augustine  thus  to  divide  such  voluntary  offerings  as  might 
be  made  to  his  missionary  church  in  England.  A canon  of  archbishop  JElfric  in  970, 
and  an  act  of  the  Wittenagemote  in  1014,  in  Ethelred’s  time,  have  been  quoted  in  proof 
of  the  recognition  of  this  rule  by  our  Saxon  fathers.  It  seems  to  have  been  their  cus- 
tom, also,  to  devote  to  the  repair  of  each  church  a portion  of  the  fines  paid  for  offenses 
committed  within  the  district  attached  to  it;  and  every  bishop  was  bound  to  contribute 
to  the  repair  of  his  own  church  from  his  own  means.  A third  of  the  tithes  thus  origi- 
nally devoted  to  the  repairs  of  churches,  continued  to  be  applied  to  that  purpose  under 
the  Normans,  down  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  c. ; and  the  manner  in  which  this  burden 
came  to  be  shifted  to  the  parishioners,  has  been  a subject  of  much  discussion  among  legal 
antiquaries.  Lord,  then  sir  John,  Campbell,  who  published  a pamphlet  on  the  subject  in 
1837,  is  of  opinion  that  the  contributions  of  the  parishioners  were  at  first  purely  voluntary, 
and  that  the  custom  growing,  it  at  last  assumed  the  form  of  an  obligation,  and  was 
enforced  by  ecclesiastical  censures.  The  care  of  the  fabric  of  the  church,  and  the  due 
administration  of  its  offices,  are  laid  upon  the  ministers  and  the  church-wardens  con- 
jointly, and  the  latter  may  be  proceeded  against  by  citation,  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
should  they  neglect  these  duties.  But  there  is  no  legal  mode  of  compelling  the  parish- 
ioners as  a body  to  provide  the  rate ; and  this  circumstance  has  occasioned  much  diffi- 
culty in  imposing  the  tax  in  parishes  in  which  dissent  is  prevalent,  and  led  to  many 
churches  falling  into  a partially  ruinous  condition.  The  proper  criterion  for  the  amount 
of  C.  R.  is  a valuation  of  the  property  within  the  parish,  grounded  on  the  rent  that  a 
tenant  would  be  willing  to  pay  for  it.  Glebe  land,  the  possessions  of  the  crown  in  the 
actual  occupation  of  the  sovereign,  and  places  of  public  worship,  are  not  liable  for  C.R. ; 
but  there  is  no  other  exception  as  regards  immovable  property,  and  in  some  parishes, 
custom  even  extends  it  to  stock  in  trade.  It  has  been  often  decided  in  the  courts  that  a 
retrospective  church-rate — i.e.,  a rate  for  expenses  previously  incurred — cannot  be  validly 
imposed.  Much  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  recovering  the  rates  imposed  by  the 
parish  on  individuals  refusing  to  pay.  Previous  to  53  Geo.  III.  c.  127,  the  only  mode 
was  by  suit  in  the  ecclesiastical  court.  That  statute,  however,  in  all  cases  under  £10, 
empowered  the  justices  of  the  peace  of  the  county  where  the  church  was  situated,  on 
complaint  of  the  church-wardens,  to  inquire  into  the  merits  of  the  case,  and  order  pay- 
ment. Against  the  decision  of  the  justices,  an  appeal  lies  to  the  quarter-sessions.  In 
1868.  an  end  was  put  to  all  parochial  contentions  by  enacting  that  no  suit  or  proceeding 
should  thereafter  be  allowed  in  any  court  to  enforce  or  compel  payment  of  a church-rate, 
except  where  a local  act  authorized  this  rate.  But  except  so  far  as  related  to  the  com- 
pulsory payment  of  these  rates,  the  church- wardens  might,  as  before,  make,  assess, 
receive,  and  deal  with  such  rates.  In  each  district  parish,  the  inhabitants  may  treat  their 
■own  church  as  if  it  were  their  parish  church,  and  make  and  receive  rates  for  the  repair 
of  the  same.  A body  of  trustees  may  now  be  appointed  in  each  parish  to  receive  con- 
tributions for  ecclesiastical  purposes  in  the  parish.  The  result  of  this  act  of  31  and  32 
V.  c.  109.  is  thus  not  to  abolish  C.  R.,  but  rather  to  convert  them  into  voluntary  pay- 
ments; allowing,  as  it  does,  all  faithful  adherents  of  the  church  to  contribute,  as  before, 
to  the  repairs  of  their  own  churches.  In  Scotland  the  burden  of  upholding  the  parish 
churches  is  by  custom  imposed  on  the  heritors  of  the  parish ; and  where  the  parish  is 


Clmrch. 

Cialdini. 


854 


partly  within  burgh  and  partly  in  the  country,  the  expense  must  be  borne  by  heritors  and 
proprietors  of  houses,  in  proportion  to  their  real  rent.  See  Scotland.  Church  of;  see 
also  Dissenters,  and  Parish,  [By  an  act  passed  in  1868,  the  compulsory  collection  of 
C,  R.  was  abolished,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  administration,  by  a body  of  church 
trustees,  of  such  contributions  as  may  be  voluntarily  agreed  to,  and  of  donations  and 
bequests  made  for  ecclesiastical  purposes  in  the  parish.] 

CHUBCH  BOAD.  See  under  the  article  Highway. 

CHUBCH-WABDENS,  in  England,  are  ecclesiastical  officers,  elected  sometimes  by  the 
parishioners  and  minister  jointly,  sometimes  by  the  minister  alone,  and  sometimes  by 
the  parishioners  alone,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  edifice  of  the  church,  superin- 
tending the  celebration  of  public  worship,  and  to  form  and  execute  other  parochial 
regulations.  They  are  generally  two  in  number.  See  Church  Rates,  Parish,  Vestry. 

CHUBCH- YABD.  See  Burial,  Cemetery. 

CHUBH,  a machine  for  agitating  milk  or  cream  for  the  production  of  butter.  The 
principle  of  the  operation  is  considered  in  the  article  on  Butter.  Of  the  great  variety 
of  forms  that  have  been  given  to  the  machine,  it  is  very  difficult  to  determine  which 
deserves  the  preference.  It  is  obvious  that  the  more  thorough  and  uniform  the  agita- 
tion, the  more  completely  will  the  butter  be  separated  from  the  milk.  The  consistency 
and  color  of  the  butter  are  also  elements  in  judging  of  the  relative  merits  of  churns. 
The  temperature  of  the  air  and  the  milk  affect  the  butter  in  these  respects.  During 
summer,  that  of  the  milk  should  not  exceed  62°,  and  in  very  hot  weather  may  be  under 
60°.  During  cold  weather,  the  milk  should  be  about  2°  higher  when  put  into  the  churn. 
The  speed  at  which  the  operation  is  performed  also  influences  the  result.  Trials  insti- 
tuted to  test  the  relative  merits  of  churns  have  failed  to  settle  which  is  the  best  form 
for  actual  use  in  the  dairy;  for  the  same  machine,  under  different  conditions  does  not 
always  yield  the  same  result.  The  oldest  form  is  the  upright  or  plunge  churn.  There 
is  a general  prejudice  in  favor  of  this  form  of  C.,  on  the  ground  that  the  butter  is  more 
completely  separated  and  of  better  quality.  Its  great  defect  is  that  the  operation,  being 
generally  performed  by  hand,  is  fatiguing.  Recent  improvements  have  chiefly  aimed  at 
ease  in  working,  and  a saving  of  time.  The  original  barrel  C.,  with  a rotatory  motion, 
like  a grindstone,  which  motion  was  reversed  every  few  rounds,  has  fallen  from  its  once 
high  repute  into  comparative  neglect.  An  improvement  on  the  barrel  C.  was  the  making 
of  the  barrel  stationary,  the  milk  being  agitated  by  internal  apparatus  fixed  on  a hori- 
zontal spindle  which  is  turned  by  a winch  handle.  Barrel  churns,  sometimes  of  monster 
size,  are  generally  used  in  large  dairies  in  Holland.  For  small  or  moderate-sized  dairies, 
perhaps  the  most  suitable  is  the  box  C.,  consisting  of  a cubical  or  oblong  box,  of  birch 
or  plane  tree,  having  the  agitators  fixed  on  a horizontal  spindle.  Churns  on  a centrifu- 
gal action  have  also  been  successfully  used,  particularly  in  Sweden.  More  recently, 
churns  of  a barrel  form,  with  an  oscillating  motion  like  a child’s  cradle,  have  been  intro- 
duced, but  without  any  decisively  superior  results. 

To  all  forms  of  churns,  power  other  than  manual  can  be  and  is  applied.  In  some 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  America,  the  dog  is  employed  in  churning  by 
means  of  a contrivance  like  a squirrel’s  box.  Horse-power  is  in  very  general  use  in 
large  dairies  in  Great  Britain.  In  very  exceptional  cases,  steam-power  is  used. 

CHUB'BUS.  See  Hemp. 

CHURUBUS'CO,  a village  6 m.  s.  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  on  the  river  Churubusco, 
connected  with  the  capital  by  an  elevated  paved  causeway.  In  the  village  is  the  large  con- 
vent of  San  Pablo.  In  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  Santa  Anna  made 
a stand  here,  Aug.  20, 1847,  but  the  Americans  under  gen.  Scott  were  victorious  after  a 
sharp  action.  On  the  same  day  occurred  the  battle  of  Contreras,  and  three  weeks  after 
that  of  Chapultepec,  and  the  capture  of  the  Mexican  capital. 

CHUSAN',  an  island  on  the  e.  coast  of  China,  40  m.  n.e.  from  Ningpo,  in  30°  40'  n. 
lat.,  and  121°  48'  e.  long.,  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  about  50  m.  in  circumference.  It  is 
mountainous;  but  has  many  fertile  vallej^s,  with  a plentiful  supply  of  water,  and  is 
very  carefully  cultivated  by  the  hardy  and  independent  people  by  whom  it  is  inhabited. 
Mr.  Fortune  was  struck  with. the  richness  of  its  flora.  Azaleas  clothe  the  mountains; 
clematises,  roses,  and  honeysuckles  grow  in  great  luxuriance.  The  camphor  and  tallow 
tree,  and  many  varieties  of  bamboo,  are  found  in  the  valleys.  Tea  is  cultivated  to  some 
extent  on  the  hill-sides.  For  three  fourths  of  the  year,  the  climate  is  temperate.  June. 
July,  and  Aug.  are  the  hot  months.  In  Aug.,  the  thermometer  averages  83°,  but  in 
Jan.  and  Feb.  it  is  often  as  low  as  20°.  Ting-hai,  the  capital,  a walled  town  about  2 m. 
in  circumference,  containing  a fine  specimen  of  Buddhist  temple-architecture,  surren- 
dered to  the  British  forces,  July  5,  1840,  and  was  retaken  by  them  (having  been  evacu 
ated  the  previous  Feb.)  Oct.  1,  1841.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  the  island  was  delivered 
up  to  the  Chinese.  In  1860,  it  was  again  occupied  by  British  troops,  but  restored  by 
the  convention  of  Pekin.  Pop.  about  200,000. 

CHUSAN  ISLANDS,  a group  of  islands  scattered  round  the  one  described  above.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  sacred  island  of  Pu-tu,  lying  e.  from  Chusan.  It  is 
covered  with  Buddhist  tempies,  pagodas,  and  monasteries,  which  latter  are  inhabited  by 


855 


Church. 

CialdinL 


ft  great  number  of  Bonzes,  as  the  Chinese  priests  are  called.  The  island  is  devoted 
exclusively  to  religious  purposes,  and  no  layman  is  allowed  to  reside  upon  it. 

CHUTIA,  or  Chota,  NXgPUR,  a division  of  British  India  undp  the  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Bengal,  comprising  the  districts  of  Hazaribagh,  Lohardaga,  Manbhum,  and 
einhbhum,  and  the  seven  tributary  states  which  constitute  the  south-west  frontier  agency, 
between  21°  and  25°  n.,  and  82°  and  87°  e. ; 43,901  sq.m. ; pop.  ’72,  3,825,571,  residing  in 
25,766  villages  and  725,287  houses.  The  people  consist  of  2,567,292  Hindus,  169,006 
Mohammedans,  15,798  Christians,  and  1,703,475  of  no  religion  specified.  The  last- 
named  class  consists  mostly  of  remnants  of  tribes  driven  from  the  plains  by  the  Hindus. 
There  are  in  the  division  only  six  towns  of  more  than  5,000  inhabitants.  The  chief 
productions  are  rice,  corn,  pulse,  potatoes,  and  oil-seeds.  A little  tea  is  grown  in  two 
of  the  districts.  The  climate  is  dry  and  healthy. 

CHUTIA,  or  Chota,  NXqPUR  TRIBUTARY  STATES  (of  India),  seven  in  number, 
viz. : Sirguja,  Udaipur,  Jashpur,  Gangpur,  Bonai,  Koria,  and  Chang  Bhakar,  now  under 
the  political  superintendence  of  the  commissioner  of  Chutia  Nagpur,  and  forming  the 
south-west  frontier  agency.  The  states  are  mountainous,  thinly  cultivated,  and  inhabited 
for  the  most  part  by  wild  aboriginal  tribes;  area,  15,419  sq.m. ; pop.  ’72,  405,980.  There 
are  no  towns,  and  only  three  villages  of  more  that  1,000  inhabitants. 

CHUT'NEE,  or  Chut'ny,  an  East  Indian  condiment,  very  largely  used  in  India,  and 
to  a considerable  and  increasing  extent  in  Great  Britain.  Indian  C.  is  a compound  of 
mangoes,  chillies  or  capsicum  (q.v.),  and  lime-juice,  with  some  portion  of  other  native 
fruits,  such  as  tamarinds,  etc.,  the  flavor  being  heightened  by  garlic.  It  is  sometimes 
manufactured  for  sale  in  England,  but  not  in  any  quantity.  Families  occasionally 
make  it  for  their  own  use,  and  employ  the  following  ingredients:  Chillies,  1 to  1|  lbs.; 
apples,  1 lb. ; red  tamarinds,  2 lbs. ; sugar-candy,  1 lb. ; fresh  ginger-root,  l4  lbs. ; garlic, 
4 to  f lb.;  sultana  raisins,  1^  lbs.;  fine  salt,  1 lb.;  distilled  vinegar,  5 bottles.  The 
chillies  are  to  be  soaked  for  an  hour  in  the  vinegar,  and  the  whole  ground  with  a stone 
and  muller  to  a paste. 

CHWALYNSK',  a t.  of  Russia  on  the  Volga;  pop.,  14,262.  It  is  a river  port,  and 
has  important  manufactures. 

CHYLE.  The  food  undergoes  various  changes  in  the  alimentary  canal,  which  will 
be  fully  noticed  in  the  article  on  Digestion.  One  of  these  changes  is  its  conversion  in 
the  stomach  into  a pulpy  mass  termed  chyme.  The  chyme,  which  passes  onward  into 
the  small  intestine,  is  acted  upon  by  the  bile,  pancreatic  fluid,  and  intestinal  juice,  and 
through  their  influences  is  separated  into  the  chyle^  which  is  absorbed  or  sucked  up  by 
the  lacteals  (q.v.)  and  into  matters  unfit  for  nutrition,  w’hich  ultimately  find  their  way  out 
of  the  system  by  the  intestinal  canal.  The  mode  in  which  this  nutritious  C.  is  taken  up 
by  vessels  distributed  over  the  small  intestines,  and  the  changes  which  it  undergoes 
before  it  is  converted  into  true  blood,  are  described  in  the  articles  Lacteals,  Thoracic 
Duct,  and  Nutrition.  We  shall  here  merely  notice  its  leading  physical  and  chemical 
properties.  When  obtained  from  the  thoracic  duct  of  an  animal  that  has  been  killed 
while  the  process  of  digestion  was  going  on  (especially  if  it  had  taken  fatty  food),  the  C. 
is  a white,  milky-looking,  or  yellowish  fluid,  with  a faintly  alkaline  reaction.  Like  the 
blood,  it  coagulates  in  about  ten  minutes  after  its  abstraction  from  the  body  of  the 
animal;  and  in  about  three  hours  a small  but  distinct  gelatinous  clot  is  separated  from 
the  serous  fluid  of  the  chyle. 

On  examining  C.  under  the  microscope,  we  find  that  it  contains  enormous  numbers 
of  minute  molecules  (probably  consisting  of  fat),  together  with  nucleated  cells,  which 
are  termed  the  chyle-corpuscles,  and  are  apparently  identical  wdth  the  white  or  colorless 
blood-cells.  The  chemical  constituents  of  C.  are  much*the  same  as  those  of  blood; 
fibrin,  albumen,  fat,  extractive  matters,  and  salts  being  the  most  important. 

CHYLIF'EROUS  SYSTEM.  See  Lacteals  and  Thoracic  Duct. 

CHYME.  See  Chyle  and  Digestion. 

CHYTR^'US,  David,  1530-1600;  an  eminent  Lutheran  theologian.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen  and  Wittenberg,  and  was  a pupil  of  Melancthon.  His  learning  and  talents 
gave  him  high  position,  and  he  was  employed  by  Maximilian  II.  to  arrange  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs  in  Austria.  He  was  principal  author  of  the  statutes  of  Helmstadt,  and  one  of 
the  authors  of  the  Formula  of  Concord.  He  left  a number  of  important  theological 
works. 

GIALDINI,  Enrico,  was  b.  at  Castel  Vetro,  Modena,  Aug.  10,  1813.  Designed  for 
the  medical  profession,  he  studied  at  Parma.  When  the  abortive  insurrection  of  1831 
broke  out  in  the  duchies,  C.  joined  the  volunteers  of  Reggio;  and  on  the  capitulation  of 
Ancona,  embarked  for  Prance,  where  he  resumed  his  medical  studies.  The  struggles 
against  absoludsm  in  the  Iberian  peninsula  opened  anew  the  career  of  arms  to  the  Italian 
exiles.  He  joined  the  legion  raised  by  Dom  Pedro  in  France  against  the  Miguelists, 
when  his  great  personal  courage  soon  secured  his  promotion;  and  the  unanimous  vote 
of  his  comrades  pronounced  him  the  worthiest  man  to  receive  the  order  of  the  tower 
and  sword  decreed  by  the  government  to  his  company.  After  the  capitulation  of  Evora, 
C.  joined  (Oct.  22,  1835)  the  legion  of  Oporto,  formed  under  Borso  di  Carminati  for  sei- 


Cibao. 

Cicero* 


856 


vice  in  Spain.  In  this  force,  C.  gained  further  honors.  In  1843,  he  followed  Narvaez 
in  his  march  against  Madrid;  was  made  by  him  col.  of  the  regiment  of  St.  Ferdinand; 
and  afterwards  employed  in  organizing  the  civil  guard  on  the  model  of  the  French  geTi- 
darmerie.  He  was  in  this  force  when  Charles  Albert  headed  the  Italian  rising  in  1848, 
when  he  hurried  to  Italy,  and  in  the  struggle  which  ensued  he  received  a dangeroui 
wound,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  On  his  release,  he  was  employed  by 
the  Sardinian  government  to  reduce  to  regular  discipline  the  unruly  volunteers  from 
the  duchies.  He  succeeded  at  last,  and  fought  well  at  the  head*  of  his  new  regiment  in 
the  brief  campaign  of  1849.  During  the  ten  years  that  elapsed  from  the  defeat  of 
Novara  to  the  renewal  of  the  war  in  1859,  C.  was  actively  employed.  In  the  Crimea,  he 
commanded  the  third  division  of  the  Sardinian  contingent;  and  on  his  return  was 
appointed  inspector-gen.  of  bersaglieri  and  aide-de-camp  to  the  king— a rare  distinction 
for  a man  of  plebeian  origin.  He  was  intrusted  by  Cavour  with  the  formation  of  the 
famous  Cacciatori  delle  Alpi,  placed  under  the  command  of  Garibaldi  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war,  and  co-operated  actively  with  them  at  the  head  of  the  fourth  division.  The 
victory  at  Palestro  was  his  chief  exploit,  the  further  progress  of  the  Italians  being 
stopped  by  the  peace  of  Villafranca.  In  1860,  he  defeated  the  papal  army  under  gen. 
Lamorici^re,  at  Castelfidardo.  Diplomacy  delayed  the  fall  of  Gaeta  till  Feb.  13,  1861, 
when  it  yielded  to  C.  after  a vigorous  bombardment,  as  did  the  citadel  of  Messina  shortly 
afterwards.  Turin  erected  a statue  to  C.  {mncitore  semgre),  and  Reggio  elected  him 
deputy  in  April.  For  a few  months  he  was  governor  of  Naples.  He  had  to  act  against 
Garibaldi  in  the  second  Sicilian  expedition.  When  the  army  of  Italy  was  reorganized 
in  1863,  C.  w'as  appointed  to  one  of  the  chief  commands.  Senator  in  March,  1864,  he 
signalized  himself  by  his  brilliant  speech  in  favor  of  the  transfer  of  the  capital  (Dec., 
1864).  In  the  war  of  1866,  the  advice  of  La  Marmora  was  followed,  and  the  defeat  of 
Custozza  was  the  result.  C.  was  appointed  chief  of  the  staff  on  the  resignation  of  La 
Marmora.  In  1867,  C.  was  intrusted  by  the  king  with  the  formation  of  a new  ministry, 
but  failed;  he  was  also  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  troops  in  central  Italy.  In 
1870,  he  was  engagedin  the  annexation  of  the  papal  states;  and  in  1876,  he  "was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Paris. 

CIBA'O,  a range  of  mountains  in  the  middle  of  the  island  of  Hayti,  about  90  m. 
long,  and  having  summits  more  than  7,000  ft.  high.  Gold  has  been  found  in  these 
mountains. 

CIBBER,  Caius  Gabriel,  1630-1700;  a sculptor,  b.  in  Holstein,  who  was  engaged 
to  execute  the  hassi  riliem  on  the  pedestal  of  the  London  monument,  to  commemorate 
the  great  fire  of  1666.  He  made  also  the  two  figures  representing  “ Madness  ” which 
once  adorned  the  gate  of  the  old  Bethlehem  hospital.  He  built  the  Danish  church  in 
London  at  his  own  expense. 

JIBBER,  Colley,  was  b.  on  the  6th  Nov.,  1671,  in  London.  He  was  sent  to  the  free 
school  at  Grantham,  in  Lincolnshire,  in  1682.  Five  years  thereafter,  he  returned  to 
London,  and  in  1688  was  a volunteer  in  the  forces  raised  by  the  earl  of  Devonshire  in 
support  of  the  prince  of  Orange.  He  afterwards  conceived  a passion  for  the  stage,  and 
after  performing  gratuitously  for  several  months,  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  an  engage- 
ment at  10s.  per  week,  which  was  raised  to  15s. ; and  on  the  commendation  of  Congreve, 
who  had  witnessed  his  performance  of  lord  Touchwood,  five  additional  shillings  per 
week  were  added.  Incited  by  this  magnificent  success,  he,  at  the  age  of  22,  married 
Miss  Shore,  to  the  great  rage  of  her  father,  who  revenged  himself  by  spending  the 
greater  portion  of  his  fortune  in  the  erection  of  a retreat  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames. 
After  marriage,  C.,  discovering  that  20s.  per  week  was  a somewhat  insufficient  income 
for  an  elegant  gentleman  and  an  elegant  gentleman’s  wife,  was  induced  to  add  thereto 
by  the  writing  of  comedies,  some  of  which  were  remarkably  successful.  In  1711,  he 
became  one  of  the  patentees  in  the  management  of  Drury  Lane,  and  remained  in  con- 
nection with  that  theater  till  1730;  when,  on  being  appointed  poet-laureate,  he  sold  his 
interest  in  the  business.  He  was,  however,  sometimes  tempted  back  to  the  stage  by  an 
offer  of  50  guineas  a night.  C.  wrote  and  adapted  many  plays,  but  as  an  author  he  is 
best  known  by  his  Apdogy.  He  died  suddenly  on  the  12th  Dec.,  1757. 

CIBBER.  Susannah  Maria,  1716-66;  wife  of  Theophilus,  and  daughter-in-law  of 
the  dramatist  Colley  Cibber.  Dr.  Arne  was  her  instructor  in  music,  in  which  first  she 
appeared  publicly ; but  after  her  marriage  she  preferred  tragedy.  She  is  the  actress  of 
whom  Garrick  exclaimed,  on  hearing  of  her  death,  “Then  tragedy  has  expired  with 
her!” 

CIB'OL.  See  Onion. 

CIBO'RIUM,  a chalice,  pyx,  or  cup,  usually  of  gold  or  silver,  with  a cover  sur- 
mounted by  a cross.  It  is  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service  to  contain  the  host,  or 
consecrated  wafer,  in  the  service  of  the  mass.  Ciborium  is  also  the  name  of  a canopy 
on  the  altar,  supported  by  four  columns,  to  which  the  cup,  in  the  shape  of  a dove,  was 
attached  by  chains.  This  especial  cup  contained  the  wafer  for  the  communion  of  the 
sick. 

CIBRA’RIO,  Luigi,  an  Italian  historian  and  politician,  was  b.  at  Turin,  28d  Feb., 
1802.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  that  city,  where  he  took  his  degree  in  1824  as 


857 


Cibao. 

Cicero. 


doctor  of  laws.  Devoted  to  historical  investigations,  he  secured  a reputation  in  this 
important  department,  at  a very  early  period.  In  1825  appeared  his  Notizie  sulla  Storia 
dei  Princvpi  di  Savoia;  in  1826,  his  Notizie  di  Paolo  Simone  de  Belli;  and  in  1827,  his  Belle 
Storie  di  Cliieri  Lihri  IV.  King  Charles  Albert — with  whom  he  was  always  a great 
favorite — frequently  employed  him  in  diplomatic  service,  and  in  1848,  when  Italy  rose 
against  the  Austrians,  appointed  C.  extraordinary  royal  commissioner  at  Venice.  Dur- 
ing .the  same  year,  he  was  created  a senator  of  the  kingdom.  When  Charles  Albert- 
after  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  war — went  to  live  in  voluntary  exile  at  Oporto,  C.  was 
sent  by  the  Sardinian  senate  to  induce  him  to  return.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  unsuc- 
cessful mission,  entitled  Ricordi  dduna  Missione  in  Portogallo  al  Re  Carlo  Alberto  (1850). 
During  his  public  career,  however,  C.  did  not  neglect  his  early  and  favorite  pursuits. 
In  1839,  he  published  his  Bella  Economia  Politica  del  Medio  Evo;  in  1840,  his  Stoi'ia  della 
Monarchia  di  Savoia;  in  1844,  his  Storia  & Bescrizione  della  Badia  d' Altacomha;  and  in 
1847,  his  Storia  di  Torino.  But  the  new  life  and  energy  which  Sardinia  began  to  mani- 
fest under  Victor  Emmanuel  had  its  claims  on  his  public  usefulness.  In  1850,  he  w’^as 
appointed  superintendent-general  of  customs,  and  while  occupying  this  office  intro- 
duced several  important  reforms.  Subsequently  he  was  intrusted  with  full  powers  to 
negotiate  a treaty  of  commerce  with  France,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself  notably 
by  his  advocacy  of  the  principles  of  free  trade.  In  1852,  he  was  made  minister  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  and,  in  1855,  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  When  Cavour  took  this  depart- 
ment into  his  own  hands,  C.  became  first  secretary  of  the  king.  In  1857,  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  telegraphic  congress  of  Turin.  In  1860,  C.  again  made  a most 
successful  appearance  as  an  author,  in  his  Operette  Varie  (Torino),  and  in  his  Jacopo  Val- 
perga  di  Masino,  Cancelliere  di  Savoy  a.  He  died  at  Salo,  in  the  province  of  Brescia,  1st 
Oct.,  1870. 

CICA'DA,  a genus  of  insects  of  the  order  liemiptera,  sub-order  homoptera,  remarkable 
for  the  sounds  which  they  emit,  the  loudness  of  which  is  very  extraordinary,  when  con 
sidered  with  reference  to  the  size  of  the  creatures  producing  them.  The  largest  Euro- 
pean species  are  only  about  an  inch  long.  The  elytrse,  or  wing-covers,  of  the  cicadae 
are  almost  always  transparent  and  veined.  They  dwell  on  shrubs  and  trees,  of  which 
they  suck  the  juices.  The  male  insects  alone  possess  the  organs  of  sound  perfectly 
developed.  These  are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  mouth  or  throat,  but  may  be 
described  as  a musical  apparatus  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen.  This  apparatus 
is  very  complicated,  consisting  of  a set  of  membranes  and  fibers  connected  with  power- 
ful muscles.  The  sound  can  be  produced  even  after  the  insect  has  been  long  dead,  by 
pulling  the  fibers,  and  letting  them  escape.  Cicadas  are  most  common  in  tropical  and 
warm  temperate  regions,  and  are  scarcely  known  in  Britain,  although  one  or  two  species 
have  been  found  in  the  s.  of  England.  The  ancients  regarded  the  sounds  of  these  insects 
as  types  of  music  and  eloquence.  In  some  countries  they  bear  names  which  signif^^ 
that  sleep  is  banished  by  their  din.  The  sounds  produced  by  some  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can species,,  which  are  much  larger  than  the  European,  are  loud  enough  to  be  heard  at 
the  distance  of  a mile,  and  have  been  likened  to  the  sound  of  a razor-grinder  at  work. 
The  Greek  name  of  the  C.  is  tettix,  often  erroneously  translated  grasshopper.  These 
insects  have  indeed  no  resemblance  to  grasshoppers,  and  no  power  of  leaping.  C.  is 
the  Latin  name.  The  modern  Italian  is  cicale,  the  French  cigale.  Byron  speaks  of  the 
“ shrill  cicalas.” 

CICATRIZA'TION  (Lat.  cicatrix,  a scar),  the  process  of  healing  or  skinning  over  of  an 
ulces  or  broken  surface  in  the  skin  or  in  a mucous  membrane,  by  which  a fibrous  mate- 
rial, of  a dense  resisting  character,  is  substituted  for  the  lost  texture.  The  new  tissue, 
in  such  a case,  is  called  the  cicatrix,  and  usually  resembles,  to  a considerable  extent,  the 
structure  which  it  replaces;  it  is,  how^ever,  less  elastic,  and  from  its  shrinking  in  vol- 
ume, sometimes  produces  an  appearance  of  puckering.  The  glands  and  other  special 
structures  of  the  original  tissue  are  wanting  in  the  cicatrix,  which,  however,  performs 
perfectly  well,  in  most  instances,  the  office  of  protection  to  the  parts  below  the  surface. 
See  Inflammation  and  Ulceuation. 

CIC'ELY,  MyrrMs,  a genus  of  umbelliferous  plants,  nearly  allied  to  chervil,  of  which 
one  species,  sweet  C.  {M.  odorata),  is  common  in  the  central  and  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  and  in  similar  climates  in  Asia,  but  in  Britain  is  so  generally  found  near  human 
habitations  that  it  appears  probably  to  have  been  introduced.  It  is  sometimes  called 
meet  chervil,  and  in  Scotland,  myrrh.  It  is  a branching  perennial,  2 ft.  high  or  upwards, 
with  large  triply  pinnate  leaves  and  pinnatifid  leaflets,  somewhat  downy  beneath ; the 
fruit  remarkable  for  its  large  size,  and,  as  well  as  the  whole  plant,  powerfully  fragrant, 
the  smell  resembling  that  of  anise.  The  seeds,  roots,  and  young  leaves  are  used  in  Ger- 
many and  other  countries  in  soups,  etc.  The  plant  was  formerly  much  in  use  as  a 
medicinal  aromatic. 

CI'CER.  See  Chick  Pea. 

^ CIC'EEO,  Marcus  Tullius,  the  greatest  orator  of  Rome,  and  one  of  the  most  Illus- 
trious of  her  statesmen  and  men  of  letters,  was  b.  at  Arpinum,  on  the  3d  of  Jan.,  in 
the  year  106  b.c.  He  belonged  to  an  ancient  family,  of  the  equestrian  order,  and  pos- 
sessed of  considerable  influence  in  his  native  district.  His  father,  himself  a man  of 


Cicerone. 

Cid. 


858 


culture,  and  desirous  that  his  son  should  acquire  an  eminent  position  in  the  state, 
removed  him  at  an  early  age  to  Rome,  where,  under  the  direction  of  the  orator  Crassus, 
he  was  instructed  in  the  language  and  literature  of  Greece,  and  in  all  the  other  branches 
of  a polite  education.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  assumed  the  manly  gown,  and  was  intro- 
duced to  the  public  life  of  a Roman  citizen.  He  now  acquired  a knowledge  of  law,  and 
underwent  a complete  course  of  discipline  in  oratory.  At  the  same  time,  he  studied 
philosophy  under  three  successive  preceptors,  of  the  Epicurean,  Academic,  and  Stoic 
schools,  and  neglected  no  mental  exercise,  however  arduous,  which  might  conduce  to 
his  future  eminence;  being  thus  early  of  the  opinion  which  he  afterwards  maintained  in 
his  treatise  De  Oratore,  that  an  orator  should  possess  almost  universal  knowledge.  With 
the  exception  of  a brief  campaign  under  Sulla,  in  the  social  w’ar,  he  passed  his  time  in 
these  preliminary  studies  until  his  26th  year,  when  he  began  to  plead  in  public.  In  one  of 
his  earliest  causes,  he  distinguished  himself  by  defending  the  rights  of  Roscius,  a pri- 
vate citizen,  against  one  of  the  favorites  of  Sulla,  who  was  then  dictator.  Soon  after, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  and  in  order  to  his  improvement  in  elocution,  he  traveled 
to  the  chief  seats  of  learning  in  Greece  and  Asia;  and,  on  his  return,  was  regarded  as 
second  to  no  orator  at  the  Roman  bar.  Having  been  elected  quaestor  (76  b.c.),  he  was 
appointed  by  lot  to  a government  in  Sicily,  a post  which  he  filled  with  great  ability,  and 
to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  those  whom  he  governed.  Some  years  after  his  return,  he 
laid  the  Sicilians  under  still  greater  obligations  by  his  successful  prosecution  of  their 
praetor,  Verres,  against  whom  he  prepared  no  less  than  six  orations,  although  the  first 
had  the  effect  of  disheartening  the  accused  so  effectually,  that  he  voluntarily  retired  into 
exile.  Passing,  at  short  intervals,  through  the  offices  of  aedile  (69  b.c.)  and  praetor  (66 
B.C.),  he  was  at  length  elected,  by  an  overwhelming  majority,  to  the  consulship.  His 
tenure  of  office  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline,  which  he  frus- 
trated with  admirable  skill  and  promptitude.  See  Catiline.  The  highest  praises 
were  showered  upon  C. ; he  was  hailed  by  Cato  and  Catulus  as  the  “father  of  his  coun- 
try;” and  public  thanksgivings  in  his  name  were  voted  to  the  gods.  But  his  popularity 
did  not  last  long  after  the  expiry  of  his  consulship.  His  enemies  charged  him  with  a 
public  crime,  in  having  put  the  conspiring  nobles  to  death  without  a formal  trial,  and 
he  found  it  necessary  to  leave  Rome,  and  went  to  reside  in  Thessalonica  (58  b.c.).  A 
formal  edict  of  banishment  was  pronounced  against  him,  but  he  was  recalled  from  exile 
in  about  16  months,  and  on  his  return  to  Rome  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm.  His 
recovered  dignity,  however,  soon  excited  the  envy  of  the  honorable  party  in  the  senate, 
with  whom  he  had  desired  to  make  common  cause;  while  Pompey  and  Caesar,  the  great- 
est powers  in  the  state,  and  from  whose  enmity  he  had  most  to  dread,  courted  his  alli- 
ance and  co-operation.  Thus,  while  preserving  an  appearance  of  independence,  he  was 
betrayed  into  many  actions  which  he  could  not  but  regard  as  ignominious,  and  which, 
by  increasing  the  power  of  the  triumvirs,  led  indirectly  to  the  ruin  of  the  republic.  A 
remarkable  exception  to  this  servile  conduct  is  to  be  found  in  his  assisting  Milo  wheu 
suing  for  the  consulship,  and  defending  him,  against  the  wish  of  Pompey,  and  in  spite 
of  the  hostile  feeling  of  the  populace,  after  he  had  slain  Clodius  in  an  accidental  ren- 
counter. During  this  period  he  composed  his  works,  De  Oratore,  De  Bepublica,  and  De 
Leglbus.  After  a year’s  admirable  administration  of  the  province  of  Cilicia  (51  to  50  b.c.), 
he  returned  to  Italy  on  the  eve  of  the  civil  war.  With  the  convictions  which  he  avowed, 
there  was  but  one  course  which  it  would  have  been  honorable  for  him  to  pursue — to 
enlist  himself,  at  all  hazards,  on  the  side  of  Pompey  and  the  republic.  But  instead  of 
this  he  hesitated,  balanced  the  claims  of  duty  and  of  interest,  blamed  Pompey  for  his 
want  of  preparation,  and  criticised  the  plan  of  his  campaign.  At  length  he  joined  the 
army  of  the  senate,  but,  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  abruptly  quitted  his  friends,  and 
resolved  to  throw  himself  upon  the  generosity  of  the  conqueror.  After  nine  months’" 
miserable  suspense  at  Brundusium,  he  was  kindly  received  by  C£Esar,  whom  he  followed 
to  Rome.  During  the  years  which  ensued,  he  remained  in  comparative  retirement,  com- 
posing his  principal  works  in  philosophy  and  rhetoric,  including  those  entitled  Orator; 
Hortemius;  De  Finibus;  Tascidanm  Disputationes;  De  Natura  Deorum;  De  Senectute;  De 
Amicitia;  and  De  Offieiis.  On  the  death  of  Caesar,  he  was  disposed  to  unite  his  interests 
wiih  those  of  Brutus  and  the  other  conspirators,  but  was  restrained  by  dictates  of  pru- 
dence. In  the  commotions  which  followed,  he  espoused  the  cause  of  Octavianus,  and 
gave  utterance  to  his  celebrated  philippics  against  Antony.  These  orations  were  the 
occasion  of  his  death.  When  Octavianus  and  Lepidus  joined  with  Antony  in  a trium- 
virate, C.  was  among  the  proscribed;  and  his  life  was  relentlessly  sought.  The  soldiers 
of  Antony  overtook  him  while  his  attendants  were  bearing  him,  now  old,  and  in  an 
infirm  state  of  health,  from  his  Formian  villa  to  Caieta,  where  he  intended  to  embark. 
He  met  his  death  with  greater  fortitude  than  he  had  supported  many  of  the  untoward 
incidents  of  his  life.  Desiring  his  attendants  to  forbear  resistance,  he  stretched  forward 
in  the  litter,  and  offered  his  neck  to  the  sword  of  his  executioners.  He  died  in  the  63d 
year  of  his  age,  on  the  7th  Dec.,  43  b.c. 

The  character  of  C.  is  one  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  estimate.  Really  a lover  of 
virtue,  no  one  could  follow  in  her  footsteps  with  greater  dignity  when  attended  by  the 
popular  applause.  But  he  was  weak  enough  to  yield  to  the  depraved  spirit  of  his 
times,  arnd  to  act  according  to  his  convictions  only  when  they  were  not  evidently  dis- 
cordant with  his  private  interests.  Few  men,  possessing  such  talents,  have  been  bo 


859 


Cicerone. 

Cid. 


utterly  devoid  of  anything  approaching  to  heroism.  As  a statesman,  it  would  be  unjust 
to  deny  his  legislative  abilities;  but  he  was  generally  deficient  in  courage  and  resolution. 
He  was  one  of  the  greatest  masters  of  rhetoric  that  have  ever  lived.  His  orations  were 
the  result  of  consummate  art,  combined  with  unwearied  industry,  and  survive  as  char* 
acteristic  memorials  of  a time  when  eloquence,  far  more  than  at  present,  was  a powel 
which  bent  the  verdicts  of  judicial  tribunals,  and  influenced  the  decrees  of  the  state.  In 
philosophy,  he  does  not  rank  with  the  original  thinkers  of  antiquity;  nor,  in  truth,  did 
he  aspire  to  do  so.  His  writings  on  speculative  subjects  are  chiefly  valuable  on  account 
of  the  noble  and  generous  sentiments  which  they  contain,  and  as  reflecting  the  varied 
thought  of  the  different  schools.  The  best  edition  of  his  collected  works  is  Orelli’s  (9 
vols.  8vo,  1826-1837).  See  Forsyth’s  Life  of  0.  (1864). 

CICEBO'NE  (from  Cicero,  the  orator  or  speaker),  a snide,  usually  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  curiosities  and  works  of  art  in  a town  to  strangers.  Cicerones  are  of  all 
degrees,  from  distinguished  archaeologists,  who  undertake  the  office  as  a favor,  to  the 
humble  laquais  de  place,  who,  though  quite  indispensable  on  a first  arrival,  is  too  often 
both  incompetent  and  dishonest.  The  stranger  ought  to  be  particularly  on  his  guard 
against  allowing  a C.  to  make  purchases  for  or  even  with  him,  as  the  practice  of  adding 
a commission  to  him  to  the  price  charged  now  prevails  probably  in  every  country  in 
Europe. 

CICHO'RIIJM.  See  Chicory  and  Endive. 

CICINDELA,  a genus  of  insects  of  the  order  coleopUra,  section  pentamera,  the  type  of 
a large  family,  cicindelidce.  This  family  is  nearly  allied  to  carahidce,  and  the  insects 
belonging  to  it  are  among  the  most  voracious  of  those  beetles  which,  both  in  their  per- 
fect and  lava  state,  prey  on  other  insects.  They  have  a strong  head,  with  projecting 
toothed  mandibles,  and  are  particularly  distinguished  by  a sort  of  hook  or  nail,  which 
is  articulated  by  its  base  to  each  of  the  lower  jaws  or  maxillae.  They  are  more  abundant 
in  tropical  than  in  cold  countries;  a few  species,  none  of  them  large,  are  found  in 
Britain.  The  head  of  the  larva  is  large,  concave  above,  and  the  back  furnished  with 
two  remarkable  hooked  spines,  which  are  said  to  be  used  as  anchors  to  fix  it  at  any  part 
it  chooses  of  its  burrow  in  the  earth ; whilst  the  soil  which  it  excavates  is  carried  to  the 
mouth  of  the  burrow  in  a sort  of  natural  basket  formed  of  the  concave  back  of  the 
head  and  the  recurved  mandibles.  The  larva  lies  in  wait  in  its  burrow,  its  head  just 
level  with  the  ground,  till  its  prey  comes  within  reach,  upon  which  it  suddenly  rushes. 
— G.  campestria,  a green  species  with  whitish  spots,  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Britain 
in  dry  sandy  places  exposed  to  the  sun. 

CICISBE'O  is  the  name  given  in  Italy  to  the  professed  gallant  or  constant  attendant 
upon  a married  lady.  In  the  higher  ranks  of  Italian  society,  it  was  at  one  time  consid- 
ered unfashionable  for  the  husband  to  associate  with  his  wife  anywhere  except  in  his 
own  house.  In  society,  or  at  public  places  of  amusement,  the  wife  was  accompanied 
by  her  C.,  who  attended  at  her  toilet  to  receive  her  commands  for  the  day.  This  cus- 
tom, which  was  once  universal,  and  which  naturally  gave  rise  to  much  scandal,  has 
now  almost  disappeared.  C.  is  synonymous  with  camliere  servente. 

CICOGNA’RA,  Leopoldo,  Count  da,  1767-1834;  an  archaeologist  and  art-critic  of 
Ferrara.  He  visited  all  the  noted  cities  of  southern  Europe,  studying  them  with  the 
eye  of  an  archaeologist  and  connoisseur.  Napoleon  found  him  engaged  in  politics  and 
a member  of  the  legislative  body  of  Modena.  In  1808,  C.  was  made  president  of 
the  academy  of  fine  arts  in  Venice.  In  1813-18,  he  produced  his  great  work  on  the 
history  of  art,  designed  to  complete  the  labors  of  Winckelmann  and  d’Agincourt.  He 
published  many  other  elaborately  illustrated  works. 

CICO'NIA.  See  Stork. 

CICTJ'TA.  See  Hemlock. 

CID'ABIS,  a genus  of  echinidce  (q.  v.),  or  sea-urchins,  closely  allied  to  the  genus  echinus 
itself,  and  included  along  with  it  in  a family  or  tribe  called  cidarites,  in  which  the 
mouth  and  anus  are  opposite  to  each  other — the  mouth  below,  and  the  anus  above. 
Only  one  species,  C.  papillata,  has  been  found  in  the  British  seas,  and  that  only  on  the 
coasts  of  Zetland.  The  Zetlanders  call  it  the  piper,  from  a resemblance  which  they 
trace  in  its  globe  and  spines  to  a bagpipe.  They  say  that  it  is  sometimes  found  with 
spines  a foot  long.  The  markings  of  the  shell  and  spines  are  extremely  beautiful. 

CID  CAMF’eADOB  is  the  name  given  in  histories,  traditions,  and  songs  to  the  most 
celebrated  of  Spain’s  national  heroes.  There  is  so  much  of  the  mythical  in  the  history 
of  this  personage,  that  hypercritical  writers,  such  as  Masdea,  have  doubted  his  exist- 
ence; but  recent  researches,  more  particularly  those  of  Dozy,  and  the  investigation  of 
newly  discovered  Arabic  sources,  have  succeeded  in  separating  the  Instorical  from  the 
romantic.  See  Dozy’s  Recherches  sur  VHistoire  Politique  et  Litter aire  de  VEspagne  pen- 
dant le  moyen  age  (Leyden,  1849).  The  following  is  the  result  of  these  inquiries; 
Roderigo  Ruy  Diaz  (Roderic  the  son  of  Diego)  was  descended  from  one  of  the  proudest 
families  of  Castile.  His  name  first  appears  in  a document  written  in  1064,  during  the 
reign  of  Ferdinand  of  Leon.  Under  Sancho  II,,  son  of  Ferdinand,  he  became  standard- 
bearer  and  commander  of  the  royal  troops.  In  a war  between  the  two  brothers,  Sancho 


Cider. 

CimbrL 


860 


II.  and  Alfonso  VI.  of  Leon,  it  was  a stratagem  of  Roderic’s — which,  according  to 
modern  notions,  was  anything  but  honorable — that  secured  the  victory  of  Sancho  at 
Llantada  (1068)  over  his  brother,  who  was  forced  to  seek  refuge  with  the  Moorish  king 
of  Toledo.  He  appears  at  this  time  to  have  already  been  called  the  camjpeador,  a word 
supposed  to  answer  to  our  chalnpion. 

Upon  the  assassination  of  his  friend  and  patron,  king  Sancho,  he  required  the  next 
heir,  don  Alonzo,  to  clear  himself  by  oath  of  any  participation  in  his  brother’s  murder, 
ere  the  nobles  of  Leon  and  Castile  should  do  homage  to  him.  By  this  act,  he  incurred 
the  new  monarch’s  enmity;  an  enmity  which,  however,  the  king’s  policy  concealed  in 
the  hour  of  danger,  and  he  even  consented  to  Roderic’s  marriage  with  his  cousin 
Ximena — daughter  of  Diego,  duke  of  Asturia.  But  when  the  king  thought  the  services 
of  Roderic  no  longer  necessary  to  his  own  safety,  he  lent  a willing  ear  to  the  latter’s 
personal  enemies,  and  banished  him  in  1081.  Roderic  then  joined  the  Moorish  kings  of 
Saragossa,  in  whose  service  he  fought  against  both  Moslems  and  Christians.  It  was 
probably  during  this  exile  that  he  was  first  called  the  Cid  or  Sid,  an  Arabic  title  which 
means  lord.  He  frequently  defeated  the  king  of  Aragon  and  the  count  of  Barcelona, 
the  latter  of  whom,  Berenguer  Ramon  II.,  he  took  prisoner. 

He  was  again  reconciled  to  the  king,  but  only  for  a short  time,  when  he  was  con- 
demned to  a second  exile.  In  order  to  support  his  family  and  numerous  followers,  he 
now  saw  himself  forced  to  carry  his  sword  against  the  Moors,  over  whom  he  gained  a 
victory,  and  established  himself  as  sovereign  or  lord  of  Valencia  (1094).  He  retained 
possession  of  Valencia  five  years,  during  w’hich  time  he  took  many  neighboring 
fortresses.  He  died  of  grief  in  1099,  on  learning  that  his  relative  and  comrade  in  arms, 
Alvar  Fanez,  had  been  vanquished  by  the  Moors,  and  that  the  army  which  he  had  sent 
to  his  assistance  had  been  defeated  near  Alcira.  After  the  Cid’s  death,  his  widow  held 
Valencia  till  1102,  when  she  was  obliged  to  capitulate  to  the  Almoravides,  and  fly  to 
Castile,  where  she  died  in  1104.  Her  remains  were  placed  by  those  of  her  lord  in  the 
monastery  of  San  Pedro  de  Cadena.  The  Cid  had  a son,  who  was  slain  by  the  Moors  in 
a battle  near  Consuegra.  He  also  left  behind  him  two  daughters,  one  of  whom  was 
married  to  the  count  of  Barcelona;  the  other  to  an  infant  of  Navarre,  through  whom 
the  kings  of  Spain  and  many  rcwal  houses  of  Europe  claim  kindred  with  “ Mio  Cid  el 
Gampeador”  Relics  of  the  “Blessed  Cid,”  as  he  is  still  called  in  Spain,  such  as  his 
sword,  shield,  banner,  and  drinking-cup,  are  still  held  in  great  reverence  by  the  popu- 
lace. The  numerous  Cid  romances  that  were  first  published  in  the  16th  c.,  contain  the 
most  romantic  improbabilities  concerning  the  life  and  deeds  of  the  Cid.  See  Silva  de 
Varios  Romances  (1550),  and  Romancero  General  (1604).  These  romances  were  taken 
from  the  ancient  cantares  (national  songs)  and  poemas,  most  of  which  are  entirely  lost. 
The  most  important  of  modern  works  on  this  subject,  besides  that  of  Dozy  above  men- 
tioned, are  Huber’s  Geschichte  des  Cid,  etc.  (Bremen,  1829),  and  Southey’s  fascinating 
Chronicle  of  the  Cid  (Lond.  1808).  The  former  of  these  is,  however,  the  more  valuable 
in  a historical  point  of  view.  See  also  Willemaers,  Le  Cid  (Bruss.  1873). 

CIDEE  is  the  fermented  juice  of  apples,  and  is  extensively  prepared  in  Gloucestershire 
and  other  parts  of  England,  in  Ireland,  in  the  northern  districts  of  France,  and  in  North 
America.  In  Normandy,  a vast  number  of  varieties  of  acid  or  bitter-apples  are  grown 
for  the  preparation  of  cider.  The  apples  are  first  bruised  in  a circular  stone-trough  or 
chcLse,  by  a similarly  shaped  stone  or  runner,  which  revolves  by  machinery  in  the  interior 
of  the  trough.  The  pulp  so  obtained  is  placed  in  sieve-bags  made  of  hair-cloth  or  reed- 
straw,  and  subjected  to  pressure,  which  yields  a dark-colored,  sweet  liquid,  and  leaves 
in  the  bag  a somewhat  dry  residue,  consisting  of  the  pips,  skin,  and  other  fibrous  parts 
of  the  apple.  The  apple-juice  passes  first  into  a shallow  tub  or  trin,  and  is  almost  imme- 
diately placed  in  casks  in  a cool  place,  when  fermentation  begins,  part  of  the  sugar  is 
converted  into  alcohol,  and  in  a few  days,  a clear  liquid  is  obtained,  which  can  easily 
be  racked  off  from  sedimentary  matter.  C.  is  largely  used  in  England  as  a beverage, 
and  is  very  palatable  and  refreshing.  It  contains  from  5i  to  9 per  cent  of  alcohol,  and 
is  therefore  intoxicating  when  drunk  in  quantity.  It  does  not  possess  the  tonic  and 
nourishing  properties,  however,  of  bitter-beer.  C.  quickly  turns  sour,  becoming  hard 
C.,  owing  to  the  development  of  lactic  acid,  and  great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  the 
attempt  to  preserve  it. 

CIENFUE'GOS,  a city  in  Cuba,  on  the  s.  coast  of  the  island,  on  the  bay  of  Jagua, 
120  m.  s.e.  of  Havana;  pop.  9,950.  It  has  a good  harbor,  and  is  one  of  the  best  built 
cities  in  the  island.  Railroads  give  communication  with  Cardenas  and  other  towns  on 
the  n.  coast.  C.  was  founded  in  1813  by  a captain-general  of  that  name. 

CIE'ZA,  a t.  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Murcia,  26  m.  n.w  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  situated  on  an  eminence  near  the  river  Segura,  overlooking  a plain  of  great 
fertility.  The  streets  are  tolerably  wide  and  w’^ell  paved,  and  there  are  manufactures 
of  linen,  hempen  fabrics,  wine,  and  oil;  and  silk-worms  are  reared.  Pop.  9,500. 

CIGAHS.  See  Tobacco. 

CI'GOLI,  Ludovico  Cabdi  da,  an  eminent  painter  of  the  later  Florentine  school, 
which,  about  the  end  of  the  16th  c.,  developed,  in  opposition  to  the  languid  mannerists 
of  the  time,  a peculiar  eclectic  style  of  art.  C.  was  b.  at  Empoli  in  1559.  His  model  was 


861 


Cider. 

Cimbrl, 


Correggio;  but  as  the  latter  was  deficient  in  design,  and  in  the  scientific  knowledge  of 
perspective,  C.  endeavored  to  unite  these  with  the  warm  bright  coloring  and  wonderful 
chiar-oscuro  of  Correggio.  ,He  was  invited  by  Clement  VII.  to  Rome,  where  he  died 
in  1613.  Among  C.’s  most  famous  pictures  may  be  mentioned — “ The  Healing  of  the 
Lame  Man”  (St.  Peter’s,  Rome),  “The  Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen  ” (Uffizi  Gallery, 
Florence),  “Tobias  in  the  Act  of  Thanking  the  Angel”  (St.  Petersburg),  and  “St. 
Francis,”  a favorite  subject  with  C.  (Pitti  Palace,  Florence).  C.  was  also  held  in  high 
estimation  as  an  architect,  and  designed  several  of  the  Florentine  palaces. 

CILIA,  (Lat.  eyelashes),  a term  variously  employed  in  botany  and  zoology  to  desig- 
nate fringing  hairs  or  hair-like  processes.  Thus,  the  margins  or  nerves  of  leaves,  petals, 
etc.,  are  often  described  as  ciliated  or  furnished  with  cilia.  The  fine  thread-like  pro- 
cesses which  surround  the  opening  of  the  fruit  of  many  mosses,  are  called  C. ; but  these 
processes,  when  broader,  are  denominated  teeth. — The  description  and  uses  of  C.  in  the 
animal  kingdom  are  given  in  the  article  Epithelium. 

CILIC'IA,  an  ancient  division  of  Asia  Minor,  now  included  in  the  Turkish  eyalet  of 
Koniah.  The  Taurus  range,  which  separated  it  from  Cappadocia,  bounded  it  on  the  n., 
the  gulf  of  Issus  and  the  Cilician  sea  on  the  s.,  while  the  Amanus  and  Pamphylia 
bounded  it  respectively  on  the  e.  and  west.  Lat.  36°  to  38°  n.,  long.  32°  10'  to  3'f°  8'  e. 
The  eastern  portion  of  C.  was  fertile  in  grain,  wine,  etc. ; while  the  western  and  more 
mountainous  portion  furnished  inexhaustible  supplies  of  timber  to  the  ancients.  The 
pass  called  by  the  Turks  Golek  Boghaz  is  that  b}’’  which  the  younger  Cyrus  passed  from 
Tyana  in  Cappadocia  to  Tarsus;  and  it  is  also  the  same  by  which  Alexander  the  great 
entered  Cilicia.  Pop.  about  100,000,  mostly  nomadic. 

In  early  ages,  (J.  was  ruled  by  its  own  kings,  the  dynasty  of  Syennesis  being^ 
apparently  the  most  important.  The  Cilicians  were  a distinct  people  in  the  time  of 
Xenophon;  but  the  Greeks  appear  to  have  got  a footing  after  the  time  of  Alexander. 
The  Cilicians  were  notorious  pirates,  but  having  carried  on  their  depredations  too  close- 
to  the  shores  of  Italy,  the  Roman  arms  were  turned  against  them,  and  C.  was  made  a 
Roman  province  in  Pompey’s  time. 

GIMABTT'E,  Giovanni,  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  art  of  painting  in  Italy,  which: 
nad  fallen  into  neglect  during  the  barbarism  of  the  dark  ages,  was  b.  at  Florence  in 
1240.  At  this  time,  the  fine  arts  were  practiced  in  Italy  chiefly  by  Byzantines,  and  had 
degenerated  into  a worn-out  mechanical  conventionalism,  C.  at  first  studied  under 
Byzantine  masters,  and  adopted  their  traditional  forms,  but  gradually  excelled  his 
teachers,  made  innovations  on  the  fixed  patterns  set  before  him,  and  gave  life  and 
individuality  to  his  works.  Two  remarkable  pictures  of  the  Madonna  by  C.  are  still 
preserved  in  Florence — one  (chiefly  Byzantine  in  style)  in  the  academy;  the  other,  dis- 
playing a more  purely  original  genius,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella.  It  is  said 
that  this  latter  work  in  the  time  of  C.  was  admired  as  a miracle  of  art,  and  was  carried 
to  the  church  in  a sort  of  triumphal  procession.  More  remarkable  pictures  in  point  of 
expression  or  dramatic  effect,  are  found  in  C.’s  frescoes  in  the  church  of  San  Francisco- 
at  Assisi.  C,  died  soon  after  1300.  What  strikes  one  as  very  wonderful  about  C.’s^ 
pictures,  is  the  accuracy  of  his  naked  ’ figures,  considering  that  he  had  no  better  pro- 
fessional guides  than  the  Byzantine  artists.  His  draperies  were  also  very  good,  but 
he  had  apparently  no  knowledge  of  perspective,  though  acquainted  with  architecture. 
His  greatest  pupil  was  Giotto  (q.v.). 

CIMAHO'SA,  Domenico,  an  Italian  composer  of  operas,  wash,  at  Naples  in  1755,  and  was 
educated  in  music  under  Sacchini,  and  in  the  conservatory  of  Loretto.  His  first  pieces 
were  the  Sa^njicio  di  Ahramo  and  the  Olympiade.  When  barely  22,  he  had  achieved  a 
reputation  in  all  the  leading  Italian  theaters.  He  was  then  called  to  St,  Petersburg, 
where  he  resided  four  years.  Afterwards,  he  lived  at  various  German  courts;  thence  he- 
proceeded  to  Vienna,  where  he  became  imperial  chapel-master;  and  finally,  he  returned 
to  Italy.  At  Naples,  his  comic  opera,  H Matvimonio  Segreto,  composed  at  Vienna,  1791,, 
was  repeated  57  times  in  succession.  C.  died  at  Venice  in  1801.  His  comic  operas  are 
remarkable  for  their  novelty,  spirit,  whimsicality,  and  liveliness  of  idea,  as  well  as  for 
their  great  knowledge  of  stage-effect.  The  wealth  and  freshness  of  his  invention  gave- 
rise  to  the  saying,  that  one  finale  of  C.  contained  material  for  a dozen  operas. 

CIM'SALO,  a musical  instrument  with  a set  of  keys  like  the  clavecin  or  harp- 
sichord. 

CIM'BRI,  or  Kim'bri,  a people  who  issued  from  the  n.  of  Germany  in  conjunction 
with  the  Teutones,  and  first  came  into  hostile  contact  with  the  Romans  in  the  eastern 
Alps  in  113  B.c,  They  were  victorious  in  several  great  engagements,  and  were  only 
prevented  from  devastating  Italy  by  sustaining  a terrible  defeat  from  Marius,  on  the 
Raudii  Campi,  near  Verona,  or,  according  to  others,  near  Vercelli,  in  Aug.,  101  b.c. 
Their  infantry  fought  with  their  shields  fastened  together  by  long  chains;  their  horse- 
men, of  whom  they  had  15,000,  were  well  armed  with  helmet,  coat  of  mail,  shield,  and 
spear.  Marius  had  so  chosen  his  position  that  the  sun  and  dust  were  in  their  faces,  and 
yet  they  contested  the  victory  most  bravely  with  the  Romans,  w'ho  w^ere  55,000  strong. 
WficQ  the  battle  was  lost,  the  women,  wdio  remained  in  the  camp  formed  of  the  wagons,, 
killed  themselves  and  their  children.  140,000  C.  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  the  battlej; 


Cimex. 

'Ohinchona. 


862 


the  number  of  prisoners  is  given  at  60,000.  It  is  not  till  long  afterwards,  when  the 
Romans  themselves  penetrated  into  Germany,  that  the  name  of  the  C.  again  appears. 
CfEsar  represents  the  Aduatici  of  Belgium  as  the  descendants  of  the  C.  and  the  Teu- 
tones.  Tacitus  speaks  of  a people,  bearing  the  name  of  C.,  few  in  number,  but  of  great 
reputation,  that  sent  ambassadors  to  Augustus.  This  people  lived  in  the  extreme  n.  of 
Germany,  on  the  borders  of  the  ocean ; according  to  Pliny  and  Ptolemy,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  called  from  them  the  Cimbric  Chersonese,  now  Jutland.  The  ethnology 
of  the  C.  is  doubtful.  Greek  writers  associated  them  groundlessly  with  the  Cim- 
merians (q.v.);  Sallust  calls  them  Gauls;  Caesar,  Tacitus,  and  Plutarch  looked  upon 
them  as  Germans,  and  the  opinion  of  their  German  origin  has  been  adopted  by  most 
moderns.  Yet  H.  Muller,  in  his  Marken  des  Vaterlands  (1837),  has  endeavored  to  show 
that  they  belonged  to  the  Celtic  race,  and  lived  originally  on  the  n.e.  of  the  Belgae,  of 
kindred  origin;  and  that  their  name  is  the  same  as  that  by  which  the  Celts  of  Wales 
designate  themselves  to  this  day — Oymri. 

CI'MEX  AND  CiMi'ciD.®.  See  Bug. 

CIMICIF'UGA,  or  Bugbane,  an  herb  of  the'  order  ranunculacecB.  It  is  the  black 
snake-root  found  in  all  the  northern  states,  and  much  used  in  rural  districts  as  a medicine, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  a decoction.  It  is  believed  to  be  useful  in  nervous  diseases,  rheu^ 
matism,  and  bronchitis. 

CIMIN'NA,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  18  m.  s.e.  of  the  city  of  that 
uame.  Pop.  71,  5,721. 

CIMME  RIANS,  or  CiiOTE'En,  in  the  poems  of  Homer,  the  name  of  the  people  dwell- 
ing “beyond  the  ocean-stream,”  where  the  sun  never  shines,  and  perpetual  darkness 
reigns. — But  the  historic  C.  were  a people  whose  country  lay  between  the  Borysthenes 
(Dnieper)  and  the  Tanais  (Don),  including  also  the  Tauric  Chersonesus  (Crimea).  The 
Cimmerian  Bosporus  (strait  of  Yenikale)  derived  its  name  from  them.  Being  driven 
out  by  the  Scythians,  they  migrated  to  Asia  Minor,  dwelt  there  for  some  time,  plun- 
dered Sardis,  failed  in  an  attempt  upon  Miletum,  and  were  finally  routed  and  expelled 
by  the  Lydian  king  Alyattes,  some  time  after  617  b.c. 

CIM'OLITE.  See  Fullers’  Earth. 

CI'MON,  an  Athenian  commander,  was  the  son  of  Miltiades,  the  conqueror  at  Mara- 
thon. In  conjunction  with  Aristides,  he  was  placed  over  the  Athenian  contingent  to 
the  allied  fleet,  which,  under  the  supreme  command  of  the  Spartan  Pausanias,  continued 
the  war  against  the  Persians (477  b.c.).  He  effected  the  important  conquest  of  Eion,  a 
town  on  the  river  Strymon,  then  garrisoned  by  the  Persians.  Later  (according  to 
Clinton,  466  b.c.),  when  commander-in-chief,  he  encountered  a Persian  fleet  of  350  ships 
at  the  river  Eurymedon,  destroyed  or  captured  200,  and  defeated  the  land-forces  on  the 
same  day.  He  succeeded  likewise  in  driving  the  Persians  from  Thrace,  Caria,  and 
Lycia;  and  expended  much  of  the  money  which  he  had  obtained  by  the  recovery  of  his 
patrimony  in  Thrace  upon  the  improvement  of  the  city  of  Athens.  At  this  period  he 
appears  to  have  been  the  most  influential  of  the  Athenians.  The  hereditary  enemy  of 
Persia,  it  was  his  policy  to  advocate  a close  alliance  with  Sparta;  and  when  the  Helots 
revolted,  he  led  an  army  upon  two  occasions  to  the  support  of  the  Spartan  troops;  but 
on  the  latter  occasion,  having  lost  the  confidence  of  his  allies,  he  was  ignominiously 
dismissed.  After  his  return  to  Athens,  his  policy  was  opposed  by  the  democracy, 
headed  by  Pericles,  who  procured  his  banishment  by  ostracism.  He  was  recalled  in  the 
fifth  year  of  his  exile,  and  was  instrumental  in  obtaining  a five  years’  armistice  between 
the  Spartans  and  the  Athenians.  He  died  in  the  year  449  b.c.,  while  besieging  the  Per- 
sian garrison  of  Citium,  in  Cyprus. 

CINALO'A,  a t.  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Rio  Cinaloa,  about 
50  m.  from  its  entrance  into  the  gulf  of  California.  It  is  a thriving  place,  with  gold- 
washings  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  about  9,000. 

CINALOA.  See  Sinaloa. 

CINCHO'NA,  a most  important  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order  cinchonacecR;  yield- 
ing the  bark  so  much  valued  in  medicine,  known  as  Peruvian  bark,  Jesuits’  bark, 
China  bark,  quina,  quinquina,  cinchona  bark,  etc.,  and  from  which  the  important 
alkaloids  quinia  or  quinine  (q.v.),  and  cinchonia  or  cinchonine,  are  obtained.  The  species 
of  this  genus  are  sometimes  trees  of  great  magnitude;  but  an  after  growth  springing  from 
their  roots  when  they  have  been  felled,  they  often  appear  only  as  large  shrubs;  and  some  of 
them  in  the  highest  mountain-regions  in  which  they  are  found,  are  low  trees  with  stems 
only  eight  or  ten  feet  in  height.  They  exist  only  in  South  America,  between  s.  lat.  20* 
and  n.  lat.  10°,  and  chiefly  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  second  range  of  the  Cordilleras. 
All  the  cinchonas  are  evergreen-trees;  with  laurel-like,  entire,  opposite  leaves;  stipules 
which  soon  fall  off;  and  panicles  of  flowers,  which,  in  general  appearance,  are  not 
unlike  those  of  lilac  or  privet.  The  flowers  are  white,  rose-colored,  or  purplish,  and 
very  fragrant.  The  calyx  is  small  and  5-toothed;  the  corolla  tubular  with  a salver- 
shaped  5-cleft  limb.  In  the  true  cinchonas,  the  capsule  splits  from  the  base  upwards; 
the  species  in  which  it  splits  from  above  downwards  form  the  sub-genus  cascariUa;  the 


863 


Cimex. 

Chinchona. 


distinction  acquiring  importance  from  the  consideration,  that  the  barks  of  the  former 
alone  contain  the  alkaloids  so  valuable  in  medicine;  and  this  property  is  further  limited 
to  those  species  which  have  the  corolla  downy  or  silky  on  the  outside.  Beyond  the 
botanical  limits  thus  narrowly  marked  out,  not  a trace  of  these  alkaloids  has  yet  been 
discovered  anywhere. 

Great  difficulty  has  been  found  in  determining  the  species  by  which  the  different 
varieties  of  C.  bark  known  in  commerce  are  produced.  The  common  commercial 
names  are  derived  partly  from  the  color  of  the  kinds,  and  partly  from  the  districts  in  which 
they  are  produced,  or  the  ports  where  they  are  shipped.  It  appears,  however,  to  be  now 
ascertained  that  calisaya  bark,  also  called  royal  or  genuine  yellow  bark,  one  of  the  very 
best  kinds — mostly  shipped  from  Arica — is  chiefly  the  produce  of  C.  calisaya,  a large 
tree,  growing  in  hot  mountain  valleys  of  Bolivia  and  the  south  of  Peru.  To  give  all 
the  varieties  of  bark  and  species  of  tree  w^ould  go  beyond  our  limits. 

The  accurate  discrimination  of  the  different  kinds  of  bark  requires  much  experience. 
The  taste  is  always  bitter ; but  it  is  possible  even  to  distinguish  by  the  taste  those  varie* 
ties  w'hich  contain  quinia  most  largely  from  those  in  which  cinchonia  is  qiost  abundant. 

The  cutting  and  peeling  of  C.  trees  are  carried  on  by  Indians,  who  go  in  parties,  and 
pursue  their  occupation  during  the  whole  of  the  dry  season.  They  build  a hut,  which 
serves  both  for  their  abode  and  for  drying  the  bark.  The  trees  are  felled  as  near  the 
root  as  possible,  that  none  of  the  bark  may  be  lost;  and  the  bark  being  stripped  off,  ia 
carefully  dried ; the  quilled  form  of  the  thinner  bark  is  acquired  in  drying.  The  bark 
is  made  up  into  packages  of  various  size,  but  averaging  about  150  lbs.  weight,  closely 
wrapped  in  woolen  cloth,  and  afterwards  in  hides,  to  be  conveyed  on  mules’  backs  to 
the  towns.  These  packages  are  called  drums  or  seroons.  It  is  in  them  that  the  bark  is 
always  brought  to  Europe. 

A number  of  spurious  kinds  of  Peruvian  or  C.  bark  are  either  sent  into  the  market 
separately,  or  are  employed  for  adulterating  the  genuine  kinds.  They  are  bitter  barks, 
and  have,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  febrifugal  properties,  but  are  chemically  and 
medicinally  very  different  from  true  C.  bark.  They  are  produced  by  trees  of  genera 
very  closely  allied  to  cinchona. 

Whilst  C.  trees  have  been  becoming  every  year  more  scarce  in  their  native  regions, 
no  attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  them  there,  notwithstanding  the  constantly 
increasing  demand  for  the  bark;  but  the  Dutch  have  recently  made  extensive  plantations 
of  them  in  Java;  and  the  same  has  been  done  in  British  India,  from  seeds  and  plants 
obtained  from  the  South  American  governments,  by  Mr.  Markham.  In  the  course  of 
his  researches  in  South  America,  Mr.  Markham  found  only  one  C.  tree  planted  by  human 
hands.  See  Peruvian  Bark. 

The  Indians  of  Peru  call  the  C.  trees  kina,  from  whence  are  derived  the  names  china, 
quina,  etc.  But  it  is  not  certain  that  they  knew  the  use  of  the  bark  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Spaniards.  It  is  a medicine  of  great  value  in  the  cure  of  intermittent  fevers  (see 
Ague),  and  diseases  attended  with  much  febrile  debility;  also  in  certain  forms  of 
neuralgia  (q.v.),  and  other  diseases  of  the  nervous  system.  It  seems  to  have  been  first 
imported  into  Europe  in  1639,  by  the  countess  Del  Cinchon  or  Chinchon,  the  wife  of  the 
viceroy  of  Peru,  who  had  been  cured  of  an  obstinate  intermittent  fever  by  means  of  it, 
and  upon  this  account  it  was  named  G.  bark  and  countess's  powder  {pulvis  comitisscc).. 
The  Jesuit  missionaries  afterwards  carried  it  to  Rome,  and  distributed  it  through  thei:' 
several  stations,  and  thus  is  acquired  the  name  of  Jesuit's  bark  and  powder  of  the  father* 
{pulvis  patrum).  Cardinal  Juan  de  Lugo  having  been  particularly  active  in  recorc 
mending  and  distributing  it,  it  was  also  known  as  Cardinal  de  Lugo's  powder.  It  attained 
great  celebrity  in  Spain  and  Italy,  being  sold  at  high  prices  by  the  Jesuits,  by  whom  it 
was  lauded  as  an  infallible  remedy,  while  by  most  of  the  orthodox  physicians  it  was 
coldly  received,  and  by  the  Protestants  altogether  repudiated.  Its  mode  of  action  not 
being  well  understood,  and  the  cases  to  which  it  was  applicable  not  well  defined,  it 
seems,  in  the  first  instance,  to  have  been  employed  without  due  discrimination,  and  to 
have  fallen  very  much  into  the  hands  of  empirics.  Falling,  however,  into  disuse  in 
Europe,  it  was  again  brought  into  notice  by  sir  Robert  Talbor  or  Talbot,  an  English- 
man, who  brought  it  to  England  in  1671,  and  acquired  great  celebrity  through  the  cure 
of  intermittents  by  means  of  it,  and  from  whom  Louis  XIV.  purchased  his  secret  in 
1682.  A pound  of  bark  at  that  time  cost  100  louis-d’or.  Talbor  seems  to  have  been  a 
vain  and  self-seeking  man,  but  who  had,  nevertheless,  the  acuteness  to  discern  and 
systematically  to  avail  himself  of  the  healing  virtues  of  the  neglected  Jesuits’  bark,  which, 
he  mixed  with  other  substances,  so  as  to  conceal  its  taste  and  odor.  Soon  afterwards, 
both  Morton  and  Sydenham,  the  most  celebrated  English  physicians  of  the  age,  adopted 
the  new  remedy;  and  its  use,  from  this  period,  gradually  extended,  both  in  England  and 
France,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  the  latter  country. 
As  it  came  into  general  use,  it  became  a most  important  article  of  export  from  Peru; 
but  for  a long  time,  the  value  of  the  bark  to  be  procured  in  New  Granada  remained 
unknown;  and  in  order  to  the  maintenance  of  a commercial  monopoly,  extraordinary 
methods  were  even  employed  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  known  at  a comparatively 
recent  period  of  Spanish  rule  in  America.  The  discovery  of  the  alkaloids  on  which  its 
properties  chiefly  depend,  constitutes  a new  era  in  the  history  of  this  medicine,  and  did 
not  take  place  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 


Cindionacece. 

Cincinnati. 


864 


The  chief  active  principles  are  the  two  alkaloids,  quinine  (q.v.)  and  cinchonine. 
The  latter  is  not  generally  present  in  so  large  a proportion  as  the  quinine,  and  does 
not  possess  such  powerful  medicinal  properties.  When  isolated,  the  alkaloid  cinchonia, 
or  cinchonine,  has  the  formula  (C40H24N2O2),  and  can  be  obtained  in  a crystallized  state. 

C.  bark  itself  has,  in  later  times,  fallen  into  comparative  disuse,  owing  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  alkaloid  quinine,  which  is  now  extensively  in  use  in  medicine  in  the  form 
of  sulphate  or  disulphate  of  quinine,  and  is  given  in  doses  of  from  one  to  twenty 
grains,  in  almost  all  the  cases  to  which  the  bark  was  supposed  to  be  applicable. 

CINCHONA'CEJS,  a natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herbaceous  plants,  with  simple,  entire,  opposite,  or  whorled  leaves,  and  stipules  between 
their  foot-stalks.  The  calyx  is  adherent  to  the  ovary;  the  corolla  is  tubular  and  regu- 
lar, its  segments  are  equal  in  number  to  those  of  the  calyx,  when  tl\e  calyx  is  divided; 
the  stamens  arise  from  the  corolla,  ana  are  alternate  with  its  segments.  The  ovary  is 
surrounded  by  a disk,  and  usually  two-celled;  the  style  single,  the  fruit  either  splitting 
into  two  halv^  or  not  splitting  at  all,  either  dry  or  succulent. — This  order  has  been 
very  generally  regarded  by  botanists  as  a sub-order  of  rubiacem\(\.\ but  far  exceeds  all 
the  rest  of  that  order,  both  in  the  number  and  importance  of  its  species,  of  which  from 
2,500  to  3,000  are  known,  mostly  tropical,  and  the  remainder,  with  few  exceptions,  sub- 
tropical. The  C.  are  nearly  allied  to  caprifoliaceoe  (woodbines  or  honeysuckles,  etc.), 
and  interesting  relations  have  been  pointed  out  between  them  and  umbelliferce.  They 
constitute  a very  large  part  of  the  flora  of  tropical  regions.  Besides  the  genus  cinchona 
(q.v.)  and  other  genera  producing  febrifugal  barks — exostemma,  condaminea,  Pinckneya, 
Portlandia,  etc. — the  order  produces  a number  of  valuable  medicinal  plants,  of  which 
ipecacuanha  (q.v.)  is  the  most  important.  The  coffee  (q.v.)  shrub  belongs  to  it;  and 
also  the  tree  which  yields  gambir  (q.v.).  It  produces  a number  of  plants  employed  in 
dyeing,  among  which  are  the  chay  root  or  choya,  and  some  species  of  moHnda.  Some 
trees  of  this  order  yield  valuable  timber.  Many  of  the  species  have  beautiful  and  frag- 
rant flowers;  and  some  produce  pleasant  fruits,  among  which  are  the  genipap 
Americana)  of  South  America,  the  native  peach  {sarcocephalus  esculentus)  of  Sierra  Leone, 
and  the  voavanga  of  Madagascar  {mngueria  edulis). 

CINCINNATI,  the  commercial  capital  of  Ohio,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  which  gives  name  to  the  state,  and  separates  it  from  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  It 
stands  inlat.  39°  6'  30"  n.,  and  in  long.  84°  26'  w.,  458  m.  below  Pittsburg,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, where  the  Ohio,  as  such,  is  first  formed,  and  500  m.  above  the  junction  of  that 
stream  and  the  Mississippi.  Though  C.  was  founded  in  1788,  yet  in  1800  it  had  only 
750  inhabitants.  In  the  years  1820,  1830,  1840,  1850,  and  1860,  respectively,  the  census 
returns  showed  a population  of  9,602,  24,830,  46,338,  115,438,  and  161,004.  In  1870,  it 
had  increased  to  216,289,  including  a large  proportion  of  Germans  and  Irish.  The 
natural  facilities  of  C.  for  commerce  are  great,  and  they  have  been  increased  artificially 
by  the  Miami  canal,  which  unites  it  with  lake  Erie.  Railways  branch  off  from  C.  as  a 
center  in  several  directions,  and  the  river  Ohio  gives  facility  for  the  carrying  on  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  commerce.  In  the  ten  years  ending  1875,  the  exports  averaged 
$20^1,236,066,  and  the  imports  $314,528,009;  being  together  equivalent  to  about  £110, 
000,000. 

The  staple  article  of  the  trade  of  C.  is  pork.  In  1874^75,  560, 164  hogs  were  slaughtered. 
Wine  from  the  Catawba  (q.v.)  grape  is  made  in  the  neighborhood  to  a great  extent. 
The  city  itself  also  is  largely  engaged  in  a variety  of  important  manufactures,  hundreds 
of  steam-engines  being  employed  in  the  different  establishments,  and  the  aggregate 
product  having,  in  1874,  been  computed  at  $144,207,371.  The  manufactories  include 
iron-foundries,  rolling-mills,  lard,  oil,  and  stearine  factories;  and  countless  works  con- 
nected with  flour,  clothing,  furniture,  paper,  printing,  tobacco,  soap,  candles,  hats,  etc. 
In  1874,  iron  was  produced  to  the  value  of  $17,000,000;  food,  $M, 000, 000;  clothing, 
$13,230,000;  and  liquors,  $24,000,000.  There  are  about  75  newspapers  and  periodicals, 
including  9 daily,  of  which  3 are  in  German. 

C.  is  substantially  and  handsomely  built.  Its  ecclesiastical,  literary,  and  commercial 
edifices  are  as  numerous  as  befits  the  acknowledged  queen  of  the  west.  The  city 
occupies  chiefly  two  terraces,  which  are  elevated  respectively  50  ft.  and  108  above 
the  level  of  the  river.  For  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants,  the  water  of  the  Ohio  has 
been  lifted  up  into  an  immense  reservoir,  at  an  expense  of  about  £160,000.  A large 
suspension  bridge,  100  ft.  above  low- water,  connects  the  city  with  Covington  in  Ken- 
tucky. There  is  a railway  pier-bridge.  Education  flourishes,  and  there  are  numerous 
free  schools. 

CINCINNATI  {ante),  the  chief  eity  of  Ohio,  covers  an  area  of  24  sq.m.,  and  is  laid 
nut  upon  a plan  substantially  like  that  of  Philadelphia,  the  long  streets  and  avenuues, 
mostly  66  ft.  or  more  in  breadth,  being  generally  well  paved  or  macadamized,  and  some 
of  them  adorned  with  shade-trees.  The  buildings  are  mostly  of  brick,  and  very  sub- 
stantial. Some  of  the  streets  leading  back  from  the  river  towards  the  high  hills  on  the 
w.  are  of  a steep  grade.  The  summits  of  these  hills,  which  have  been  made  accessible, 
command  highly  picturesque  views  of  the  surrounding  country,  including  a wide  sweep 
of  the  territory  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  in  Kentucky.  The  main  portion  of  the 
city  lies  between  Deer  creek  on  the  e.  and  Mill  creek  on  the  w.,  these  two  streams  enter* 


865 


Cinclionaceas* 

Cincinnati. 


ing  the  Ohio  at  a distance  from  each  other  of  2|  miles.  The  hillsides  between  the  creeks, 
n.  of  East  Liberty  street  and  Hamilton  road,  are  terraced  with  streets  to  the  summits, 
imd  covered  with  dwellings.  On  some  of  the  western  hills  are  vineyards  and  gardens. 
The  suburban  portions  of  the  city  in  various  directions  are  very  attractive,  being  filled 
with  elegant  and  costly  private  residences,  surrounded  by  trees  and  shrubbery  and 
•cultivated  lawns,  with  picturesquely  winding  paths.  There  are  beautiful  drives  in 
various  directions,  the  roads  being  fine  and  the  scenery  of  a very  attractive  charac- 
ter. The  city  is  well  provided  with  parks  and  public  grounds.  Eden  park,  on  a hill  in 
the  eastern  district,  commands  a fine  prospect.  It  contains  216  acres.  Lincoln,  Wash 
ington,  Hopkins,  and  City  parks  near  the  center  of  the  city,  are  beautiful,  though 
small.  Burnet  woods  contains  170  acres,  nearly  all  forest.  Spring  Grove,  a beautiful 
■cemetery,  is  3 m.  n.w.  of  the  city,  in  the  valley  of  Mill  creek.  It  is  approached  by  an 
^ivenue  100  ft.  wide,  and  contains  600  acres  of  land  tastefully  laid  out,  and  has  a large 
number  of  costly  monuments,  among  which  are  the  Dexter  mausoleum,  and  a bronze 
statue  commemorating  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  of  1861.  The  most  noteworthy 
work  of  art  in  the  city  is  the  Tyler  Davidson  fountain,  in  Fifth  street  between  Vine  and 
Walnut,  which  was  cast  at  the  royal  foundry  in  Munich,  and  which  cost  $200,000.  It 
was  suggested  by  Mr.  Tyler  Davidson,  after  whose  death  it  was  completed  and  pre- 
sented to  the  city  by  Mr.  Henry  Probasco  in  1871.  Standing  in  a conspicuous  place,  it 
is  an  object  of  perpetual  interest  to  citizens  and  strangers.  During  the  warm  days  of 
summer,  from  early  morning  till  midnight,  its  flowing  jets  make  their  welcome  music, 
and  impart  a refreshing  coolness  to  the  air.  The  suspension  bridge  across  the  Ohio, 
connecting  Cincinnati  with  the  Kentucky  shore  at  Covington,  was  designed  by  John  A. 
Hoebling,  and  completed  in  1867  at  a cost  of  $1,800,000.  Another  bridge,  of  wrought 
iron  and  resting  upon  piers,  connects  the  city  with  Newport,  Ky.,  and  is  used  for  both 
railroad  and  ordinary  travel.  Many  of  the  public  buildings  of  Cincinnati  are  distin- 
guished for  architectural  beauty.  The  U.  S.  government  building,  containing  the  post- 
oflice,  custom-house,  court-rooms,  and  various  offices,  presents  a front  of  150  ft.  on  Vine 
street,  and  80  ft.  on  Fourth  street.  It  is  of  sawed  freestone,  three  stories  high,  in  the 
Roman  Corinthian  style.  The  county  court-house  is  a square  of  three  stories,  and 
nearly  fire-proof.  Its  cost  was  $500,000.  With  the  county  jail  in  its  rear  it  occupies  a 
whole  square.  The  buildings  for  the  use  of  the  city  government  are  less  imposing, 
though  well  adapted  to  their  purpose.  The  city  hospital,  consisting  of  eight  distinct 
buildings  arranged  around  a central  court,  occupies  a square  of  nearly  four  acres.  It 
cost  over  $700,000,  exclusive  of  the  ground,  which  is  worth  $300,000  more.  It  has 
accommodations  for  700  patients.  The  publi,c  library,  built  of  brick  in  the  Romanesque 
style,  with  funds  raised  by  taxation,  cost  about  $675,000.  Masonic  hall,  in  the  Byzan- 
tine style,  195  by  100  ft.,  and  four  stories  high,  is  a very  imposing  edifice.  Pike’s  opera- 
house  also  is  of  grand  dimensions,  with  a front  of  134  ft.  and  a depth  of  170  feet. 
Mozart  hall  is  a massive  edifice,  with  an  auditorium  seating  3,000  people.  St. 
Xavier’s  college  is  a splendid  building,  in  the  Romanesque  style.  The  city  work- 
house,  515  ft.  long,  has  cells  for  700  prisoners,  with  workshops  and  grounds  for 
their  employment.  Longview  asylum  for  the  insane,  at  Carthage,  10  m.  from  the  city, 
is  of  brick  in  the  Italian  style,  612  ft.  long  and  four  stories  in  height.  Tlie  value  of  the 
buildings  and  grounds  is  $1,000,000.  St.  Peter’s  cathedral  (Roman  Catholic)  is  the 
finest  church  edifice  in  the  city.  It  is  180  ft.  long  and  60  and  90  ft.  deep,  in  the 
pure  Grecian  style,  with  a stone  spire  224  ft.  high.  The  number  of  churches  in 
Cincinnati  exceeds  150,  of  which  upwards  of  40  are  Roman  Catholic,  the  rest  being 
divided  among  a large  number  of  Protestant  sects.  The  public  library  contains 

60.000  volumes,  the  young  men’s  mercantile  library  27,000,  and  the  historical  library 

18.000  and  many  valuable  MSS.  There  are  in  the  city  five  literary  colleges,  six 
medical  colleges,  one  law  school,  one  college  of  dentistry,  five  commercial  colleges,  and 
a university.  The  common  schools,  about  30  in  number,  are  well  organized  and 
managed.  The  Woodward  and  Hughes  high  schools  have  a high  reputation  for  effl- 
<jiency.  The  Roman  Catholics  support  over  100  parochial  schools.  The  Wesleyan  col- 
lege for  women,  established  here  in  1842,  has  preparatory,  academic,  and  collegiate 
departments,  and  a department  of  music  and  art.  St.  Xavier’s  college,  administered  by 
the  Jesuits,  alfords  instruction  to  many  students.  Lane  theological  seminary,  on  Wal- 
nut hills,  a Presbyterian  institution,  was  organized  in  1829,  with  an  endowment  of 
$200,000.  Cincinnati  is  the  center  of  a vast  network  of  railroads,  by  means  of  which  it 
is  in  direct  and  easy  communication  with  every  portion  of  the  country.  It  is  con- 
nected wdth  lake  Erie  by  the  Miami  canal,  and  the  Ohio  river  opens  for  it  a channel  of 
intercourse  with  a vast  region,  rapidly  increasing  in  population  and  commerce.  It  is 
well  supplied  with  daily  and  weekly  papers  and  other  periodicals,  and  is  the  center  of  a 
vast  and  various  manufacturing  industry  and  a widely  extended  commerce.  Pop.  in 
’80,  255,804.  The  city  was  founded  in  1789  by  settlers  from  New  Jersey.  Hostile  Indians 
at  that  time  rendered  the  navigation  of  the  Ohio  difficult  and  dangerous,  and  its  prog- 
ress for  many  years  was  slow.  After  the  introduction  of  steam  it  grew  rapidly.  Though 
saved  from  the  inroads  of  slavery  by  the  ordinance  of  1787,  its  proximity  to,  and  its 
social  and  commercial  relations  with,  the  slave  states,  induced  among  its  inhabitants  an 
inveterate  opposition  to  every  scheme  of  emancipation.  From  1831  to  1838,  the  public 
discussion  of  slavery  there  was  hardly  less  odious  and  dangerous  than  it  was  in  New 

U.  K.  III.-55 


• Cincinnati. 
Cinnamic. 


866 


Orleans  and  Richmond.  Two  or  three  times  an  anti-slavery  press  established  there  by 
James  G.  Birney  was  destroyed  by  a mob,  with  the  open  and  avowed  sanction  of  emi- 
nent citizens  and  the  connivance  of  the  city  government.  The  excuse  urged  for  these 
outrages  was  that  C.  depended  for  her  prosperity  largely  upon  her  trade  with  the  slave 
states,  and  that  this  trade  could  not  be  retained  if  an  anti-slavery  journal  were  toler- 
ated. The  city  was  a rendezvous  and  a thoroughfare  for  fugitive  slaves  on  their  flight  to 
Canada,  and  thus  served  to  keep  the  people  in  a state  of  constant  fermentation.  Levi 
Coffin,  a Quaker  citizen  of  the  place,  who  lately  died  at  an  advanced  age,  was  proud  to 
declare  that  he  had  harbored  no  less  than  3,000  of  these  fugitives,  not  one  of  whom  failed 
to  make  good  his  escape.  A large  proportion  of  the  population,  moreover,  were  natives 
of  the  south,  and  therefore  in  natural  sympathy  with  the  region  whence  they  had  emi- 
grated. So  strong  was  this  sympathy  in  1862,  when  an  attack  by  a confederate  force 
was  expected,  that  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  put  the  city  under  martial  law.  These 
memories,  however  unpleasant,  are  a part  of  the  history  of  a period  now  happily  passed 
away. 

CINCINNATI  (the  Cincinnatuses),  a society  or  order  in  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  established  by  the  oflicers  of  the  revolutionary  army  in  1783,  “to  perpetuate 
their  friendship,  and  to  raise  a fund  for  relieving  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those  who 
had  fallen  during  the  war.”  It  was  so  named  b^ecause  it  included  patriots,  headed  by 
Washington,  who  in  many  instances  had  left  rural  affairs  to  serve  their  country  (see 
CrNCLNNATUs).  The  badge  of  the  society  is  a bald  eagle  suspended  by  a dark-blue 
ribbon  with  white  borders,  symbolizing  the  union  of  France  and  America.  On  the 
breast  of  the  eagle  there  is  a figure  of  Cincinnatus  receiving  the  military  ensigns  from 
the  senators,  with  the  plow  in  the  background;  round  the  whole  are  the  words.  Omnia, 
reliquit  servare  rempuUicam.  On  the  reverse,  the  same  hero  is  represented  crowned  by 
fame  with  a wreath  on  which  is  inscribed  mrtutis  preemium,  etc.  As  this  distinction 
was  made  hereditary,  it  was  attacked  as  opposed  to  republican  equality.  Franklin  saw 
in  it  the  germ  of  a future  aristocracy,  and  at  a meeting  held  in  Philadelphia  in  1784, 
several  changes  were  made  in  the  constitution  of  the  society,  and  in  several  of  the 
states  it  was  quietly  abolished.  There  are  still,  however,  several  state  societies,  which 
hold  a general  meeting  by  delegates  triennially. 

CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF  THE  {ante).  At  the  second  general  meeting,  in  1787, 
Washington  was  elected  president-general,  and  was  re-elected  every  third  year  during 
his  life.  His  successors  in  office  were  Alexander  Hamilton  and  the  Pinckneys;  and 
when  Lafayette  visited  the  country  in  1824,  he  was  its  only  surviving  maj.gen.  The 
last  survivor  of  the  original  association  w^as  Robert  Burnet,  of  New  York,  wdio  died  in 
1854.  The  society  now  exists  but  in  four  or  five  states.  Hamilton  Fish,  ex-secretary 
of  state,  is  the  presiding  officer,  and  the  largest  gatherings  are  at  the  annual  meetings 
in  New  York  city.  Nearly  all  the  prominent  generals  in  the  U.  S.  army  have  been 
or  are  now  members  of  the  society.  It  has  been  thought  or  charged  that  the  society  has 
some  political  partisan  significance  or  inclination,  but  this  is  not  the  fact.  The  Tam- 
many society,  which  is  aggressively  partisan,  was  started  to  oppose  the  society  of  the 
Cincinnati,  because  the  latter  was  supposed  to  be  established  in  the  interest  of  the 
wealthier  and  more  aristocratic  classes. 

CINCINNAT'US,  Lucius  Quinctius,  a Roman  consul,  regarded  by  the  later  Romans 
as  the  model  of  antique  virtue  and  simple  manners.  So  far  as  we  can  discern  his  char- 
acter through  the  veil  of  legend,  C.  appears  to  have  been  a violent  patrician.  About 
460  B.C.,  he  was  chosen  consul,  and  two  years  later  was  made  dictator.  When  the 
messengers  from  Rome  came  to  tell  C.  of  his  new  dignity,  thej’’  found  him  plowing  on 
his  small  farm.  He  soon  rescued  the  consul  Lucius  Minucius,  who  had  been  defeated 
and  surrounded  by  the  JEqui.  Livy’s  account  of  the  mode  in  which  the  deliverance 
was  effected  is  rejected  by  Niebuhr,  who  points  out  the  inconsistencies  and  impossibili- 
ties of  the  story,  and  seems  disposed  to  regard  the  whole  as  a mere  myth.  We  are  next 
informed  that,  after  a dictatorship  of  sixteen  days,  C.  returned  to  his  small  farm  on 
the  Tiber.  When  80  years  old,  he  was  once  more  made  dictator  (439  b.c.),  and  sup- 
pressed a threatened  plebeian  insurrection. 

CINDER-BED,  a name  given  by  the  quarrymen  to  a stratum  of  the  Upper  Purbeck 
Beric-3,  almost  entirely  composed  of  the  loosely  aggregated  shells  of  a small  oyster 
{ostrea  amorta). 

CIN'EAS,  the  vihief  adviser  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus.  His  most  famous  work 
was  in  visiting  Rome,  to  arrange  for  peace,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Romans  in  280  b.c. 
In  Rome,  he  learned  in  a single  day  the  name  of  every  man  of  importance  in  the  city. 
He  was  not  successful  in  securing  peace,  and  when  he  returned  he  told  Pyrrhus  that 
Rome  was  a temple  and  its  senate  an  assembly  of  kings. 

CINERA  RIA,  a genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  compo&itce,  sub-order  coi'ymbifera, 
very  nearly  allied  to  senecio  (groundsel,  ragwort,  etc.),  from  which  it  differs  only  in 
having  the  involucre  formed  of  one  row  of  equal  erect  scales.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  widely  diffused  over  the  world  in  very  various  climates.  They  are 
annual  or  perennial  herbaceous  plants;  with  simple,  generally  toothed  or  sinuate 
leaves.  Many  of  them  are  remarkable  for  the  ashy  appearance  of  the  lower  part  of 


867 


Cincinnati* 

Cinnamic. 


the  leaves,  whence  their  name  (Lat.  cinis,  -eris,  ashes).  The  leaves  are  often  covered 
with  a peculiar  sort  of  down.  Two  small  species  are  natives  of  the  southern  parts  of 
Britain.  The  flowers  of  some  are  very  pretty.  G.  maritima,  a native  of  the  s.  of 
Europe,  and  other  species,  have  for  some  time  been  much  cultivated  in  gardens  and 
green-houses.  Many  hybrids  and  varieties  have  been  produced  by  cultivation. 

CIN'ERAKY  URNS  (Lat.  cinis,  ashes)  were  used  by  the  nations  of  antiquity  to  contain 
the  ashes  of  the  dead  when  gathered  from  the  funeral  pile.  Previous  to  being  deposited 
in  the  urn,  the  embers  were  soaked  with  wine;  the  urn  was  then  placed  in  a niche  in  the 
family  mausoleum.  Only  the  wealthy  could  afford  so  expensive  a rite.  C.  U.  were  either 
sculptured  in  marble,  or  formed  of  clay  or  glass.  They  were  not  always  in  the  form  in 
which  we  commonly  see  them  represented  on  modern  tombs.  The  celebrated  cinerary 
urn  known  by  the  name  of  the  Portland  or  Barberini  vase,  preserved  in  the  British 
museum,  a beautiful  production  of  Greek  art,  was  discovered  about  the  middle  of  the 
16th  c.,  in  a marble  sarcophagus  in  a sepulcher  (believed  to  be  that  of  the  Roman 
emperor  Alexander  Severus,  223-235  a.d.)  at  Monte  del  Grano,  near  Rome.  The  height 
of  the  urn  is  10  inches.  One  of  the  finest  specimens  yet  discovered  in  the  British  isles,  is 
preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  royal  Irish  academy.  It  was  found  in  a small  stone 
chamber  near  Bagnalstown,  co.  of  Carlow.  It  is  composed  of  very  fine  clay,  and  is  but 
2i  in.  high.  It  contained  the  burnt  bones  of  an  infant  or  very  young  child. 

CINI'SI,  a t.  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  14  m.  w.n.w.  of  Palermo,  near  the 
coast.  It  is  a neat,  cheerful  town,  with  straight,  regular  streets,  and  has  6,714  inhabit- 
ants. The  Benedictine  convent  here  was  once  a feudal  castle. 

CIN'NA,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a Roman  noble,  was  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of 
the  faction  of  Marius.  After  Sulla  had  driven  Marius  from  the  city,  and  before  setting 
out  on  his  expedition  against  Mithridates,  he  allowed  C.  to  be  elected  to  the  consulship. 
But  C.  had  no  sooner  entered  upon  that  office  (87  b.c.),  than  he  impeached  Sulla,  endeav- 
ored to  form  an  interest  among  the  citizens  who  had  been  added  to  Rome  after  the 
social  war,  and  agitated  for  the  recall  of  Marius.  The  events  which  led  to  the  return  of 
Marius  are  stated  in  the  article  Marius  (q.v.).  After  a cruel  massacre  of  the  Roman  citi- 
zens, in  which  some  of  the  most  eminent  statesmen  and  orators  were  slain,  Marius  and 
C.  declared  themselves  consuls.  On  the  death  of  Marius,  which  occurred  within  a few 
days  of  his  usurpation,  C.  made  L.  V.  Flaccus  his  colleague  for  that  year,  and  C.  P. 
Carbo  for  the  two  succeeding  years.  In  84  h.c.,  he  prepared  to  meet  Sulla,  who  was 
then  on  his  way  from  the  east  to  take  vengeance  upon  his  enemies,  but  was  slain  by  his 
disaffected  troops  at  Brundusium.  During  his  fourth  consulate,  his  daughter  Cornelia 
had  been  married  to  Julius  Caesar. 

CIN'NABAR,  an  ore  of  mercury,  from  which  almost  all  the  mercury  of  commerce  is 
obtained.  Chemically,  it  is  a bisulphuret  of  mercury,  containing  86.2  parts  of  mercury 
and  13.8  of  sulphur.  It  occurs  both  crystallized  and  massive,  not  unfrequently  dissem- 
inated. Its  crystals  are  six-sided  prisms.  It  varies  from  perfectly  opaque  to  almost 
transparent;  has  an  adamantine  almost  metallic  luster,  and  a carmine  color,  with  a bright 
scarlet  streak.  Its  specific  gravity  is  8 to  8. 2.  Hepatic  G.,  so  called  from  its  liver-brown 
color,  is  a variety  containing  a little  carbon.  C.  sometimes  occurs  in  primitive  rocks, 
but  more  frequently  in  those  of  the  coal  formation,  and  is  sometimes  even  intimately 
mixed  with  coal  itself.  It  is,  however,  a rare  mineral,  and  is  nowhere  found  in  Britain. 
The  C.  mines  of  Almaden,  in  Spain,  have  been  worked  for  about  2,300  years,  and  are 
still  the  most  productive  in  the  world.  At  Almaden,  the  C.  is  found  in  a dark-colored 
slate  mixed  with  quartzite.  Next  to  the  mines  of  Almaden,  rank  those  of  Idria  in  Car- 
niola.  C.  mines  exist  also  in  Germany,  Hungary,  Peru,  California,  China,  Japan,  etc. 
C.  is  used  as  a pigment  under  the  name  of  mrmilion. 

CINNAM  IC  ACID  AND  THE  CINNAMTL  SERIES.  Cinnamyl  is  a compound  radical, 
as  yet  unisolated,  which  is  represented  by  the  formula  C18H7O2,  and  which  includes 
amongst  its  compounds  cinnamic  acid  (CisHtOs.HO),  oil  of  cinnamon,  which  is 
chemically  a slightly  impure  aldehyde  of  cinnamic  acid,  or  a hydride  of  cinnamyl 
(CisHtOsjH),  chloride  of  cinnamyl  (CisHtOs.CI),  styrone  or  peruvine,  known  chemically 
as  cinnamic  alcohol  (CieHioOa),  cinnamol  and  styrol,  each  represented  by  the  formula 
CieHe,  and  styracin  (C18H16O4).  We  shall  briefly  notice  the  most  important  of 
these  compounds — viz.,  cinnamic  acid  and  oil  of  cinnamon.  Ginnamic acid 
crystallizes  in  colorless  prisms,  which  are  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but 
dissolve  readily  in  boiling  water,  alcohol,  and  ether*  It  fuses  at  266°,  and  boils 
with  or  without  decomposition,  according  to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  heated,  at 
about  570°.  It  is  converted  by  most  decomposing  agents  into  benzoyl  compounds, 
such  as  benzoic  acid,  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  etc. ; for  example,  when  fused  with  hydrate 
of  potash,  it  assimilates  the  elements  of  water,  and  breaks  up  into  acetic  and  benzoic 
acids;  when  boiled  with  peroxide  of  lead,  it  is  converted  into  oil  of  bitter  almonds  and 
benzoic  acid,  etc.  It  exists  naturally  in  a free  state  in  liquid  storax,  the  balsams  of 
Tolu  and  Peru,  and  gum  benzoin,  and  is  often  deposited  in  large  crystals  from  old  sam- 
ples of  oil  of  cinnamon  and  from  cinnamon  water.  It  is  always  formed  from  oil  of 
cinnamon  when  the  latter  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  and  it  has  been  syntheti- 
cally or  artificially  formed  by  exposing  equivalent  quantities  of  chloracetyl  (C4H3O2CI) 


Cinnamon. 

Cluti-a. 


868 


and  oil  of  bitter  almonds  (C^HeOs)  to  a prolonged  heat  in  a closed  glass  tube.  Oil  of 
cinnamon  and  oil  of  cassia,  although  prepared  from  different  kinds  of  trees,  are  virtually 
identical  in  their  composition,  each  consisting  mainly  of  cinnamic  aldehyde,  or  hydride 
of  cinnamyl,  mixed  with  certain  resinous  matters.  Oil  of  cinnamon  is  an  article  of  the 
materia  medica,  and  in  doses  of  one  minim  to  a five-grain  pill,  forms  an  excellent  aro- 
matic addition  to  cathartic  pill-masses. 

CIN'NAMON  is  the  spicy,  aromatic,  and  stimulating  bark  of  certain  species  of  the 
genus  cinnamomum.  This  genus  belongs  to  the  natural  order  lauraccoi,  and  was  formerly 
included  in  laurus.  It  contains  a considerable  number  of  species,  natives  of  tropical 
and  subtropical  parts  of  the  east.  C.  has  been  in  use  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  by  a name  almost  the  same  as  that  which  it  still 
bears  in  most  languages.  The  finest  kind  is  said  to  be  chiefly  produced  by  cinnamomum 
zeylanicum  (formerly,  laurus  cinnamomum),  which  chiefly  grows  in  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
although,  having  been  introduced  into  the  West  Indies  in  1782,  along  with  various  other 
plants  of  the  east,  it  is  now  cultivated  there  to  some  extent.  The  tree  attains  the 
height  of  20  to  30  ft.,  and  is  sometimes  foot  in  thickness.  Its  bark  is  of  a grayish- 
brown  color,  internally  of  a yellowish  red.  The  leaves  are  oval,  4 to  6 in.  long,  with 
a blunt  point,  and  marked  with  three  principal  nerves.  They  have  the  taste  of  cloves. 
The  flowers  are  of  a silky  gray  on  the  outside,  and  a pale-yellowish  color  internally. 
The  fruit  is  somewhat  like  an  acorn  in  shape;  it  is  a small  drupe,  brown  when  ripe. 
There  are  two  seasons  of  cinnamon-harvest  in  Ceylon,  the  first  commencing  in  April, 
and  the  last  in  Nov. — the  former  being  that  in  which  the  chief  crop  is  obtained.  The 
branches  of  3 to  5 years’  growth  being  cut  down,  the  epidermis  is  scraped  away;  the  bark 
is  then  ripped  up  longitudinally  with  a knife,  and  gradually  loosened,  till  it  can  be 
taken  off.  The  slices  are  then  exposed  to  the  sun,  when,  as  it  dries,  it  curls  up  into  quills, 
the  smaller  of  which  are  inserted  into  the  larger,  and  the  whole  tied  up  in  bundles  of 
about  88  lbs.  each.  C.  is  examined  and  arranged  according  to  its  quality  by  persons 
who  are  obliged  for  this  purpose  to  taste  and  chew  it,  although  in  a short  time  it  pro- 
duces painful  effects  on  their  mouths  and  tongues.  The  finest  C.  is  yielded  by  the 
young  branches  of  the  tree,  especially  by  the  numerous  shoots  which  spring  up  from 
the  stump  after  a tree  has  been  cut  down,  and  which  are  cut  when  about  10  ft.  long, 
and  of  the  thickness  of  an  ordinary  walking-stick.  The  smell,  particularly  of  the  thin- 
nest pieces,  is  delightfully  fragrant,  and  the  taste  pungent  and  aromatic,  with  a mixture 
of  sweetness  and  astringency.  It  is  used  like  other  spices  by  cooks  and  confectioners, 
and  also  in  medicine  as  a tonic,  stomachic,  and  carminative.  The  average  quantity 
annually  imported  into  London  is  about  500,000  lbs.  Its  virtues  depend  chiefly  upon 
the  essential  oil  which  it  contains  (c»2-7  Oil  of  cassia  is  very  often  substi- 

tuted for  this  oil,  as  cassia — which,  however,  may  readily  be  distinguished  by  its  muci- 
laginous taste — is  for  cinnamon.  The  root  of  the  cinnamon-tree  contains  camphor.  The 
fruit  yields  a concrete  oil,  called  cinnamon  suet,  which  is  highly  fragrant,  and  in  Ceylon 
was  formerly  made  into  candles,  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  king. — Cassia  (q.v.)  is  the 
produce  of  another  species  of  cinnamomum, — C.  loureirii,  a native  of  Cochin  China  and 
Japan,  is  said  to  yield  a bark  even  superior  to  that  of  G.  zeylanicum.  A species  of  C,, 
which  ascends  to  the  elevation  of  8,500  ft.  in  the  Sikkim  Himalaya,  deserves  a trial  even 
in  the  climate  of  Britain. 

The  constituents  of  C.  are  a volatile  oil  {oil  of  C.),  tannin,  starch,  mucilage,  w^oody- 
flber,  resin,  coloring  matter,  and  an  acid.  The  oil  of  C.  is  generally  prepared  in  Ceylon 
by  grinding  the  coarsest  pieces  of  C.,  soaking  them  in  sea-water  for  two  or  three  days, 
and  then  distilling.  Two  oils  pass  over,  one  lighter,  the  other  heavier  than  water.  Oil 
of  C.  varies  in  color  from  yellow  to  cherry-red,  the  yellow  variety  being  considered  the 
best,  and  is  most  highly  esteemed.  Oil  of  C.  leaf  is,  prepared  from  the  leaves  in  Ce}don 
by  a similar  process,  and  is  met  with  in  commerce  under  the  name  of  clove  oil,  which  it 
much  resembles  in  odor.  C.  water  is  obtained  by  adding  water  to  C.,  and  distilling  a 
large  quantity,  or  by  diffusing  the  oil  of  C.  through  water  by  the  aid  of  sugar  or  carbo- 
nate of  magnesia.  Spirit  of  G.  is  procured  by  acting  upon  C.  with  spirit  of  wine  and 
water,  and  distilling;  and  tincture  of  G,,  by  soaking  C.  in  spirit  of  wine,  and  straining. 
The  medicinal  properties  of  C.,  and  its  preparation,  are  aromatic  and  carminative,  and 
it  is  serviceable  in  cases  of  nausea  and  vomiting,  and  in  cases  of  flatulence  and  spas- 
modic states  of  the  stomach  and  alimentary  canal. 

CINNAMON-STONE,  a precious  stone,  of  which  the  finer  specimens  are  highly 
esteemed;  it  is  regarded  as  a variety  of  garnet  (q.v.).  Its  color  varies  from  hyacinth 
red  to  orange  yellow;  and  when  pure,  it  is  transparent.  It  is  composed  essentially  of 
silica,  alumina,  and  lime.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  Ceylon,  where  vast  bowlders  of  gneiss 
containing  it  in  profusion  exist  in  many  places. 

CIN'NYEIS.  See  Sun-birds. 

CINQU^  CEN'TO  (Ital.),  five  hundred.  A technical,  or  rather  slang  artistic  term, 
used  to  designate  the  style  of  art  which  arose  in  Italy  after  the  year  1500,  and  which 
therefore  belongs  to  the  16th  c. ; i.e.,  after  the  fall  of  all  the  great  schools.  It  is  sensu- 
ous in  its  character,  the  subjects  chosen  being  usually  borrowed  from  heathen  mythology 
or  history 


869 


Cinnamon* 

Cintra. 


CINQUE'FOIL,  in  botany.  See  Potentilla. 

CINQUEFOIL,  a common  bearing  in  heraldry.  It  is  usually  depicted  with  the  leaves 
issuing  from  a ball  as  a center  point. — C.,  in  architecture,  is  an  ornamental  foliation  in 
five  compartments,  used  in  the  tracery  of  windows,  panelings,  and  the  like.  The  C. 
is  often  represented  in  a circular  form,  the  spaces  between  the  points  or  cusps  repre- 
senting the  five  leaves. 

The  C.  of  heraldry  and  of  architecture  is  not  derived  from  any  leaf  of  five  leaflets, 
but,  as  its  perfect  regularity  of  form  indicates,  from  the  flower  of  the  plant  called  C. 
{potentilla),  or  other  similar  flower  of  five  petals  or  leaves.  The  C.  thus  closely  resembles 
the  rose,  with  which  it  would,  indeed,  be  identified,  but  that  a double  and  not  a single 
rose  is  chosen  for  the  purposes  of  heraldry  and  decorative  art. 

CINQUE'  PORTS  (Fr.  five  ports).  It  is  said  that  the  five  maritime  ports  of  England 
lying  opposite  to  the  coast  of  France — Sandwich,  Dover,  Hythe,  Romney,  and  Hast- 
ings— were  enfranchised  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  confessor.  But  it  was  subsequent 
to  the  battle  of  Hastings  that  the  conqueror,  in  order  that  he  might  wield  the  resources 
of  the  seaports  with  greater  vigor,  constituted  this  whole  line  of  coast  into  a jurisdic- 
tion entirely  separate  from  the  counties  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  and  erected  it  into  a sort 
of  county  palatine,  under  a warden  or  guardian,  the  seat  of  whose  administration  was 
in  Dover  Castle.  The  warden,  whose  office  corresponded  to  that  of  the  ancient  count 
of  the  Saxon  coast  {comes  littoris  Saxonici),  exercised  jurisdiction,  civil,  military,  and 
naval,  uniting  in  his  single  person  the  functions  of  sheriff,  custos  rotulorum,  lord-lieu- 
tenant, and  admiral.  Privileges  equal  to  those  originally  bestowed  on  the  C.  P.  were  subse- 
quently extended  to  the  so-called  ancient  towns  of  Winchelsea  and  Rye,  and  most  of  the 
municipal  towns  had  subordinate  ports  and  towns  attached  to  them,  which  were  called 
members.  In  place  of  the  Saxon  terms  of  aldermen  and  freemen,  those  of  jurats  and 
barons  were  introduced,  and  the  latter  term  has  always  been  applied  to  the  representa- 
tives of  the  C.  P.  in  parliament.  The  chief  function  performed  by  the  C.  P.  in  early 
times  consisted  in  furnishing  such  shipping  as  w'as  required  for  the  purposes  of  the 
state,  the  crown  having  possessed  no  permanent  navy  previous  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. 
In  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  they  were  bound  to  provide  no  less  than  57  ships,  fully 
equipped  and  manned  at  their  own  cost;  though  the  weight  of  this  heavy  burden  was 
somewhat  lessened  by  the  provision,  that  the  period  of  gratuitous  service  should  be 
limited  to  15  days.  In  consequence  of  the  warlike  navy  which  they  were  thus  com- 
pelled to  maintain,  the  C.  P.  became  so  confident  in  their  strength,  and  so  insolent  and 
audacious,  as  not  only  to  undertake  piratical  expeditions,  but  even  to  make  war  and 
form  confederacies  as  independent  states.  Previous  to  the  revolution  of  1688,  the 
lord-wardens  were  in  use  to  nominate  the  barons,  or  parliamentary  representatives  of 
the  C.  P. ; but  in  1689,  an  act  was  passed  to  “declare  the  right  and  freedom  of  elec- 
tion of  members  to  serve  in  parliament  for  the  cinque  ports.”  The  reform  bill  of 
1832  reduced  the  number  of  members  sent  to  parliament  by  the  C.  P.  from  16  to  8, 
and  the  municipal  reform  act  has  broken  up  the  ancient  organization  of  the  ports, 
and  assimilated  their  internal  arrangements  to  those  of  other  English  municipalties. 
The  ancient  courts  of  Stepway,  Brotherhood,  and  Guestling  are  still  occasionally  held, 
but  their  powers  scarcely  extend  beyond  matters  of  form,  such  as  appointing  the 
barons,  who  are  to  exercise  an  ancient  privilege  of  the  ports,  which  consists  in  carry- 
ing the  canopy  over  the  sovereign’s  head  at  a coronation.  The  lord-warden’s  juris- 
diction, in  relation  to  civil  suits  and  proceedings,  was  abolished  by  18  and  19  Viet.  c. 
48,  amended  by  20  and  21  Viet.  c.  1. 

CIN  TRA,  a small  but  picturesquely  situated  town  in  Portugal,  in  the  province  of 
Estremadura,  about  15  m.  w.n.w.  of  Lisbon,  with  a pop.  of  4,000.  It  stands  on  the 
declivity  of  the  Sierra  de  Cintra,  and  is  surrounded  by  country  residences.  There  is  a 
palace  at  C. , a strange  mixture  of  Moorish  and  Christian  architecture,  anciently  occu- 
pied by  the  Moorish  kings,  and  subsequently  a favorite  residence  of  the  Christian  mon- 
archs,  A charming  view  of  the  town  and  of  the  sea  is  to  be  had  from  the  top  of  a hill 
crowned  jvith  the  ruins  of  a Moorish  castle.  On  another  hill-top  stands  La  Penna,  once 
a convent,  now  a residence  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  who  has  restored  and  given  it  the 
outward  appearance  of  a feudal  castle.  In  the  neighborhood,  also,  is  what  is  called  the 
Cork  convent,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  cells — V’^hich  are  cut  out  in  the  rock — 
being  lined  with  cork  to  prevent  damp. 

C.  is  historically  remarkable  for  the  convention  concluded  here,  Aug.  22,  1808, 
between  the  English  and  French,  by  which  the  iMter  agreed  to  evacuate  Portugal.  " 
Junot  had  been  defeated  by  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  at  yimieira,  and  had  retreated  towards 
Torres  Vedras  and  Lisbon,  whither  the  English  under  sir  Hew  Dalrymple,who  had  just  ' 
arrived  and  assumed  the  chief  command,  were  preparing  to  follow  them.  But  the 
French,  despairing  of  finally  holding  out,  agreed  to  evacuate  the  country,  on  condition 
of  not  being  treated  as  prisoners  of  war,  but  landed  on  the  coast  of  France,  retaining 
their  arms  and  effects.  This  convention  excited  the  greatest  public  indignation  both  in 
the  Peninsula  and  in  England.  Several  English  newspapers  appeared  in  mourning,  and 
the  ministry  were  obliged  to  have  the  generals  who  signed  the  convention  tried  by  a 
court-martial,  which,  however,  resulted  in  their  acquittal.  In  fact,  though  the  terms  of 
the  convention  might  be  advantageous  for  the  French,  to  obtain  immediate  possession 


Clone. 

pircle. 


870 


Df  Portugal  and  Lisbon,  instead  of  being  put  to  the  necessity  of  a bloody  siege  for 
months,  was  no  less  advantageous  to  the  English  and  their  allies.  Such,  at  least,  was 
the  opinion  of  two  competent  judges — Napoleou  and  Wellington. 

CIO'NE,  Andrea  di.  See  Orcagna. 

CIOTAT,  La,  a t.  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  situated  on  the 
w.  side  of  a bay  in  the  Mediterranean,  about  15  m.  s.e.  of  Marseilles,  in  the  midst  of  a 
district  clad  with  olive,  orange,  and  pomegranate  plantations.  It  is  well  built  and  has 
a good  and  commodious  harbor,  formed  by  a mole,  and  well  defended.  The  industry 
consists  in  cotton-spinning,  ship-building,  and  an  active  trade  in  the  produce  of  the  dis- 
trict. Pop.  ’73,  8,233. 

CI'PHER,  an  ornamental  arrangement  of  the  initial  letters  of  a name,  by  which  they 
become  also  a private  mark,  adopted  by  artists  and  architects  as  distinctive  of  their 
work.  That  of  Albrecht  Diirer  is  well  known, 

CI'PHER- WRITING.  See  Cryptography. 

CIPRIA  NI,  Giambattista,  painter  and  copper-engraver,  was  b.  in  Florence,  1733, 
or,  according  to  others,  in  1727,  and  when  19  years  old,  went  to  Rome,  where  he  chose 
Correggio  as  a model,  and  soon  gained  a high  reputation.  Invited  by  certain  English 
residents  in  Rome,  the  artist  came  to  London  about  1754,  where  he  was  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  royal  academy  (founded  1769)  and  died  in  1785.  His  drawing  is 
correct,  his  coloring  harmonious,  his  heads  have  grace  and  loveliness,  and  the  general 
style  of  his  works  is  attractive,  although  exceedingly  conventional.  A series  of  small 
copper-plate  illustrations  of  Orlando  Furioso  well  exemplifies  his  graceful  style.  Several 
of  Bartolozzi’s  best  engravings  are  in  C.’s  manner. 

CIRC.2S'A  (from  Circe,  q.v.),  a genus  of  rather  pretty  little  herbaceous  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Onagracece,  with  a deeply  2-cleft  calyx,  a corolla  of  two  petals,  and  two 
stamens.  C.  lutetiana  is  frequent  in  shady  situations  in  Britain,  and  in  most  parts  of 
the  continent  of  Europe.  It  bears  the  English  name  of  Enchanter’s  Nightshade,  and 
in  Germany  it  is  called  Hexenkraut  (witches’  herb).  The  origin  of  such  names  is  not 
easily  explained.  The  plant  possesses  no  remarkable  properties,  being  merely  a little 
astringent.  Other  species  are  found  in  the  Himalayas,  etc. 

CIRCAR,  an  Indian  term  applied  to  the  component  parts  of  a province,  each  of 
which  is  administered  by  a deputy  governor.  In  English,  it  is  principally  employed  in 
the  name  of  the  Northern  Circars,  used  to  designate  a now  obsolete  division  of  the 
Madras  presidency,  which  consisted  of  a narrow  slip  of  territory  lying  along  the  w.  side 
of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  from  15°  40'  to  20°  17'  north.  These  Northern  Circars  were  Cicacole, 
Rajahmundry,  Ellore,  Condapilly,  and  Guntoor,  in  all  30,000  sq.  miles. 

CIRCASSIA,  a division  of  the  Western  Caucasus,  comprising  the  n.,  and  also  a por- 
tion of  the  s.  slope  of  that  mountain-range  extending  in  lat.  42°  to  45°  n,,  and  long.*37°  to 
47°  east.  See  Caucasus. 

CIRCASSIANS,  in  the  wide  sense  of  the  term,  is  the  name  given  to  all  the  independent 
tribes  of  the  Caucasus ; in  a narrower  sense,  it  denotes  the  tribes  who  inhabited  the 
western  part  of  the  range  which  is  called,  in  consequence,  Circassia.  The  C.  proper, 
however,  occupied  only  the  s.w.  wing  of  the  Caucasus,  with  the  exclusion  of  Abasia, 
or  the  portion  between  the  Black  sea  in  the  w.  and  the  lower  bank  of  the  river  Kuban 
in  the  north.  They  call  themselves  Adighe,  but  the  Russians  and  Turks  call  them 
2'cherkesses.  On  their  conquest  by  Russia  in  1864,  rather  than  remain  in  subjection  to 
that  power  they  chose  to  emigrate  to  Turkey,  and  from  400,000  to  500,000,  or  nearly 
the  whole  nation  of  15  tribes,  carried  this  resolution  into  effect.  The  greater  part  of 
them  were  distributed  over  the  Turkish  possessions  in  Asia  Minor,  but  others  were  Set- 
tled in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Bulgaria  and  on  the  borders  of  Servia.  In  their  origi- 
nal country  they  were  a marauding  and  warlike  people,  amongst  whom  it  was  held  more 
honorable  to  live  by  plunder  than  by  peaceful  industry.  In  common  with  all  brigand 
tribes,  the  C.  cherished  the  most  unrestrained  love  of  independence.  Their  government 
was  a singular  compound  of  constitutionalism  and  feudalism.  There  were  five  distinct 
ranks  in  the  nation — viz.,  chiefs  or  princes,  nobles,  common  freemen,  dependants,  and 
slaves.  The  class  of  common  freemen  made  up  the  great  mass  of  the  people;  they  pos- 
sessed property,  and  enjoyed  the  same  political  rights  as  the  nobles.  The  fourth  class, 
the  dependants,  were  the  vassals  of  the  princes  and  nobles,  whose  lands  they  cultivated, 
and  whose  armies  they  formed.  Yet  theii  lord  had  no  right  over  their  persons;  for  in 
some  cases  they  and  their  whole  families  left  him;  and  they  could  only  be  sold  as  slaves 
for  punishment  according  to  the  previous  verdict  of  a national  assembly.  The  fifth 
class  comprised  the  slaves,  or  those  who  had  been  made  captive  in  war.  That  the  C. 
have  not  lost  some  of  the  worst  traits  of  their  natural  character  since  their  settlement  in 
Turkey  is  shown  by  their  participation  in  the  Bulgarian  massacres  of  1876  and  1877. 

The  C.  princes  and  nobles  are  principally  Mohammedans,  whilst  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  have  a religion  which  is  a kind  of  mixture  of  Christianity  and  paganism,  in 
which  the  celebration  of  Easter,  the  sign  of  the  cross,  sacred  trees,  sacrifice,  and  proces- 
sions with  lights,  play  an  important  part.  Besides  agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle, 
they  possess  a few  other  branches  of  industry.  The  0.  are  proverbially  handsome; 


871 


Clone. 

Circle. 


they  are  also  strong,  active  and  temperate,  and  are  characterized  by  the  higher  attributes 
of  self-dependence,  courage,  and  prudence.  As  a nation  they  made  their  first  historical 
appearance  during  the  middle  ages.  They  are,  however,  chiefly  known  through  their 
long  struggles  to  maintain  their  independence  against  the  aggression  of  Russia.  See 
Caucasus.  For  their  place  in  ethnology,  see  Caucasian  Vakiety  op  Mankind. 


CIBC£,  a fabulous  sorceress,  is  described  by  Homer  as  “ fair-haired,  a clever  goddess, 
possessing  human  speech,”  sister  of  “all-wise  -^Fsetes,”  daughter  of  “the  Sun,  who 
gives  light  to  mortals,  and  of  Perse,  whom  Ocean  begot  as  his  daughter.”  Round  her 
palace  in  ^sea  were  numbers  of  human  beings,  whom  she  had  changed  into  the  shapes 
of  wolves  and  lions  by  her  drugs  and  incantations.  She  changed  two-and-twenty  of 
the  companions  of  Ulysses  into  swine,  but  that  hero,  having  obtained  from  Mercury  the 
herb  moly,  went  boldly  to  the  palace  of  the  sorceress,  remained  uninjured  by  her  drugs, 
and  induced  her  to  disenchant  his  comrades.  He  remained  with  her  for  a year;  and 
when  he  departed,  she  instructed  him  how  to  avoid  the  dangers  which  he  would 
encounter  on  his  homeward  voyage  {Odyssey,  books  x.  and  xii.).  Jealous  of  Scylla, 
whose  love  was  sought  by  Glaucus,  she  poured  the  juice  of  poisonous  herbs  into  that 
part  of  the  sea  "where  her  rival  was  accustomed  to  bathe,  and  changed  her  into  a hideous 
monster  {Metamorphoses,  book  xiv.,  fables  1 and  6). 

CIRCETI,  a t.  of  ancient  Italy,  in  Litiu  m,  at  the  foot  of  Mons  Circeius,  a short  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  10  or  12  m.  from  Terracina.  Its  ruins  are  still  visible  on  the  Monte- 
della  Cittadella,  and  consist  of  walls  and  gateways,  built  of  polygonal  blocks. 

CIRCENSIAN  GAMES.  See  Circus,  ante. 

CIRCLE,  a plane  figure  bounded  by  a curved  line,  which  returns  into  itself,  called  its 
(Circumference,  and  which  is  ever3'"where  equally  distant  from  a point  within  it  called  the 
of  the  circle.  The  circumference  is  sometimes  itself  called  the  C.,  but  this  is 
improper;  C.  is  truly  the  name  given  to  the  space  contained  within  the  circumference. 
Any  line  drawn  through  the  center,  and  terminated  by  the  circumference,  is  a diame- 
ter. It  is  obvious  that  every  diameter  is  bisected  in  the  center.  (See  Arc,  Chord.)  In 
co-ordinate  geometry,  the  C.  ranks  as  a curve  of  the  second  order,  and  belongsdo  the 
class  of  the  conic  sections.  It  is  got  from  the  right  cone  by  cutting  the  cone  by  a plane 
perpendicular  to  its  axis.  The  C.  may  be  described  mechanically  with  a pair  of  com- 
passes, fixing  one  foot  in  the  center,  and  turning  the  other  round  to  trace  out  the  cir- 
cumference. The  C.  and  straight  line  are  the  two  elements  of  plane  geometry,  and 
those  constructions  only  are  regarded  as  being  properly  geometrical  which  can  be 
effected  by  their  means.  As  an  element  in  plane  geometry,  its  properties  are  well  known 
and  investigated  in  all  the  text-books:  Only  a few  of  the  leading  properties  will  here 

be  stated. 

1.  Of  all  plane  figures,  the  C.  has  the  greatest  area  within  the  same  perimeter. 

2.  The  circumference  of  a C.  bears  a certain  constant  ratio  to  its  diameter.  This 
constant  ratio,  which  mathematicians  usually  denote  by  the  Greek  letter  n,  has  been 
determined  to  be  3.14159,  nearly,  so  that,  if  the  diameter  of  a C.  is  1 foot,  its  circum- 
ference is  3.14159  feet;  if  the  diameter  is  5 ft.,  the  circumference  is  5 X 3.14159;  and, 
in  general,  if  the  diameter  is  expressed  by  2r  (twice  the  radius),  then  c (circumference) 

2r  X Archimedes,  in  his  book  De  Dimensione  Circuli,  first  gave  a near  value  to 
the  ratio  between  the  circumference  and  the  diameter,  being  that  of  7 to  22.  Various 
closer  approximations  in  large  numbers  were  afterwards  made,  as,  for  instance,  the  ratio 
of  1815  to  5702.  Vieta,  in  1579,  showed  that  if  the  diameter  of  a C.  be  1000,  etc.,  then 
the  circumference  will  be  greater  than  3141.5926535,  and  less  than  3141.5926537.  This 
-approximation  he  made  through  ascertaining  the  perimeters  of  the  inscribed  andcircum 
ficribed  polygons  of  393,216  sides.  By  increasing  the  number  of  the  sides  of  the  poly- 
igons,  their  perimeters  are  brought  more  and  more  nearly  into  coincidence  with  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  circle.  The  approximation  to  the  value  of  it  has  since  been  carried 
(by  M.  de  Lagny)  to  128  places  of  figures.  It  is  now  settled  that  tt  belongs  to  the  class 
of  quantities  called  incommensurable  (q.v.),  i.e.,  it  cannot  be  expressed  by  the  ratio  of 
any  two  whole  numbers,  however  great.  In  general,  it  may  be  considered  that  3.14159 
is  a sufficiently  accurate  value  of  tt. 

Though  the  value  of  re  was  at  first  approached  by  actually  calculating  the  perimeter 
of  a polygon  of  a great  number  of  sides,  this  operose  method  was  long  ago  superseded 
by  modes  of  calculation  of  a more  refined  character,  which,  however,  cannot  here  be 
-explained.  Sufiice  it  to  say,  that  various  series  were  formed  expressing  its  value;  by 
taking  more  and  more  of  the  terms  of  which  into  account,  a closer  and  closer  approach 
>to  the  value  might  be  obtained.  We  subjoin  one  or  two  of  the  more  curious. 


^ = 4 1 


3^5 


l + i-^+etc.). 

~ — 1 — ?! 

K >y  I K rf  jCk  (7011 


3.5.7  ' 5.7.-9  7.9.11  ‘ 9.11.13 


— etc.y 


3.  The  area  of  a C.  is  equal  to  re  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  radius  (=7rr*);  or 

Tt 

to  the  square  of  the  diameter  multiplied  by  i.e.,  by  .7854.  Euclid  has  proved  this 


Circle. 


872 


by  showing  that  the  area  is  equal  to  that  of  a triangle  whose  base  is  the  circumference^, 
and  perpendicular  height  the  radius  of  the  circle. 

4.  It  follows  that  different  circles  are  to  one  another  as  the  squares  of  their  radii  or 
diameters,  and  that  their  circumferences  are  as  the  radii  or  diameters. 

Tiie  C.  is  almost  always  employed  to  measure  angles,  from  its  obvious  convenience 
for  the,purpose,  which  depends  on  the  fact  demonstrated  in  Euclid  (book  iv.  prop.  33), 
that  angles  at  the  center  of  a C.  are  proportional  to  the  arcs  on  which  they  stand.  It. 
follows,  from  this,  that  if  circles  of  the  same  radii  be  described  from  the  vertices  of 
angles  as  centers,  the  arcs  intercepted  between  the  lines,  including  the  angles,  are 
always  proportional  to  the  angles.  The  C.  thus  presents  us  with  the  means  of  compar 
ing  angles.  It  is  first  necessary,  however,  to  graduate  the  C.  itself;  for  this  purpose 
its  circumference  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  called  quadrants,  each  of  which 
obviously  subtends  a right  angle  at  the  center,  and  then  each  quadrant  is  divided  into 
degrees,  and  each  degree  into  minutes,  and  so  on.  The  systems  of  graduation  adopted 
are  various,  and  will  now  be  explained. 

The  sexagesimal  scale  is  that  in  common  use.  According  to  it,  each  quadrant  or  right 
angle  being  divided  into  90  degrees,  each  degree  is  divided  into  60  seconds,  and  each 
second  into  60  thirds,  and  so  on.  According  to  this  scale,  90°  represents  aright  angle;. 
180°,  two  right  angles,  ora  semicircle;  and  360°,  four  right  angles,  or  the  whole  circum* 
ference — the  unit  in  the  scale  being  the  ^g^^th  of  a right  angle.  As  the  divisions  of  the- 
angles  at  the  center,  effected  by  drawing  lines  from  the  center  to  the  different  points- 
of  graduation  of  the  circumference,  are  obviously  independent  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  radius,  and  therefore  of  the  circumference,  these  divisions  of  the  circumference  of 
the  C.  may  be  spoken  of  as  being  actually  divisions  of  angles.  By  laying  a graduated 
C.  over  an  angle,  and  noticing  the  number  of  degrees,  etc.,  lying  on  the  circumfer 
ence  between  the  lines  including  the  angle,  we  at  once  know  the  magnitude  of  the- 
angle.  Suppose  the  lines  to  include  between  them  3 degrees,  45  minutes,  17  seconds, 
the  angle  in  this  scale  would  be  written  3°  45'  17". 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that  the  division  of  the  quadrant  into  90  degrees  instead  of 
any  other  number,  is  quite  arbitrary.  We  may  measure  angles  by  the  C.,  however  we 
graduate  it.  Many  French  writers,  accordingly,  have  adopted  the 

Centesimal  Division  of  the  Circle. — In  this  division,  the  right  angle  is  divided  into  lOO 
degrees,  while  each  degree  is  divided  into  100  parts,  and  so  on.  This  is  a most  con- 
venient division,  as  it  requires  no  new  notation  to  denote  the  different  parts.  Such  a 
quantity  as  3°  45'  17"  is  expressed  in  this  notation  by  3.4517,  the  only  mark  required 
being  the  decimal  point  to  separate  the  degrees  from  the  parts.  Of  course,  in  this  illus- 
tration, 3°  means  3 centesimal  divisions  of  the  right  angle,  and  45'  means  45  centesimal 
minutes,  and  so  on.  If  we  want  to  translate  the  quantity  3°  of  the  common  notation 
into  the  centesimal  notation,  we  must  multiply  3 by  100,  and  divide  by  90.  To  translate- 
minutes  in  the  common  notation  into  the  centesimal,  the  rule  is  to  multiply  by  100,  and. 
divide  by  54. 

There  remains  yet  another  mode  of  measuring  angles,  known  as  the 

Circular  Measure. — The  circular  measure  of  angles  is  in  frequent  use,  and  depends- 
directly  on  the  proposition  (Euc.  vi.  33),  that  angles  at  the  center  of  a C.  are  propor- 
tional to  the  arcs  on  which  they  stand.  Let  POA  be  an  angle  at  the  center  O of  ai 
C.,  the  radius  of  which  is  r\  APB  a semicircle  whose  circumference  accordingly  = 

Ttr\  and  let  the  length  of  the  arc  AP  = a.  Then,  by  Euclid,  ^^^gbt  ang^  ~ 


Z POA  = . Now,  supposing  a and  r to  be  given,. 

It  r 

although  the  angle  POA  will  be  determined,  yet  its  nunaerical 
value  will  not  be  settled  unless  we  make  some  convention  as- 
to  what  angle  we  shall  call  unity.  We  are  free  to  make  any  con- 
vention we  please,  and  therefore  choose  such  a one  as  will  render 
the  preceding  equation  the  most  simple.  It  is  made  most  sim- 
ple if  we  take  ^ = i.  We  shall  then  have  (denoting- 

^ Tt 


the  numerical  value  of  the  angle  POA  by  6)0  = — . The  result  of  our  convention  is,. 

that  the  numerical  value  of  two  right  angles  is  it,  instead  of  180°,  as  in  the  method  of 
angular  measurement  first  alluded  to ; and  the  unit  of  angle,  instead  of  being  the  nine- 
tieth part  of  a right  angle,  is  ^ or  57°  17'  44"  48"'  nearly.  Making  6 = 1 in 

the  equation  0 = —,  we  have  a (or  AP)  = r (or  AO),  which  shows  that  in  the  circular 

measure,  the  unit  of  angle  is  that  angle  which  is  subtended  by  an  arc  of  length  equal 
to  radius.  It  is  frequently  a matter  of  indifference  which  mode  of  measuring  angles  is 
adopted;  the  circular  measure,  however,  is  generally  the  most  advantageous,  as  being 
the  briefest.  It  is  easy  to  pass  from  this  mode  of  measurement  to  the  sexagesimal.  If 


873 


Circle 


Q be  the  circular  measure  of  an  angle,  the  ahgle  contains  --  . 180* ; conversely,  if  an 

7f 

H 

angle  contain  its  circular  measure  i® 

CIRCLE,  Magic,  a space  in  which  sorcerers  were  wont,  according  to  the  ancient 
popular  belief,  to  protect  themselves  from  the  fury  of  the  evil  spirits  they  had  raised. 
This  C.  was  usually  formed  on  a piece  of  ground  about  9 ft.  square  (in  the  east,  7 ft. 
appears  to  have  been  considered  sufficient),  in  the  midst  of  some  dark  forest,  church- 
yard, vault,  or  other  lonely  and  dismal  spot.  The  C.  was  described  at  midnight  in  cer- 
tain conditions  of  the  moon  and  weather.  Inside  the  outer  C.  was  another  somewhat 
less,  in  the  center  of  which  the  sorcerer  had  his  seat.  The  spaces  between  the  circles, 
as  well  as  between  the  parallel  lines  which  inclosed  the  larger  one,  were  filled  “ with  all 
the  holy  names  of  God,”  and  a variety  of  other  characters  supposed  to  be  potent  against 
the  powers  of  evil.  Without  the  protection  of  this  C.,  the  magician,  it  was  believed, 
would  have  been  carried  off  by  the  spirits,  as  he  would  have  been,  had  he  by  chance 
got  out  of  the  charmed  space. 

CIRCLE,  Mural,  an  instrument  used  for  determining  the  meridian  altitude  or 
zenith  distance  of  a star.  It  consists  of  an  astronomical  telescope  firmly  fixed  to  a 
graduated  circle,  which  moves  about  a horizontal  axis,  fixed  in  a strong  vertical 
wall  running  north  and  south.  In  the  common  focus  of  the  eye-piece  and  object- 
glass  of  the  telescope  is  a system  of  cross-wires  (spider  lines  are  generally  used  for 
the  purpose),  one  being  horizontal,  and  five  vertical,  with  equal  spaces  between.  The 
line  joining  the  optical  center  of  the  object-glass  with  the  intersection  of  the  hori- 
zontal and  middle  vertical  wires,  is  called  the  line  of  coUimation  of  the  telescope, 
and  when  the  instrument  is  in  perfect  adjustment,  this  line  moves  in  the  plane  of 
the  meridian. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  fixed  wire,  there  is  a movable  one,  called  a microm- 
eter wire,  which  is  moved  by  means  of  a screw,  remaining  always  parallel  to  the 
fixed  horizontal  wire. 

If  the  instrument  be  so  adjusted  that  the  image  of  a star,  while  passing  across 
the  middle  vertical  wire  in  the  field  of  view,  shall  at  the  same  time  be  bisected  by 
the  fixed  horizontal  wire,  the  star  is  at  that  moment  in  the  line  of  collimation  of 
the  telescope.  It  is  therefore  at  that  moment  in  the  meridian,  and  its  meridian  zen- 
ith distance  is  the  angle  through  which  the  circle  would  have  been  turned  from  the 
position  it  had  when  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  pointed  to  the  zenith. 
There  is  a fixed  pointer,  for  the  purpose  of  approximately  reading  the  instrument. 
If  the  instrument  were  accurately  adjusted,  so  that  the  pointer  was  opposite  the 
zero  point  of  the  circle,  when  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  pointed  to  the 
zenith,  the  arc  intercepted  between  these  two  positions  of  the  instrument  would  be 
the  meridian  zenith  distance  of  the  star. 

Great  nicety  is  required  in  “reading  ” the  instrument;  i.e.,  in  determining  exactly 
the  arc  through  which  the  circle  has  moved  in  bringing  the  telescope  from  the  ver- 
tical to  any  other  position.  The  rim  is  usually  graduated  at  intervals  of  five  min- 
utes; and  the  eye  could  determine  only  the  division  nearest  to  the  fixed  index.  But 
by  means  of  a “reading  microscope,”  or  micrometer  (q.v.),  fixed  opposite  to  the  rim, 
the  portion  of  the  interval  to  the  nearest  division  on  the  rim  can  be  read  to  seconds. 
There  are  usually  six  such  microscopes  fixed  opposite  different  points  of  the  rim; 
and  the  “reading”  of  the  instrument  is  the  mean  of  the  “readings”  of  all  the  micro- 
scopes. This  tends  to  eliminate  errors  arising  from  imperfect  graduation  and  adjust- 
ment. ^ If  the  instrument  is  properly  adjusted,  the  zero  point  of  the  circle  will  be 
opposite  the  fixed  pointer  when  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  points  to 
the  zenith.  In  practice,  however,  this  is  not  always  accurately,  or  even  approxi- 
mately the  case.  As  we  shall  immediately  show,  it  is  of  no  consequence,  as  the 
final  result  of  every  observation  is  the  difference  between  two  readings. 

It  is  evident  that  the  difference  between  any  two  readings  of  the  instrument  will 
tepresent  the  angle  through  which  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  moves  in 
passing  from  one  position  to  the  other.  It  remains  to  show  how  a fixed  point,  viz., 
the  nadir  (q.v.),  is  observed,  and  then  how  an  observation  is  taken  of  the  star  itself 
in  its  meridian  passage. 

We  must  explain  here  that  the  fixed  horizontal  wire  in  the  eye-piece  of  the  tele- 
scope, in  the  instruments  as  now  used,  is  only  an  imaginary  line  which  determines 
the  iine  of  collimation  of  the  telescope.  It  coincides  with  the  position  of  the  micrometer 
wire,  when  the  screw-head  of  the  micrometer  marks  zero. 

To  observe  the  nadir,  a trough  of  mercury  is  placed  underneath  the  instrument,  and 
the  telescope  is  turned  so  as  to  look  vertically  downwards  into  it.  An  image  of  the 
system  of  cross- wires  which  is  in  the  common  focus  of  the  object-glass  and  eye-piece, 
will  be  reflected  back  again  to  nearly  the  same  focus.  Looking  into  the  telescope,  the 
observer  now  adjusts  it  by  means  of  a tangent  screw  till  the  reflected  image  of  the  hori- 
zontal wire  coincides  with  the  real  one.  The  final  adjustment  is  perhaps  most  deli- 
cately affected  by  turning  the  screw-head  of  the  micrometer  which  moves  the  wire  itself. 
When  they  coincide,  the  line  joining  the  center  of  the  object-glass  of  the  telescope  with 


Circle. 

Circulating. 


874 


the  intersection  between  the  middle  vertical  and  horizontal  micrometric  wire,  will  be 
vertical.  Now,  the  angle  between  this  and  the  line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope, 
which,  as  we  have  said,  joins  the  optical  center  of  the  object-glass  with  the  intersection 
of  the  middle  vertical  and  imaginary  fixed  horizontal  wire,  will,  if  the  micrometer  is  in 
proper  adjustment,  be  at  once  read  off  the  micrometer  screw-head.  The  instrument 
being  clamped  as  above  adjusted,  the  microscopes  are  read  off,  and  the  reading  of  the 
micrometer  screw-head  above  mentioned  being  added  to  or  subtracted  from  this  read- 
ing, as  the  case  may  be,  the  nadir  reading  of  the  instrument  is  determined.  The  zenith 
reading,  therefore,  which  differs  from  it  by  180°,  is  at  once  known. 

Again,  to  observe  a star  in  the  meridian,  the  instrument  is  previously  adjusted  so 
that  the  star,  in  passing  the  meridian,  shall  pass  over  the  field  of  view  of  the  telescope. 
As  the  image  of  the  star  approaches  the  center  of  the  field,  the  observer  adjusts  the 
telescope  by  the  tangent  screw,  so  as  very  nearly  to  bring  the  image  of  the  star  to  the 
horizontal  wire.  Finally,  just  as  the  star  passes  the  middle  vertical  wire,  he  bisects  the 
image  of  the  star  with  the  horizontal  wire  by  a touch  of  the  micrometer  screw-head. 
The  circle  being  now  clamped  (or  made  fast),  the  “reading”  is  determined  as  before  by 
reading  the  pointer  and  microscopes,  and  adding  or  subtracting,  as  the  case  may  be, 
the  reading  of  the  micrometer.  This  I'eading  now  subtracted  from  the  zenith-reading 
gives  the  meridian  zenith  distance  of  the  star;  and  this,  again,  subtracted  from  90°, 
gives  its  meridian  altitude  above  the  horizon. 

At  the  royal  observatory  of  Greenwich,  the  principal  observations  are  now  made  by 
an  instrument  which  combines  the  mural  C.  with  the  transit  instrument.  See  Transit 
Instrument. 

CIBCLE,  Quadrature  of.  See  Quadrature. 

CIBCLES  OF  THE  SPHEBE.  See  Armillary  Sphere. 

CIRCLEVILLE,  a city  in  Pickaway  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Scioto  river,  and  the  Cincin- 
nati and  Muskingum  Valley  railroad,  and  the  Ohio  canal;  pop.  ’70,  5,407.  It  was  built 
on  the  site  of  an  old  Indian  fortification  of  circular  form,  from  which  comes  the  name. 
The  city  has  many  mills  and  manufactories. 

CIRCUIT  COURT,  in  American  jurisprudence,  a court  whose  jurisdiction  extends 
over  a number  of  counties  or  districts,  and  which  holds  its  sittings  in  various  places 
within  the  jurisdiction.  More  definitely,  a class  of  federal  courts  of  which  the  terms 
are  held  in  two  or  more  places  successively  in  the  various  circuits  into  which  the  whole 
union  is  divided.  They  are  presided  over  by  the  chief-justice  of  the  United  States,  or 
one  of  the  associate  judges,  or  by  a special  circuit  justice,  or  in  some  cases  by  a district 
judge.  The  C.  C.  has  jurisdiction  in  law  and  equity,  direct  and  appellate;  hears  appeals 
in  admiralty,  and  in  some  instances  in  criminal  cases.  The  systems  respecting  circ.uit 
courts  in  the  several  states  differ  considerably.  In  the  classification  of  English  courts 
no  such  title  is  known. 

CIBCTJITS  (Ft.  circuit;  Lat.  circuitus,  a going  round).  In  England. — England  and 
Wales,  with  the  exception  of  the  co.  of  Middlesex,  are  divided,  for  judicial  purposes, 
into  eight  C.,  which  the  15  judges  visit  twice  or  thrice  a year,  in  pairs,  for  the  purpose 
of  adjudging  civil  and  criminal  causes.  These  C.  are  the  Home,  the  Midland,  the  Nor- 
folk, the  Oxford,  the  Northern,  the  Western,  the  North  Wales,  and  the  South  Wales. 
Criminal  charges  within  the  co.  of  Middlesex  and  the  city  of  London  and  surrounding 
district,  are  disposed  of  at  sessions  which  are  held  monthly  at  the  central  criminal  court. 
Before  and  after  term,  the  judges  of  the  superior  courts  sit  for  the  adjudication  of  civil 
causes  in  the  Guildhall  of  the  city  of  London,  with  the  exception  of  the  lord  chancellor 
and  the  vice-chancellor,  who  §it  at  Lincoln’s  inn.  “ These  judges  of  assize  came  into 
use  in  the  room  of  the  ancient  justices  in  eyre,  justiciarii  in  itinere,  who  were  regularly 
established,  if  not  first  appointed,  by  the  parliament  of  Northampton,  1176  a.d.,  in 
the  twenty-second  year  of  Henry  II.,  with  a delegated  power  from  the  king’s  great 
court,  or  aula  regia,  being  looked  upon  as  members  thereof.” — Stephen’s  iii. 

p.  415.  See  Assize  and  Nisi  Prius. — Ireland  is  divided  into  the  North-east,  the 
North-west,  the  Home,  the  Leinster,  Connaught,  and  Munster  circuits.  See  Ireland, 
Scotland,  Justiciary  Court. 

CIBCIILAB  NOTES  are  bank-notes  specially  adapted  for  the  use  of  travelers  in  foreign 
countries;  and  being,  in  fact,  bills  personal  to  the  bearer,  they  are  believed  to  be  more 
safe  as  traveling  money  than  ordinary  notes  or  coin.  C.  N.  are  furnished  by  the 
chief  London  banking-houses.  Those  who  wish  to  obtain  them,  determine  beforehand 
what  sum  of  money  they  will  require  on  their  journey,  and  that  they  pay  to  the  banker, 
who,  in  exchange,  gives  C.  N.  to  the  amount,  eaeh  of  the  value  of  £10  and  upwards. 
Along  with  these  notes  is  given  a “letter  of  indication.”  This  letter  (a  lithographed 
form  in  French)  is  addressed  to  foreign  bankers,  requesting  them  to  pay  the  notes  pre- 
sented by  the  bearer,  whom  they  name,  and  to  aid  him  in  any  way  in  their  power.  By 
way  of  verification,  the  bearer  appends  his  signature,  and  the  letter  is  complete.  On 
the  back  of  the  letter  there  is  a long  list  of  foreign  bankers,  extending  all  oyer  Europe, 
any  of  whom  will  cash  one  or  more  of  the  C.  N.,  on  being  presented  and  indorsed  by 
the  bearer;  the  indorsement  being  of  course  compared  wutli  the  signature  on  the  letter 
of  indication,  which  is  at  the  same  time  exhibited.  In  paying  these  notes,  the  money 


875 


Circle. 

Circulating. 


of  the  country  is  given,  according  to  the  course  of  exchange,  and  free  of  any  charge  for 
commission.  For  security,  the  letter  and  the  notes  should  not  be  carried  together,  in 
case  of  being  stolen  or  lost.  These  C.  N.  are  doubtless  a safe  and  convenient  species  of 
money,  exchangeable  in  almost  every  town  visited ; and  if  any  remain  over  on  coming 
home,  they  will  be  taken  back  at  their  value  by  the  banker  who  issued  them.  There 
are,  however,  certain  drawbacks  connected  with  these  notes,  which  every  traveler  less 
or  more  experiences.  In  many,  almost  in  all,  instances,  there  is  a difficulty  in  finding 
out  where  the  banker  named  is  to  be  found;  for  foreign  bankers  generally  occupy  obscure 
apartments  several  stories  high,  and  not  unusually  in  dingy  out-of  the-way  alleys.  To 
discover  them,  a commissionaire  may  be  necessary,  Then,  in  some  instances  (in  Paris 
invariably),  the  banker  jealously  scrutinizes  the  bearer,  asks  to  see  his  passport,  and 
takes  a note  of  the  hotel  at  which  he  lodges ; all  which  may  be  proper  as  a precaution 
against  roguery,  but  it  is  not  pleasant.  Further,  the  C.  In.  are  ordinarily  of  a thick 
stiff  kind  of  paper,  which  does  not  well  fit  into  a purse  or  pocket-book.  On  these  sev- 
eral accounts,  the  careful  class  of  travelers  who  keep  to  the  main  thoroughfares  of 
France,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  will  find  £5  or  £10  bank  of  England  notes,  and  sover- 
eigns or  napoleons,  a preferable  kind  of  money  to  take  on  their  journey.  w.  e. 

CIBCULAR  NUMBERS  are  numbers  whose  powers  end  on  the  same  figure  as  they  do 
themselves:  such  are  numbers  ending  in  0,  1,  5,  6. 

CIRCULAR  PARTS,  the  name  given  to  a rule  in  spherical  trigonometry,  invented  by 
lord  INapier.  It  is  to  be  found  in  any  treatise  on  that  subject. 

CIRCULATING  DECIMALS.  See  Decimals. 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY,  a collection  of  books  lent  out  on  hire — circulated  from 
hand  to  hand.  The  plan  of  lending  books  on  hire  is  not  new.  Chevillier,  in  his  Origines 
de  VImprimerie  de  Paris  (4to,  1694),  mentions  that,  in  1342,  a century  before  the  inven- 
tion of  printing,  a law  was  framed  in  Paris,  to  compel  stationers  to  keep  books  to  be  lent 
on  hire,  for  the  special  benefit  of  poor  students  and  others.  This  fact  is  alluded  to  as 
follows,  by  E.  S.  Merryweather,  in  his  entertaining  work.  Bibliomania  in  the  Middle 
^ges  (hondoTL,  1849):  “The  reader  will  be  surprised  at  the  idea  of  a circulating  library 
in  the  middle  ages,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact,  they  were  established  at  Paris, 
Toulouse,  Vienna,  and  other  places.  These  public  librarians,  too,  were  obliged  to  write 
out  regular  catalogues  of  their  books,  and  hang  them  up  in  their  shops,  with  the  prices 
affixed,  so  that  the  student  might  know  beforehand  what  he  had  to  pay  for  reading 
them.”  This  writer,  quoting  from  Chevillier,  gives  a list  of  books  so  lent  out,  with  the 
prices  for  reading  them.  The  books  are  all  of  a theological  or  classical  kind.  Among 
them  is  the  Bible,  the  perusal  of  which  is  set  down  at  10  sous.  “This  rate  of  charge,” 
it  is  added,  “was  also  fixed  by  the  university,  and  the  students  borrowing  these  books 
were  privileged  to  transcribe  them,  if  they  chose;  if  any  of  them  proved  imperfect  or 
faulty,  they  were  denounced  by  the  university,  and  a fine  was  imposed  upon  the  book- 
seller who  had  lent  out  the  volume.”  In  these  arrangements,  we  see  the  efforts  that  were 
made  to  procure  the  use  of  books  before  the  art  of  printing  had  cheapened  the  cost  of 
literature. 

By  whom  the  modern  C.  L.  was  projected,  there  Is  no  record.  All  that  can  be  given 
are  a few  facts  on  the  subject.  It  is  known  that  Allan  Ramsay,  author  of  The  Gentle 
Shepherd,  who  was  a bookseller  in  Edinburgh,  established  a C.  L.  in  that  city  about 
1725.  Fond  of  dramatic  literature,  Ramsay  appears  to  have  incurred  some  local  obloquy 
by  lending  out  plays ; and  his  wish  to  introduce  a taste  for  the  drama  into  Edinburgh  may 
accordingly  have  suggested  the  notion  of  a circulating  library.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
library  which  he  began  was  continued  through  various  hands  for  above  a hundred  years. 
At  Ramsay’s  death  in  1758,  his  library  was  sold  to  a Mr.  Yair,  whose  widow  carried  it 
on  till  1780,  when  it  was  bought  by  Mr.  James  Sibbald,  an  ingenious  inquirer  into  Scot- 
tish literary  antiquities.  Sibbald  lived  some  years  as  a literary  man  in  London,  during 
which  period,  beginning  with  1793,  the  C.  L.  was  carried  on,  subject  to  an  agreement 
by  a Mr.  Laurie.  Sibbald  afterwards  resumed  the  direction  of  the  library,  which  he 
considerably  extended.  At  his  death  in  1803,  his  brother  attempted  to  carry  it  on;  but 
not  being  successful  in  his  management,  he  disposed  of  it  in  1806  to  Alexander  Mackay, 
a person  of  extraordinary  energy  and  perseverance.  By  the  acquisition  of  various  other 
libraries,  Mr.  Mackay  greatly  enlarged  the  collection,  wffiich,  under  the  name  of  the  Edin- 
burgh C.  L.,  he  conducted  at  154  High  street.  Here,  by  long-continued  and  minute 
attention  to  business,  Mr.  Mackay  realized  a competency,  and  he  retired  from  active 
pursuits  in  1831,  when  this  extensive  collection  of  books  was  broken  up  and  sold  by 
auction. 

There  are  several  circulating  libraries  in  London,  claiming  to  be  of  old  date,  but 
probably  not  so  early  as  1725.  In  a late  reprint  of  an  old  advertisement,  we  see 
“ Proposals  for  erecting  a public  circulating  library  in  London,”  under  date  June  12, 
1742.  This  library  was  to  be  established  “in  some  convenient  place  at  or  near  the  royal 
exchange;”  and  the  subscription  was  to  be  a guinea  per  annum.  Two  of  the  present 
circulating  libraries  are  believed  to  be  descended  from  this  primitive  stock.  So  numer 
OU3  had  circulating  libraries  become  in  the  early  years  of  the  present  century,  that  they 
absorbed  whole  editions  of  novels  and  romances  prepared  for  the  purpose  by  a London 


Circulating'. 


876 


publishing  establishment,  designated  the  Minerva  press.  The  issue  of  cheap  books  and 
periodicals  about  1832  (see  Book-trade)  seriously  damaged  theC.  L.  system;  for  people 
now  bought  instead  of  borrowing  materials  for  light  reading.  The  vast  increase  to  the 
reading  public  in  recent  times,  and  the  continually  augmenting  number  of  new  and 
popular  works  of  a respectable  class,  have  been  the  means  of  restoring  prosperity  to 
circulating  libraries,  more  especially  in  London,  where  some  of  them  are  on  a surpris- 
ingly gigantic  scale.  To  one  library  alone,  as  many  as  100,000  new  books  are  said  to  be 
added  annually,  and  of  kinds  very  different  from  those  of  the  old  Minerva  press  school. 
The  method  of  reading  from  these  libraries  consists  in  paying  a sum  per  annum — usually 
a subscription  of  a guinea — for  which  a number  of  new  books  may  at  all  times  be 
procured,  and  kept  for  a specified  period.  When  the  books  are  no  longer  in  demand, 
they  are  sold  at  reduced  prices. 

The  method  of  circulating  books  among  the  members  of  private  associations,  is 
noticed  under  the  head  Book-club;  and  that  of  circulating  books  in  rural  districts  by 
means  of  libraries  which  are  shifted  from  place  to  place,  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Itinerating  Libraries.  W.  C. 

CIRCULATING  MEDIUM.  See  Money,  ante. 


END  OF  VOr.UME  III. 


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